WO2001089315A2 - Method of enhancing growth, fluid consumption and feed conversion in birds - Google Patents

Abstract

The present invention relates to the use of nutritional supplements to enhance nutritional health such as growth and immunological function, in birds. Specifically, nutritional therapies comprising specified amino acids, an energy source and physiologically active ions are used to facilitate growth, fluid consumption, improved feed conversion, and immunocompetency in birds during non-steady state periods.

Description

METHOD OF ENHANCING GROWTH, FLUID CONSUMPTION AND FEED CONVERSION IN BIRDS

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Animal Growth

Animal growth is a very complex phenomenon involving and affected by a host of metabolic, physiological, environmental and genetic factors (Kleiber, 1975; Ganong, 1993). As discussed by Frandson (1974) growth in animals is generally defined as either hypertrophic (an increase in cell size) or hyperplasic (an increase in cell numbers). In terms of environmental impacts affecting growth, nutrition is considered the most important extrinsic factor (Ganong, page 370).

During the normal growth process in an animal, the rate of cell development, either hyperplasic or hypertrophic, is fairly constant or steady.. In fact, this situation is often referred to as "steady state growth" or "steady state physiology". However, there are numerous times in an animals life when steady state growth or physiology does not occur such as puberty, injury recoveiy, disease states, sub-optimal climate conditions or, for animals such as domestic livestock, during periods of management and handling which can be novel and stressful in animals. Even if such periods are of limited duration (i.e. acute in nature) they may nonetheless be periods in which an animal will experience either an abatement of growth or actual physical deterioration. Attenuating these periods is of interest to the animal industries, for example, as maintaining growth has a direct impact on the cost and time required in producing livestock. These acute periods take on added significance in livestock such as birds or, more specifically, poultry which grow to maturity in a relatively short period of time. In addition to affecting growth, these various stressors can negatively impact water consumption and feed conversion.

The detrimental effects of high environmental temperature on, for example, broiler production have been documented. Body weight gain, feed consumption and feed efficiency are significantly lowered in chicks subjected to heat stress. Among other approaches, investigators have used nutrition to mitigate the effects of high temperature.

An excess of dietary protein is assumed to increase heat production (Kleiber, 1975; Tasaki and Kushima, 1979). Similarly it has been shown that lowering dietary protein content usually decreases water consumption (Wheeler and James, 1950; Marks and Pesti, 1984). Experiments have been performed to study the interaction between the effects of environmental temperature and dietary protein concentration on broiler performance and water consumption. Alleman et al. (1997), for example, demonstrated that lowering Crude Protein content, while supplementing the diet with synthetic essential amino acids was not an effective way to help broilers to withstand high temperature.

Metabolizable energy is one of the major components of dietary formulations for poultry reared under heat stress. Dale and Fuller (1980), for example, reported that under natural conditions, the growth depression caused by heat stress was less in chicks fed high fat diets.

In addition, pre-slaughter stresses have been shown to affect poultry meat quality. Elevated circulating hydrocortisol concentrations caused by, for example, shackling have been associated with paler breast meat in broilers (Kannan et al., 1997). addition, because the breast muscles of domestic fowl involved during wing flapping are mostly comprised of white fibers (Wiskus et al., 1976), metabolic activity in Pectoralis superficialis and Supracoracoideus muscles results in pronounced myolactosis and pH decline (Addis, 1986), thereby altering the meat quality.

Where the parts of chickens are sold separately, the meat from the breast may attract a different price. In many markets, the meat from the breast is more valuable than that from the rest of the body. The way in which the yield and quality of breast meat changes as a bird grows is thus of considerable importance in deciding the optimal approach to dealing with stress on poultry.

Animal Immunology

Animal immunology is, like growth, a complex phenomenon. As discussed by Zelenitski (1994) in terms of humoral immunology, the numbers and differentiation of blood cells is one established measure used to evaluate immunocompetence. In this respect, the white blood cell or leukocytes counts serve as a measure of the immune status of an animal. Two types of leukocytes in particular are known to be indicative of immune status. Neutrophils, representing about 50-70% of the white blood cells, are responsible for chemotaxis, phagocytosis, inflammatory and allergic reactions. Lymphocytes are known to be central to immune function and serve to express cell mediated immunity (Kaneko, 1980). Lymphocytes are further described by immunologists as T-lymphocytes or B -lymphocytes as discussed by Ganong (1993).

The ratio of Neutrophils to Lymphocytes, also known simply as the N/L ratio, is used clinically to indicate the state of immunological competence in an animal (Murata, 1987). It is also well understood that stress or periods of non-steady state growth can lead to aberrations in the N/L ratio. This situation is currently believed to be due to glucocorticoid induced effects which cause an increase in cortisol and subsequent changes in white blood cell production. These events are thought to arise from a number of factors including repartitioned energy use. Typically, a cortisol driven leukocytosis (reduction of lymphocytes) is observed in animals exposed to stressors including management and handling (Wegner et al., 1974; Blecha et al, 1984; Murata et al., 1987; Murata et al., 1989; Cole et al., 1988; Morisse et al., 1988).

A rational approach to the calculation of nutrient requirements, and to the prediction of feed intake, in growing birds starts with the idea of potential growth (Emmans, 1981, 1997; Emmans and Fisher, 1986). hi addition, these authors provide comparative information on the growth characteristics, including those of feathers and breast meat, of the males and females of two broiler strain-crosses. Such descriptions can be combined with other information to calculate requirements and feed intake and the existence of sub-optimal conditions (Emmans and Fisher, 1986; Emmans, 1989, 1997).

The analysis of Gous may show how the potential growth of birds (specifically broiler chickens) can be described in terms of overall live weight and chemical composition, however, many ways of calculating and analyzing data are well known to one of skill in the art and may be employed in the invention described herein (Gous et al, 1999). All of these methods, and others known to one of skill in the art, may be used to calculate potential growth of birds and, in so doing, identify the existence of sub-optimal growing conditions that require the administration of the nutritional supplement of the instant invention.

As described above, in many markets the meat from the breast is more valuable than that from the rest of the body. The way in which the yield and quality of breast meat changes as a bird grows is thus often of considerable importance in deciding the optimal approach to dealing with immunocompetency on poultry. Attempts to use nutritional supplementation to attenuate catabolism during disease states have been described in the scientific literature and representative medical or veterinary texts (such as Merk Index 1973). Specific examples such as the use of the amino acid glutamine (Rennie et al, 1989; Millward 1990) or branch chain amino acids including keto acids (Mitch et al, 1981; Madsen, 1982; Harper et al., 1984; Hammerquist et al, 1988; Hasselgren et al., 1988) have been reported. However, the published effects are predominantly in reference to subject animals or humans experiencing disease or surgery. Furthermore, and perhaps more importantly, the effects of these agents are reported to be inconsistent (Harper et al., 1984).

Morozov et al., (1998, U.S. Patent No. 5,728,680) and Smith et al., (1995, U.S. Patent No. 5,397,803) report the use of pharmacological compositions to modulate immune response in infected animals or animals displaying a disease state. Others have designed compositions for treatment of animals experiencing a variety of immunologically related conditions, however these compositions or their delivery are materially different from the composition and delivery used in the instant invention. For example, Nissen (1989, U.S. Patent No. 4,835,185) describes the use of keto-isocaproate (KIC) to improve blastogenesis of T-lymphocytes and to reduce plasma cortisol which are argued to improve stress associated immunosuppression in domestic animals. Skubitz et al., (1996, U.S. Patent No. 5,545,668) report the use of a five day oral glutamine treatment to reduce stomatitis. Bernton et al., (1997, U.S. Patent No. 5,605,885) report the use of prolactin agonists for treating immunosuppressed animals and to stimulate the immune system. Loria et al., (1991, U.S. Patent No. 5,077,284) reports the use of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) injections to improve immune response to viral infections.

Tao et al., (1997, U.S. Patent No. 5,700,465) reports the use of bovine serum IgG as preventative for mastitis infection from bacteria. Ryan (1998, U.S. Patent No. 5,731,205 and 1997, U.S. Patent No. 5,672,474) reports the use of lipoproteins and anti-oxidants to inhibit lysis of red blood cells. Daynes et al., (1996, U.S. Patent No. 5,562,910) reports the development of a vaccine to enhance an animals immune response.

Green (1986, U.S. Patent No. 4,600,586) discloses a method and composition for reducing the stress of livestock during feedlot adaptation using a composition comprising propylene glycol. Thornberg (1993, U.S. Patent No. 5,260,089) discloses a livestock feed supplement providing high by-pass protein, being substantially free of urea and molasses, and providing good palatability. However, the composition recited by Thornberg is designed for steady state growth conditions, does not recite the elevated amount of leucine of the instant invention, and recites electrolyte concentrations which extend to the isotonic and hypertonic range.

Apparent in the foregoing is the observation that most if not all of the scientific literature and patents which refer to the use of nutrients to control or moderate animal metabolism in disease states, refer predominantly to the application of single nutrients or are administered in a non-oral form.

Schaefer et al., have reported the use of a nutritional supplement in livestock exposed to antemortem stress (1995 and 1998 U.S. Patent Nos. 5,505,968 and 5,728,675 respectively). However, antemortem stress has its own unique attributes. The primary utility disclosed in these prior inventions was the improvement of carcass yield and meat quality in livestock. However, normally healthy animals are subjected to physiological and psychological stressors over the course of their lives, and these events can have powerful ramifications on animal vitality, growth and immunocompetency. As described before, these events can have a great impact on birds or, more specifically, poultry.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

As described above, a growing bird can be exposed to various stressors which can effect both its growth and immunocompetency. In addition, birds experience identifiable biological phases during their lifespan during which time increased demands are placed on both their immune system and general physiological composition. Hence, the need for methods for the use of a nutritional product in a manner that will moderate non-steady state growth as well as immunocompetency during the life of the bird. The authors have discovered, surprisingly, that the use of the nutritional supplement described herein during times when the bird is subject to stressful conditions, particularly those unrelated to antemortem stress, can have profound effects on the growth, fluid intake, feed conversion, and immunocompetency of a bird. The use of a nutritional supplement at these times or for these purposes is the subject of the current invention. Improved Growth

This invention is based in part on the discovery that the growth of birds and specifically growth of breast tissue in male birds can be enhanced in suboptimal conditions through nutritional supplementation of the birds (Example 1). It is therefore a principal object of this invention to provide methods for improving the size and quality of breast meat in birds, specifically male birds. It is a further object of this invention to provide methods for facilitating the growth of breast tissue in birds during non-steady state periods. The suboptimal conditions or non-steady state periods, during which the methods of the instant invention prescribe administration of the nutritional supplement, are generally not related to factors unique to the antemortem environment.

In addition, it has been discovered, surprisingly, that the fluid consumption of birds can be increased through the use of the methods described herein (Example 1). Therefore, the invention is also directed towards methods of increasing fluid consumption in birds through the use of a nutritional supplement. These methods encompass use of a nutritional supplement as described herein to increase the fluid intake of a bird. Because the supplement increases fluid intake, the supplement may be especially useful during times of feed withdrawal or on other occasions when the bird's feed is interrupted due to outside influence or due to reluctance to eat on the part of the bird.

In addition, it has been discovered that feed conversion in birds can be made more efficient through use of the methods described herein (Example 1). Therefore, the invention is also directed towards methods of enhancing feed conversion in birds.

Improved Immunocompetency

In addition, it is an object of this invention to provide methods for improving the immunocompetency of birds during non-steady state periods. Surprisingly, the authors have discovered that the nutrient compositions described herein can actually reduce the immunocompromizing effects of management and handling practices if supplied to the bird in a timely manner. This method encompasses, for example, delivery of the compositions after the stressful management and handling event. As such, the methods of this invention are effective in facilitating growth in a bird during non-steady state periods or periods of acute stress. These stresses are generally not related to stresses unique to the antemortem environment.

In terms of immunology, data obtained by the authors on Neutrophil/Lymphocyte (N/L) ratios in poultry (heterophil/Lymphocyte ratios, example 3) suggest that birds treated with the specified nutritional therapy products described herein displayed a more normal immunological blood cell profile. More importantly, these profiles appeared to be normalized during times of management and handling stress.

Hence, the authors have discovered a method for timely delivery of the specific nutrient compositions described herein as a way of reducing the immunocompromizing effects of management and handling practices in birds. This method encompasses, for example, the administration of the supplement to the bird within a reasonable time prior to the management and handling. This method additionally encompasses the administration of the supplement after the stressful management and handling event. The efficacy of the invention is seen in the more normalized immunological profiles as well as a more normalized cortisol profile in the treated birds. Periods of management of a bird, for example during the fasting phase of a forced molt, also may be times when treatment with the supplement of the instant invention would be appropriate. During these periods, growth, reduced deterioration, or other objectives may exist beyond the treatment of immunocompetency.

In terms of acute growth, data collected in poultry (Example 2) has demonstrated that when the administration of the supplement occurs within a reasonable time prior to the stress, improved growth during acute stress periods is seen.

In the broadest sense, the present invention provides a method for administering a nutritional therapy for counteracting stress in birds. Broadly stated, the present invention identifies the surprising benefits which result from the appropriate administration of a nutritional therapy supplement to birds under certain conditions. The supplement for use in the method of the instant invention includes: i) one or more sources of certain electrolytes, including sodium, potassium and magnesium, preferably in concentrations in the supplement which are hypotonic; ii) one or more sources of certain amino acids including alanine, lysine, phenylalanine, methionine, threonine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, tryptophan and glutamate; and iii) preferably one or more sources of energy such as sugars, milk sugars, propylene glycol, and starches but not including propylene glycol.

The composition is preferably formulated as a liquid nutrient supplement. The formulation may also be formulated in a premix powder or in a solid form for inclusion with regular feed for the bird. To enhance the palatability, a flavor agent may be included to ensure that the bird takes a sufficient amount of the supplement ad libitum. Palatability is also enhanced by formulating the supplement from ingredients which provide the amino acids and energy source in familiar forms to the bird.

When administered according to the method of the instant invention, the supplement is provided to the bird prior to management and handling, preferably 6-48 hours prior to management and handling.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with this invention, the following definitions apply: The term "stress" as used herein refers to times when an abnormal animal physiology, biochemistry or behavior is evident due to management and handling procedures including marketing, transport, shows or display situations, hatching, introduction to growth facilities (i.e. "placing"), minor or major surgical procedures, social regrouping, during times of environmental stress including inclement weather or nutritional stress such as a new diet or feed deprivation.

The term "hypotonic" as used herein refers to a concentration of an ingredient, primarily related to the concentrations of the electrolytes in an amount which is not significantly greater than the concentration of that ingredient found in the physiological fluids of the animal such as plasma, interstitial and intracellular fluid (i.e. the isotonic concentration). This concentration is preferred so that the supplement provided to the animal will have a lower osmotic pressure with respect to the salts than that of the physiological fluids. Since many animals experiencing management and handling stress are dehydrated, the nutrient supplement is preferably formulated to avoid a hypertonic condition. It is a condition to the application of the supplement that the animal would have an opportunity to consume normal amounts of water intake.

The term "period" as used herein and in the claims refers to a time sensitive quantity generally of hours to weeks duration but most preferably hours to days. An example would be the time duration of packaging and shipment of young chickens (typically 1-3 days old) from the hatchery to the broiler grower unit or the layer facility. Another example of a period would be the duration of a power outage or an aberrant weather pattern lasting typically 1-48 hours and affecting, for example, the temperature of the holding area.

The term "immunocompetency" as used herein and in the claims refers to the display of normal levels and/or function of elements within the immune system including but not limited to cellular factors (i.e. differential white blood cell types and/or T cells), humoral factors (i.e. factors representing the major histocompatability complex such as immunoglobulins), secretory factors (i.e. secretory immunoglobulins such as IgA. Functional tests for immunocompetence could include cell proliferation tests (B and T cell proliferation tests), chemotactic responsiveness and phagocytic responsiveness tests or cytotoxicity reactions. Animal disease models are often used to test such immunocompetency. the instant invention, immunocompetence may be measured by cortisol mediated changes in the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio.

The term "acute growth" as used herein and in the claims refers to growth occurring over a comparatively short time (compared to animals lifespan), and more preferably occurs with a duration of hours to days. As used herein, the term may or may not refer to those stresses unique to the antemortem environment.

The term "non-steady state" as used herein and in the claims refers to a condition in which the rate and/or amount of growth is not equal to the rate and/or amount of biological deterioration. As used herein, the term may or may not refer to those stresses unique to the antemortem environment.

The term "acute stress" as used herein and in the claims refers to stress lasting for a short period of time, generally minutes to days but preferably minutes to hours. As used herein, the term may or may not refer to those stresses unique to the antemortem environment. The term "management and handling stress" includes, but is not limited to, parturition, weaning, transport, exposure to inclement weather or environmental conditions (i.e. exposure to extremes of heat, cold or humidity outside the animals thermal neutral zone) and can include exposure to abnormal levels of noxious gases, co-mingling or changing social groups, breeding, processing (i.e. vaccination, medications, sorting or weighing), health procedures (i.e. injections, veterinary procedures), personal enjoyment (showing animals, physical performances of animals), confinement rearing (i.e. movement to smaller pens or from the wild to captivity), and significant dietary changes. As used herein, the term does not refer to those stresses unique to the antemortem environment.

The terms "antemortem period" or "antemortem environment" or "antemortem stress" as used herein and in the claims refer to the time and stresses imparted to animals during the period of pre-slaughter treatment.

The term "suboptimal growing conditions" as used herein and in the claims refers to conditions that result in reduced growth in the bird (for example, conditions that exist during the heat of the summer).

The term "bird" as used herein and in the claims refers to any of the class Aves of warm-blooded, egg-laying, feathered vertebrates with forelimbs modified to form wings; such an animal hunted as game; or such an animal, especially a chicken or turkey, used as food, addition, the term applies to birds of zoological nature and birds kept as domesticated animals, for example, as pets.

The term "poultry" as used herein and in the claims refers to domestic fowls, such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, or geese, raised for meat or eggs.

The term "bird of a zoological nature" as used herein and in the claims refers to birds which are kept for exhibition or study, for example, by a zoo or nature park.

The term "tamed bird" as used herein and in the claims refers to birds which are not wild, for example those which are kept for personal enjoyment, preferably those which are kept within the home, for example, as pets.

The term "Nutritional Therapy" as used herein and in the claims refers to the nutritional supplement compositions for use with the methods of the instant invention and as defined throughout this disclosure. Without being bound by the same, it is believed that the methods of administration provide the following effects or benefits from the individual ingredients of the described supplement:

(a) The electrolyte imbalance from management and handling stress is corrected and/or normalized by the inclusion of Na, K and Mg and preferably bicarbonate.

(b) The hypoglycemic condition that arises from management and handling stress is corrected and/or normalized by the inclusion of a source of energy, preferably glucose, together with the gluconeogenic precursor alanine.

(c) The dehydration associated with management and handling stress is corrected and/or normalized by the inclusion of water in the supplement itself or by the provision of water in conjunction with the supplement.

(d) Net protein degradation arising from antemortem stress is attenuated by the provision of specific amino acids including leucine, isoleucine and valine, which stimulate protein synthesis and reduce protein degradation, together with the essential amino acids including phenylalanine, lysine, threonine and methionine needed in protein synthesis.

(e) Hypertension and anxiety experienced from management and handling stress is lessened by including the amino acid tryptophan, which is the neurotransmitter precursor to serotonin, together with a magnesium source capable of lowering blood pressure.

(f) The effects of skeletal muscle protein degradation in particular arising from management and handling stress are also lessened by the combined action of electrolytes, which promote acid/base stability and buffering, with NH₃ recipients (glutamate). Protein degradation in animals results in the release of NH₃ groups which can lead to high muscle pH conditions. The provision of glutamic acid (glutamate) in the supplement helps alleviate the NH₃ buildup.

Other beneficial ingredients in the supplement include one or more of any of the following ingredients: vitamins B, C and E, the amino acids arginine, histidine and cysteine, the macromineral calcium and the trace minerals chromium, selenium, copper, iron and zinc.

The source of energy is met with the inclusion of simple or complex carbohydrates or fats. Preferably energy sources include one or more of glucose, sucrose, fructose, galactose, dextrose, propylene glycol, lactose, complex carbohydrates such as starch and fat. Several of these ingredients are beneficially included to delay or prolong the effect of the energy source. For instance, lactose, starch, propylene glycol, sucrose and fat provide prolonged energy sources. The energy source is preferably provided in a form which is palatable and familiar to the animal. Such sources as whey powder, molasses, and skim milk powder are economic forms of energy sources which are particularly preferred alone or in a mixture with pure energy sources such as glucose, sucrose and dextrose. Other useful energy sources will be evident to persons skilled in the art.

The electrolytes in the supplement for use with the methods of the present invention include Na, K, Mg and preferably bicarbonate. The electrolytes may be provided in any usable form. Most preferred combinations include sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, potassium chloride, potassium bicarbonate and magnesium sulphate. Preferably, to maintain the sodium chloride concentration at an acceptable level (hypotonic) the electrolytes are paired as sodium chloride and potassium bicarbonate or as sodium bicarbonate and potassium chloride. Chelated or proteinated forms of magnesium may be used. The electrolytes are most preferably provided in concentrations in the supplement which are hypotonic. In respect to liquid forms of the supplement, each electrolyte is preferably included in an amount which is hypotonic on a wt/vol basis. The concentration will vary depending on the size of the animals, the solubility of the electrolyte and the physical form of the supplement. For instance, the sodium concentration is about 1.0%. Somewhat higher concentrations of sodium can be tolerated provided the animal is provided access to water. The hypotonic amounts of the other electrolytes may be calculated as with sodium above. Lower amounts (relative to sodium) of magnesium and potassium are preferred as set out herein below, to form hypotonic supplements.

With respect to solid forms of the supplement, each electrolyte ingredient preferably included in an amount which provides a solution which is hypotonic with respect to that electrolyte ingredient when mixed with the normal daily liquid intake for that bird (for instance about 250 ml or more for a 2.5 kg bird). For an example of the calculation, if the bird consumes about 6.25 g of supplement in a day, amounts of 0.04 - 0.08 g of the sodium and potassium salts are preferred. If the animals then consume a minimum of about 250 ml of water, this has the same resulting effect as if the animals had consumed a hypotonic solution. It should be evident to persons skilled in the art that, given the wide range in ingredient concentration efficacy and the variable consumption of solids and liquids among animals, the above preferred amounts of the electrolytes are only approximate and will be varied depending on the type of formulation (solid vs. liquid), the nature of the electrolyte ingredient (solubility etc) and the average solid and liquid intake of the animals being treated.

The supplement for use in the methods of the invention is most preferably administered to the bird in a liquid form as a liquid consumable. Alternatively, the composition may be provided in solid form, in an admixture with the normal feed. As a liquid consumable or as a solid product, the supplement should be palatable to ensure that the bird consumes a sufficient quantity.

While many of the preferred ingredients are themselves provided from a palatable source, it may be beneficial to include a flavor agent to the liquid consumable and solid products. Flavors may include ingredients such as oat groats and barley, added for purposes other than flavor. Other known flavors which mask either an unfavorable flavor or odor of the product may be used.

The solid product is preferably formulated with typical feed carriers and binders known in the animal feedstuffs industry. Exemplary carriers include cereal grains and grain or grass byproducts. The term "grain" includes such products as oats, barley, wheat, canola, rye, sorghum, millet corn, legumes the later including alfalfa and clover and grasses including brome, timothy or fescue. Particularly preferred carriers include barley or other grains, grain or legume screenings and oat groats. Often an ingredient serves more than one purpose in the supplement of the present invention. For instance, if dextrose is used as an energy source in sufficient quantity, it also acts as a carrier.

The amino acids leucine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are preferably added in amounts higher than the other amino acids. These increased concentrations have been found by the inventors to be effective in reducing muscle loss presumably be stimulating protein synthesis (leucine) and in lowering the concentrations of NH₃ groups released from protein degradation (glutamic acid conversion to glutamine). Without being bound by the same it is believed that the later reaction involving glutamate or glutamic acid has a buffering effect on pH in the animal which ultimately affects aberrant tissue pH levels. As indicated herein above, the amounts of any particular ingredient in the supplements of the invention will vary according to such factors as the form of the ingredient, the form of the supplement and the type and size of the animals to be treated. As a guideline in formulating solid or liquid supplements in accordance with the present invention, exemplary ingredients (if present) are most preferably included in the following percent by weight amounts:

Table A

Feed Grade Ingredients (preferred Range, if used, is 0.1-4 times the amounts set out below).

Flavor 1%

Methionine 0.5% (as a pure source)

Lysine 0.3% (as a pure source)

Tryptophan 0.4-1% (as a pure source)

Threonine 0.15% (as a pure source)

Magnesium sulphate 1-2.5%

Potassium Chloride 1.5%

Sodium Chloride 2-4%

Potassium Bicarbonate 4%

Sodium Bicarbonate 4%

Dextrose 20%

Animal or Vegetable Fat 2%

Molasses 4%

Protein Sources of Amino Acids

Cotton Seed Meal 15-50%

Corn Gluten Meal 15-40%

Distillers Grain 30-60%

Hydrolyzed Feather Meal 10-20%

Fish Meal 20-30%

Meat and Bone Meal 20-40%

Blood Meal and Blood Products 10-20% Sources of Lactose

Skim Milk Powder 2.5-15%

Whey Powder 10-20%

Treatment Regimes

The supplement is most preferably administered as a preventative nutrient supplement before the bird is handled or managed or the identified biological period is commencing (i.e. prior to the infliction or onset of stress). The supplement is preferably administered 6-48h prior to the management and handling stress. Additionally, the supplement may be administered during times when increased fluid consumption or enhanced feed conversion is desired. Preventative supplements may be formulated as solid feed supplements (preferably as a pelletized solid for admixture with the normal feed for the animal), powder premixes for dilution into liquid for either drench or liquid consumable products, or as concentrated liquids for drenches or liquid consumable (with or without dilution).

When used according to the methods of the instant invention as a restorative treatment, the supplement can be administered in any of the above forms after the animal has been influenced by management and handling stress. For example, after transport. After administering the supplement the bird is allowed a reasonable period of time to allow restoration (preferable 6-24h).

When the supplement is to be used in sustained suboptimal conditions, administration should be maintained for the duration of the adverse conditions. Similarly, when increased fluid consumption or enhanced feed conversion is desired, the supplement should be administered for the duration of the time in which these results are sought. When increased fluid consumption is the objective, the nutritional supplement is preferably administered in water.

The invention is further demonstrated in the following examples:

EXAMPLES

The following are examples which illustrate this invention. These examples should not be construed as limiting. They are included for purposes of illustration. Example 1: Carcass Response to nutritional supplement in broilers subject to heat stress

Male and female chicks originating from a Ross % x Ross 308 & breeder flock were obtained from a local hatchery. All chicks had been vaccinated at the hatchery for Marek's disease, New Castle disease, and infectious bronchitis, then immunized via the water 2 weeks after placement for infectious bursal disease. Used litter that had been lightly top-dressed with fresh pine shavings covered the floor of pens at placement (32 pens each having 45 sq. ft. that included one bell water and one tube feeder). Pens were in an open-sided house having thermostatically controlled heating, side curtains, and cross-ventilation.

Experimentation was conducted for 7 weeks through the middle of Summer (July- August), and low chick density in pens (20 chicks/pen; ca. 2.25 sq. ft./bird) minimized discomfort. Lighting was continuous as was access to feed and water. Sexes were placed in separate pens, and feeds based on corn and soybean meal (Table 1) satisfied NRC (1994) nutrient recommendations. Starting feed was pelleted and offered as a crumb with the subsequent grower and finisher being in whole pellet form. Protocol conformed to the Guide for Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Research and Teaching. All mortality was gross necropsied, and each death was categorized as either sudden death syndrome (SDS), ascites, leg problem, or other.

Three days prior to slaughter (49 days of age), portable bell waters (5 gal.) were placed on cement blocks adjacent to the existing system bell waters to enable familiarity to their presence. Twenty-four hours later the system bell waters were raised, and the consumption of water from the portable waters measured with each of the pens through the subsequent 24 hours. The nutritional supplement (Table A) was included in the water with one half of the pens for each sex (ca. 17g/kg of water) during the next 24 hours while access to feed continued. Birds were then individually weighed and feed removed from the pens. Access to either water or nutritional supplement continued for another 4 hours, then all fluids were removed and lights turned off through the remainder of the night.

All birds were cooped approximately 12 hours after fluid withdrawal and slaughtered 2 hours later. On-line processing involved a 9-minute kill-line and a 7-minute evisceration line until chilling. Final bird washer was turned-off to enable a warm carcass weight (excludes neck and giblets but included kidneys and abdominal fat) prior to static slush-ice chilling for approximately 4 hours. Λ

Abdominal fat was removed and weighed as was the chilled carcass, then defects influencing appearance and grade were itemized. The front half of the carcass was saved in flake ice for cone-deboning of the breast fillets and tenders by experienced personnel the following day. Fillets from the right side of the carcass were saved for Minolta light reflectance (Hunter scale) 24 hours later.

Analysis of variance using a randomized complete block (rows of pens in the house) design that employed a factorial arrangement of sexes and water treatments was used for statistical analyses. Mortality and carcass defect percentages were transformed to arcsine /% for analysis, and valid SEM=s were not available. Calculations employed the General Linear Model of SAS institute (1988). Overview of Results:

Temperatures and humidity during experimentation were typically high, and broiler live performance through to 7 weeks of age was depressed with both sexes (Table 2). These conditions prevailed during the last few days when either water or the nutritional supplement was accessible. Birds consumed more of the supplement mixture than water, and this difference was particularly obvious during the 4 hours interval after feed had been withdrawn (Table 3).

Broiler males that had received the nutritional supplement for 24 hours while having access to feed had an advantage in live weight (Table 3). This advantage with males continued through to the chilled carcass because processing losses and chill water gain were similar between treatments, respective of sex (Table 4). Access to the nutritional supplement at the end of live production did not influence the incidence of defects associated with the chilled carcass (Table 5).

Fillets deboned from the front half of the carcasses of males had a substantial improvement in yield when nutritional supplement had been accessible (Table 6). A large part of the marginal advantage to the live bird and whole carcass could be attributed to the fillets. Absence of alteration in light reflectance suggests that quality remained unaltered. Fillets from females were unaffected. TABLE 1. Composition of broiler feeds satisfying NRC (1998) recommendations

^*Pro-pak, H.J. Baker & Bro . , Samford, C .

^**Constant corresponds to: salt, 0.35; Salinomycin Premix, 0.05; vitamin and mineral premixes 1.10 (supplied per kg of complete feed: vit. A, 1500 IU; vit. D₃, 500 IU; vit. E, 20 IU; vit. K, 4 mg; thiamine,

4 mg; riboflavin, 12 mg; pyridoxine, 5 mg; cyanocobala in, 0.04 mg; riboflavin, 12 mg; pyridoxine,

5 mg; cyanocobalamin, 0.04 g; niacin, 75 mg; pantot enic acid, 25 g; folic acid, 1 mg; biotin, 0.2 g; choline, 1000 mg; Se, 0.70 mg; Mn, 130 mg; Zn, 120 g; Fe, 120 mg; Cu, 12 mg; I, 2 g; ethoxyquin, 250 mg) . TABLE 2. Live performance of male and female broilers through to 7 weeks of age and implementation of water treatments^*

^*Values represent the least square means of 16 replicate pens each having 20 chicks at placement (42 g average wt . ) .

^**Feed conversion corrected for mortality.

^***Percentage mortality and deaths due to sudden death syndrome (SDS), ascites (ASC), and leg problems. Data were transformed to arcsine /% for statistical analyses, and no appropriate SEM can be obtained.

""Temperature and relative humidity ± standard deviation through the respective periods. TABLE 3. Fluid consumption and weight change during the interim until chilling^* of broilers receiving either water or Nutritional supplement

^*Values represent the averages per bird with 8 replicate pens each having ca. 15 bird/pen. During the last 3 days, pen temperature was at a high of 35 and low of 21°C while the corresponding percentage relative humidity was 73 and 85, respectively.

^**Live broiler weights at feed withdrawal after receiving either water or Nutritional supplement for 24 hours .

^***Weight loss from start of feed withdrawal until warm carcass and start of chilling.

^****A11 treatments received feed. Fluid access 9/14-15 was only water; whereas, either water or Nutritional supplement was provided 24 h prior to weighing and feed withdrawal (9/15-16) .

^*****Either water or Nutritional supplement consumption for 4 hr after feed withdrawal unil cooping . TABLE 4. Abdominal fat and chilled carcass yield with broilers receiving either water or Nutritional supplement^*

"Values represent the least square means from 8 replicate pens each providing ca . 15 carcasses.

^**Depot fat removed from the abdominal cavity expressed on an absolute basis and relative to the chilled carcass.

^***Chilled carcass without abdominal fat expressed on an absolute basis and relative to the full-fed weight . TABLE 5. Defects associated with the chilled carcass of broilers at 7 weeks of age and the effect of access to either water or Nutritional supplement ^*

CO c

CO CΛ

m

CO

I

m t m CO

c 'Values represent the average of 8 replicate pens each providing ca . 15 carcasses for m evaluation. All data was statistically analyzed as arcsine /%, and no relevant SEM is r available .

^**Wing defects correspond to: dislocation, broken bone, bruised, red tips,' and engorged veins, respectively.

'"Drumsticks defects correspond to: broken bone and bruised, respectively.

""Breast defects correspond to: blister on the keel, bruised, and broken clavicle, respectively.

^*****Back-thigh defects correspond to: bruised, scratch, and red tail, respectively.

TABLE 6. Yield of breast meats cone-deboned from 7 week broilers and light reflectance of fillets as influenced by access to either water or Nutritional supplement

CO c

00 CO

m

CO

I ro m m

73 c m ro σ.

^*Value represent the least-square means of 8 replicate pens each providing ca . 15 carcasses for cone-deboning.

"Fillets from the right side of each carcass were measured on the skin-side surface using a Minolta source Hunter scale light reflectance.

Example 2. Poultry: Acute Growth

Three hundred and twenty nine (329) domestic broiler chickens (Arbor Acre X Hubbard) of mixed sex were used in the study. The birds were sourced from a commercial grower and transferred to test pens at approximately four weeks of age. The average bird weight at the time of assignment was between 1500-1600g. The animals were randomly divided into two groups designated as control (170 birds) and nutritional therapy treated (159 birds) and placed into identical, deep liter pens bedded with straw. The birds had ad libitum access to fresh water and a balanced commercial 18% protein grower diet. Continuous lighting was maintained and the temperature kept at approximately 25 °C. The birds were housed in accordance with Canadian Council of Animal Care Guidelines.

All birds were weighed and leg banded for identification at the start of the trial and maintained under these conditions for approximately three weeks. Forty-eight hours prior to a handling and transport stress all birds were weighed individually to obtain a baseline or assignment weight. The animals were then placed back into their pens on regular feed until 24h prior to a transport stress. The feed was removed from the birds 24h prior to transport which is the usual practice in the poultry industry. The birds were allowed continued access to water up until the time of capture for transport (approximately 4h pre-transport). The nutritional therapy treatment birds were managed identically to the control birds with the exception that their source of liquid was the nutritional therapy product for approximately 36h pre-transport. The ingredient composition of the nutritional therapy product is shown in Table A.

The birds were captured by hand, weighed and placed into conventional chicken crates holding 10 birds per cell. The crates were loaded onto a truck and hauled for 1.5h prior to unloading. The birds were again weighed and a blood sample taken for differential blood cell analysis. A blood smear was prepared from a drop of whole blood (EDTA preserved), stained and allowed to dry. Conventional differential counts of white blood cell types was carried out according to conventional procedures (Schalm, 1986). Statistical comparisons were completed using conventional computer programs (SAS, 1985). For differential counts, treated and control birds were compared using a one tailed t test assuming unequal variance. Results:

As evident in Table 7, all birds grew at similar rates and to a similar final body weight. However, the Nutritional Therapy Treated birds displayed an enhanced acute growth following treatment and pre-transport as well as a reduced weight loss due to transport and handling stress.

Table 7. Acute Growth and Weight Loss Data in Poultry Treated With Nutritional Therapy and Subjected to Management and handling Stress (capture, time off feed and transport).

Example 3. Poultry: Immunological Enhancement

Method as per description in Example 2.

Results:

As evident in Table 8, treatment of poultry with nutritional therapy resulted in a more normal heterophil/lymphocyte ratio in stressed birds.

TABLE 8: Poultry Immune Function (differential counts)

Example 4:

Male chicks originating from a Ross <? X Cobb ? breeder flock were obtained from a commercial hatchery. Chicks had received vaccinations for Marek's disease, New Castle disease, and infectious bronchitis. An additional vaccination for infectious bursal disease was performed at 2 weeks of age. All deaths were gross necropsied, and each death was subjectively categorized as being due to either sudden death syndrome (SDS), ascites, leg problems, or other reasons.

Live production was initiated during the last week in October and continued for 49 days. Birds were grown in pens having new pine shavings litter (32 pens; 25 chicks/pen; 1.8 sq. ft./bird). Pens were located in rows of an open-sided house that thermostatic controls for heating, side-curtains, and cross-ventilation. Sensors located at the bird level monitor temperature and humidity on an hourly basis, then resulting values were averaged through the respective feeding periods.

Lighting received by all pens was continuous, and feed together with water were provided ad libitum. Feeds were based on corn and soybean meal (Table 9). Nutrient specifications and duration that each feed was to be fed corresponded to the regimen advocated by a commercial broiler breeder (Ross Breeders, Inc., Huntsville, AL). All feeds were offered as a whole pellet with the exception of starter which was crumbed.

Water treatments were initiated at 46 days of age and continued until 49 days while the final feed was concurrently accessible. Water was the control and compared with a concentration of 15 g Nutritional supplement/kg of water (Table A). Access to the water treatments continued for 4 hours after feed was withdrawn at day 49, then birds were cooped and subsequently held without feed and water for either 6 or 14 hours before slaughter. Holding conditions approximated 16°C and 32 % relative humidity and the stress of transportation had not been imposed.

Live bird processing occurred in early morning and late afternoon to accommodate the 6 and 14 hour periods of holding. "On-line" processing involved a 9-minute kill line followed by a 7-minute evisceration line. Resulting warm carcasses were static slush-ice chilled for 4 hours, then the abdominal fat was removed and front half placed in flake ice for deboning the following day. Personnel from a commercial plant removed the fillets and tenders from the front halves that had been placed on stationary stainless still cones. Light reflectance of fillets from the right side of the carcass was measured using Hunter Model #MS/S-4500 L Miniscan (25 mm area and Hunter scale) 24 hours after deboning.

Analysis of variance using a randomized complete block design with a factorial arrangement of the treatments statistically evaluated the data. Blocks corresponded to pen rows in the house (2 replicate pens/treatment for each of 4 rows. Mortality percentages were transformed to arcsine V % for AVOVA, and valid SEM values were not attainable. Computations employed the general linear model of SAS Institute (1988).

Results:

Overall conditions enabled the production potential for Ross x Cobb broiler males to be optimized. Feeds employed exceeded established nutrient requirements; bird number per unit pen area was low; temperature-humidity were both favorable; and, litter condition was excellent. Broiler growth at day 46 when the water treatments were initiated was very good (Table 10). Advantage to live performance from the inclusion of nutritional supplement in the water from day 46 until 49 was apparent as improved feed conversion (Table 11). Mortality was low before and after the imposition of water treatments.

Water containing nutritional supplement was consumed to a greater extent than the control (Table 12). This additional intake was measurable both while feed was accessible as well as during the 4 hours after feed withdrawal. TABLE 9. Composition offeeds used to grow broiler males from day 1 to 49, % "as is"

Pro-Pak, H.J. Baker & Bro., New York, N.Y.

Micromix supplies the following per kg of complete feed: vit. A 7500 IU; vit. D₃ 2500 ICU; vit. E 10IU; K 2 mg; riboflavin 5.5 mg; pyridoxine 2.2 mg; cyanocobalamin 0.02 g; niacin 37 mg; pantothenic acid 13 mg; folic acid 0.5 mg; biotin 0.1 g; choline 0.5 g; ethoxyquin 125 mg; selenium 0.35 mg; manganese 66 mg; zinc 55 mg; iron 55 mg; copper 6 mg; iodine 10 mg.

Salinomycin. TABLE 10. Live performance of male broilers from 1 to 46 days of age^*

^*Values are the least-square means of 32 pens each with 25 chicks (average wt . 43 g) at the start of live production.

^**Feed conversion corrected for mortality.

^***Deaths in total and attributable to sudden death syndrome, ascites, and leg problems TABLE 11. Live performance of broiler males from 46 to 49 days of age and effect of nutritional supplement in the drinking water^*

TABLE 12. Influence of nutritional supplement in the drinking water on fluid consumption and body weight change from 46-to-49 days of age prior to and 4 hours after feed withdrawal^****

Values represent the squares mean of 16 replicate pens . Environmental temperature and relative humidity during the interim ± SEM were 18 ± 2°C and 52 ± 13%, respectively.

^**Feed conversion corrected for mortality.

^***Mortality in total and attributable to sudden death syndrome, ascites, and leg problems. NS, P>.10; ***, P<.01

^****Values represent the averages of fluid consumption with 16 replicate pens corrected for mortality.

^*****Values represent the least square means of 16 pens each having approximately 22 broilers/pen. NS, P>.10; *, P<.05; **, P<.01. Example 5

Background and Rationale:

The turkey and broiler industries both suffer from high mortality losses and poor performance during the first week of production. Mortality losses for turkeys routinely exceed 5% and, while lower for broilers, they are still substantial in broiler grower operations. Much of this loss is believed to be related to the stress associated with hatching and processing of chicks and broilers, hi many cases chicks do not have access to feed and water until 16-24 hours post-hatch, and turkeys are often not placed until the subsequent day (24-36 hours post- hatch). In many cases chicks and poults are dehydrated and perhaps ketotic at placement, reducing their interest in consumption of feed and water. Many of these chicks and poults, referred to as "starve outs," show no interest in eating, and little interest in drinking, at placement. While ketosis in young chicks and poults has not yet been well documented in the literature, it is well known and documented in other species that ketosis/ketoacidosis occurs as animals are forced to consume a non-carbohydrate diet (e.g. egg yolk) and that this pathophysiological condition will suppress appetite and further reduce food consumption.

Because the nutritional supplement is known to encourage drinking and contains critical nutrients including carbohydrate sources, administration of this product will greatly facilitate reversal of ketoacidosis in neonatal poults and chicks and actually encourage early consumption of feed. By this mechanism, early (8 day) performance is greatly improved, particularly in problem chick and poult flocks. The protocols for demonstrating the benefit of the nutritional supplement for either poults or chicks are similar. Procedures:

Experiment 1: Poults (n=50/pen) are obtained on the day of intended placement (-30 hours post-hatch) and are placed at a density of approximately 2 poults per square foot. Poults are provided with feed and water (treated or untreated) ed libitum in brooder rings. Water is provided by jug drinkers with marbles to prevent wetting of the poults. Treatments include normal drinking water, or nutritional supplement at 2 concentrations (initial concentrations of 8 and 16 gm/1 will first be evaluated as per verbal instructions). Each treatment is replicated in 4 pens of 50 poults each. Weights are determined on individual wing-banded poults at placement and at 24, 48, 96 and 192 hours post-placement. Water/treatment consumption and mortality is determined daily. Circulating β-hydroxybutyrate is determined on a subset of 25 poults from each treatment group, randomly selected from representative pens, before and 8 hours after placement.

Example 6

Background and Rationale:

When the food is removed from turkeys and broilers, the birds are under a high level of stress. These stressors have been shown to contribute to reduced carcass and meat yields. Furthermore, stress has been linked to the development of pale, soft and exudative (PSE) meat. This PSE meat is defective because it loses yield from poor water holding capacity and cannot bind to other pieces of meat in the formation of products. By reducing stress levels of the birds, the nutritional supplement can reduce the yield losses during slaughter and can reduce the development of stress-induced meat defects such as PSE meat. Additionally, administration of nutritional supplement can encourage the consumption of drinking water during feed withdrawal and may thereby reduce carcass shrinkage following simulated transport prior to slaughter. Procedures:

Broilers (n=600) and turkeys (n=600) are purchased from commercial sources two weeks before achievement of market age. The birds are reared for an acclimation period to market age (7 wk for broilers and 16 wk for turkeys). Two days before slaughter (48 hrs prior to simulated transport), individual body weights are determined on banded birds and one third of the birds of each species receive nutritional supplement (Table A) in their drinking water at each of three dosages (0, 8 or 16 gm 1). Drinking water consumption is also determined each day during the 45 hours of treatment. The day before slaughter, the temperature of the house is increased to 39-40 °C. This temperature is maintained until the birds are cooped for transport to slaughter. Birds are individually re-weighed prior to transport. Feed consumption per pen, during the 48 hours of treatment, is also determined. For broilers, the coops of birds are loaded on an open truck and driven for one hour before arriving at the plant for slaughter. At the plant, the birds are shackled and slaughtered with commercial procedures including stunning, bleeding, defeathering, evisceration, and water-immersion chilling. For turkeys, the coops of birds are loaded on an open truck and transported for slaughter.

Carcass yield as a percentage of farm live weight is measured after evisceration and after chilling. After removal from the chiller, breast muscle pH is measured as it indicates state of rigor mortis development and is a good indicator of the potential of a muscle for becoming PSE. Following chilling, all carcasses are stored overnight (<18 h) at 2C in covered containers as is commercially done before deboning to allow time for rigor mortis development. Following this aging period, the breast meat is removed from the carcass and weighed for determination of breast meat yield. Color of the breast meat is measured after deboning to estimate the effect of nutritional supplement on the development of PSE meat. All data are analyzed by appropriate statistical methods (e.g. analysis of variance, Tukey's t- test, Chi square, etc.). Birds treated with nutritional supplement demonstrate increased meat yields and a reduction in the development of stress-induced meat defects such as PSE meat.

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Claims

We claim:

1. A method for enhancing the nutritional health of a bird, the method comprising: a) identifying a period of time wherein: i) the bird has been, is or will be unwilling or unable to eat; ii) the bird has been, is or will be subjected to stress resulting from management or handling; or iii) the bird has been, is or will be experiencing a phase in its life wherein increased demands are placed on its immune system; b) providing a means to administer a nutritional supplement, wherein the means allows for the administration of the supplement to the bird during the identified period of time; c) providing the nutritional supplement to the means to administer the nutritional supplement, wherein the nutritional supplement comprises: i) one or more sources of electrolytes selected from a group comprising sodium, potassium and magnesium; ii) one or more sources of certain amino acids selected from a group comprising alanine, lysine, phenylalanine, methionine, threonine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, tryptophan and glutamate; and iii) one or more sources of energy selected from a group comprising sugars, milk sugars, propylene glycol, and starches; and d) administering the nutritional supplement to the bird by allowing the bird access to the means to administer the nutritional supplement during the identified period of time.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the means to administer the nutritional supplement is a liquid feeding device.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the nutritional supplement is administered to the bird by allowing the bird to self-administer the nutritional supplement from the liquid feeding device.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the means to administer the nutritional supplement is a bell waterer.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the stress resulting from management and handling, results from one or more activities selected from the group comprising: a) parturition; b) weaning; c) exposure to inclement weather; d) exposure to adverse environmental conditions; e) co-mingling or changing social groups; f) breeding; g) processing; h) personal enjoyment; i) confinement rearing; j) significant dietary changes; and k) forced molt.

6. The method of claim 3, wherein the stress resulting from management and handling, results from one or more activities selected from the group comprising: a) parturition; b) weaning; c) exposure to inclement weather; d) exposure to adverse environmental conditions; e) co-mingling or changing social groups; f) breeding; g) processing; h) personal enjoyment; i) confinement rearing; j) significant dietary changes; and k) forced molt.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein enhancing the nutritional health of the bird comprises one or more of: a) enhancing fluid consumption of the bird; b) enhancing feed conversion of the bird; c) enhancing growth of the bird; d) enhancing immunocompetency of the bird; and e) reducing the effects of stress resulting from management and handling.

8. The method of claim 6, wherein enhancing the nutritional health of the bird comprises one or more of: a) enhancing fluid consumption of the bird; b) enhancing feed conversion of the bird; c) enhancing growth of the bird; d) enhancing immunocompetency of the bird; and e) reducing the effects of stress resulting from management and handling.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein growth in the bird achieves growth of the breast meat of the bird.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the nutritional supplement is in solid or liquid consumable form.

11. The method of claim 9, wherein the nutritional supplement is in solid or liquid consumable form.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the nutritional supplement is administered as a feed supplement.

13. The method of claim 1, wherein the nutritional supplement is administered as a feed supplement.

14. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrolytes in the nutritional supplement are supplied in concentrations which are hypotonic or isotonic in relation to physiological fluids of the bird.

15. The method of claim 12, wherein the electrolytes in the nutritional supplement are supplied in concentrations which are hypotonic or isotonic in relation to physiological fluids of the bird.

16. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the sources of amino acids in the nutritional supplement are included in amounts sufficient to provide, on a dose basis, a total of at least 0.03 g of each amino acid and 0.04 g of leucine per 1.50 kg bird per day.

17. The method of claim 12, wherein each of the sources of amino acids in the nutritional supplement are included in amounts sufficient to provide, on a dose basis, a total of at least 0.03 g of each amino acid and 0.04 g of leucine per 1.50 kg bird per day.

18. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the sources of amino acids in the nutritional supplement are included in amounts sufficient to provide a total of at least 5 g of each amino acid per 1 kg of nutritional supplement, and 6 g of leucine per 1 kg of nutritional supplement.

19. The method of claim 17, wherein each of the sources of amino acids in the nutritional supplement are included in amounts sufficient to provide a total of at least 5 g of each amino acid per 1 kg of nutritional supplement, and 6 g of leucine per 1 kg of nutritional supplement.

20. The method of claim 1 , wherein each kg of nutritional supplement includes approximately 24 g of glutamate.

21. The method of claim 19, wherein each kg of nutritional supplement includes approximately 24 g of glutamate.

22. The method of claim 1, wherein the bird is poultry.

23. The method of claim 21 , wherein the bird is poultry.

24. The method of claim 22, wherein the poultry is a male chicken.

25. The method of claim 23, wherein the poultry is a male chicken.