WO2006107902A2 - Use of spirostenols to treat mitochondrial disorders - Google Patents
Use of spirostenols to treat mitochondrial disorders Download PDFInfo
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Definitions
- Mitochondria are specialized compartments present in every cell of the body except red blood cells, and are responsible for generating, by oxidative phosphorylation, more than 90% of the energy needed by the body to sustain life and support growth.
- the mitochondrial respiratory chain fails, the energy level of the cell will rapidly decrease leading to the cell death and organ function impairment.
- the impairment of the mitochondrial physiological function is involved in neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. These include those of the central nervous system, such as Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease, and those affecting the peripheral nerves, such as muscular disorders (myopathies) and various kidney, liver and respiratory disorders.
- the illness can range in severity from mild to lethal. Whether the mitochondrial failure is a cause or a consequence of the condition experienced, protecting respiratory function is critical to restore the impaired physiological functions. In addition, the preservation of the mitochondrial respiratory function is essential for the conservation of tissue required for a successful graft.
- Coenzyme QlO is not effective in mtDNA-associated mitochondrial disease (N. Bresolin et al., J. Neurol. ScL, 100:70 (1990)) it leads to marked improvement in 'primary' CoQlO deficiency. Idebenone, a shorter chain analogue of Coenzyme QlO, appears to be effective in improving the hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in Friedreich's ataxia (P. Rustin et al., Lancet, 354: 477 (1999); C. Mariotti et al., Neurology, 60:1676 (2003)).
- the present invention provides a therapeutic method comprising administering to a mammal, such as a human, afflicted with or threatened by, a mitochondrial disorder that is not a neuropathology of the central nervous system comprising administering to said mammal an effective amount of a compound of formula (T):
- each OfR 1 , R 2 , R 4 , R 7 , R 11 , R 12 , and R 15 independently, is hydrogen, (d-C 8 )alkyl, that is optionally inserted with -NR'-, -O-, -S-, -SO-, -SO 2 -, -O- SO 2 -, -SO 2 -O-, -C(O)-, -C(O)-O-, -O-C(O)-, -C(O)-NR'-, or -NR'-C(O)-; hydroxy, N(R') 2 , carboxyl, oxo, or sulfonic acid; R 3 is hydroxy, (C 1 -C 8 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 22 )alkylCO 2 or R'O 2 C(CH 2 ) 2-8 CO 2 -, wherein (C 1 -C 22 )alkyl or (CH 2 ) 2-8 can
- the present invention includes therapeutic methods of treating a mitochondrial disorder in a subject afflicted with or threatened by said disorder, wherein said disorder is not a neuropathology of the central nervous system, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of formula (II):
- each OfR 1 , R 2 , R 4 , R 7 , R 11 , R 12 , and R 15 independently, is hydrogen, (C 1 -C 8 )allcyl, hydroxy, amino, carboxyl, oxo, sulfonic acid, or (C 1 - C 8 )alkyl that is optionally inserted with -NH-, -N((d-C 8 )alkyl)-, -O-, -S-, -SO-, -SO 2 -, -0-SO 2 -, -SO 2 -O-, -C(O)-, -C(O)-O-, -O-C(O)-, -C(O)-NR'-, or -NR'- C(O)-, wherein R' is H or (Ci-C 8 )alkyl; R 3 is hydroxy, (Ci-C 6 )alkylCO 2 -,
- each of R 6 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10 , R 13 , and R 14 independently, is hydrogen, (d-C 8 )alkyl, hydroxyl(C 1 -C 8 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 8 )alkoxy or hydroxy; and X is O, N(H), N(Ac) or N(toluene-4- sulfonyloxy); or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
- spirostenols particularly 5,6 unsaturated spirostenols such as (22S,25S)-(20S)-spirost-5-en-3 ⁇ -yl hexanoate, a 22i?- hydroxycholesterol derivative naturally occurring in Gynurajaponica (asteraceae), can provide a novel therapeutic strategy that works by its direct targeting of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, as well as its targeting of A ⁇ which is toxic to mitochondria.
- Mitochondrial disorders including mitochondrial diseases that are not considered to be CNS neuropathologies, and that can be treated with the present method include the following: eye: retinitis pigmentosa, optical nerve atrophy; muscles: disorders of the extraoccular muscles (ptosis, acquired strabismus, ophthalmoplegia), crushed muscle syndrome (compartment syndrome); mitochondrial dysfunction as a result of drug side-effect (i.e., highly active anti- retroviral therapy, HAART); myopathy; heart: heart stroke, heart attack, heart conditions, heart disease, cardiomyopathy, and any cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction as a result of drug side-effect (i.e., HAART, mega-HAART, anticancer drugs like anthracyclins); liver: hepatocellular dysfunctions; kidney and the endocrine system: tubulopathy, diabetes; and respiratory disorders.
- eye retinitis pigmentosa, optical nerve atrophy
- muscles disorders of the extraoccular muscles (ptosis, acquired strabismus
- the present invention also provides novel compounds of formulas I or II and compositions, such as pharmaceutical compositions comprising an effective amount of a compound of formula I and/or II in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
- Fig. 1 Effect of increasing concentrations of SP-233 (10 to 100 pM) on the mitochondrial respiratory chain, assessed by monitoring the evolution of the respiratory coefficient in rat brain mitochondria.
- This mitochondrial respiratory coefficient (MRC) is V3/V4.
- V4 is the basal O2 consumption
- V3 is the O2 consumption after adding ADP (ATP production).
- the mitochondrial concentration was adjusted to 0.4 mg protein/ml. It is noteworthy that concentrations of SP-233 as low as 10 pM induced a 50% decrease in the MRC, compared to control (p ⁇ 0.001). Results are expressed as mean ⁇ SD; comparisons between groups were made by an ANOVA followed by a Dunnett's test.
- the mitochondrial fraction was incubated for 3 min at 37°C in presence of SP-233 before adding malate/glutamate, followed 1 min later by the addition of CCCP.
- Exposure to the uncoupling agent CCCP (1 ⁇ M) increased the O2 consumption to 150% of the basal value (p ⁇ 0.01), a change that reflected an increase in oxygen consumption.
- SP-233 abolished the metabolic effect of CCCP (pO.OOl).
- Fig. 3 Effects of fresh and aged A ⁇ i-42 on the mitochondrial respiratory coefficient of rat brain mitochondria. Mitochondria were incubated in the presence of A ⁇ i-42 for 1.5 min at 37°C before adding the substrates malate/glutamate. ADP was added 1 min after malate/glutamate. This experiment was controlled by omitting ADP. A/5i-42 significantly decreased the MRC even at the low concentration of 0.1 pM. The effect of the fresh amyloid peptide on the MCR was more pronounced than that of the aged form, the respective decreases in MRC being 55-63% and 43-53%. Results are expressed as mean ⁇ SD; comparisons between groups were made by an ANOVA followed by a Dunnett's test.
- Fig. 4 Effects of SP-233 on modifications of the mitochondrial respiratory coefficient induced by fresh or aged AjSi -42 in rat brain mitochondria. Mitochondria were incubated in the presence of SP-233 for 3 min and in the presence of freshly prepared (a) or aged (b) A ⁇ i-42 for 1.5 min at 37 0 C before addition of malate/glutamate. ADP was added 1 min after the substrates malate/glutamate. The control for the effect of SP-233 versus AjSi -42 was the same as for the experiment without ADP. (a): Fresh A ⁇ i-42 reduced the MRC by 71% compared to the control, and this effect was partially inhibited by SP-233.
- Fig. 5 Assessment of the protective effect of SP-233 against AjSi-42- induced toxicity in human neuroblastoma cells.
- the cellular toxicity of AjS was assessed after 72 h incubation of SK-N-AS neuroblastoma cells with A ⁇ i-42 (0.1 , 1 and 10 ⁇ M) or vehicle and in the presence or absence of SP-233 (1 ⁇ M) using the MTT assay.
- SP-233 (1 ⁇ M) prevented the neurotoxicity induced by the three concentrations of AjSi -42. Results are expressed as mean ⁇ SD; comparisons between groups were made by an ANOVA followed by Dunnett's test.
- Neuroblastoma cells treated with AjSi-42 displayed strong immunoreactivity (which co-localized with complex II of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, indicating that A j Si -42 was present inside the mitochondria).
- Treatment with SP-233 abolished AjSi -42 immunoreactivity, indicating its ability to block the entry of AjSi -42 into the mitochondria.
- Fig. 6 Effect of SP-233 on mitochondrial respiration.
- the Chemical formula of the spirostenol derivative (22R,25R)-20 ⁇ -spirost-5-en-3 ⁇ -yl hexanoate (SP-233) is shown in (a).
- Fig. 7 Effect of SP-233 on CCCP-induced uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and on CsA-induced hypoxia
- the mitochondrial fraction was incubated for 3 min at 37°C in presence of SP-233 before adding malate/glutamate.
- CCCP was added 1 min later. Exposure to the uncoupling agent 1 ⁇ M CCCP increased the O 2 consumption to 150% of the basal value (p ⁇ 0.01). At all concentrations tested, SP-233 abolished the metabolic effect of CCCP (pO.001).
- SP-233 's inhibitory effect on "uncoupling” was associated with a decrease in O 2 consumption to 60-65% of the basal level and was concentration-independent
- ADP was added in presence of CsA and in the absence of SP-233.
- SP-233, or its vehicle, was added first, and incubation was continued for 1.5 min before CsA was gently added.
- the substrate malate/glutamate was added 1.5 min later, and ADP was added 2.5 min later.
- Exposure to SP-233 did not inhibit the decrease in the MRC induced by CsA.
- CsA' s effect was amplified in a concentration-dependent manner. Results are expressed as means ⁇ SD from three independent experiments performed in triplicate.
- Fig. 8 Effects of fresh and aged A ⁇ l-42 on the mitochondrial respiratory coefficient of rat brain mitochondria. Mitochondria were incubated in the presence OfAB 1 ⁇ 42 for 1.5 min at 37°C before adding the substrates malate/glutamate. ADP was added 1 min after malate/glutamate. In these experiments ADP was omitted from the incubation mixture. AB 1-42 significantly decreased the MRC, even at a concentration of 0.1 pM. The effect of the fresh amyloid peptide on the MCR was more pronounced than that of the aged form, the respective decreases in MRC being 55-63% and 43-53%. Results are expressed as means ⁇ SD from three independent experiments performed in triplicates.
- Fig. 9 Effects of SP-233 on changes in the MRC induced by fresh or aged AB 1-42 . Mitochondria were incubated in the presence of SP-233 for 3 min and in the presence of freshly prepared (a) or aged (b) AB 1-42 for 1.5 min at 37 0 C before addition of malate/glutamate. ADP was added 1 min after the addition of malate/glutamate. Controls reactions were performed in the absence of ADP. Fresh AB 1-42 reduced the MRC by 71% compared to the control, and this effect was partially inhibited by SP-233.
- FIG. 11 Confocal microscopy analysis of the effect of SP-233 on mitochondrial uptake of AB 1-42 in SK-N-AS human neuroblastoma cells. Representative images taken from healthy, uninjured (control) cells are shown in (al-4). These cultures did not receive any AB 1-42 or SP-233. Representative images taken from SK-N-AS cells treated with ABj -42 10 ⁇ M for 3 hours are shown in (bl-4). Representative images taken from SK-N-AS cells treated with AB 1-42 10 ⁇ M and SP-233 1 ⁇ M for 3 hours are shown in (cl-4).
- Fig. 14 Effect of SP-233 on FCCP-induced uncoupling of the mitochondrial respiratory chain in SK-N-AS cells.
- FCCP was added to SK-N- AS cultures 1 hour after the addition of SP-233 or its solvent. Cultures were incubated in FCCP for 24 hours in the absence or presence of SP-233, before the cell viability measurements were performed. Results are expressed as means ⁇ SD from three independent experiments performed in triplicate. ** p ⁇ 0.01 compared to cells not treated with SP-233.
- Fig. 15 Schematic representation of the mitochondrial sites targeted by SP-233.
- the elements of the respiratory chain targeted by SP-233 are indicated with a green arrow. Dotted arrows denote a poor neuroprotective effect, and full green arrows denote a strong protective effect. The most pronounced effect was observed against KCN, an inhibitor of complex IV, oligomycin, an inhibitor of the complex V, and PAO, a promoter of the MPT.
- mitochondrial disorder encompasses art recognized mitochondrial diseases as well as conditions in which mitochondrial disorders or dysfunction plays a role in the onset symptomology, progression and/or outcome.
- the latter conditions include neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, or myotrophic lateral sclerosis as well as neuronal death induced by stroke, cerebral ischemia and other brain and spinal cord injuries.
- Mitochondrial diseases or mitochondrial myopathies are a group of diseases affecting the mitochondria, that also interfere with the function of muscles.
- the group includes Kearns-Sayre syndrome, Leigh's syndrome, mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome (MDS), mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis and strokelike episodes (MELAS), myoclonus epilepsy with ragged red fibers (MERFF), mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE), neuropathy, ataxia and retinitis pigmentosa (NARP), and progressive external ophthalmoplegia (PEO).
- mitochondrial myopathies include muscle weakness or exercise intolerance, heart failure (cardiomyopathy) or rhythm disturbances, dementia, movement disorders, stroke-like episodes, deafness, blindness, droopy eyelids, limited mobility of the eyes, vomiting, and seizures.
- the prognosis for these disorders ranges in severity from progressive weakness to death.
- mitochondrial disorders can include disorders of the eye, such as optic nerve atrophy, ptosis, acquired stabimus, and ophthalomplegia.
- Mitochondrial dysfunction can be caused by crushed muscle syndrome (or compartment syndrome), the side effects of drug therapies such as HAART and anti-cancer therapies involving drugs that damage the heart (e.g., anthracycline), hepatocellular dysfunction, endocrine tubulopathy and respiratory disorders.
- drug therapies such as HAART and anti-cancer therapies involving drugs that damage the heart (e.g., anthracycline), hepatocellular dysfunction, endocrine tubulopathy and respiratory disorders.
- Most mitochondrial myopathies occur before the age of 20, and often begin with exercise intolerance or muscle weakness. During physical activity, muscles may become easily fatigued or weak. Muscle cramping is rare, but may occur. Nausea, headache, and breathlessness are also associated with these disorders.
- treat refers to any treatment of a disorder or disease associated with a disease or disorder related to mitochondria, in a subject, and includes, but is not limited to, preventing the disorder or disease from occurring in a subject who may be predisposed to the disorder or disease, but has not yet been diagnosed as having the disorder or disease; inhibiting the disorder or disease, for example, arresting the development of the disorder or disease; relieving the disorder or disease, for example, causing regression of the disorder or disease; or relieving the condition caused by the disease or disorder, for example, stopping the symptoms of the disease or disorder.
- mitochondrial disorder or “mitochondrial disease” is intended to encompass all disorders disclosed herein.
- the present method can also be used to prevent or reduce mitochondrial disorders in vitro, as in organs or tissues awaiting or undergoing transplantation.
- prevent in relation to a disease or disorder related to mitochondria, in a subject, means no disease or disorder development if none had occurred, or no further disorder or disease development if there had already been development of the disorder or disease, or no symptoms to logically observable signs of the disease.
- Preferred stereoisomers are 3S, as well as 1Oi? and 13 S, and are also 2OS, 22S and 25S wherein the carbon skeleton is numbered in accord with spirosten- 3-ol numbering.
- a preferred compound of formula (I or II) is (225,255)- (20iS)-spirost-5-en-3 ⁇ -yl hexanoate (SP233). Note that the carbon atoms shown in formula (I) or (II) are saturated with hydrogen unless otherwise indicated.
- alkyl refers to a Ci - 8 hydrocarbon chain, linear (e.g., butyl) or branched (e.g., isobutyl).
- Alkylene, alkenylene, and alkynylene refer to divalent Ci -8 alkyl (e.g., ethylene), alkene, and alkyne radicals, respectively.
- alkyl is (Ci-C 6 )alkyl, such as butyl, hexyl, methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl.
- alkyl includes cycloakyl, (cycloalkyl)alkyl and alkyl(cycloalkyl)alkyl.
- (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl can be methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, pentyl, 3-pentyl, heptyl or octyl;
- (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl can be monocyclic, bicyclic or tricyclic and includes cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, bicyclo[2.2.2] octanyl or norbornyl, as well as various terpene and terpenoid structures.
- (C 3 -C 6 )cycloalkyl(C!-C 2 )alkyl includes the foregoing cycloalkyl and can be cyclopropymiethyl, cyclobutylmethyl, cyclopentylmethyl, cyclohexylmethyl, 2-cyclopropylethyl, 2-cyclobutylethyl, 2- cyclopentylethyl, or 2-cyclohexylethyl.
- Heterocycloalkyl includes cycloalkyl wherein the cycloalkyl ring system is monocyclic, bicyclic or tricyclic and optionally comprises 1-2 S, non-peroxide O or N(R') as well as 4-8 ring carbon atoms; such as morpholinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, indanyl, l,3-dithian-2-yl, and the like.
- Any cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl ring system optionally includes 1-3 double bonds or epoxy moieties and optionally is substituted with 1-3 OH, (d-C ⁇ alkanoyloxy, (CO), (Q-C ⁇ alkyl or (C 2 -C 6 )alkynyl.
- (C 1 -C 8 )AIkOXy can be methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, isopropoxy, butoxy, iso-butoxy, sec-butoxy, pentoxy, 3-pentoxy, or hexyloxy;
- (C 2 -C 6 )alkenyl can be vinyl, allyl, 1-propenyl, 2-propenyl, 1-butenyl, 2-butenyl, 3-butenyl, 1,-pentenyl, 2-pentenyl, 3-pentenyl, 4-pentenyl, 1-hexenyl, 2-hexenyl, 3-hexenyl, 4-hexenyl, or 5-hexenyl;
- hydroxy(C 1 -C 8 )alkyl or hydroxy (C 1 -C 8 )alkoxyl can be alkyl substituted with 1 or 2 OH groups, such as alkyl substituted with 1 or 2 OH groups such as hydroxymethyl, 1-hydroxyethyl, 2-hydroxy
- R 10 and/or R 12 are CH 3 .
- R 16 and R 17 are CH 3 .
- R 1 , R 2 and/or R 12 can be H or OH.
- R 1 , R 2 , R 4 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 11 , R 12 , R 14 and R 15 are H.
- R 2 can be (C r C 22 )alkylCO 2 -, including (C 8 -C 22 )alkylCO 2 - or (C 1 - C 6 )alkylCO 2 -, or can be OH or CXQ-CsOalkyl, or HO 2 C(CH 2 ) 2 CO 2 -.
- X can be O or NR' including NH or NAc.
- R 3 may also be OR 23 wherein R 23 is a removable hydroxy-protecting group such as tosyl, mesyl, M(C 1 -GOaIkVlSiIyI, THP, Eto(Et), benzyl, benzoyloxycarbony and the like.
- R 23 is a removable hydroxy-protecting group such as tosyl, mesyl, M(C 1 -GOaIkVlSiIyI, THP, Eto(Et), benzyl, benzoyloxycarbony and the like.
- C 3 -(C 8 -C 22 ) fatty acid esters of compounds in which C 3 is hydroxysubstituted are also within the invention, wherein the fatty acid is preferably naturally occurring.
- Table 1 Shown below in Table 1 are several compounds of formula (I) and (II) described above that can be used to practice this invention: Table 1.
- An effective amount of an efficacious compound of the invention can be formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier to form a pharmaceutical composition before being administered for treatment of a disease related to impaired mitochondrial function.
- “An effective amount” or “pharmacologically effective amount” refers to the amount of the compound which is required to confer therapeutic effect on the treated subject. The interrelationship of dosages for animals and humans (based on milligrams per square meter of body surface) is described by Freireich et al., Cancer Chemother. Rep., 50, 219 (1966). Body surface area may be approximately determined from height and weight of the patient. See, e.g., Scientific Tables, Geigy Pharmaceuticals, Ardley, New York, 1970, 537.
- Effective doses can be based on in vitro concentrations of the present compounds found to be effective to inhibit the toxicity of A ⁇ or to otherwise protect mitochondria. Doses of the present compounds useful to treat a model neuronal cell line are disclosed below. Effective doses will also vary, as recognized by those skilled in the art, depending on the route of administration, the excipient usage, and the optional co-administration with other therapeutic agents. Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of the active ingredients can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures, e.g., for detem ⁇ ning LD 50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED 50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD 5 Q/ED 50 .
- Compounds which exhibit large therapeutic indices are preferred. While compounds that exhibit toxic side effects may be used, care should be taken to design a delivery system that targets such compounds to the site of affected tissue in order to minimize potential damage to uninfected cells and, thereby, reduce side effects. Included in the methods, kits, combinations and pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention are the crystalline forms (e.g., polymorphs), enantiomeric forms, isomeric forms and tautomers of the described compounds and the pharmaceutically-acceptable salts thereof.
- crystalline forms e.g., polymorphs
- enantiomeric forms e.g., isomeric forms and tautomers of the described compounds and the pharmaceutically-acceptable salts thereof.
- Illustrative pharmaceutically acceptable salts are prepared from formic, acetic, propionic, succinic, glycolic, gluconic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, glucuronic, maleic, fumaric, pyruvic, aspartic, glutamic, benzoic, anthranilic, mesylic, stearic, salicylic, p-hydroxybenzoic, phenylacetic, mandelic, embonic (pamoic), methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic, benzenesulfonic, pantothenic, toluenesulfonic, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic, sulfanilic, cyclohexylaminosulfonic, algenic, b- hydroxybutyric, galactaric and galacturonic acids.
- prodrug refers to a drug or compound (active moiety) that elicits the pharmacological action results from conversion by metabolic processes within the body.
- Prodrugs are generally considered drug precursors that, following administration to a subject and subsequent absorption, are converted to an active or a more active species via some process, such as a metabolic process. Other products from the conversion process are easily disposed of by the body.
- Prodrugs generally have a chemical group present on the prodrug which renders it less active and/or confers solubility or some other property to the drug, such as an ester or acyl group. Once the chemical group has been cleaved from the prodrug the more active drug is generated.
- Prodrugs may be designed as reversible drug derivatives and utilized as modifiers to enhance drug transport to site-specific tissues.
- the design of prodrugs to date has been to increase the effective water solubility of the therapeutic compound for targeting to regions where water is the principal solvent.
- Fedorak, et al., Am. J. Physiol, 269, G210-218 (1995) describe dexamethasone- beta-D-glucuronide.
- McLoed, et al., Gastroenterol., 106, 405-413 (1994) describe dexamethasone-succinate-dextrans. Hochhaus, et al., Biomed.
- Prodrugs are also useful as synthetic intermediates in the preparation of other compounds of formulas (I) or (II), by synthetic interconversions known to the art. For example, see, LT. Harrison, Compendium of Organic Synthetic Methods, Wiley-Interscience (1971), for methods useful to interconvert spirostenol substituents.
- derivative refers to a compound that is produced from another compound of similar structure by the replacement or substitution of one atom, molecule or group by another.
- a hydrogen atom of a compound may be substituted by alkyl, acyl, amino, etc., to produce a derivative of that compound.
- “Plasma concentration” refers to the concentration of a substance in blood plasma or blood serum.
- “Drug absorption” or “absorption” refers to the process of movement from the site of administration of a drug toward the systemic circulation, for example, into the bloodstream of a subject.
- Bioavailability refers to the extent to which an active moiety (drug or metabolite) is absorbed into the general circulation and becomes available at the site of drug action in the body.
- Methodabolism refers to the process of chemical transformations of drugs in the body.
- “Pharmacodynamics” refers to the factors which determine the biologic response observed relative to the concentration of drug at a site of action.
- “Pharmacokinetics” refers to the factors which determine the attainment and maintenance of the appropriate concentration of drug at a site of action.
- Plasma half-life refers to the time required for the plasma drug concentration to decrease by 50% from its maximum concentration.
- measurable serum concentration means the serum concentration (typically measured in mg, ⁇ g, or ng of therapeutic agent per ml, dl, or 1 of blood serum) of a therapeutic agent absorbed into the bloodstream after administration.
- compositions include metallic ions and organic ions. More preferred metallic ions include, but are not limited to appropriate alkali metal (Group Ia) salts, alkaline earth metal (Group Ha) salts and other physiological acceptable metal ions. Exemplary ions include aluminum, calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and zinc in their usual valences.
- Preferred organic ions include protonated tertiary amines and quaternary ammonium cations, including in part, trimethylamine, diethylamine, N 5 N 1 - dibenzylethylenediamine, chloroprocaine, choline, diethanolamine, ethylenediamine, meglumine (N-methylglucamine) and procaine.
- Exemplary pharmaceutically acceptable acids include without limitation hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, methanesulfonic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, tartaric acid, maleic acid, malic acid, citric acid, isocitric acid, succinic acid, lactic acid, gluconic acid, glucuronic acid, pyruvic acid oxalacetic acid, fumaric acid, propionic acid, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, benzoic acid, and the like.
- the compositions of the present invention are usually administered in the form of pharmaceutical compositions.
- compositions can be administered by any appropriate route including, but not limited to, oral, nasogastric, rectal, transdermal, parenteral (for example, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intramedullary and intradermal injections, or infusion techniques administration), intranasal, transmucosal, implantation, vaginal, topical, buccal, and sublingual.
- parenteral for example, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intramedullary and intradermal injections, or infusion techniques administration
- intranasal transmucosal
- implantation vaginal
- vaginal topical
- buccal and sublingual
- preparations may routinely contain buffering agents, preservatives, penetration enhancers, compatible carriers and other therapeutic or non-therapeutic ingredients.
- the present invention also includes methods employing a pharmaceutical composition that contains one or more compound of formula I or II associated with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients.
- pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or “pharmaceutically acceptable excipients” includes any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like. The use of such media and agents for ingestible substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the compositions, its use is contemplated. Supplementary active ingredients can also be incorporated into the compositions.
- compositions(s) can be mixed with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, diluted by the excipient or enclosed within such a carrier, which can be in the form of a capsule, sachet, or other container.
- a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient diluted by the excipient or enclosed within such a carrier, which can be in the form of a capsule, sachet, or other container.
- the carrier materials that can be employed in making the composition of the present invention are any of those commonly used excipients in pharmaceutics and should be selected on the basis of compatibility with the active drug and the release profile properties of the desired dosage form.
- compositions are chosen below as examples:
- Binders such as acacia, alginic acid and salts thereof, cellulose derivatives, methylcellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, magnesium aluminum silicate, polyethylene glycol, gums, polysaccharide acids, bentonites, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinylpyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer, crospovidone, povidone, polymethacrylates, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, starch, pregelatinized starch, ethylcellulose, tragacanth, dextrin, cyclodextrins, microcrystalline cellulose, sucrose, or glucose, and the like.
- Binders such as acacia, alginic acid and salts thereof, cellulose derivatives, methylcellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, magnesium aluminum silicate, polyethylene glycol,
- Disintegration agents such as starches, pregelatinized corn starch, pregelatinized starch, celluloses, cross-linked carboxymethylcellulose, sodium starch glycolate, crospovidone, cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone, croscarmellose sodium, microcrystalline cellulose, a calcium, a sodium alginate complex, clays, alginates, gums, or sodium starch glycolate, and any disintegration agents used in tablet preparations.
- (c) Filling agents such as lactose, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, dibasic calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, microcrystalline cellulose, cellulose powder, dextrose, dextrates, dextran, starches, pregelatinized starch, sucrose, xylitol, lactitol, mannitol, sorbitol, sodium chloride, polyethylene glycol, and the like.
- Surfactants such as sodium lauryl sulfate, sorbitan monooleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, polysorbates, polaxomers, bile salts, glyceryl monostearate, PluronicTM line (BASF), and the like.
- Solubilizer such as citric acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, maleic acid, glutaric acid sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate and the like.
- Stabilizers such as any antioxidation agents, buffers, or acids, and the like, can also be utilized.
- Lubricants such as magnesium stearate, calcium hydroxide, talc, sodium stearyl fumarate, hydrogenated vegetable oil, stearic acid, glyceryl behapate, magnesium, calcium and sodium stearates, stearic acid, talc, waxes, boric acid, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride, DL-leucine, polyethylene glycols, sodium oleate, or sodium lauryl sulfate, and the like.
- Lubricants such as magnesium stearate, calcium hydroxide, talc, sodium stearyl fumarate, hydrogenated vegetable oil, stearic acid, glyceryl behapate, magnesium, calcium and sodium stearates, stearic acid, talc, waxes, boric acid, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride, DL-leucine, polyethylene glycols, sodium oleate, or sodium lauryl sulfate, and the like.
- wetting agents such as oleic acid, glyceryl monostearate, sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine oleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, sodium oleate, or sodium lauryl sulfate, and the like.
- Diluents such lactose, starch, mannitol, sorbitol, dextrose, microcrystalline cellulose, dibasic calcium phosphate, sucrose-based diluents, confectioner's sugar, monobasic calcium sulfate monohydrate, calcium sulfate dihydrate, calcium lactate trihydrate, dextrates, inositol, hydrolyzed cereal solids, amylose, powdered cellulose, calcium carbonate, glycine, or bentonite, and the like.
- Anti-adherents or glidants such as talc, corn starch, DL-leucine, sodium lauryl sulfate, and magnesium, calcium, or sodium stearates, and the like.
- Pharmaceutically compatible carrier comprises acacia, gelatin, colloidal silicon dioxide, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium lactate, maltodextrin, glycerine, magnesium silicate, sodium caseinate, soy lecithin, sodium chloride, tricalcium phosphate, dipotassium phosphate, sodium stearoyl lactylate, carrageenan, monoglyceride, diglyceride, or pregelatinized starch, and the like.
- compositions are discussed in, for example, Remington's The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (2000). Another discussion of drug formulations can be found in Liberman, H. A. and Lachman, L., Eds., Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms, Marcel Decker, New York, N. Y., 1980.
- the tablets or granules comprising the inventive compositions may be film coated or enteric-coated.
- Mammal includes a primate, for example, a monkey, or a lemur, a horse, a dog, a pig, or a cat.
- a rodent includes a rat, a mouse, a squirrel, or a guinea pig.
- compositions of the present invention are useful where administration of an inhibitor of mitochondrial toxicity is indicated. It is believed that these compositions will be particularly effective in the treatment of mitochondrial diseases.
- compositions of the invention can be used to provide a dose of a compound of the present invention in an amount sufficient to elicit a therapeutic response, e.g., reduction of drug-induced mitochondrial toxicity, for example a dose of about 5 ng to about 1000 nig, or about 100 ng to about 600 mg, or about 1 mg to about 500 mg, or about 20 mg to about 400 mg.
- a dosage effective amount will range from about 0.0001 mg/kg to 1500 mg/kg, more preferably 1 to 1000 mg/kg, more preferably from about 1 to 150 mg/kg of body weight, and most preferably about 50 to 100 mg/kg of body weight.
- a dose can be administered in one to about four doses per day, or in as many doses per day to elicit a therapeutic effect.
- a dosage unit of a composition of the present invention can typically contain, for example, about 5 ng, 50 ng 100 ng, 500 ng, 1 mg, 10 mg, 20 mg, 40 mg, 80 mg, 100 mg, 125 mg, 150 mg, 200 mg, 250 mg, 300 mg, 350 mg, 400 mg, 450 mg, 500 mg, 550 mg, 600 mg, 700 mg, 800 mg, 900 mg, or 1000 mg of a compound of the present invention.
- the dosage form can be selected to accommodate the desired frequency of administration used to achieve the specified dosage.
- the amount of the unit dosage form of the composition that is administered and the dosage regimen for treating the condition or disorder depends on a variety of factors, including, the age, weight, sex and medical condition, of the subject, the severity of the condition or disorder, the route and frequency of administration, and this can vary widely, as is well known.
- the composition is administered to a subject in an effective amount, that is, the composition is administered in an amount that achieves a therapeutically effective dose of a compound of the present invention in the blood serum of a subject for a period of time to elicit a desired therapeutic effect.
- the composition in a fasting adult human (fasting for generally at least 10 hours) is administered to achieve a therapeutically effective dose of a compound of the present invention in the blood serum of a subject from about 5 minutes after administration of the composition.
- a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 10 minutes from the time of administration of the composition to the subject
- a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 20 minutes from the time of administration of the composition to the subject.
- a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 30 minutes from the time of administration of the composition to the subject.
- a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 40 minutes from the time of administration of the composition to the subject.
- a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 20 minutes to about 12 hours from the time of administration of the composition to the subject.
- a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 20 minutes to about 6 hours from the time of administration of the composition to the subject. In yet another embodiment of the present invention, a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 20 minutes to about 2 hours from the time of administration of the composition to the subject.
- a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 40 minutes to about 2 hours from the time of administration of the composition to the subject.
- a therapeutically effective dose of the compound of the present invention is achieved in the blood serum of a subject at about 40 minutes to about 1 hour from the time of administration of the composition to the subject.
- a composition of the present invention is administered at a dose suitable to provide a blood serum concentration with a half maximum dose of a compound of the present invention.
- a blood serum concentration of about 0.01 to about 1000 iiM, or about 0.1 to about 750 nM, or about 1 to about 500 nM, or about 20 to about 1000 nM, or about 100 to about 500 nM, or about 200 to about 400 nM is achieved in a subject after administration of a composition of the present invention.
- compositions of the present invention provide a therapeutic effect over an interval of about 5 minutes to about 24 hours after administration, enabling once-a-day or twice-a-day administration if desired, hi one embodiment of the present invention, the composition is administered at a dose suitable to provide an average blood serum concentration with a half maximum dose of a compound of the present invention of at least about 1 ⁇ ,g/ml, or at least about 5 ⁇ g/ml, or at least about 10 ⁇ .g/ml, or at least about 50 ⁇ g/ml, or at least about 100 ⁇ g/ml, or at least about 500 ⁇ g/ml, or at least about 1000 jUg/ml in a subject about 10, 20, 30, or 40 minutes after administration of the composition to the subject.
- the amount of therapeutic agent necessary to elicit a therapeutic effect can be experimentally determined based on, for example, the absorption rate of the agent into the blood serum, the bioavailability of the agent, and the potency for treating the disorder. It is understood, however, that specific dose levels of the therapeutic agents of the present invention for any particular subject depends upon a variety of factors including the activity of the specific compound employed, the age, body weight, general health, sex, and diet of the subject (including, for example, whether the subject is in a fasting or fed state), the time of administration, the rate of excretion, the drug combination, and the severity of the particular disorder being treated and form of administration. Treatment dosages generally may be titrated to optimize safety and efficacy.
- dosage-effect relationships from in vitro and/or in vivo tests initially can provide useful guidance on the proper doses for subject administration.
- Studies in animal models generally may be used for guidance regarding effective dosages for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders or diseases in accordance with the present invention.
- the dosage to be administered will depend on several factors, including the particular agent that is administered, the route administered, the condition of the particular subject, etc.
- a compound is found to demonstrate in vitro activity at, for example, a half-maximum effective dose of 200 nM
- serum compound of the present invention concentrations can be measured using standard assay techniques.
- Contemplated compositions of the present invention provide a therapeutic effect over an interval of about 30 minutes to about 24 hours after administration to a subject, hi one embodiment compositions provide such therapeutic effect in about 30 minutes, hi another embodiment compositions provide therapeutic effect over about 24 hours, enabling once-a-day administration to improve patient compliance.
- present methods, kits, and compositions can also be used in combination ("combination therapy") with another pharmaceutical agent that is indicated for treating or preventing a mitochondrial disease, such as, for example, creatinine.
- a mitochondrial disease such as, for example, creatinine.
- an additive or synergistic effect may be achieved such that many if not all of unwanted side effects can be reduced or eliminated.
- the reduced side effect profile of these drugs is generally attributed to, for example, the reduced dosage necessary to achieve a therapeutic effect with the administered combination.
- composition therapy embraces the administration of a composition of the present invention in conjunction with another pharmaceutical agent that is indicated for treating or preventing a mitochondrial disorder in a subject, as part of a specific treatment regimen intended to provide a beneficial effect from the co-action of these therapeutic agents for the treatment of a neurodegenerative and/or a mitochondrial disorder.
- the beneficial effect of the combination includes, but is not limited to, pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic co-action resulting from the combination of therapeutic agents.
- Administration of these therapeutic agents in combination typically is carried out over a defined time period (usually substantially simultaneously, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months or years depending upon the combination selected).
- “Combination therapy” generally is not intended to encompass the administration of two or more of these therapeutic agents as part of separate monotherapy regimens that incidentally and arbitrarily result in the combinations of the present invention.
- “Combination therapy” is intended to embrace administration of these therapeutic agents in a sequential manner, that is, where each therapeutic agent is administered at a different time, as well as administration of these therapeutic agents, or at least two of the therapeutic agents, in a substantially simultaneous manner.
- Substantially simultaneous administration can be accomplished, for example, by administering to the subject a single tablet or capsule having a fixed ratio of each therapeutic agent or in multiple, single capsules, or tablets for each of the therapeutic agents.
- Sequential or substantially simultaneous administration of each therapeutic agent can be effected by any appropriate route.
- composition of the present invention can be administered orally or nasogastric, while the other therapeutic agent of the combination can be administered by any appropriate route for that particular agent, including, but not limited to, an oral route, a percutaneous route, an intravenous route, an intramuscular route, or by direct absorption through mucous membrane tissues.
- the composition of the present invention is administered orally or nasogastric and the therapeutic agent of the combination may be administered orally, or percutaneously.
- the sequence in which the therapeutic agents are administered is not narrowly critical.
- “Combination therapy” also can embrace the administration of the therapeutic agents as described above in further combination with other biologically active ingredients, such as, but not limited to, an analgesic, for example, and with non- drug therapies, such as, but not limited to, surgery.
- the therapeutic compounds which make up the combination therapy may be a combined dosage form or in separate dosage forms intended for substantially simultaneous administration.
- the therapeutic compounds that make up the combination therapy may also be administered sequentially, with either therapeutic compound being administered by a regimen calling for two step administration.
- a regimen may call for sequential administration of the therapeutic compounds with spaced-apart administration of the separate, active agents.
- the time period between the multiple administration steps may range from, for example, a few minutes to several hours to days, depending upon the properties of each therapeutic compound such as potency, solubility, bioavailability, plasma half-life and kinetic profile of the therapeutic compound, as well as depending upon the effect of food ingestion and the age and condition of the subject. Circadian variation of the target molecule concentration may also determine the optimal dose interval.
- the therapeutic compounds of the combined therapy may involve a regimen calling for administration of one therapeutic compound by oral route and another therapeutic compound by an oral route, a percutaneous route, an intravenous route, an intramuscular route, or by direct absorption through mucous membrane tissues, for example.
- a regimen calling for administration of one therapeutic compound by oral route and another therapeutic compound by an oral route, a percutaneous route, an intravenous route, an intramuscular route, or by direct absorption through mucous membrane tissues for example.
- each such therapeutic compound will be contained in a suitable pharmaceutical formulation of pharmaceutically- acceptable excipients, diluents or other formulations components.
- the pharmaceutical composition can contain a desired amount of a compound of formula (I) or (II) and be in the form of, for example, a tablet, a hard or soft capsule, a lozenge, a cachet, a troche, a dispensable powder, granules, a suspension, an elixir, a liquid, or any other form reasonably adapted for oral administration.
- a pharmaceutical composition can be made in the form of a discrete dosage unit containing a predetermined amount of the active compound such as a tablet or a capsule.
- Such oral dosage forms can further comprise, for example, buffering agents. Tablets, pills and the like additionally can be prepared with enteric coatings.
- compositions suitable for buccal or sublingual administration include, for example, lozenges comprising the active compound in a flavored base, such as sucrose, and acacia or tragacanth, and pastilles comprising the active compound in an inert base such as gelatin and glycerin or sucrose and acacia.
- Liquid dosage forms for oral administration can include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups, and elixirs containing inert diluents commonly used in the art, such as water.
- Such compositions can also comprise, for example, wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, and sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents.
- suitable liquid dosage forms include, but are not limited to, aqueous solutions comprising the active compound and beta-cyclodextrin or a water soluble derivative of beta-cyclodextrin such as sulfobutyl ether beta- cyclodextrin; heptakis-2,6-di-O-methyl-beta-cyclodextrin; hydroxypropyl-beta- cyclodextrin; and dimethyl-beta-cyclodextrin.
- beta-cyclodextrin such as sulfobutyl ether beta- cyclodextrin; heptakis-2,6-di-O-methyl-beta-cyclodextrin; hydroxypropyl-beta- cyclodextrin; and dimethyl-beta-cyclodextrin.
- compositions of the present invention can also be administered by injection (intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous).
- injectable compositions can employ, for example, saline, dextrose, or water as a suitable carrier material.
- the pH value of the composition can be adjusted, if necessary, with suitable acid, base, or buffer.
- suitable bulking, dispersing, wetting or suspending agents including mannitol and polyethylene glycol (such as PEG 400), can also be included in the composition.
- a suitable parenteral composition can also include an active compound lyophilized in injection vials.
- Aqueous solutions can be added to dissolve the composition prior to injection.
- the pharmaceutical compositions can be administered in the form of a suppository or the like.
- Such rectal formulations preferably contain the active compound in a total amount of, for example, about 0.075 to about 75% w/w, or about 0.2 to about 40% w/w, or about 0.4 to about 15% w/w.
- Carrier materials such as cocoa butter, theobroma oil, and other oil and polyethylene glycol suppository bases can be used in such compositions.
- Other carrier materials such as coatings (for example, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose film coating) and disintegrants (for example, croscarmellose sodium and cross-linked povidone) can also be employed if desired.
- the subject compounds may be free or entrapped in microcapsules, in colloidal drug delivery systems such as liposomes, microemulsions, and macroemulsions.
- compositions can be prepared by any suitable method of pharmaceutics, which includes the step of bringing into association active compound of the present invention and a carrier material or carriers materials.
- the compositions are uniformly and intimately admixing the active compound with a liquid or finely divided solid carrier, or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product.
- a tablet can be prepared by compressing or molding a powder or granules of the compound, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients.
- Compressed tablets can be prepared by compressing, in a suitable machine, the compound in a free-flowing form, such as a powder or granules optionally mixed with a binding agent, lubricant, inert diluent and/or surface active/dispersing agent(s). Molded tablets can be made by molding, in a suitable machine, the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent.
- Tablets of the present invention can also be coated with a conventional coating material such as OpadryTM White YS-1-18027A (or another color) and the weight fraction of the coating can be about 3% of the total weight of the coated tablet.
- a conventional coating material such as OpadryTM White YS-1-18027A (or another color) and the weight fraction of the coating can be about 3% of the total weight of the coated tablet.
- the compositions of the present invention can be formulated so as to provide quick, sustained or delayed release of the compositions after administration to the patient by employing procedures known in the art.
- the excipient when it serves as a diluent, it can be a solid, semi-solid or liquid material, which acts as a vehicle, carrier or medium for the active ingredient.
- the compositions can be in the form of tablets, chewable tablets, pills, powders, lozenges, sachets, cachets, elixirs, suspensions, emulsions, solutions, syrups, aerosols (as a solid or in a liquid medium), soft and hard gelatin capsules and sterile packaged powders.
- the manufacturing processes may employ one or a combination of methods including: (1) dry mixing, (2) direct compression, (3) milling, (4) dry or non-aqueous granulation, (5) wet granulation, or (6) fusion.
- solid compositions such as tablets, are prepared by mixing a therapeutic agent of the present invention with a pharmaceutical excipient to form a solid preformulation composition containing a homogeneous mixture of the therapeutic agent and the excipient.
- compositions(s) when referring to these preformulation compositions(s) as homogeneous, it is meant that the therapeutic agent is dispersed evenly throughout the composition so that the composition may be readily subdivided into equally effective unit dosage forms, such as tablets, pills and capsules. This solid preformulation is then subdivided into unit dosage forms of the type described herein.
- Compressed tablets are solid dosage forms prepared by compacting a formulation containing an active ingredient and excipients selected to aid the processing and improve the properties of the product.
- the term "compressed tablet” generally refers to a plain, uncoated tablet for oral ingestion, prepared by a single compression or by pre-compaction tapping followed by a final compression.
- the tablets or pills of the present invention may be coated or otherwise compounded to provide a dosage form affording the advantage of prolonged action.
- the tablet or pill can comprise an inner dosage and an outer dosage component, the latter being in the form of an envelope over the former.
- enteric layers or coatings including a number of polymeric acids and mixtures of polymeric acids with such materials as shellac, cetyl alcohol and cellulose acetate.
- long-term sustained release implant may be suitable for treatment of mitochondrial disorders in patients who need continuous administration of the compositions of the present invention.
- Long-term release as used herein, means that the implant is constructed and arranged to deliver therapeutic levels of the active ingredients for at least 30 days, and preferably 60 days.
- Long-term sustained release implants are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art and include some of the release systems described above.
- the compound for treating a mitochondrial disorder comes in the form of a kit or package containing one or more of the therapeutic compounds of the present invention.
- These therapeutic compounds of the present invention can be packaged in the form of a kit or package in which hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly (or other periodic) dosages are arranged for proper sequential or simultaneous administration.
- the present invention further provides a kit or package containing a plurality of separately-packaged dosage units, adapted for successive daily administration, each dosage unit comprising at least one of the therapeutic compounds of the present invention.
- This drug delivery system can be used to facilitate administering any of the various embodiments of the therapeutic compounds of the present invention.
- the system contains a plurality of dosages to be administered daily or weekly.
- the kit or package can also contain the agents utilized in combination therapy to facilitate proper administration of the dosage forms.
- the kits or packages also contain a set of instructions for the subject.
- AChEI acetylcholinesterase inhibitor
- a ⁇ /?-amyloid peptide
- ADDLs amyloid-derived diffusible ligands
- ANT adenine nucleotide translocase
- APP amyloid precursor protein
- CCCP carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone
- FCCP carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxy-phenylhydrazone
- CsA cyclosporin A
- MPT membrane permeability transition
- MRC mitochondrial respiratory coefficient
- PAO phenylarsine oxide
- Mitochondrial permeability transition may be further defined as a nonspecific increase in the permeability of the inner mitochondrial membrane that occurs under adverse conditions, such as an increase in mitochondrial Ca +2 content of the mitochondrial matrix or oxidative stress, and which causes the assembly (opening) of non-specific pores ("megachannels") in the mitochondrial inner membrane, leading to a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, an uncoupling of mitochondrial respiration, and cellular energy failure, all of which can contribute to cell death.
- MPT Mitochondrial permeability transition
- Ap 1 - ⁇ 2 peptide was purchased from American Peptide Company (Sunnyvale, CA, USA) and stored at -80°C.
- the antibody anti-complex II was purchased from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR, USA) and the antibody anti- Ab 1-42 was from Signet Laboratories (Dedham, MA, USA).
- the spirostenol, (22S,25S)-(20S)-s ⁇ irost-5-en-3/3-yl hexanoate (SP-233) was purchased from Interbioscreen (Moscow, Russia).
- Cyclosporin A (CsA) and carbonyl cyanide 3- chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, MO, USA).
- Dulbecco's Minimum Essential Medium (DMEM), fetal bovine serum (FBS) and SK-N-AS human neuroblastoma cells were purchased form ATCC (Manassas, VA, USA).
- the pellet was resuspended in 300 ⁇ l of respiratory buffer (D-mannitol 300 mM, KCl 10 mM, KH2PO4 10 mM, MgC12 5 mM; pH 7.2 at 37°C). This pellet is highly enriched in mitochondria (Zini et al. 1996). The protein concentration of the mitochondrial suspension was determined by the method of Lowry et al. 1951.
- Ap 1- ⁇ 2 solution was reconstituted with fresh distilled water to provide a concentration of 500 ⁇ M.
- Ap 1 ⁇ 2 was used as freshly reconstituted or in an aggregated form after having been "aged” by incubating the solution for 48 h at 4 0 C. Both solutions were diluted with the respiratory buffer (see above) before use and then added directly to the mitochondria at the desired concentration. In experiments conducted with neuroblastoma cells (see below), only the freshly reconstituted A ⁇ i_ 42 solution was used. SP-233, CCCP and CsA were first dissolved in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and then diluted in fresh distilled water.
- DMF N,N-dimethylformamide
- Mitochondrial functions were studied using an Oxytherm (Hansatech, Norfolk, UK) linked to a PC (Compaq, PIII 400 MHz).
- the 37°C thermostated incubation chamber of the Oxytherm was connected to a platinum-silver Clarck electrode for O 2 detection.
- O 2 consumption was monitored as a marker of mitochondrial function and viability in the presence of ADP (precursor for ATP) in the presence or absence of CCCP (an uncoupling agent for oxidative phosphorylation), or CsA (an inhibitor of the MPT pore).
- Measurement of O 2 consumption permitted calculation of the mitochondrial respiratory coefficient (MRC) which is V 3 /V 4 .
- MRC mitochondrial respiratory coefficient
- V 4 is the basal O 2 consumption
- V 3 is the O 2 consumption after adding ADP (ATP production).
- ADP ATP production
- the effect of increasing concentrations of SP-233 (1 pM to 1 nM) on the mitochondrial respiratory chain was assessed by monitoring the evolution of MRC.
- the concentration of mitochondria was adjusted to 0.4 mg protein/ml using respiratory buffer.
- Mitochondria were activated by addition of malate/glutamate as substrates of complex I of the respiratory chain.
- State 2 is the baseline rate of mitochondrial oxygen consumption.
- ATP synthesis was initiated by addition of ADP, the rate of oxygen consumption increased dramatically to reach state 3.
- the rate of O 2 consumption returned to baseline (state 2) which was called state 4 (Chance and Williams 1956). Controls for each experiment corresponded to basal respiration in the presence of ADP.
- SP-233 was present in the incubation mixture for 3 min and Ap 1- ⁇ 2 for 1.5 min at 37°C before addition of the substrates malate/glutamate. ADP was added 1 min after addition of malate/glutamate. Control for the effect of SP-233 versus Ap 1 ⁇ 2 was the same as for the experiment conducted in the absence of ADP.
- SP-233 was studied at concentrations of 10, 30 and 100 pM. At a concentration as low as 10 pM, SP-233 induced a significant 50% decrease in the MRC of rat brain mitochondria, as compared to the control group (pO.OOl) (Fig. 1). Although the differences in the effects induced by various concentrations of SP-233 are not significant, the results do tend to display a concentration-effect relationship since the MRC was progressively decreased over the concentration range of 10-100 pM.
- the uncoupling agent CCCP at 1 ⁇ M increased the O 2 consumption of rat brain mitochondria to 150% of the basal value (p ⁇ 0.01) (Fig. 2a). All concentrations of SP-233 that were tested (1-1000 pM) completely inhibited this metabolic effect of CCCP (p ⁇ 0.001). The inhibition of CCCP-induced uncoupling by SP-233 was associated with decreases in O 2 consumption values to 60-65% of the basal level, and was concentration-independent. SP-233 did not counteract the decrease in the MRC induced by CsA, but on the contrary, it amplified this effect of CsA in a concentration-dependent manner (Fig. 2b).
- AjS 1-42 significantly decreased the MRC of rat brain mitochondria even when it was present at a concentration as low as 0.1 pM (Fig. 3). This effect was more pronounced with the fresh amyloid peptide than with the aged form, the respective inhibitory effects being 55-63% and 43-53%. This difference may be revealing that the non-aggregated form of AjS 1-42 penetrates into the mitochondria to a greater extent than the aged, aggregated form of the peptide.
- Fresh A / 3 1-42 reduced the MRC by 71% compared to the control, and this effect was partially inhibited by SP-233 (Fig. 4a).
- the MRC was restored to about 40% of the control value, and the MRC was significantly increased in comparison with the value obtained with AjS 1-42 alone (38.56 ⁇ 0.34 versus 28.93 ⁇ 1.75, pO.OOl).
- Aged AjS 1-42 reduced the MRC by 51% compared to the control but SP-233 did not significantly prevent this effect (Fig. 4b). 5. Effect of SP-233 on A/3i. 42 -induced toxicity on SK-N-AS human neuroblastoma cells
- Fig. 5 shows the effect of SP-233 on the AjS 1 -42 induced decrease in SK- N-AS cell viability.
- SP-233 1 ⁇ M prevented the neurotoxicity induced by the three concentrations of A/3 1-42 used by 19%, 26% and 28%, respectively (p ⁇ .01).
- AD Alzheimer's disease
- AD The etiology of AD is well documented only for the familial early-onset form of the disease, which involves a mutation of the APP, presenilin-1 or presenilin-2 gene, hi contrast, the cause of the late-onset sporadic form of AD, which represents about 95% of all AD cases, remains to be established. Many theories have emerged, and among these it has been proposed that an energetic failure due to mitochondrial impairment and oxidative damage may be at the origin of AD (Schulz et al. 1997; Beal, 2000).
- AjSi -42 and the fragment A/3 25-35 have been shown to inhibit respiration and the activities of key enzymes, such as succinate dehydrogenase, ⁇ -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase, in neuronal mitochondria (Kaneko et al. 1995; Casley et al. 2002a). Inhibition of the different complexes of the respiratory chain has also been reported to occur in neuronal mitochondria exposed to AjS 25-35 (Pereira et al.
- results presented herein above show further that AjS 1-42 inhibits mitochondrial respiration of rat brain mitochondria, as revealed by a decrease in the MRC, and that this inhibition occurs at AjS 1-42 concentrations as low as 0.1 pM with both freshly prepared and aged forms of the peptide (see Fig. 3).
- the inhibitory effect is more pronounced with the fresh form probably because polymeric forms of A/3 1-42 would traverse mitochondrial membranes to a lesser extend than the monomeric form or oligomeric forms such as ADDLs, these latter forms therefore being more likely to exert their detrimental effects on the respiratory chain and being de facto more toxic.
- the lack of protection by SP-233 of mitochondria submitted to the aged/aggregated form of AjS 1-42 might be due to an inability of SP-233 to bind the aggregated form of the amyloid peptide in the same way that it binds the monomeric form.
- SP-233 was able to partially prevent the decrease in MRC induced by freshly prepared A 1 S 1-42 and protect mitochondrial function, confirming previous data which showed a restoring effect of SP-233 on the ATP synthesis of PC 12 cells exposed to A 1 S 1-42 (Lecanu et al. 2004).
- SP-233 was active in very low concentrations (picomolar range), its mechanism of action might be relatively specific.
- the present data also confirms recent results which showed that SP-233 protected neuronal cells against A 1 S 1-42 neurotoxicity by binding the monomeric form of the peptide and inhibiting the formation of the neurotoxic oligomeric ADDLs (Lecanu et al. 2004).
- SP-233 was also able to abolish the uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation induced by CCCP (see Fig. 2a). It has been shown that AJS J-42 disrupts mitochondrial membrane structure (Kremer et al. 2001; Rodrigues et al. 2001) and that mitochondrial membrane fluidity may be altered in AD brain (Mecocci et al, 1996), both phenomena leading to mitochondrial uncoupling. Therefore, even though the "recoupling" effect of SP-233 cannot yet be fully clarified, it might contribute to the restoration of mitochondrial function described herein.
- Example 2 The Spirostenol (22R,25RV20a-spirost-5-en-3fi-yI Hexanoate Blocks Mitochondrial Uptake of AB in Neuronal Cells and Prevents AB- Induced Impairment of Mitochondrial Function A. Materials and methods 1. Materials
- ABi -42 peptide was purchased from American Peptide Company (Sunnyvale, CA).
- the anti-complex II antibody was purchased from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR), and the antibody anti-AJ31-42 was from Signet Laboratories (Dedham, MA).
- Spirostenol (SP-233) was purchased from Interbioscreen (Moscow, Russia).
- Cyclosporin A carbonyl cyanide 3- chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxy- phenylhydrazone (FCCP), rotenone, malonate, myxothiazol, potassium cyanide (KCN), oligomycin, and phenylarsine oxide (PAO) were obtained from Sigma (St Louis, MO).
- Dulbecco's Minimum Essential Medium (DMEM), fetal bovine serum (FBS), and SK-N-AS human neuroblastoma cells were purchased form ATCC (Manassas, VA).
- the pellet was resuspended in 300 ⁇ l of respiratory buffer (D-mannitol 300 mM, KCl 10 mM, KH 2 PO4 10 mM, MgCl 2 5 mM; pH 7.2 at 37°C). This pellet is highly enriched in mitochondria (Zini et al. 1996).
- the protein concentration of the mitochondrial suspension was determined by the method of Lowry.
- Mitochondrial respiration was measured using an Oxytherm (Hansatech, Norfolk, UK) linked to a PC (Compaq, PIII 400 MHz).
- the 37°C incubation chamber of the Oxytherm was connected to a platinum-silver Clarck electrode for O 2 detection.
- O 2 consumption was employed as a marker of mitochondrial respiration in the presence of ADP (precursor for ATP) and in the presence or absence of the following: CCCP (an uncoupling agent for oxidative phosphorylation), CsA (an inhibitor of the membrane permeability transition pore), or AB 1-42 .
- ADP was added 1 min after addition of malate/glutamate.
- SP-233, CCCP, and CsA were first dissolved in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and then diluted in fresh distilled water.
- AB 1 ⁇ 2 employed in these experiments was reconstituted with fresh distilled water to a concentration of 500 ⁇ M.
- AB 1-42 was used as freshly reconstituted or in an aggregated form after having been "aged” by incubating the solution for 48 h at 4°C. Both solutions were diluted with the respiratory buffer before use and then added directly to the mitochondria to achieve the desired concentration.
- Human neuroblastoma SK-N-AS cells were seeded in 96-well plates (7xlO 4 cells/well) in DMEM containing 10% FBS and were cultured in 5% CO .2 and 95% humidity. Cultures were treated with the following in the presence or absence of varying concentrations of SP-233: AB 1-42 (0.1, 1, and 10 ⁇ M), rotenone (50 nM), malonate (100 mM), myxothiazol (0.3 ⁇ M), KCN (12 mM), oligomycin (0.5 ⁇ g/ml), FCCP (3 ⁇ M), and PAO (0.25 ⁇ M).
- SP-233 was added to cultures 1 hour prior to the addition of the mitochondrial toxins.
- parallel cell cultures were incubated with or without increasing concentrations of SP-233, ranging from 1 to 100 ⁇ M, one hour prior to the addition of FCCP or PAO. Cell viability was assessed 24 hours later.
- FCCP, rotenone, malonate, myxothiazol, KCN, oligomycin, and PAO were all first dissolved as a stock solution in ethanol before being diluted in culture medium to reach the indicated final concentrations. The percentage of ethanol in the culture medium was 0.09%.
- Human neuroblastoma SK-N-AS cells were seeded on 13 -mm diameter coverslips (20,000 cells/coverslip) and incubated overnight at 37 0 C, at 5% CO 2 , in DMEM containing 10% FBS. Cultures were then incubated with AB 1-42 (10 ⁇ M) or its vehicle for 3 h in the presence or absence of SP-233 (1 ⁇ M).
- Coverslips were mounted with an aqueous mounting medium containing 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole-2-hydrochloride (DAPI; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). Confocal images were acquired using an Olympus Fluoview BX61 Laser Scanning microscope.
- DAPI 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole-2-hydrochloride
- CCCP uncouples oxidative phosphorylation and increases O 2 consumption.
- 1 ⁇ M CCCP increases O 2 consumption in rat brain mitochondria to 150% of the basal value (pO.Ol).
- Concentrations of SP-233 ranging from 1-1000 pM completely abolished this effect (pO.OOl for all), and the inhibition of CCCP-induced uncoupling in the presence of all of these SP-233 concentrations was associated with a decrease in O 2 consumption values to 60-65% of the basal level.
- the MRC was significantly increased in comparison to the value obtained with AB 1- 42 alone (38.56 ⁇ 0.34 vs. 28.93 ⁇ 1.75, ⁇ 0.001).
- Aged AB 1-42 reduced the MRC by 51% compared to the control, but SP-233 did not significantly affect this aged ABi -42 -induced change in the MRC (Fig. 9b).
- SP-233 decreased neurotoxicity induced by 0.1, 1, and lO ⁇ M AB 1-42 , by 19% (pO.Ol, compared to AB 1-42 alone), 26% (pO.Ol) and 28% (pO.Ol), respectively.
- Figure 11 shows representative images of the DAPI staining (al, bl and cl), the immunofluorescent labeling OfAB 1-42 (a2, b2 and c2), and the immunofluorescent labeling of the complex II 70-kDa subunit (a3, b3 and c3) in SK-N-AS human neuroblastoma cells. Merged images are shown in Figure a4, b4, and c4.
- Neuroblastoma cells treated with AB 1-42 displayed strong AB 1-42 immunoreactivity (Fig. 1 Ib2) that co-localized with labeling of complex II of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (Fig. Ilb4), providing evidence that AB 1-42 entered, and was present inside, the mitochondria.
- a BI-42 immunoreactivity was abrogated in the presence of SP-233 (Fig. 1 Ic2), indicating that SP-233 blocked the entry OfAB 1-42 into the cell and the mitochondria.
- SP-233 did not display any neuroprotective effect against the inhibitors of complexes I, II, and III of the mitochondria respiratory chain (Fig. 12 a, b, and c). At concentrations of 1 ⁇ M, SP-233 significantly protected against rotenone and 100 ⁇ M SP-233 significantly protected against myxoyhiazol (p ⁇ 0.05 for both). Although this protective effect was significant, in both cases the magnitude of the effect was small. In contrast, SP-233 exerted a pronounced beneficial effect against toxicity induced by KCN, a complex IV inhibitor, and oligomycin, a complex V inhibitor (Fig. 12d and 12e).
- Adenine nucleotide translocase is a channel protein located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria that, under physiological conditions, exports ATP and imports ADP with a 1 : 1 ratio.
- the inhibition of ANT by PAO promotes the opening of the permeability transition pore, which leads to apoptosis.
- One micro molar SP-233 reduced the toxic effect of PAO on SK-N- AS neuronal cells by 25% (Fig. 13, p ⁇ .01). Concentrations of SP-233 above l ⁇ M were not associated with any neuroprotective effects.
- SP-233 exerted a small, but significant (p ⁇ 0.01), effect on FCCP-induced uncoupling of the respiratory chain when administered at the concentration of 100 ⁇ M (Fig. 14).
- AD Alzheimer's disease
- AchEIs acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
- N-methyl-D- aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist has recently been approved for treating moderately to severe AD (Livingston and Katona 2004), there is an urgent need for new drugs and new therapeutic strategies that target the etiological causes of the AD.
- AD The etiology of AD is well documented for the familial, early-onset form of the disease, which involves a mutation of the APP (presenilin-1 or presenilin- 2) gene, hi contrast, the cause of the late-onset sporadic form of AD, which represents about 95% of all AD cases, remains to be established.
- APP preilin-1 or presenilin- 2 gene
- Many theories have emerged, and among these is the proposal that an energetic failure due to mitochondrial impairment and oxidative damage maybe at the origin of AD (Schulz et al. 1997; Beal, 2000). This mitochondrial dysfunction theory, together with the recent finding that the spirostenol derivative, SP-233, can protect neuronal PC 12 cells against AB 1-42 -induced neurotoxicity (Lecanu et al.
- AB 1-42 and the fragment AB 25-35 have been shown to inhibit respiration and the activities of key enzymes such as succinate dehydrogenase, ⁇ -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, and cytochrome oxidase, in neuronal mitochondria (Kaneko et al. 1995; Casley et al. 2002a). Inhibition of the respiratory chain complexes has also been reported in neuronal mitochondria exposed to AB 25-35 (Pereira et al. 1999; Canevari et al.
- SP-233 was able to partially prevent the decrease in MRC induced by freshly prepared AB 1-42 , confirming previous results showing a restorative effect of SP-233 on ATP synthesis in PC12 cells exposed to AB 1-42 (Lecanu et al. 2004).
- the finding that SP-233 is active at very low concentrations suggests that its mechanism of action might be relatively specific.
- the data described herein also confirmed recent results showing that SP-233 protects neuronal cells against AB 1-42 neurotoxicity by binding to the monomeric form of the peptide and inhibiting the formation of the neurotoxic oligomeric ADDLs (Lecanu et al. 2004).
- SP-233 a protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor known to promote the MPT (Korge et al., 2001).
- SP-233 at concentrations of 1 ⁇ M, restored neuronal cell viability by 25%; whereas, higher concentrations of SP-233 were not associated with a protective effect.
- SP-233 's effect on MPT-linked pore opening may occur via direct and/or indirect action (e.g., by allosteric modification after its insertion into mitochondrial membranes).
- SP-233 was also able to abolish CCCP-induced uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation in isolated mitochondria and in neuroblastoma cells. It has been shown that ABi -42 disrupts mitochondrial membrane structure (Kremer et al. 2001; Rodrigues et al. 2001) and that mitochondrial membrane fluidity may be altered in AD brain (Mecocci et al, 1996); both phenomena lead to mitochondrial uncoupling. Therefore, even though the "re-coupling" effect of SP-233 has not been fully clarified, it might contribute to the restoration of mitochondrial function described herein.
- SP-233 is able to protect neuroblastoma cells against inhibitors of complexes I, III, IV, and V, but not against inhibitors of complex II (Fig. 15).
- Beta-amyloid peptides induce mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in astrocytes and death of neurons through activation of NADPH oxidase. J. Neurosci. 24, 565-575. Bachurin S. O., Shevtsova E. P., Kireeva E. G., Oxenkrug G. F. and Sablin S. O. (2003) Mitochondria as a target for neurotoxins and neuroprotective agents. Ann. NY. Acad. ScL 993, 334-344. Beal M. F. (1992) Does impairment of energy metabolism result in excitotoxic neuronal death in neurodegenerative disease? Ann. Neurol. 31, 119-130. Beal M. F. (2000) Energetics in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.
- Beta-amyloid fragment 25-35 causes mitochondrial dysfunction in primary cortical neurons. Neurobiol. Dis. 10, 258-267. Courtney C, Farrell D., Gray R. et al ⁇ AD2000 Collaborative Group. (2004) Long-term donepezil treatment in 565 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD2000): randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 363, 2105-2115. Eckert G. P., Wood W. G. and Muller W. E. (2001) Effects of aging and ⁇ - amyloid on the properties of brain synaptic and mitochondrial membranes. J. Neural. Transm. 108, 1051-1064.
- Kaneko L Yamada N., Sakuraba Y., Kamenosono M. and Tutumi S. (1995) Suppression of mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase, a primary target of beta-amyloid, and its derivative recemized at Ser residue. J. Neurochem. 65, 2585-2593. Kim S. H., Vlkolinsky R., Cairns N. and Lubec G. (2000) Decreased levels of complex HI core protein 1 and complex V beta chain in brains from patients with Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome. Cell. MoI. Life ScL 57, 1810- 1816.
- Alzheimer type a hypothesis. Neurobiol. Aging 11, 567-571. Waldemar G., Winblad B., Engedal K., Soininen H., Verhey F., Wimo A., Wetterholm A. L., Zhang R., Haglund A. and Subbiah P. (2001) Benefits of donepezil on cognition, function and neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with mild and moderate Alzheimer's disease over one year, in Alzheimer's
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US4680289A (en) * | 1985-06-05 | 1987-07-14 | Progenics, Inc. | Treatment of obesity and diabetes using sapogenins |
WO2003077869A2 (en) * | 2002-03-15 | 2003-09-25 | Samaritan Pharmaceuticals, Inc | Neuroprotective spirostenol pharmaceutical compositions |
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AU2003231427A1 (en) * | 2002-04-15 | 2003-10-27 | Chengdu Di'ao Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd. | Compounds and preparation methods of carboxylate and monoester succinate derivative of diosgenin |
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WO2006044665A2 (en) * | 2004-10-14 | 2006-04-27 | Georgetown University | Neuroprotective spirostenol pharmaceutical compositions |
Non-Patent Citations (7)
Title |
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DATABASE CA [Online] CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS SERVICE, COLUMBUS, OHIO, US; LIU, ZHONGRONG ET AL: "Preparation of carboxylate and monoester succinate derivatives of diosgenin and their bioactivities for treating and preventing cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases" XP002391897 retrieved from STN Database accession no. 2003:836864 & WO 03/086411 A1 (CHENGDU DI'AO PHARMACEUTICAL GROUP CO., LTD., PEOP. REP. CHINA) 23 October 2003 (2003-10-23) * |
DATABASE CA [Online] CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS SERVICE, COLUMBUS, OHIO, US; WANG, BENXIANG ET AL: "Use of 3.beta.-hydroxy-5-spirostene as drugs for prevention or treatment of cardiovascular diseases or conditions for inhibition of tumors and decreasing of blood lipids" XP002391898 retrieved from STN Database accession no. 2003:221522 & WO 03/022287 A1 (JILIN TIANYAO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CO., LTD., PEOP. REP. CHINA) 20 March 2003 (2003-03-20) * |
DATABASE WPI Section Ch, Week 200423 Derwent Publications Ltd., London, GB; Class B04, AN 2004-239758 XP002391987 & CN 1 465 344 A (CHENGDU DIAO PHARM GROUP CO LTD) 7 January 2004 (2004-01-07) * |
DATABASE WPI Section Ch, Week 200524 Derwent Publications Ltd., London, GB; Class B01, AN 2005-223733 XP002391988 & CN 1 552 725 A (LIU L) 8 December 2004 (2004-12-08) * |
ROTIG A ET AL: "Molecular diagnostics of mitochondrial disorders" BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOENERGETICS, AMSTERDAM, NL, vol. 1659, no. 2-3, 6 December 2004 (2004-12-06), pages 129-135, XP004679167 ISSN: 0005-2728 * |
TILLEMENT LAURENT ET AL: "The spirostenol (22R, 25R)-20alpha-spirost-5-en-3beta-yl hexanoate blocks mitochondrial uptake of Abeta in neuronal cells and prevents Abeta-induced impairment of mitochondrial function." STEROIDS. AUG 2006, vol. 71, no. 8, August 2006 (2006-08), pages 725-735, XP002391896 ISSN: 0039-128X * |
ZEVIANI MASSIMO ET AL: "Mitochondrial disorders." BRAIN : A JOURNAL OF NEUROLOGY. OCT 2004, vol. 127, no. Pt 10, October 2004 (2004-10), pages 2153-2172, XP009069981 ISSN: 1460-2156 * |
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