WO2009054738A1

WO2009054738A1 - Monitoring system and method

Info

Publication number: WO2009054738A1
Application number: PCT/NZ2008/000280
Authority: WO
Inventors: Garry Albert Muir
Original assignee: Biomass Solutions (Singapore) Pte Limited
Priority date: 2007-10-26
Filing date: 2008-10-28
Publication date: 2009-04-30

Abstract

This invention relates to a method and apparatus for determining an amount of O2 and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by at least a subset of the vegetation on a predetermined portion of land. The invention is also relates to a system and method for trading in the amount(s) of O2 and/or water vapour.

Description

MONITORING SYSTEM AND METHOD

Field

This invention relates to a method and means for determining the amount of oxygen and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released by vegetation. The invention also relates to a system and method for trading in at least the determined amount of oxygen.

Background

Declining forest area (tropical, temperate and boreal) or deforestation reduces the global oxygen producing capacity through conversion of forest areas to intensive farming and cropping, and loss due to fire and other activities. At the same time, the global potential to process and reduce the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, namely carbon dioxide, is reduced. Furthermore, deforestation results in CO₂ being released back in to the atmosphere, which is a major cause of rising CO₂ levels.

Carbon sequestration and the sale of carbon credits or the like, through the Kyoto or voluntary markets or any other means, provide mechanisms for addressing climate change. While markets are being developed for trading "carbon credits", none exist for oxygen and other non-wood tree products. There are also risk issues for investors in being able to properly secure their rights to non-wood (e.g. carbon/CO₂/O₂) tree products.

Objects of the Invention

It is an object of the invention to provide systems and/or methods which protect growth and existence of vegetation.

It is an alternative object of the invention to provide a method and/or means for determining the amount of oxygen and/or water vapour released from vegetation.

Alternatively, or additionally, it is a broad object of the invention to at least provide the public with a useful choice.

Further objects of the invention will become apparent from the following description.

Summary of Invention For growing forests (e.g. plantations), it is possible to measure the amount of carbon stored therein and hence the amount of oxygen (O₂) produced, as a function of biological growth or change in forest biomass of the growing part of a tree (i.e., stem, crown and roots). This is straightforward enough for the main stem of a tree, and ratios for branches, leaf litter and roots may also be developed.

The same process applies for mature and natural forests. Depending on the stage of development of a forest (juvenile, mature, senescent), the rate of growth as measured by an increase in biomass will be different. However, while a mature or even senescent forest is putting on little overall growth (or is even declining), it will still be photosynthesising and hence storing carbon and producing O₂.

An important difference between carbon and O₂ is that for carbon, it is necessary to consider both carbon sequestration and sinks, whereas for O₂, the primary interest is in production. Carbon credits in forestry are available for an increase in carbon stocks through biological growth. Deforestation liabilities can occur for removal of carbon stocks/sinks, irrespective of when they have grown.

For O₂, the value is in biological growth to produce O₂. Removal of the capacity for biological growth removes the capacity to produce O₂ and sequester carbon. It also removes carbon stocks in excess of the current capacity to produce O₂ (i.e., the ability to continue producing O₂ not only adds to carbon stocks in the current period, it also protects stocks of previously sequestered carbon).

Investment in the ability of biological crops, particularly forests, to ensure ongoing production of O₂ provides forest owners an incentive to retain forest cover, and a more robust mechanism for securing sequestered carbon.

As a result of the photosynthesis process, there is a direct relationship between the amount of CO₂ sequestered to the amount of carbon stored in plant material and the amount of oxygen released back into the atmosphere. More specifically:

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

(i.e. 6 molecules of CO₂ plus 6 molecules of water produce 1 molecule of sugar (including 6 carbon molecules) and 6 molecules of oxygen). The equation may also be written with an additional 6 water molecules to reflect the release of water vapour as part of the process:

6CO₂ + 12H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O

Using the various elements' atomic mass:

The photosynthesis relationship may also be expressed as:

Carbon Dioxide + Water Sugar + Oxygen + Water (vapour) 6CO₂ + 12H₂O C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O 264.0588 + 216.1824 180.1572 + 191.9928 + 108.0912

and the contribution of carbon dioxide, carbon, oxygen and water is:

264.0588 + 216.1824 → 72.066 + 191.9928 + 108.0912

Using these ratios, it is possible to determine how much oxygen, carbon and water vapour are produced for a given amount of CO₂ input, i.e., for 1 kg of CO₂, 273g of carbon is generated plus 727g of oxygen.

From the perspective of carbon accumulation (sequestration is measured in tonnes of carbon stored, or in tonnes of CO₂ removed from the atmosphere), for 1 tonne carbon stored 3.664 tonnes of CO₂ have been sequestered from the atmosphere, and released 2.664 tonnes of oxygen. Therefore for every tonne of O₂ produced, 1.38 tonnes of CO₂ are sequestered. Water

Kq or tonne of CO? CO₂ Water Carbon Oxygen Vapour

1.00 0.82 0.27 0.73 0.41

100.00 81.87 27.29 72.71 40.93

1 ,000.00 818.69 272.90 727.10 409.40

Ratio Carbon to Oxygen 2.66

Water Vapour 1.50

Water

To get Kg or tonne of Carbon CO₂ Water Carbon Oxygen Vapour

3.66 3.00 1.00 2.66 1.50

366.41 299.98 100.00 266.41 149.99

3,664.12 2,999.78 1 ,000.00 2,664.12 1 ,499.89

Ratio Oxygen to CO₂ 1.38 1

Water Vapour 0.56

The foregoing analysis on photosynthesis is summarised in Figure 6.

In a broad aspect, the invention provides a model for ascertaining by location, specie and age class the amount of oxygen and water vapour produced by trees on a given area of land. Other parameters will be apparent to one of skill in the art and are included within the scope of the invention. Also, while preferred embodiments of the invention relate to the photosynthesis process of trees, it will be apparent that the invention may be applied to other forms of vegetation.

According to preferred embodiments of the invention, landowners sell a third party the right to come on to their land and capture at least a portion of the oxygen and water vapour produced by the trees growing thereon. The third party may not choose to exercise that right, but they preferably acquire the right to do so.

Moreover, preferably, the landowner agrees to grant a right to at least a portion (preferably all) of the production from at least a portion of a forest to a buyer until such time as the forest is mature and is cut down. Preferably, the only exception to this grant is timber severed from the land as a result of production thinning, thin to waste, pruning or final stumpage. The forester preferably agrees not to cut down or allow others to cut down the forest until maturity unless this is required by law, is a predetermined exception set out in the agreement between the parties or is required for good management of the forest (e.g. for fire protection). Good management reasons for cutting down part of a forest must preferably be in accordance with accepted good industry practice. According to preferred embodiments, codes of practice are provided for each party to the agreement. An independent person or organisation or the like may be established or consulted to monitor/approve actions taken by the parties and/or for resolving any disputes.

According to a first aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of determining the amount of oxygen and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by at least a subset of the vegetation on a predetermined portion of land, the method comprising: measuring one or more parameters relating to the at least a subset of vegetation and/or the predetermined portion of land; and determining the amount of oxygen and/or water vapour produced by the vegetation in a predetermined time period based at least in part on the one or more parameters.

Preferably, the vegetation comprises trees. According to one embodiment, individual species and/or groups of species having similar properties are considered separately, such that separate oxygen and/or water vapour results are generated for each.

Different species may have very different properties, resulting in different rates of oxygen and/or water vapour production. Considering different species in isolation allows this to be taken into account, thereby generating more accurate results. While such steps are preferred, it will be appreciated by one of skill in the art that an alternative approach would be to characterise regions of land based on average properties for a particular type(s) of vegetation in a particular region having a particular climate, although such an approach is subject to inherent inaccuracies.

Preferably, the parameters include one or more of data relating to one or more of vegetation species, age of vegetation at the start and/or end of the predetermined period, the size of the predetermined portion of land and the density of the vegetation. According to a second aspect of the invention, there is provided an apparatus for determining the amount of oxygen and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by at least a subset of the vegetation on a predetermined portion of land, the apparatus comprising: means for receiving data relating to one or more parameters of the at least a subset of vegetation and/or the predetermined portion of land; and means for determining the amount of oxygen and/or water vapour produced by the vegetation in a predetermined time period based at least in part on the one or more parameters.

According to preferred embodiments, the apparatus is embodied by a computing device.

As would be apparent to one of skill in the art, the apparatus of the second aspect may be of a modular nature with different ones of the modules located remotely from one another but communicatively coupleable such as via the internet to allow the transfer of data therebetween.

According to a third aspect, the invention consists in a method of protecting growth and/or the existence of vegetation on a predetermined portion of land, the method including selling an interest in at least a portion of the oxygen and/or water released and/or expected to be released by the vegetation as a result of photosynthesis.

Preferably, the interest relates to oxygen and/or water vapour released and/or expected to be released over a predetermined time period.

Preferably, the method comprises determining the amount of oxygen and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by the vegetation according to the method of the first aspect.

Preferably, the method includes creating a legal interest in the land.

Preferably, the legal interest is registered in electronic or paper form.

Preferably, the method includes offering for sale oxygen and/or water vapour that has been produced by the vegetation. Additionally or alternatively, the method may include offering for sale oxygen and/or water vapour that will be produced by the vegetation.

The value of carbon credits is calculated not in terms of carbon sequestered, but tonnes of CO₂ removed from the atmosphere. Oxygen production may be considered similarly and priced comparatively so as to enable embodiments of the invention to remain competitive (note that approximately 3.66 tonnes of CO₂ needs to be removed from the atmosphere to sequester 1 tonne of carbon and produce around 2.66 tonnes of oxygen).

Preferably, the method includes generating a certificate representing the amount of oxygen and/or water vapour available for sale. Preferably, the amounts represented in the certificate are based on the determined amounts, and more preferably, they are limited to oxygen and/or water vapour already produced or that will be produced within a given time period.

Due to the intangible nature of the products, the certificate provides a means for controlling sale thereof and instilling confidence in embodiments of the invention.

While property laws vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, the right to emissions of oxygen and water vapour may be registered in at least some against the title to the land on which the vegetation is growing, providing a stronger means for ensuring that the vegetation is not cut down during the predetermined time period. This option may not be possible for carbon sequestration, and would require initiation of a civil lawsuit and/or imposition of punitive sanctions by the state, assuming relevant provisions are in place that enable the state to do so.

Thus, according to preferred embodiments, a landowner may generate revenue by selling oxygen and/or water vapour emitted by or to be emitted in the future by vegetation on their land. There is no need to actually harvest the oxygen or water vapour, it is sufficient that continuing growth and existence of the vegetation is protected, preferably by a registered property right. This prevents states or governments from expropriating rights or failing to devolve carbon credits to owners of vegetation as has sometimes occurred under the carbon credits arrangement. More particularly, the buyer has a registered right to the oxygen and water vapour produced by the forest over a predetermined period (e.g. the lifetime of the forest) and the terms of that grant allow the buyer to enforce by injunction or other court order any attempt to diminish the amount of vegetation outside the terms of grant but required to support the grant. Preferably, rights to the water vapour are tied to the rights to the oxygen generated by the vegetation such that no value is assigned to the water vapour and it cannot be sold separately from the oxygen. It is important that rights to the water are protected both for the sake of preserving the micro-environment as well as lowering the ambient temperature around the forest.

The sale of oxygen is quite different to the sale of carbon credits. Just as carbon is a byproduct of photosynthesis, so is oxygen. Twice as much oxygen is released during the process as carbon is sequestered by it. The market in sequestered carbon has chosen to value that carbon by reference to the CO₂ removed from the atmosphere during the sequestering, such that trade and hence value is in CO₂ removed from the atmosphere and not the carbon. According to preferred embodiments of the invention, the oxygen generated is valued on a similar basis. However, there is a clear distinction between what is being sold and how its value is calculated. This is underlined by the fact that penalties may be imposed by governments on CO₂ released back into the atmosphere when a forest is cut down. Furthermore, embodiments of the invention may provide landowners with an incentive to plant new forests in order to sell oxygen rights in the event that they do not have access to carbon credits.

According to a fourth aspect, there is provided a system for protecting growth and existence of vegetation on a predetermined portion of land, the system including means for selling an interest in at least a portion of the oxygen and/or water released and/or expected to be released by the vegetation as a result of photosynthesis.

Preferably, the system comprises at least one apparatus according to the second aspect.

Preferably, the system is computer-implemented.

Further aspects of the invention, which should be considered in all its novel aspects, will become apparent from the following description.

Drawing Description

A number of embodiments of the invention will now be described by way of example with reference to the drawings in which: Figure 1 is a flow chart of method steps according to one embodiment.

Figure 2 shows a summary data sheet according to one embodiment.

Figures 3 and 4 provide examples of the application of the invention using different models in the determination process. Figure 5 provides example data and derived values obtained according to an embodiment of the invention. Figure 6 provides details of photosynthesis which are relevant to embodiments of the invention.

Figures 7 and 8 provide example data for selected species of trees for use with different embodiments of the invention.

Detailed Description of the Drawings

Throughout the description like reference numerals will be used to refer to like features in different embodiments.

Figure 1 illustrates steps of a preferred embodiment of a method according to the invention which may be used to quantify carbon and O₂ levels. At step 1 , a land area is identified. According to preferred embodiments, this step further involves assessing legal ownership of the land and measuring the size of at least relevant portions thereof (i.e., the area of land to be subjected to the method of the invention). One or more of GIS (Geographic Information Systems), aerial photography including ortho-corrected aerial photography or survey plans may be obtained and/or assessed at this stage. Other measurements and/or assessments and/or determinations will be apparent to one of skill in the art and are included within the scope of the invention.

At step 2, the carbon stocks in the area are assessed as at the commencement of the measurement period. Preferably, this involves preparing an inventory of relevant items within the identified land area to assess the biomass thereof and hence determine the carbon content. The carbon content may be stratified according to any one or more of species/forest mix, age/stage of development, type of management or increment. Other stratification factors will be apparent to one of skill in the art and are included within the scope of the invention. The particular methodology used to determine carbon stocks will need to be specified and independently verified so as to stand up to the scrutiny of the markets. The amount of carbon in vegetation varies depending on species (basic density) and forest type (pure stands, mix of species, stage of development). Note that the commencement of a measurement period may be a past date to take account of carbon storage. Figures 7 and 8 provide example data for selected species of trees for use with different embodiments of the invention.

At step 3, the period of time for which the assessment is to be performed, preferably in years, is determined. The period may vary depending on, for example, the jurisdiction, the market (e.g. Kyoto or voluntary), or buyer/seller preferences. The period may cover a Kyoto Commitment Period (e.g. CP1 2008-12), a year or any other time. Longer periods may be used to enable forward purchasing. Discount rates may be applied to the oxygen, carbon and/or associated cash flows for the longer periods.

At step 4, the growth in carbon stocks during the course of the measurement period is measured (i.e., plant growth) or forecast. Where changes in carbon stocks are determined based on measurements (this may be the result of a contractual obligation), the forest may be re-measured on the same basis as step 2. This preferably involves measurement of active photosynthetic growth which results in carbon sequestration and oxygen emission (stems, branches/leaves, root biomass of plant material), and changes in all biomass in the forest (both growth and attrition). It is then possible to calculate the change in total carbon stocks, as well as oxygen emissions. If forecasting, it is necessary to predict the growth of the forest and use measures of the relationship between stem and other biomass components.

At step 5, the gross and net carbon, CO₂, O₂ and water vapour changes are calculated. Measurement of CO₂ sequestration is based on first measuring carbon, from which O₂ emission and CO₂ sequestration can be determined. Measurement of water vapour emission due to photosynthesis can also be made. The following equations may be used in the determination at step 5.

O₂ (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 2.66 eq. 1

CO₂ (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 3.66 eq. 2 H₂O (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 1.50 eq. 3

Using eq. 1 , eq. 2 may be expressed as:

CO₂ (tonnes) = O₂ (tonnes) x 1.38 eq. 4 Appropriate safety margins for trading are applied at step 6. This enables a seller to retain or hold on to a portion or percentage of their production, i.e., a portion of carbon/CO₂/H₂O/θ2 as a means of self insurance.

Each of the steps of Figure 1 may be embodied and/or implemented using one or more computing devices as would be apparent to those skilled in the art.

Embodiments of the invention enable the measurement of O₂ and carbon to accommodate any changes and can be applied equally to plantation and natural forests.

According to preferred embodiments, a data worksheet is provided for both the measurement model and the forecast model. The same data set may or may not be used for each model and changes can be made, as required. Basic increment curves are preferably provided for relevant species of trees, such as radiata pine (pinus radiata) or Douglas-fir {pseudotsuga menziesii). To take account of different growth rates at different sites, an increment figure may be used to make appropriate adjustments and provide a growth curve for a particular site. The curve used may be based on a single thin for each species (as is the case in the examples included herein) but any growth curve applicable to the forest management regime being employed can be included by a user. Growth curves for different species can be added as required.

Density information for each species is generated, preferably including at least a breakdown into low, average and high density sites. Species and age appropriate density information is obtained to calculate carbon content. The density zone in which the forest is being grown needs to be ascertained although this information is publicly available for most species. Alternatively, actual density data for a forest may be used, if this is available.

Biomass multiplier/data tables are preferably provided covering each relevant species. Based on user selections, the model picks the relevant multiplier/measurement for any age for a particular species, preferably up to 70 years. If there is no knowledge of this information or a user does not wish to include other stand biomass, the measurement option can be selected and the data set to zero.

Referring more specifically to the measurement model, a species is selected, together with a start and finish year and the starting age of the crop. The increment (a measure of site productivity and used to adjust the growth curve for the site) is then selected. The stocked area is entered for the start and end of the period. The density zone is also entered and the model preferably then retrieves the appropriate species, age and density zone data, such as from a computer readable memory. The carbon content of woody biomass is then specified (by default, this is preferably set at 50%), together with an indication as to whether multipliers or actual measurements are to be used for non-stem biomass.

The measurement section calculates the appropriate stemwood volume for the start and end of the measurement period. If the user alternatively has inventory data, this portion of the model may be overridden. From this, the model calculates the carbon content of the various parts to generate total carbon content at the beginning and end of the period and thereby provide a measure of carbon change. More particularly, carbon change is preferably derived in one or both of the following manners. Firstly, total carbon change may be calculated and used to calculate total change in CO₂ sequestered over the period. Secondly, carbon change in the stem, crown and roots as the growing parts of the plant and therefore contributing to O₂ and water vapour production (note that water vapour here only relates to that associated with photosynthesis, a ratio to estimate total water vapour may be added). From this and employing the ratios calculated in Figure 6, it is possible to calculate the amount of carbon stored, CO₂ sequestered, O₂ and water vapour emitted, then preferably apply insurance safety margins to calculate the net total to which a value can be attributed. Figures 3A to 3D illustrate an example of the application of the measurement model according to the invention.

For the forecast model, data input is similar to that for the measurement model, except just starting year, and starting and ending tree crop ages are entered. Other inputs are the same. If inventory data is available, this can be used to override the model estimates. According to one embodiment, a "Quick Estimate" may be determined based on the approach taken in the measurement model. This provides a point of comparison with the net present value estimates that follow. Forecast production preferably uses the NPV or net present value formula to calculate NPV of the various outputs in tonnes at a discount rate selected by the user. The model does not include the first year in this calculation. For a forecast starting from zero this makes no difference. For a forecast starting from mid- rotation, this means that the data from the starting point is not included, which would effectively mean a double count. Figures 4A to 4D illustrate an example of the application of the forecast model according to the invention. An alternative approach to measuring carbon sequestration and oxygen production is to look at it from the basis of leaf area. If the amount of canopy cover per hectare, the species and hence leaf area to canopy ratio, and the photosynthetic potential of the species (or mix of species) are known, then it is possible to calculate the amount of oxygen produced, and hence CO₂ sequestered and carbon stored. Figure 5 provides example data and calculated values based on such a method.

According to a presently preferred embodiment, the model is set up for a single worksheet for each stand. If there are different stands with different species, planting year, stocking etc (anything that will affect growth and hence carbon yield), these are preferably provided with a separate worksheet, although the invention is not limited thereto. Where separate worksheets are used, a user may make the necessary number of worksheet copies within the model. Summary data for each stand is then put on the first page, which can be signed off, as shown in Figure 2.

Although this invention has been described by way of example and with reference to possible embodiments thereof, it is to be understood that modifications or improvements may be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. Furthermore, where reference has been made to specific components or integers of the invention having known equivalents, then such equivalents are herein incorporated as if individually set forth.

Throughout this specification and any claims which follow, unless the context requires otherwise, the words "comprise", "comprising" and the like, are to be construed in an inclusive sense as opposed to an exclusive sense, that is to say, in the sense of "including, but not limited to".

Any discussion of prior art throughout the specification should in no way be considered as an admission that such prior art is widely known or forms part of common general knowledge in the field.

Claims

1. A method of determining an amount of O₂ and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by at least a subset of the vegetation on a predetermined portion of land, the method comprising: measuring one or more parameters relating to the at least a subset of the vegetation and/or the predetermined portion of land; and determining the amount of O₂ and/or water vapour produced by the vegetation in a predetermined time period based at least in part on the one or more parameters.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the parameters include one or more of a species of the vegetation and/or data related thereto, an age of the vegetation, a density of the vegetation, a size of the predetermined portion of land, a measured and/or anticipated climate for the predetermined portion of land; a leaf area and a canopy cover density.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the species related data includes growth information for each of the one or more species of the vegetation.

4. The method of claim 2 or claim 3, wherein the species related data includes an indication of a carbon content of one or more portions of the vegetation.

5. The method of any one of claims 2 to 4, wherein the age comprises an age of the vegetation at the start and/or end of the predetermined period.

6. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the step of determining comprises assessing the amount of carbon stored on the predetermined portion of land at a predetermined point in time.

7. The method of any one of the preceding claims, comprising determining a past and/or future change in the amount of carbon stored on the predetermined portion of land.

8. The method of claim 6 or claim 7, comprising determining an amount of CO₂ and/or O₂ and/or water vapour corresponding to the amount of stored carbon.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the amount(s) of CO₂ and/or O₂ and/or water vapour are determined according to: O₂ (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 2.66 CO₂ (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 3.66 H₂O (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 1.50 CO₂ (tonnes) = O₂ (tonnes) x 1.38

10. An apparatus for determining an amount of O₂ and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by at least a subset of the vegetation on a predetermined portion of land, the apparatus comprising: means for receiving data relating to one or more parameters of the at least a subset of the vegetation and/or the predetermined portion of land; and means for determining the amount of O₂ and/or water vapour produced by the vegetation in a predetermined time period based at least in part on the one or more parameters.

11. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the parameters include one or more of a species of the vegetation and/or data related thereto, an age of the vegetation, a density of. the vegetation, a size of the predetermined portion of land, a measured and/or anticipated climate for the predetermined portion of land; a leaf area and a canopy cover density.

12. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the species related data includes growth information for each of the one or more species of the vegetation.

13. The apparatus of claim 11 or claim 12, wherein the species related data includes an indication of a carbon content of one or more portions of the vegetation.

14. The apparatus of any one of claims 11 to 13, wherein the age comprises an age of the vegetation at the start and/or end of the predetermined period.

15. The apparatus of any one of claims 10 to 14, wherein the means for determining comprises means for assessing the amount of carbon stored on the predetermined portion of land at a predetermined point in time.

16. The apparatus of any one of claims 10 to 15, comprising means for determining a past and/or future change in the amount of carbon stored on the predetermined portion of land.

17. The apparatus of claim 15 or claim 16, comprising means for determining an amount of CO₂ and/or O₂ and/or water vapour corresponding to the amount of stored carbon.

18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the means for determining the amount(s) of CO₂ and/or O₂ and/or water vapour is configured to use one or more of the following relationships:

O₂ (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 2.66 CO₂ (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 3.66 H₂O (tonnes) = (area x years x Carbon (tonnes)) x 1.50

CO₂ (tonnes) = O₂ (tonnes) x 1.38

19. The apparatus of claim 9, embodied in a computing device.

20. A method of protecting growth and/or the existence of vegetation on a predetermined portion of land, the method comprising selling an interest in at least a portion of the O₂ and/or water released and/or expected to be released by the vegetation as a result of photosynthesis.

21. The method of claim 20, wherein the interest relates to O₂ and/or water vapour released and/or expected to be released over a predetermined time period.

22. The method of claim 20 or claim 21 , comprising determining the amount of O₂ and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by the vegetation according to the method of any one of claims 1 to 9 and/or using the apparatus of any one of claims 10 to 19.

23. The method of any one of claims 20 to 22, comprising creating a legal interest in the land.

24. The method of any one of claims 20 to 23, comprising offering for sale O₂ and/or water vapour that has been produced and/or that will be produced by the vegetation.

25. The method of claim 22, or claim 23 or claim 24 when dependent on claim 22, comprising verifying the determined amount(s) of O₂ and/or water vapour.

26. A system for protecting growth and/or the existence of vegetation on a predetermined portion of land, the system including means for selling an interest in at least a portion of the O₂ and/or water released and/or expected to be released by the vegetation as a result of photosynthesis.

27. The system of claim 26, comprising at least one apparatus according to any one of claims 10 to 19.

28. Computer readable instructions which when executed on a computing device perform the method of any one of claims 1 to 9 or 20 to 25.

29. A method of determining an amount of O₂ and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by at least a subset of the vegetation on a predetermined portion of land substantially as herein described with reference to any one of the embodiments shown in the drawings.

30. An apparatus for determining an amount of O₂ and/or water vapour previously released and/or to be released in the future by at least a subset of the vegetation on a predetermined portion of land substantially as herein described with reference to any one of the embodiments shown in the drawings.

31. An apparatus for protecting growth and/or the existence of vegetation on a predetermined portion of land substantially as herein described with reference to any one of the embodiments shown in the drawings.

32. An apparatus for protecting growth and/or the existence of vegetation on a predetermined portion of land substantially as herein described with reference to any one of the embodiments shown in the drawings.