WO2001022472A2 - Convertisseur de puissance cyclotronique des ions et generateur de radiofrequences et de micro-ondes - Google Patents

Convertisseur de puissance cyclotronique des ions et generateur de radiofrequences et de micro-ondes Download PDF

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WO2001022472A2
WO2001022472A2 PCT/US2000/020820 US0020820W WO0122472A2 WO 2001022472 A2 WO2001022472 A2 WO 2001022472A2 US 0020820 W US0020820 W US 0020820W WO 0122472 A2 WO0122472 A2 WO 0122472A2
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catalyst
hydrogen
energy
power converter
radio
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PCT/US2000/020820
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WO2001022472A3 (fr
WO2001022472A8 (fr
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Randell L. Mills
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Blacklight Power, Inc.
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Priority to AU27233/01A priority Critical patent/AU2723301A/en
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Publication of WO2001022472A8 publication Critical patent/WO2001022472A8/fr
Publication of WO2001022472A3 publication Critical patent/WO2001022472A3/fr

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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H05—ELECTRIC TECHNIQUES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H05B—ELECTRIC HEATING; ELECTRIC LIGHT SOURCES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS FOR ELECTRIC LIGHT SOURCES, IN GENERAL
    • H05B6/00—Heating by electric, magnetic or electromagnetic fields
    • H05B6/64—Heating using microwaves
    • H05B6/80—Apparatus for specific applications
    • H05B6/806—Apparatus for specific applications for laboratory use
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
    • B01J19/00—Chemical, physical or physico-chemical processes in general; Their relevant apparatus
    • B01J19/08—Processes employing the direct application of electric or wave energy, or particle radiation; Apparatus therefor
    • B01J19/12—Processes employing the direct application of electric or wave energy, or particle radiation; Apparatus therefor employing electromagnetic waves
    • B01J19/122—Incoherent waves
    • B01J19/126—Microwaves
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
    • B01J19/00—Chemical, physical or physico-chemical processes in general; Their relevant apparatus
    • B01J19/08—Processes employing the direct application of electric or wave energy, or particle radiation; Apparatus therefor
    • B01J19/12—Processes employing the direct application of electric or wave energy, or particle radiation; Apparatus therefor employing electromagnetic waves
    • B01J19/122—Incoherent waves
    • B01J19/129—Radiofrequency
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B3/00—Hydrogen; Gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen; Separation of hydrogen from mixtures containing it; Purification of hydrogen
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B3/00—Hydrogen; Gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen; Separation of hydrogen from mixtures containing it; Purification of hydrogen
    • C01B3/0094—Atomic hydrogen
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G21—NUCLEAR PHYSICS; NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
    • G21K—TECHNIQUES FOR HANDLING PARTICLES OR IONISING RADIATION NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; IRRADIATION DEVICES; GAMMA RAY OR X-RAY MICROSCOPES
    • G21K1/00—Arrangements for handling particles or ionising radiation, e.g. focusing or moderating
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
    • B01J2219/00—Chemical, physical or physico-chemical processes in general; Their relevant apparatus
    • B01J2219/08—Processes employing the direct application of electric or wave energy, or particle radiation; Apparatus therefor
    • B01J2219/0894—Processes carried out in the presence of a plasma
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E30/00—Energy generation of nuclear origin
    • Y02E30/10—Nuclear fusion reactors

Definitions

  • Hydride Reactor and Power Converter 1.1 Gas Cell Hydride Reactor and Power Converter
  • This invention is a power source, power converter, and a radio and microwave generator.
  • the power source comprises a cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form novel hydrogen species and compositions of matter comprising new forms of hydrogen.
  • the power from the catalysis of hydrogen may be directly converted into electricity.
  • the power converter and a radio and microwave generator comprises a source of magnetic field which is applied to the cell and at least one antenna that receives power from a plasma formed by the catalysis of hydrogen to form novel hydrogen species and compositions of matter comprising new forms of hydrogen.
  • p is an integer greater 1, preferably from 2 to 200, is disclosed in Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics. January 1999 Edition ( * ' '99 Mills GUT"), provided by BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road,
  • a hydrogen atom having the binding energy given in Eq. (1) is hereafter referred to as a hydrino atom or hydrino.
  • an ordinary hydrogen atom and p i hydrogen atom with a radius a H is hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen atom” or "normal hydrogen atom.”
  • Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.
  • ⁇ ydrinos are formed by reacting an ordinary hydrogen atom with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about m - 27.2 eV (2 ) where m is an integer.
  • This catalyst has also been referred to as an energy hole or source of energy hole in Mills earlier filed Patent Applications. It is believed that the rate of catalysis is increased as the net enthalpy of reaction is more closely matched to m - 27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within ⁇ 10%, preferably ⁇ 5%, of m - 27.2 eV are suitable for most applications.
  • a catalytic system is provided by the ionization of t electrons from an atom each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m X 27.2 eV where m is an integer.
  • One such catalytic system involves potassium metal.
  • the first, second, and third ionization energies of potassium are 4.34066 eV , 31.63 ⁇ V, 45.806 eV, respectively [D. R. Linde, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 78 th Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, (1997), p. 10-214 to 10-216].
  • Potassium ions can also provide a net enthalpy of a multiple of that of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom.
  • the second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63 eV; and K + releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced to K.
  • the combination of reactions K + to K 2+ and K + to K, then, has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.28 eV, which is equivalent to m l in Eq. (2).
  • Rubidium ion (Rb + ) is also a catalyst because the second ionization energy of rubidium is 27.28 eV. In this case, the catalysis reaction is
  • Helium ion (He + ) is also a catalyst because the second ionization energy of helium is 54.417 eV . In this case, the catalysis reaction is
  • Argon ion is a catalyst.
  • the second ionization energy is 27.63 eV. a.
  • An argon ion and a proton can also provide a net enthalpy of a multiple of that of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom.
  • the third ionization energy of argon is 40.74 eV, and H + releases 13.6 eV when it is reduced to H.
  • the combination of reactions of Ar 2+ to ⁇ r 3+ and H + to H, then, has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.14 eV, which is equivalent to m l in Eq. (2). eV
  • An neon ion and a proton can also provide a net enthalpy of a multiple of that of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom.
  • the second ionization energy of neon is 40.96 eV
  • H + releases 13.6 eV when it is reduced to H.
  • the combination of reactions of Ne + to Ne 2+ and H + to H, then, has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.36 eV , which is equivalent to m ⁇ in Eq. (2).
  • a hydride ion comprises two indistinguishable electrons bound to a proton.
  • Alkali and alkaline earth hydrides react violently with water to release hydrogen gas which burns in air ignited by the heat of the reaction with water.
  • metal hydrides decompose upon heating at a temperature well below the melting point of the parent metal.
  • the force on a charged ion in an applied magnetic field is perpendicular to both its velocity and the direction of the applied magnetic field.
  • Ions orbit in a circular path in a plane transverse to the applied magnetic field for sufficient field strength at an ion cyclotron frequency ⁇ c that is independent of the velocity of each ion and depends only on the charge to mass ratio of each ion for a given magnetic field.
  • ⁇ c ion cyclotron frequency independent of the velocity of each ion and depends only on the charge to mass ratio of each ion for a given magnetic field.
  • Smith-Purcell radiation of slow waves propagating with velocities less than the speed of light in vacuum, transition radiation, or bremsstrahlung radiation are well-known microwave tubes based on Cherenkov/Smith-Purcell radiation.
  • Well-known microwave tubes based on Cherenkov/Smith-Purcell radiation include traveling-wave tubes (TWT), backward-wave oscillators (BWOs), and magnetrons.
  • Klystrons are the most common type of device based on coherent transition radiation from electrons. Radiation by a bremsstrahlung mechanism occurs when electrons oscillate in external magnetic or electric fields. Bremsstrahlung devices include cyclotron resonance masers and free electron lasers.
  • An objective of the present invention is to generate a plasma and a source of high energy light such as extreme ultraviolet light via the catalysis of atomic hydrogen.
  • Another objective is to convert power from a plasma generated as a product of energy released by the catalysis of hydrogen.
  • the converted power may be used as a source of electricity or as a source of radiated electromagnetic waves such as a source of radio or microwaves.
  • Another objective is to provide a means of transmitting or broadcasting a signal.
  • modulation such as amplitude or frequency modulation of the radio or microwave power at an antenna is a means of transmitting a signal.
  • Another objective is to transmit power as electromagnetic waves.
  • the power from the cell is converted into a high frequency electricity which may be radiated at an antenna at the same or modified frequency.
  • the electromagnetic waves may be received at an antenna; thus, power may be transmitted with an emitting and receiving antenna.
  • the above objectives and other objectives are achieved by the present invention of a power source, power converter, and a radio and microwave generator.
  • the power source comprises a cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form novel hydrogen species and compositions of matter comprising new forms of hydrogen.
  • the power from the catalysis of hydrogen may be directly converted into electricity.
  • the power converter and a radio and microwave generator comprises a source of magnetic field which is applied to the cell and at least one antenna that receives power from a plasma formed by the catalysis of hydrogen to form novel hydrogen species and compositions of matter comprising new forms of hydrogen.
  • the novel hydrogen compositions of matter comprise:
  • the compounds of the invention are hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds" .
  • other element in this context is meant an element other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species.
  • the other element can be an ordinary hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen.
  • the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral.
  • the other element and increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged such that the other element provides the balancing charge to form a neutral compound.
  • the former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.
  • novel compounds and molecular ions comprising (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a total energy
  • the total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the hydrogen species.
  • the hydrogen species according to the present invention has a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species.
  • the hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to the present invention is also referred to as an "increased binding energy hydrogen species" even though some embodiments of the hydrogen species having an increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy less that the first electron binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species.
  • novel compounds and molecular ions comprising
  • the compounds of the invention are hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds" .
  • the increased binding energy hydrogen species can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, hydrino atom, a compound containing at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species.
  • novel compounds and molecular ions comprising
  • the total energy of the increased total energy hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the increased total energy hydrogen species.
  • the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the ordinary hydrogen species.
  • the increased total energy hydrogen species is referred to as an increased binding energy hydrogen species, even though some of the increased binding energy hydrogen species may have a first electron binding energy less than the first electron binding energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen. However, the total energy of the increased binding energy hydrogen species is much greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen .
  • the increased binding energy hydrogen species can be H n , and H ⁇ where n is a positive integer, or H n where n is a positive integer greater than one.
  • the increased binding energy hydrogen species is H n and H ⁇ where n is an integer from one to about 1 10 6 , more preferably one to about 1 10 4 , even more preferably one to about 1 10 2 , and most preferably one to about 10, and HTri + where n is an integer from two to about 1 X 10 6 , more preferably two to about 1 10 4 , even more preferably two to about 1 10 2 , and most preferably two to about 10.
  • H ⁇ is an integer from one to about 1 10 6 , more preferably one to about 1 10 4 , even more preferably two to about 1 10 2 , and most preferably two to about 10.
  • the increased binding energy hydrogen species can be HTM ⁇ where n and m are positive integers and H ⁇ m+ where n and m are positive integers with m ⁇ n .
  • the increased binding energy hydrogen species is H"' ⁇ where n is an integer from one to about 1 10 6 , more preferably one to about 1 X 10 4 , even more preferably one to about 1 10 2 , and most preferably one to about 10 and m is an integer from one to 100, one to ten, and H ⁇ m+ where n is an integer from two to about 1 X 10 6 , more preferably two to about 1 X 10 4 , even more preferably two to about 1 X 10 2 , and most preferably two to about 10 and m is one to about 100, preferably one to ten.
  • the compounds of the present invention are capable of exhibiting one or more unique properties which distinguishes them from the corresponding compound comprising ordinary hydrogen, if such ordinary hydrogen compound exists.
  • the unique properties include, for example, (a) a unique stoichiometry; (b) unique chemical structure; (c) one or more extraordinary chemical properties such as conductivity, melting point, boiling point, density, and refractive index; (d) unique reactivity to other elements and compounds; (e) enhanced stability at room temperature and above; and/or (f) enhanced stability in air and/or water.
  • Methods for distinguishing the increased binding energy hydrogen-containing compounds from compounds of ordinary hydrogen include: 1.) elemental analysis, 2.) solubility, 3.) reactivity, 4.) melting point, 5.) boiling point, 6.) vapor pressure as a function of temperature, 7.) refractive index, 8.) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 9.) gas chromatography, 10.) X-ray diffraction (XRD), 1 1.) calorimetry, 12.) infrared spectroscopy (IR), 13.) Raman spectroscopy, 14.) Mossbauer spectroscopy, 15.) extreme ultraviolet (EUV) emission and absorption spectroscopy, 16.) ultraviolet (UV) emission and absorption spectroscopy, 17.) visible emission and absorption spectroscopy, 18.) nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 19.) gas phase mass spectroscopy of a heated sample (solids probe and direct exposure probe quadrapole and magnetic sector mass spectroscopy), 20.) time-of-flight- secondary-ion-mass-
  • a hydrino hydride ion (H ) having a binding energy according to Eq. (25) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p - 2 up to 23, and less for p 24 (H ) is provided.
  • the hydride ion binding energies are respectively 3, 6.6, 1 1.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1 , 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.5, 72.4, 715, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1 , 34.6, 19.2, and 0.65 eV.
  • Compositions comprising the novel hydride ion are also provided .
  • binding energy of the novel hydrino hydride ion can be represented by the following formula: Binding (25)
  • the hydrino hydride ion of the present invention can be formed by the reaction of an electron source with a hydrino, that is, a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about
  • n — and p is an integer greater than 1.
  • the hydrino hydride ion is distinguished from an ordinary hydride ion comprising an ordinary hydrogen nucleus and two electrons having a binding energy of about 0.8 eV.
  • the latter is hereafter referred to as "ordinary hydride ion” or "normal hydride ion”
  • the hydrino hydride ion comprises a hydrogen nucleus including proteum, deuterium, or tritium, and two indistinguishable electrons at a binding energy according to Eq. (25).
  • Novel compounds comprising one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such a compound is referred to as a hydrino hydride compound.
  • Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.46 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule”); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.4 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion”); and (e) H 3 + , 22.6 eV
  • a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a
  • p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 200.
  • the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species
  • the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as a proton, ordinary H 2 + , or ordinary H 3 + .
  • a method is provided for preparing compounds comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds". The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about tn
  • m is an integer greater than 1 , preferably an integer less than 400, to produce an increased binding energy
  • a further product of the catalysis is energy.
  • the increased binding energy hydrogen atom can be reacted with an electron source, to produce an increased binding energy hydride ion.
  • the increased binding energy hydride ion can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.
  • the invention is also directed to a reactor for producing increased binding energy hydrogen compounds of the invention, such as hydrino hydride compounds.
  • a further product of the catalysis is energy.
  • Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrino hydride reactor".
  • the hydrino hydride reactor comprises a cell for making hydrinos and an electron source.
  • the reactor produces hydride ions having the binding energy of Eq. (25).
  • the cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a gas cell, a gas discharge cell, or a plasma torch cell, for example.
  • Each of these cells comprises: a source of atomic hydrogen; at least one of a solid, molten, liquid, or gaseous catalyst for making hydrinos; and a vessel for reacting hydrogen and the catalyst for making hydrinos.
  • a source of atomic hydrogen includes not only proteum ( 'H ), but also deuterium ( 2 H) and tritium ( 3 H). Electrons from the electron source contact the hydrinos and react to form hydrino hydride ions.
  • hydro hydride reactors are capable of producing not only hydrino hydride ions and compounds, but also the other increased binding energy hydrogen compounds of the present invention. Hence, the designation “hydrino hydride reactors” should not be understood as being limiting with respect to the nature of the increased binding energy hydrogen compound produced.
  • novel compounds are formed from hydrino hydride ions and cations.
  • the cation can be an oxidized species of the material of the cell, a cation comprising the molecular hydrogen dissociation material which produces atomic hydrogen, a cation comprising an added reductant, or a cation present in the cell (such as a cation comprising the catalyst).
  • the cation can be an oxidized species of the material of the cathode or anode, a cation of an added reductant, or a cation present in the cell (such as a cation comprising the catalyst).
  • the cation can be either an oxidized species of the material of the cell, a cation of an added reductant, or a cation present in the cell (such as a cation comprising the catalyst).
  • a plasma forms in the hydrino hydride cell as a result of the energy released from the catalysis of hydrogen.
  • Water vapor may be added to the plasma to increase the hydrogen concentration as shown by Kikuchi et al. [J. Kikuchi, M. Suzuki, H. Yano, and S. Fujimura, Proceedings SPIE- The International Society for Optical Engineering, ( 1993), 1803 (Advanced Techniques for Integrated Circuit Processing II), pp. 70-76] which is herein incorporated by reference.
  • a catalytic system is provided by the ionization of t electrons from a participating species such as an atom, an ion, a molecule, and an ionic or molecular compound to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m X 27.2 eV where m is an integer.
  • a catalytic system involves cesium.
  • the first and second ionization energies of cesium are 3.89390 eV and 23.15745 eV, respectively [David R. Linde, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 74 th Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, ( 1993), p. 10-207].
  • Thermal energies may broaden the enthalpy of reaction.
  • the relationship between kinetic energy and temperature is given b y
  • the thermal energy is 0.16 eV
  • the net enthalpy of reaction provided by cesium metal is 27.21 eV which is an exact match to the desired energy.
  • Hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m X 27.2 eV where m is an integer to produce hydrino whereby t electrons are ionized from an atom or ion are given infra.
  • a further product of the catalysis is energy.
  • the atoms or ions given in the first column are ionized to provide the net enthalpy of reaction of m X 27.2 eV given in the tenth column where m is given in the eleventh column.
  • the electrons which are ionized are given with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy).
  • the ionization potential of the rtth electron of the atom or ion is designated by IP n and is given by David R. Linde, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 78 th Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, (1997), p. 10-214 to 10-216 which is herein incorporated by reference. That is for example, Cs + 3.89390 eV ⁇ Cs + +e ⁇ and Cs + +23.15745 eV ⁇ Cs 2+ +e ⁇ .
  • the first ionization potential, IP t 3.89390 eV
  • the catalyst Rb + according to Eqs. (9- 1 1) may be formed from rubidium metal by ionization.
  • the source of ionization may be UV light or a plasma.
  • At least one of a source of UV light and a plasma may be provided by the catalysis of hydrogen with a one or more hydrogen catalysts such as potassium metal or K + ions.
  • the catalyst K + 1 K + according to Eqs. (6-8) may be formed from potassium metal by ionization.
  • the source of ionization may be UV light or a plasma.
  • At least one of a source of UV light and a plasma may be provided by the catalysis of hydrogen with a one or more hydrogen catalysts such as potassium metal or K + ions.
  • the catalyst Rb + according to Eqs. (9- 1 1) or the catalyst K + l K + according to Eqs. (6-8) may be formed by reaction of rubidium metal or potassium metal, respectively, with hydrogen to form the corresponding alkali hydride or by ionization at a hot filament which may also serve to dissociate molecular hydrogen to atomic hydrogen.
  • the hot filament may be a refractory metal such as tungsten or molybdenum operated within a high temperature range such as 1000 to 2800 °C.
  • a catalyst of the present invention can be an increased binding energy hydrogen compound having a net enthalpy of m reaction of about — - 27 eV, where m is an integer greater than 1 , preferably an integer less than 400, to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about
  • hydrinos are formed by reacting an ordinary hydrogen atom with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about
  • An embodiment of the hydrino hydride reactor for producing increased binding energy hydrogen compounds of the invention further comprises an electric or magnetic field source.
  • the electric or magnetic field source may be adjustable to control the rate of catalysis. Adjustment of the electric or magnetic field provided by the electric or magnetic field source may alter the continuum energy level of a catalyst whereby one or more electrons are ionized to a continuum energy level to provide a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m X 27.2 eV .
  • the alteration of the continuum energy may cause the net enthalpy of reaction of the catalyst to more closely match m - 27.2 eV.
  • the electric field is within the range of 0.01 - 10 6 Vim, more preferably 0.1 - 10 4 Vim , and most preferably 1 - 10 3 Vim.
  • the magnetic flux is within the range of 0.01 - 50 T.
  • a magnetic field may have a strong gradient.
  • the magnetic flux gradient is within the range of 10 -4 - 10 2 Tern "1 and more preferably 10 "3 - 1 7cm ⁇ ' .
  • the electric field E and magnetic field B are orthogonal to cause an EXB electron drift.
  • the EXB drift may be in a direction such that energetic electrons produced by hydrogen catalysis dissipate a minimum amount of power due to current flow in the direction of the applied electric field which may be adjustable to control the rate of hydrogen catalysis.
  • a magnetic field confines the electrons to a region of the cell such that interactions with the wall are reduced, and the electron energy is increased.
  • the field may be a selenoidal field or a magnetic mirror field. The field may be adjustable to control the rate of hydrogen catalysis.
  • the electric field such as a radio frequency field produces minimal current.
  • a gas which may be inert such as a noble gas is added to the reaction mixture to decrease the conductivity of the plasma produced by the energy released from the catalysis of hydrogen. The conductivity is adjusted by controlling the pressure of the gas to achieve an optimal voltage that controls the rate of catalysis of hydrogen.
  • a gas such as an inert gas may be added to the reaction mixture which increases the percentage of atomic hydrogen versus molecular hydrogen .
  • the cell may comprise a hot filament that dissociates molecular hydrogen to atomic hydrogen and may further heat a hydrogen dissociator such as transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite).
  • a hydrogen dissociator such as transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta,
  • the filament may further supply an electric field in the cell of the reactor.
  • the electric field may alter the continuum energy level of a catalyst whereby one or more electrons are ionized to a continuum energy level to provide a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m X 27.2 eV .
  • an electric field is provided by electrodes charged by a variable voltage source.
  • the rate of catalysis may be controlled by controlling the applied voltage which determines the applied field which controls the catalysis rate by altering the continuum energy level.
  • the dissociator may be located at the wall of the reactor such that dissociation at the wall and hydrogen catalysis in the reactor cause heat to be transferred from the walls to the interior of the reactor. The endothermic dissociation may cool the walls and provide additional energy to the electrons or ions to be converted to microwaves.
  • the electric or magnetic field source ionizes an atom or ion to provide a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m X 27.2 eV .
  • potassium metal is ionized to K +
  • rubidium metal is ionized to Rb + to provide the catalysts according to Eqs. (6-8) or Eqs. (9- 1 1 ), respectively.
  • the electric field source may be a hot filament whereby the hot filament may also dissociate molecular hydrogen to atomic hydrogen .
  • the catalyst comprises a mixture of a first catalyst and a source of a second catalyst.
  • the first catalyst produces the second catalyst from the source of the second catalyst.
  • the energy released by the catalysis of hydrogen by the first catalyst produces a plasma in the energy cell. The energy ionizes the source of the second catalyst to produce the second catalyst.
  • the second catalyst may be one or more ions produced in the absence of a strong electric field as typically required in the case of a glow discharge or inductively coupled microwave generated plasma.
  • the weak electric field may increase the rate of catalysis of the second catalyst such that the enthalpy of reaction of the catalyst matches m X 27.2 eV to cause hydrogen catalysis.
  • the first catalyst is selected from the group of catalyst given in TABLE 2 such as potassium and strontium
  • the source of the second catalyst is selected from the group of helium, argon, and neon
  • the second catalyst is selected from the group of He + , Ar + , Ar 2+ and H + , and Ne + and H + wherein the catalyst ion or ions are generated from the corresponding atom or atoms by a plasma created by catalysis of hydrogen by the first catalyst.
  • the energy cell comprises strontium and argon wherein hydrogen catalysis by strontium produces a plasma containing Ar + which serves as a second catalyst (Eqs. (15-17)), 2.) the energy cell comprises strontium and argon wherein hydrogen catalysis by strontium produces a plasma containing Ar 2+ and H + which serves as a second catalyst (Eqs. (18-20)), 3.) the energy cell comprises strontium and neon wherein hydrogen catalysis by strontium produces a plasma containing Ne + and H + which serves as a second catalyst (Eqs. (21 -23)), and 4.) the energy cell comprises potassium and helium wherein hydrogen catalysis by potassium produces a plasma containing He + which serves as a second catalyst (Eqs.
  • the pressure of the source of the second catalyst is in the range of 1 millitorr to one atmosphere.
  • the hydrogen pressure is in the range of 1 millitorr to one atmosphere.
  • the total pressure is in the range of 0.5 torr to 2 torr.
  • the ratio of the pressure of the source of the second catalyst to the hydrogen pressure is greater than one.
  • hydrogen is 0.1 % to 10%, and the source of the second catalyst comprises the balance of the gas present in the cell. More preferably, the hydrogen is in the range 1% to 5% and the source of the second catalyst is in the range 95% to 99%. Most preferably, the hydrogen is 5% and the source of the second catalyst is 95%.
  • a further embodiment of the power source, power converter, and radio and microwave generator comprises a Faraday cage inside the reaction cell which is in communication with the cell to comprises a second reaction chamber.
  • hydrogen atoms undergo reaction with He + or Ar + catalyst inside of the second chamber.
  • At least one of reactants, the hydrogen atoms or the catalyst such as He + or Ar + may be formed in the cell outside of the second chamber and flow into the chamber.
  • the Faraday cage provides a reaction chamber wherein the electric field is zero.
  • the Faraday cage is a closed mesh such as a titanium or nickel screen that is closed and continuously conductive over the surface.
  • the catalyst comprises at least one selected from the group of He + , Ar + , Ar 2+ and H + , and
  • the ionized catalyst ion or ions is generated from the corresponding atoms by a plasma created by methods such as a glow discharge or inductively couple microwave discharge.
  • the corresponding reactor such as a discharge cell or plasma torch hydrino hydride reactor has a region of low electric filed strength such that the enthalpy of reaction of the catalyst matches m X 27.2 eV to cause hydrogen catalysis.
  • the reactor is a discharge cell having a hollow anode as described by Kuraica and Konjevic [Kuraica, M., Konjevic, N., Physical Review A, Volume 46, No. 7, October (1992), pp. 4429-4432] .
  • the catalysis of hydrogen occurs primarily at a cathode which is selected to provide a desired field.
  • a first catalyst such as strontium is run with argon and hydrogen gas to produce Ar + which serves as a second catalyst.
  • the plasma produced by hydrogen catalysis may be magnetized to add confinement.
  • the reaction is run in a magnet which provides a selenoidal or minimum magnetic (minimum B) field such that Ar + is trapped and acquires a longer half-life.
  • the confinement By confining the plasma, the ions such as the electrons become more energetic which increases the amount of Ar + .
  • the confinement also increases the energy of the plasma to create more atomic hydrogen.
  • the hydrogen catalysis rate is increased.
  • Hydrogen has a lower ionization energy than argon; thus, hydrogen decreases the amount of Ar + .
  • the confinement increases the rate by permitting a higher concentration of atomic hydrogen by maintaining a high concentration of Ar + catalyst.
  • Such a magnetic field may also be used to provide magnetic confinement to increase the electron energy to be converted into microwave power using a microwave device such as a gyrotron of the present invention.
  • a light source of the present invention comprises a cell of the present invention wherein the vessel is transparent to the desired wavelengths such as a quartz vessel.
  • the wall may be coated with a phosphor that converts one or more short wavelengths to desired longer wavelengths such as ultraviolet or extreme ultraviolet to visible light.
  • the light source may provide short wavelength light directly. For example, short wavelength line emission may be used for photolithography.
  • the wall may be insulated such that an elevated temperature may be maintained in the cell.
  • the wall is a double wall with a separating vacuum space.
  • the dissociator may be a filament such as a tungsten filament.
  • the filament may also heat the catalyst to form a gaseous catalyst.
  • a preferred catalyst is strontium metal.
  • a second catalyst may be generated by a first.
  • argon is ionized to Ar + by the plasma formed by the catalysis of hydrogen by a first catalysts such as strontium.
  • Ar + serves as a second hydrogen catalyst.
  • the hydrogen may be supplied by a hydride that decomposes over time to maintain a desired pressure which may be determined by the temperature of the cell.
  • the cell temperature may be determined by the power supplied to the filament by a power controller.
  • Strontium metal may react with Ar + to decrease the amount available to act as a catalyst.
  • the temperature of the cell may be controlled in at least a part of the cell to control the strontium vapor pressure to achieve a desired rate of catalysis.
  • the vapor pressure of strontium is controlled at the region of the cathode wherein a high concentration of Ar + exists.
  • the compound may have the formula MH n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 100, more preferably 1 to 10, most preferably 1 to 6, M is a noble gas atom such as helium, neon, argon, xenon, and krypton, and the hydrogen content H Tail of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.
  • a method of synthesis of increased binding energy ArH n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 100, more preferably 1 to 10, most preferably 1 to 6 comprises a discharge of a mixture of argon and hydrogen wherein the catalyst comprises one selected from the group of Ar + and Ar 2+ and H + .
  • the ⁇ rH ⁇ product may be collected in a cooled reservoir such as a liquid nitrogen cooled reservoir.
  • a method of synthesis of increased binding energy N ⁇ ?H beide wherein n is an integer from 1 to 100, more preferably 1 to 10, most preferably 1 to 6 comprises a discharge of a mixture of neon and hydrogen wherein Ne + and H + is the catalyst.
  • the NeHêt product may be collected in a cooled reservoir such as a liquid nitrogen cooled reservoir.
  • a method of synthesis of increased binding energy HeHTER wherein n is an integer from 1 to 100, more preferably 1 to 10, most preferably 1 to 6 comprises a discharge of a mixture of helium and hydrogen wherein He + is the catalyst.
  • the HeH handed product may be collected in a cooled reservoir such as a liquid nitrogen cooled reservoir.
  • An embodiment to synthesize increased binding energy hydrogen compounds comprising at least one noble gas atom comprises adding the noble gas as a reactant in the hydrino hydride reactor with a source of atomic hydrogen and hydrogen catalyst.
  • An embodiment to synthesize increased binding energy hydrogen compounds comprising at least one noble gas atom comprises adding the noble gas as a reactant in the hydrino hydride reactor with a source of atomic hydrogen and hydrogen catalyst.
  • An embodiment to enrich a noble gas from a source containing noble gas comprises reacting a source of noble atoms with increased binding energy hydrogen to form and increased binding energy hydrogen compound which may be isolated and decomposed to give the noble gas.
  • a gas stream containing the noble gas to be enriched is flowed through the hydrino hydride reactor such as a gas cell hydrino hydride reactor such that increased binding energy hydrogen species produced in the reactor reacts with the noble gas of the gas stream to form an increased binding energy hydrogen compound containing at least one atom of the noble gas.
  • the compound may be isolated and decomposed to give the enriched noble gas.
  • extreme ultraviolet light from hydrogen gas is achieved via a discharge at high voltage, a high power inductively coupled plasma, or a plasma created and heated to extreme temperatures by RF coupling (e.g. > 10 6 K) with confinement provided by a toroidal magnetic field.
  • Intense EUV emission has been observed at low temperatures (e.g. ⁇ 10 3 K) from atomic hydrogen and certain atomized pure elements or certain gaseous ions which ionize at integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen (i.e. m - 27.2 eV) which are catalysts of the present invention.
  • intense EUV emission was observed at low temperatures (e.g.
  • the energy released by the catalysis of hydrogen to form increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds produces a plasma in the cell such as a plasma of the catalyst and hydrogen.
  • the force on a charged ion in a magnetic field is perpendicular to both its velocity and the direction of the applied magnetic field.
  • the electrons and ions of the plasma orbit in a circular path in a plane transverse to the applied magnetic field for sufficient field strength at an ion cyclotron frequency ⁇ c that is independent of the velocity of the ion.
  • all ions of a particular m/e value will be characterized by a unique cyclotron frequency independent of their velocities.
  • the velocity distribution will be reflected by a distribution of orbital radii.
  • the ions emit electromagnetic radiation with a maximum intensity at the cyclotron frequency.
  • the velocity and radius of each ion may decrease due to loss of energy and a decrease of the temperature.
  • FIGURE 1 A power system of the present invention is shown in FIGURE 1.
  • the electromagnetic radiation emitted from the ions may be received by a resonant receiving antenna 74 of the present invention.
  • the receiver an electric oscillator, comprises a circuit 71 in which a voltage varies sinusoidally about a central value. The frequency of oscillation depends of the inductance and the size of the capacitor in the circuit. Such circuits store energy as they oscillate. The stored energy may be delivered to an electrical load such as a resistive load 77.
  • two parallel plates 74 are situated between the pole faces of a magnet 73 so that the alternating electric field due to the orbiting ions is normal to the magnetic field.
  • the parallel plates 74 are part of a resonant oscillator circuit 74 and 71 which receives the oscillating electric field from the cyclotron ions in the cell.
  • An ion such as an electron orbiting in a magnetic field with a cyclotron frequency characteristic of its mass to charge ratio can emit power of frequency v c .
  • Antennas such as microwave antennas with a high gain may achieve high reception efficiency such as 35-50%.
  • the cyclotron frequency ⁇ c (hence v c ) is independent of r and v separately and depends only on their ratio. An ion remains in resonance by decreasing its radius in proportion to its decrease in velocity.
  • the ion emission with a maximum intensity at the cyclotron frequency is converted to coherent electromagnetic radiation.
  • a preferred generator of coherent microwaves is a gyrotron shown in FIGURE 5. Since the power from the cell is primarily transmitted by the electrons of the plasma which further receive and transmit power from other ions in the cell, the conversion of power from catalysis to electric or electromagnetic power may be very efficient.
  • the radiated power and the power produced by hydrogen catalysis may be matched such that a steady state of power production and power flow from the cell may be achieved.
  • the cell power may be removed by conversion to electricity or further transmitted as electromagnetic radiation via antenna 74, oscillator circuit 71 , and electrical load or broadcast system 77.
  • the rate of the catalysis reaction may be controlled by controlling the total pressure, the atomic hydrogen pressure, the catalyst pressure, the particular catalyst, the cell temperature, and an applied electric or magnetic field which influences the catalysis rate.
  • FIGURE 1 is a schematic drawing of a power system comprising a hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention ;
  • FIGURE 2 is a schematic drawing of another power system comprising a hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention
  • FIGURE 3 is a schematic drawing of a gas cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention
  • FIGURE 4 is a schematic drawing of a power system comprising a gas cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention
  • FIGURE 5 is a schematic drawing of a gyrotron power converter of the present invention
  • FIGURE 6 is a schematic drawing of the distribution of the static magnetic field H 0 of an embodiment of a gyrotron power converter of the present invention
  • FIGURE 8 is a schematic drawing of a gas discharge cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention.
  • FIGURE 9 is a schematic drawing of a plasma torch cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention
  • FIGURE 10 is a schematic drawing of another plasma torch cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention.
  • the hydrino hydride reactor comprises a vessel 52 containing a catalysis mixture 54.
  • the catalysis mixture 54 comprises a source of atomic hydrogen 56 supplied through hydrogen supply passage 42 and a catalyst 58 supplied through catalyst supply passage 41.
  • Catalyst 58 has a net enthalpy of reaction of about m
  • the catalysis involves reacting atomic hydrogen from the source 56 with the catalyst 58 to form hydrinos and power.
  • the hydride reactor further includes an electron source 70 for contacting hydrinos with electrons, to reduce the hydrinos to hydrino hydride ions.
  • the source of hydrogen can be hydrogen gas, water, ordinary hydride, or metal-hydrogen solutions.
  • the water may be dissociated to form hydrogen atoms by, for example, thermal dissociation or electrolysis.
  • molecular hydrogen is dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a molecular hydrogen dissociating catalyst.
  • Such dissociating catalysts include, for example, noble metals such as palladium and platinum, refractory metals such as molybdenum and tungsten, transition metals such as nickel and titanium, inner transition metals such as niobium and zirconium, and other such materials listed in the Prior Mills Publications.
  • a photon source dissociates hydrogen molecules to hydrogen atoms.
  • the means to form hydrino can be one or more of an electrochemical, chemical, photochemical, thermal, free radical, sonic, or nuclear reaction(s), or inelastic photon or particle scattering reaction(s).
  • the hydride reactor comprises a particle source and/or photon source 75 as shown in FIGURE 1 , to supply the reaction as an inelastic scattering reaction.
  • the catalyst includes an electrocatalytic ion or couple(s) in the molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid state given in the Tables of the Prior Mills Publications (e.g. TABLE 4 of PCT/US90/01998 and pages 25-46, 80- 108 of
  • the catalyst may be maintained at a pressure less than atmospheric, preferably in the range 10 millitorr to 100 torr.
  • the atomic and/or molecular hydrogen reactant is maintained at a pressure less than atmospheric, preferably in the range 10 millitorr to 100 torr.
  • Each of the hydrino hydride reactor embodiments of the present invention comprises the following: a source of atomic hydrogen; at least one of a solid, molten, liquid, or gaseous catalyst for generating hydrinos; and a vessel for containing the atomic hydrogen and the catalyst.
  • a source of atomic hydrogen at least one of a solid, molten, liquid, or gaseous catalyst for generating hydrinos
  • a vessel for containing the atomic hydrogen and the catalyst are described in the Prior Mills Publications. Methodologies for identifying hydrinos are also described. The hydrinos so produced react with the electrons to form hydrino hydride ions.
  • Methods to reduce hydrinos to hydrino hydride ions include, for example, the following: in the gas cell hydride reactor, chemical reduction by a reactant; in the gas discharge cell hydride reactor, reduction by the plasma electrons or by the cathode of the gas discharge cell; in the plasma torch hydride reactor, reduction by plasma electrons.
  • the power system of FIGURE 1 further comprises a source of magnetic field 73, preferably a constant magnetic field.
  • the source of magnetic field may be a permanent magnet.
  • the source of magnetic field may be an electromagnet powered by a power supply and magnetic field controller 72.
  • the system further comprises one or more antenna 74 which receive cyclotron radiation from ions orbiting in the cell due to the applied magnetic field.
  • the total pressure of the cell is maintained such that the ions have a sufficient mean free path to effectively emit radiation to the antenna.
  • the power is received by an oscillator circuit 71 which is preferably tuned to the cyclotron frequency of a desired ion such as an electron.
  • the cell 52 is a tunable resonator cavity or waveguide which may be tuned to the cyclotron frequency of a desired ion.
  • the power system may further comprise a source of electric field 76 which may adjust the rate of hydrogen catalysis. It may further focus ions in the cell. It may further impart a drift velocity to ions in the cell.
  • the system may receive power and emit the power using broadcasting and transmitting system 77.
  • the power system may convert the power of hydrogen catalysis to electrical power which may be radiated as a transmission or broadcast signal using broadcasting and transmitting system 77.
  • the plasma intensity is modulated by means such as a variable source of electric field 76.
  • a magnetic induction power may be received by one or more coils 78 that are circumferential about the cell 52 to receive power in the direction of the applied magnetic field which is preferably constant. The power is then received by an electrical load 79.
  • the power converter is an amplifier of high frequency electromagnetic power.
  • High frequency power may be coupled into the cell 52 by a source of high frequency electromagnetic waves such as radio waves or microwaves.
  • the high frequency electromagnetic waves have a narrow band width with a frequency centered on the cyclotron frequency of the power converter.
  • the high frequency waves excite the emission of electromagnetic power from the plasma generated in the cell from the catalysis of hydrogen to produce a gain in output power versus the input high frequency power.
  • Sources of microwave power may be the present power converter or sources known in the art such as traveling wave tubes, klystrons, magnetrons, cyclotron resonance masers, gyrotrons, and free electron lasers.
  • FIGURE 2 A photovoltaic power system comprising a hydride reactor of FIGURE 1 is shown in FIGURE 2.
  • a plasma is created of the gas in the cell 52 due to the power released by catalysis.
  • the light emission such as extreme ultraviolet, ultraviolet, and visible light may be converted to electrical power using photovoltaic receivers 81 which receive the light emitted from the cell and directly convert it to electrical power.
  • the power converter comprises at least two electrodes 81 that are physically separated in the cell and comprise conducting materials of different Fermi energies or ionization energies.
  • the power from catalysis causes ionization at one electrode to a greater extent relative to the at least one other electrode such that a voltage exists between the at least two electrodes.
  • the voltage is applied to a load 80 to remove electrical power from the cell.
  • a reactor for producing hydrino hydride ions and power may take the form of a hydrogen gas cell hydride reactor.
  • a gas cell hydride reactor of the present invention is shown in FIGURE 3.
  • Reactant hydrinos are provided by an electrocatalytic reaction and/or a disproportionation reaction. Catalysis may occur in the gas phase.
  • the reactor of FIGURE 3 comprises a reaction vessel 207 having a chamber 200 capable of containing a vacuum or pressures greater than atmospheric.
  • a source of hydrogen 221 communicating with chamber 200 delivers hydrogen to the chamber through hydrogen supply passage 242.
  • a controller 222 is positioned to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel through hydrogen supply passage 242.
  • a pressure sensor 223 monitors pressure in the vessel.
  • a vacuum pump 256 is used to evacuate the chamber through a vacuum line 257.
  • the apparatus further comprises a source of electrons in contact with the hydrinos to form hydrino hydride ions.
  • the source of hydrogen 221 communicating with chamber 200 that delivers hydrogen to the chamber through hydrogen supply passage 242 is a hydrogen permeable hollow cathode of an electrolysis cell.
  • Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen that permeates through the hollow cathode.
  • the cathode may be a transition metal such as nickel, iron, or titanium, or a noble metal such as palladium, or - platinum.
  • the electrolyte may be basic and the anode may be nickel.
  • the electrolyte may be aqueous K 2 C0 .
  • the flow of hydrogen into the cell may be controlled by controlling the electrolysis current with an electrolysis power controller.
  • a catalyst 250 for generating hydrino atoms can be placed in a catalyst reservoir 295.
  • the catalyst in the gas phase may comprise the electrocatalytic ions and couples described in the Mills Prior Publications.
  • the reaction vessel 207 has a catalyst supply passage 241 for the passage of gaseous catalyst from the catalyst reservoir 295 to the reaction chamber 200.
  • the catalyst may be placed in a chemically resistant open container, such as a boat, inside the reaction vessel .
  • the molecular and atomic hydrogen partial pressures in the reactor vessel 207, as well as the catalyst partial pressure, is preferably maintained in the range of 10 millitorr to 100 torr. Most preferably, the hydrogen partial pressure in the reaction vessel 207 is maintained at about 200 millitorr.
  • Molecular hydrogen may be dissociated in the vessel into atomic hydrogen by a dissociating material.
  • the dissociating material may comprise, for example, a noble metal such as platinum or palladium, a transition metal such as nickel and titanium, an inner transition metal such as niobium and zirconium, or a refractory metal such as tungsten or molybdenum.
  • the dissociating material may be maintained at an elevated temperature by the heat liberated by the hydrogen catalysis (hydrino generation) and hydrino reduction taking place in the reactor.
  • the dissociating material may also be maintained at elevated temperature by temperature control means 230, which may take the form of a heating coil as shown in cross section in FIGURE 3. The heating coil is powered by a power supply 225.
  • Molecular hydrogen may be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by application of electromagnetic radiation, such as UV light provided by a photon source 205. Molecular hydrogen may be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a hot filament or grid 280 powered by power supply 285.
  • electromagnetic radiation such as UV light provided by a photon source 205.
  • Molecular hydrogen may be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a hot filament or grid 280 powered by power supply 285.
  • the hydrogen dissociation occurs such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms contact a catalyst which is in a molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid form to produce hydrino atoms.
  • the catalyst vapor pressure is maintained at the desired pressure by controlling the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 295 with a catalyst reservoir heater 298 powered by a power supply 272.
  • the catalyst vapor pressure is maintained at the desired value by controlling the temperature of the catalyst boat, by adjusting the boat's power supply.
  • the rate of production of hydrinos and power by the gas cell hydride reactor can be controlled by controlling the amount of catalyst in the gas phase and/or by controlling the concentration of atomic hydrogen.
  • the rate of production of hydrino hydride ions can be controlled by controlling the concentration of hydrinos, such as by controlling the rate of production of hydrinos.
  • the concentration of gaseous catalyst in vessel chamber 200 may be controlled by controlling the initial amount of the volatile catalyst present in the chamber 200.
  • the concentration of gaseous catalyst in chamber 200 may also be controlled by controlling the catalyst temperature, by adjusting the catalyst reservoir heater 298, or by adjusting a catalyst boat heater when the catalyst is contained in a boat inside the reactor.
  • the vapor pressure of the volatile catalyst 250 in the chamber 200 is determined by the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 295, or the temperature of the catalyst boat, because each is colder than the reactor vessel 207.
  • the reactor vessel 207 temperature is maintained at a higher operating temperature than catalyst reservoir 295 with heat liberated by the hydrogen catalysis (hydrino generation) and hydrino reduction.
  • the reactor vessel temperature may also be maintained by a temperature control means, such as heating coil 230 shown in cross section in FIGURE 3. Heating coil 230 is powered by power supply 225.
  • the reactor temperature further controls the reaction rates such as hydrogen dissociation and catalysis.
  • the preferred operating temperature depends, in part, on the nature of the material comprising the reactor vessel 207.
  • the temperature of a stainless steel alloy reactor vessel 207 is preferably maintained at 200- 1200°C.
  • the temperature of a molybdenum reactor vessel 207 is preferably maintained at 200- 1800 °C.
  • the temperature of a tungsten reactor vessel 207 is preferably maintained at 200-3000 °C.
  • the temperature of a quartz or ceramic reactor vessel 207 is preferably maintained at 200- 1800 °C.
  • the concentration of atomic hydrogen in vessel chamber 200 can be controlled by the amount of atomic hydrogen generated by the hydrogen dissociation material.
  • the rate of molecular hydrogen dissociation is controlled by controlling the surface area, the temperature, and the selection of the dissociation material.
  • the concentration of atomic hydrogen may also be controlled by the amount of atomic hydrogen provided by the atomic hydrogen source 280.
  • the concentration of atomic hydrogen can be further controlled by the amount of molecular hydrogen supplied from the hydrogen source 221 controlled by a flow controller 222 and a pressure sensor 223.
  • the reaction rate may be monitored by windowless ultraviolet (UV) emission spectroscopy to detect the intensity of the UV emission due to the catalysis and the hydrino hydride ion and compound emissions.
  • UV windowless ultraviolet
  • the gas cell hydride reactor further comprises an electron source 260 in contact with the generated hydrinos to form hydrino hydride ions.
  • hydrinos are reduced to hydrino hydride ions by contacting a reductant comprising the reactor vessel 207.
  • hydrinos are reduced to hydrino hydride ions by contact with any of the reactor's components, such as, photon source 205, catalyst 250, catalyst reservoir 295, catalyst reservoir heater 298, hot filament grid 280, pressure sensor 223, hydrogen source 221 , flow controller 222, vacuum pump 256, vacuum line 257, catalyst supply passage 241 , or hydrogen supply passage 242.
  • Hydrinos may also be reduced by contact with a reductant extraneous to the operation of the cell (i.e. a consumable reductant added to the cell from an outside source).
  • Electron source 260 is such a reductant.
  • Compounds comprising a hydrino hydride anion and a cation may be formed in the gas cell.
  • the cation which forms the hydrino hydride compound may comprise a cation of the material of the cell, a cation comprising the molecular hydrogen dissociation material which produces atomic hydrogen, a cation comprising an added reductant, or a cation present in the cell (such as the cation of the catalyst).
  • the vessel of the reactor is the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine, rocket engine, or gas turbine.
  • a gaseous catalyst forms hydrinos from hydrogen atoms produced by pyrolysis of a hydrocarbon during hydrocarbon combustion.
  • a hydrocarbon- or hydrogen-containing fuel contains the catalyst. The catalyst is vaporized (becomes gaseous) during the combustion.
  • the catalyst is a thermally stable salt of rubidium or potassium such as RbF, RbCl, RbBr, Rbl, Rb 2 S 2 , RbOH, Rb 2 SO ⁇ , Rb 2 C0 3 , Rb 3 P0 4 , and KF, KC7, KBr, KI, K 2 S 2 , KOH, K 2 S0 4 , K 2 C0 3 , K ⁇ P0 4 ,K 2 GeF 4 .
  • Additional counterions of the electrocatalytic ion or couple include organic anions, such as wetting or emulsifying agents.
  • the source of atomic hydrogen is an explosive which detonates to provide atomic hydrogen and vaporizes a source of catalyst such that catalyst reacts with atomic hydrogen in the gas phase to liberate energy in addition to that of the explosive reaction.
  • a catalyst is potassium metal.
  • the gas cell ruptures with the explosive release of energy with a contribution from the catalysis of atomic hydrogen.
  • a gas cell is a bomb containing a source of atomic hydrogen and a source of catalyst.
  • the hydrocarbon- or hydrogen-containing fuel further comprises water and a solvated source of catalyst, such as emulsified electrocatalytic ions or couples.
  • a solvated source of catalyst such as emulsified electrocatalytic ions or couples.
  • water serves as a further source of hydrogen atoms which undergo catalysis.
  • the water can be dissociated into hydrogen atoms thermally or catalytically on a surface, such as the cylinder or piston head.
  • the surface may comprise material for dissociating water to hydrogen and oxygen.
  • the water dissociating material may comprise an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements or inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), or Cs intercalated carbon (graphite).
  • transition elements or inner transition elements iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, P
  • vaporized catalyst is drawn from the catalyst reservoir 295 through the catalyst supply passage 241 into vessel chamber 200.
  • the chamber corresponds to the engine cylinder. This occurs during each engine cycle.
  • the amount of catalyst 250 used per engine cycle may be determined by the vapor pressure of the catalyst and the gaseous displacement volume of the catalyst reservoir 295.
  • the vapor pressure of the catalyst may be controlled by controlling the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 295 with the reservoir heater 298.
  • FIGURE 4 An embodiment of a gas cell power system is shown in FIGURE 4.
  • the power system comprises a power cell 1 that forms a reaction vessel. One end of the cell is attached to a catalyst reservoir 4. The other end of the cell is fitted with a high vacuum flange that is mated to a cap 5 with an matching flange. A high vacuum seal is maintained with a gasket and a clamp, for example.
  • the cap 5 includes three tubes for the attachment of a gas inlet line 25 and gas outlet line 21 , and optionally a port 23 which may be connected to the connector of a EUV spectrometer for monitoring the hydrogen catalysis reaction at 26. Alternatively, the port 23 may connect the cell to an ion cyclotron resonance spectrometer for monitoring the hydrogen catalysis reaction.
  • H 2 gas is supplied to the cell through the inlet 25 from a compressed gas cylinder of ultra high purity hydrogen 1 1 controlled by hydrogen control valve 13.
  • An inert gas such as helium gas may supplied to the cell through the same inlet 25 from a compressed gas cylinder of ultrahigh purity helium 12 controlled by helium control valve 15.
  • the flow of helium and hydrogen to the cell is further controlled by mass flow controller 10, mass flow controller valve 30, inlet valve 29, and mass flow controller bypass valve 31.
  • Valve 31 may be closed during filling of the cell.
  • Excess gas may be removed through the gas outlet 21 by a pump 8 such as a molecular drag pump capable of reaching pressures of 10 -4 torr or less controlled by vacuum pump valve 27 and outlet valve 28.
  • Pressures may be measured by a pressure gauge 7 such as a 0- 1000 torr Baratron pressure gauge and a 0- 10 torr Baratron pressure gauge.
  • the power system shown in FIGURE 4 further comprises a hydrogen dissociator 3 such as a nickel or titanium screen or foil that is wrapped inside the inner wall of the cell and electrically floated.
  • the dissociator 3 may be the wall of the cell 1 that is coated with a dissociative material.
  • the catalyst reservoir 4 may be heated independently using a band heater 20, powered by a power supply which may be a constant power supply.
  • the entire cell may be enclosed inside an insulation package 14 such as Zircar AL-30 insulation.
  • Several thermocouples such as K type thermocouples may placed in the insulation to measure key temperatures of the cell and insulation. The thermocouples may be read with a multichannel computer data acquisition system.
  • the cell may be operated under flow conditions via mass flow controller 10.
  • the H 2 pressure may be maintained at 0.01 torr to 100 torr, preferably at 0.5 torr using a suitable H 2 flow rate.
  • the cell is heated to the desired operating temperature such as 700-800 °C using the external cell heaters 34 and 35.
  • the elevated temperature causes atomization of the hydrogen gas, maintains the desired vapor pressure of the catalyst wherein the cell temperature is higher than the catalyst reservoir temperature, and causes the desired rate of the catalysis of hydrogen.
  • An electrode 24 may be a source of electric field. In the case that electrons are used to generate microwaves in the cell, the electrode 24 may be a cathode which causes electrons to move toward a collector 9.
  • the field provided by the electrodes 24 and 9 may be used to adjust the rate of hydrogen catalysis.
  • Catalysts such as cesium, potassium, rubidium, and strontium metals may be placed in the reservoir 4 and volatized by the band heater 20.
  • the cathode and anode may provide an electron beam and cause electrons of the plasma generated by the catalysis of hydrogen to drift.
  • a preferred device of the present invention induces radiation of ions rotating in a fixed magnetic field (induced cyclotron radiation).
  • Devices of art utilizing this type of radiation have been termed cyclotron resonance masers (CRM).
  • CCM cyclotron resonance masers
  • Hirshfield J. L. Hirshfield, V. L. Granatstein, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-25, No. 6, June, (1967), pp. 522-527
  • the power system shown in FIGURE 4 further comprises a source of magnetic field 37 such as a pair of Helmholtz coils powered by power supply and magnetic field controller 36.
  • the magnetized plasma emits cyclotron radiation.
  • the cell 1 may also serve as a resonator cavity or waveguide which provides from the generation of coherent microwaves.
  • the cavity 1 , source of magnetic field 37, and the source of electric field 24 and 9 may comprise a cyclotron resonance maser such as a cyclotron autoresonance maser or a gyrotron.
  • a preferred cavity cyclotron resonance maser for autoresonance operation is one that permits the electromagnetic wave to propagate in the direction of the static magnetic field with a phase velocity equal to the speed of light.
  • the number of natural modes with high Q of the cavity 1 is low.
  • Preferred high Q modes of a cyclotron resonance maser waveguide and resonator cavity are TE 0i are _ ⁇ o ⁇ , respectively.
  • the cap 5 may also contain a microwave window 2 such as an Alumina window. The microwaves from the cavity 1 may be output to a high frequency power output such as a waveguide 38.
  • a gyrotron power converter of the present invention is shown in FIGURE 5.
  • the electrodes 501 and 502 may provide an electric field to adjust the rate of hydrogen catalysis.
  • the cathode 502 and a collector 501 may provide an electric field which provides a drift bias to the electrons.
  • a constant magnetic field is provided by magnet 504 which may be a solenoid.
  • the solenoid may be superconducting.
  • the distribution of the static magnetic field H 0 of an embodiment of a gyrotron power converter of present invention is shown in FIGURE 6.
  • a plasma is transferred from a hydrino hydride reactor through passage 507, or a plasma is generated in the cavity 505.
  • the cavity also serves as a cell of a hydrino hydride reactor, preferably a gas cell hydrino hydride reactor.
  • the field for adjusting the catalysis rate which is variable is used to modulate the plasma intensity so that a directional flow of plasma with time is produced.
  • an electron current along the axis of the cavity from the cathode 502 to the collector 501 is produced by the modulation of the plasma intensity.
  • the plasma is a source of electrons for microwave generation.
  • the electrons orbit a constant field in the z direction applied by the solenoid 504.
  • Microwave power may be received from the cavity 505 through a window 503 such as an Alumina window or side waveguide 506.
  • An antenna such as a stub antenna in the cavity 505, side waveguide 506, or in a waveguide that is coupled to the cavity through the window 503, for example, may receive power from the cavity and may deliver the power to a rectifier which outputs DC electric power.
  • the power may be inverted to AC of a desired frequency such as 60 Hz and delivered to a load.
  • FIGURE 8 A gas discharge cell hydride reactor of the present invention is shown in FIGURE 8.
  • the gas discharge cell hydride reactor of FIGURE 8 includes a gas discharge cell 307 comprising a hydrogen isotope gas-filled glow discharge vacuum vessel 313 having a chamber 300.
  • a hydrogen source 322 supplies hydrogen to the chamber 300 through control valve 325 via a hydrogen supply passage 342.
  • a catalyst for generating hydrinos and energy such as the compounds described in Mills Prior Publications (e.g. TABLE 4 of PCT/US90/01998 and pages 25-46, 80- 108 of PCT/US94/02219) is contained in catalyst reservoir 395.
  • a voltage and current source 330 causes current to pass between a cathode 305 and an anode 320. The current may be reversible.
  • the wall of vessel 313 is conducting and serves as the anode.
  • the cathode 305 is hollow such as a hollow, nickel, aluminum, copper, or stainless steel hollow cathode.
  • the cathode 305 may be coated with the catalyst for generating hydrinos and energy.
  • the catalysis to form hydrinos and energy occurs on the cathode surface.
  • molecular hydrogen is dissociated on the cathode.
  • the cathode is formed of a hydrogen dissociative material.
  • the molecular hydrogen is dissociated by the discharge.
  • the catalyst for generating hydrinos and energy is in gaseous form.
  • the discharge may be utilized to vaporize the catalyst to provide a gaseous catalyst.
  • the gaseous catalyst is produced by the discharge current.
  • the gaseous catalyst may be provided by a discharge in potassium metal to form K + 1 K rubidium metal to form Rb + , or titanium metal to form Ti 2+ .
  • the gaseous hydrogen atoms for reaction with the gaseous catalyst are provided by a discharge of molecular hydrogen gas such that the catalysis occurs in the gas phase.
  • the gas discharge cell hydride reactor where catalysis occurs in the gas phase utilizes a controllable gaseous catalyst.
  • the gaseous hydrogen atoms for conversion to hydrinos are provided by a discharge of molecular hydrogen gas.
  • the gas discharge cell 307 has a catalyst supply passage 341 for the passage of the gaseous catalyst 350 from catalyst reservoir 395 to the reaction chamber 300.
  • the catalyst reservoir 395 is heated by a catalyst reservoir heater 392 having a power supply 372 to provide the gaseous catalyst to the reaction chamber 300.
  • the catalyst vapor pressure is controlled by controlling the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 395, by adjusting the heater 392 by means of its power supply 372.
  • the reactor further comprises a selective venting valve 301.
  • gas discharge cell hydride reactor where catalysis occurs in the gas phase utilizes a controllable gaseous catalyst.
  • Gaseous hydrogen atoms provided by a discharge of molecular hydrogen gas.
  • the catalyst in the catalyst boat is heated with a boat heater using by means of an associated power supply to provide the gaseous catalyst to the reaction chamber.
  • the glow gas discharge cell is operated at an elevated temperature such that the catalyst in the boat is sublimed, boiled, or volatilized into the gas phase.
  • the catalyst vapor pressure is controlled by controlling the temperature of the boat or the discharge cell by adjusting the heater with its power supply.
  • the gas discharge cell may be operated at room temperature by continuously supplying catalyst.
  • the temperature is maintained above the temperature of the catalyst source, catalyst reservoir 395 or catalyst boat.
  • the temperature of a stainless steel alloy cell is 0- 1200°C; the temperature of a molybdenum cell is 0-1800 °C; the temperature of a tungsten cell is 0-3000 °C; and the temperature of a glass, quartz, or ceramic cell is 0-1800 °C.
  • the discharge voltage may be in the range of 1000 to 50,000 volts.
  • the current may be in the range of 1 ⁇ A to 1 A, preferably about 1 mA
  • the gas discharge cell apparatus includes an electron source in contact with the hydrinos, in order to generate hydrino hydride ions.
  • the hydrinos are reduced to hydrino hydride ions by contact with cathode 305, with plasma electrons of the discharge, or with the vessel 313.
  • hydrinos may be reduced by contact with any of the reactor components, such as anode 320, catalyst 350, heater 392, catalyst reservoir 395, selective venting valve 301 , control valve 325, hydrogen source 322, hydrogen supply passage 342 or catalyst supply passage 341.
  • hydrinos are reduced by a reductant 360 extraneous to the operation of the cell (e.g. a consumable reductant added to the cell from an outside source).
  • a reductant 360 extraneous to the operation of the cell
  • Compounds comprising a hydrino hydride anion and a cation may be formed in the gas discharge cell.
  • the cation which forms the hydrino hydride compound may comprise an oxidized species of the material comprising the cathode or the anode, a cation of an added reductant, or a cation present in the cell (such as a cation of the catalyst).
  • potassium or rubidium hydrino hydride and energy is produced in the gas discharge cell 307.
  • the catalyst reservoir 395 contains potassium metal catalyst or rubidium metal which is ionized to Rb + catalyst.
  • the catalyst vapor pressure in the gas discharge cell is controlled by heater 392.
  • the catalyst reservoir 395 is heated with the heater 392 to maintain the catalyst vapor pressure proximal to the cathode 305 preferably in the pressure range 10 millitorr to 100 torr, more preferably at about 200 mtorr.
  • the gas discharge cell 307 are coated with potassium or rubidium.
  • the catalyst is vaporized during the operation of the cell.
  • the hydrogen supply from source 322 is adjusted with control 325 to supply hydrogen and maintain the hydrogen pressure in the 10 millitorr to 100 torr range.
  • FIGURE 9 A plasma torch cell hydride reactor of the present invention is shown in FIGURE 9.
  • a plasma torch 702 provides a hydrogen isotope plasma 704 enclosed by a manifold 706.
  • the plasma may comprise argon, for example.
  • the catalyst may comprise any of the compounds described in Mills Prior Publications (e.g. TABLE 4 of PCT/US90/01998 and pages 25-46, 80- 108 of PCT/US94/02219).
  • the catalyst is contained in a catalyst reservoir 716.
  • the reservoir is equipped with a mechanical agitator, such as a magnetic stirring bar 718 driven by magnetic stirring bar motor 720.
  • the catalyst is supplied to plasma torch 702 through passage 728. Hydrogen is supplied to the torch 702 by a hydrogen passage 726.
  • both hydrogen and catalyst may be supplied through passage 728.
  • the plasma gas is supplied to the torch by a plasma gas passage 726.
  • both plasma gas and catalyst may be supplied through passage 728.
  • Hydrogen flows from hydrogen supply 738 to a catalyst reservoir 716 via passage 742. The flow of hydrogen is controlled by hydrogen flow controller 744 and valve 746.
  • Plasma gas flows from the plasma gas supply 712 via passage 732. The flow of plasma gas is controlled by plasma gas flow controller 734 and valve 736.
  • a mixture of plasma gas and hydrogen is supplied to the torch via passage 726 and to the catalyst reservoir 716 via passage 725. The mixture is controlled by hydrogen-plasma-gas mixer and mixture flow regulator 721.
  • the hydrogen and plasma gas mixture serves as a carrier gas for catalyst particles which are dispersed into the gas stream as fine particles by mechanical agitation.
  • the aerosolized catalyst and hydrogen gas of the mixture flow into the plasma torch 702 and become gaseous hydrogen atoms and vaporized catalyst ions (such as K + ions from a salt of potassium) in the plasma 704.
  • the plasma is powered by a microwave generator 724 wherein the microwaves are tuned by a tunable microwave cavity 722. Catalysis occurs in the gas phase.
  • the amount of gaseous catalyst in the plasma torch is controlled by controlling the rate that catalyst is aerosolized with the mechanical agitator.
  • the amount of gaseous catalyst is also controlled by controlling the carrier gas flow rate where the carrier gas includes a hydrogen and plasma gas mixture (e.g., hydrogen and argon).
  • the amount of gaseous hydrogen atoms to the plasma torch is controlled by controlling the hydrogen flow rate and the ratio of hydrogen to plasma gas in the mixture.
  • the hydrogen flow rate and the plasma gas flow rate to the hydrogen-plasma-gas mixer and mixture flow regulator 721 are controlled by flow rate controllers 734 and 744, and by valves 736 and 746.
  • Mixer regulator 721 controls the hydrogen- plasma mixture to the torch and the catalyst reservoir.
  • the catalysis rate is also controlled by controlling the temperature of the plasma with microwave generator 724.
  • Hydrino atoms and hydrino hydride ions are produced in the plasma 704. Hydrino hydride compounds are cryopumped onto the manifold 706, or they flow into hydrino hydride compound trap 708 through passage 748. Trap 708 communicates with vacuum pump 710 through vacuum line 750 and valve 752. A flow to the trap 708 is effected by a pressure gradient controlled by the vacuum pump 710, vacuum line 750, and vacuum valve 752.
  • at least one of plasma torch 802 or manifold 806 has a catalyst supply passage 856 for passage of the gaseous catalyst from a catalyst reservoir 858 to the plasma 804.
  • the catalyst in the catalyst reservoir 858 is heated by a catalyst reservoir heater 866 having a power supply 868 to provide the gaseous catalyst to the plasma 804.
  • the catalyst vapor pressure is controlled by controlling the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 858 by adjusting the heater 866 with its power supply 868.
  • the remaining elements of FIGURE 10 have the same structure and function of the corresponding elements of FIGURE 9.
  • element 812 of FIGURE 10 is a plasma gas supply corresponding to the plasma gas supply 712 of FIGURE 9
  • element 838 of FIGURE 10 is a hydrogen supply corresponding to hydrogen supply 738 of FIGURE 9, and so forth.
  • a chemically resistant open container such as a ceramic boat located inside the manifold contains the catalyst.
  • the plasma torch manifold forms a cell which is operated at an elevated temperature such that the catalyst in the boat is sublimed, boiled, or volatilized into the gas phase.
  • the catalyst in the catalyst boat is heated with a boat heater having a power supply to provide the gaseous catalyst to the plasma.
  • the catalyst vapor pressure is controlled by controlling the temperature of the cell with a cell heater, or by controlling the temperature of the boat by adjusting the boat heater with an associated power supply.
  • the plasma temperature in the plasma torch cell hydride reactor is advantageously maintained in the range of 5,000- 30,000 °C.
  • the cell may be operated at room temperature by continuously supplying catalyst. Alternatively, to prevent the catalyst from condensing in the cell, the cell temperature is maintained above that of the catalyst source, catalyst reservoir 758 or catalyst boat.
  • the operating temperature depends, in part, on the nature of the material comprising the cell.
  • the temperature for a stainless steel alloy cell is preferably 0- 1200°C.
  • the temperature for a molybdenum cell is preferably 0- 1800 °C.
  • the temperature for a tungsten cell is preferably 0-
  • the temperature for a glass, quartz, or ceramic cell is preferably 0-1800 °C.
  • the manifold 706 is open to the atmosphere, the cell pressure is atmospheric.
  • An exemplary plasma gas for the plasma torch hydride reactor is argon.
  • Exemplary aerosol flow rates are 0.8 standard liters per minute (slm) hydrogen and 0.15 slm argon.
  • An exemplary argon plasma flow rate is 5 slm.
  • An exemplary forward input power is 1000 W, and an exemplary reflected power is 10-20 W.
  • the mechanical catalyst agitator (magnetic stirring bar 718 and magnetic stirring bar motor 720) is replaced with an aspirator, atomizer, or nebulizer to form an aerosol of the catalyst 714 dissolved or suspended in a liquid medium such as water.
  • the medium is contained in the catalyst reservoir 716.
  • the aspirator, atomizer, or nebulizer injects the catalyst directly into the plasma 704.
  • the nebulized or atomized catalyst is carried into the plasma 704 by a carrier gas, such as hydrogen.
  • the plasma torch hydride reactor further includes an electron source in contact with the hydrinos, for generating hydrino hydride ions.
  • the hydrinos are reduced to hydrino hydride ions by contacting 1.) the manifold 706, 2.) plasma electrons, or 4.) any of the reactor components such as plasma torch 702, catalyst supply passage 756, or catalyst reservoir 758, or 5) a reductant extraneous to the operation of the cell (e.g. a consumable reductant added to the cell from an outside source).
  • Compounds comprising a hydrino hydride anion and a cation may be formed in the gas cell.
  • the cation which forms the hydrino hydride compound may comprise a cation of an oxidized species of the material forming the torch or the manifold, a cation of an added reductant, or a cation present in the plasma (such as a cation of the catalyst).
  • the power converter and a high frequency electromagnetic wave generator of the present invention receives power from a plasma formed by the catalysis of hydrogen to form novel hydrogen species and novel compositions of matter.
  • the system of the present invention shown in FIGURE 1 comprises a hydrino hydride reactor 52 of the present invention which is a source of power and novel compositions of matter.
  • the power released in the cell produces a plasma such as a hydrogen plasma.
  • the system further comprises a magnet or a source of a magnetic field. Due to the force provided by the magnetic field, the ions such as electrons move in a circular orbit in a plane transverse to the magnetic field.
  • the cyclotron frequency, the angular frequency of the orbit is independent of the velocity.
  • the ions emit electromagnetic radiation with a maximum intensity at the cyclotron frequency.
  • the emitted high frequency radiation is one aspect of the present invention.
  • the radiation may be used directly for applications such as telecommunications and power transmission.
  • the electromagnetic radiation may be modulated in amplitude and frequency and used for said applications.
  • a further embodiment of the present invention further comprises at least one antenna with a receiving frequency that is resonate with the cyclotron frequency of at least one orbiting ion species in the cell.
  • the power generated in the cell is transferred to the antenna.
  • the received electromagnetic power is converted to electricity of a desired frequency by methods known to those skilled in the art.
  • the received power is transmitted as electromagnetic waves.
  • the power from the cell is converted into high frequency electricity which may be radiated at the same or at least one other antenna at the same or modified frequency.
  • the electromagnetic waves may be received at a distant antenna; thus, power may be transmitted with an emitting and receiving antenna.
  • the system further comprises a means of transmitting or broadcasting a signal from the received power.
  • modulation such as amplitude or frequency modulation of the radio or microwave power at the receiving antenna which may be also serve as a broadcasting antenna is a means of transmitting a signal.
  • the signal at the receiving antenna may be modulated by adjusting the intensity of the plasma produced in the cell as a function of time or by controlling the signal electronically.
  • at least one other antenna may receive the power of the first antenna and broadcast an electromagnetic signal.
  • the cell of the present invention is preferably a gas cell hydrino hydride reactor. But, the cell may also comprise the discharge cell or the plasma torch hydrino hydride reactor.
  • the magnet may be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet such as a superconducting magnet.
  • the source of magnetic field provides a field longitudinally relative to a preferred rectangular shaped vessel of the gas cell, discharge cell, or plasma torch cell hydrino hydride reactor.
  • the magnetic field provided by the source of the magnetic field is parallel to the discharge electric field.
  • a preferred embodiment of the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprises a source of electric field.
  • the electric field source may be adjustable to control the rate of catalysis. Adjustment of the electric field provided by the electric field source may alter the continuum energy level of a catalyst whereby one or more electrons are ionized to a continuum energy level to provide a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m 27.2 eV . The alteration of the continuum energy may cause the net enthalpy of reaction of the catalyst to more closely match m - 27.2 eV.
  • the electric field is within the range of 0.01 - 10 6 Vim, more preferably 0.1 - 10 4 Vim , and most preferably 1 - 10 3 Vim.
  • the electric field is parallel to the cyclotron magnetic field provided by the source of the magnetic field of the power system of the present invention.
  • the field for adjusting the catalysis rate is used to modulate the power of the cell.
  • the intensity of the plasma produced in the cell is modulated with the power from the catalysis of atomic hydrogen.
  • the power is modulated at the receiving antenna.
  • the modulation such as amplitude or frequency modulation may be used to provide a broadcast signal.
  • the field provides a drift velocity of the cyclotron ions in the cell which comprises a waveguide or resonator cavity.
  • the ion cyclotron frequency ⁇ c is independent of the velocity of the ion.
  • all ions of a particular m/e value will be characterized by a unique cyclotron frequency independent of their velocities.
  • the frequency v c may be determined from the angular frequency given by Eq. (36)
  • the frequency v c is
  • the plasma will not be in thermal equilibrium with the cell (i.e. the plasma is a nonequilibrium plasma).
  • the temperature may be in the range of 1 ,000 K to over 100,000 K. In the case that the plasma temperature is 12,000 K, the velocity of the electron from Eq. (43) is
  • the power released in the cell produces a plasma such as a hydrogen plasma.
  • the ions such as electrons move in a circular orbit in a plane transverse to the magnetic field.
  • the cyclotron frequency the angular frequency of the orbit, is independent of the velocity.
  • the ions emit electromagnetic radiation with a maximum intensity at the cyclotron frequency.
  • the emitted high frequency radiation is one aspect of the present invention.
  • the radiation may be used directly for applications such as telecommunications and power transmission.
  • the electromagnetic radiation may be modulated in amplitude and frequency and used for said applications.
  • a further embodiment of the present invention further comprises at least one antenna with a receiving frequency that is resonate with the cyclotron frequency of at least one ion in the cell.
  • the power generated in the cell is transferred to the antenna.
  • the received electromagnetic power is converted to electricity of a desired frequency by methods known to those skilled in the art.
  • the power of the radiation of the ion due to the applied magnetic flux may determined by modeling the orbiting ion as a Hertzian dipole antenna which is driven at the cyclotron frequency.
  • the total power P ⁇ emitted by the cell is given by where ⁇ 0 is the permittivity of vacuum, ⁇ 0 is the permeability of vacuum, ⁇ z is the length of the antenna, k is the wavenumber, and / is the total current.
  • the length of the antenna may be given by twice the radius of the orbit. From Eq. (38), X is
  • the total current / is given by the product of the total number of ions N, the charge of each ion e, and the frequency given by Eq. (39).
  • the total number of ions is given by the ion density times the volume.
  • the total number of electrons N may be determined using the ideal gas law with the hydrogen pressure P, the volume V, the cell temperature T c , the ideal gas constant R, and the fraction of ionized hydrogen /.
  • the fraction of ionized hydrogen may be determined from the Boltzmann equation.
  • the plasma temperature is 12,000 K
  • the hydrogen pressure is 1 torr
  • the cell volume is one liter
  • the cell temperature is 1000 K
  • ⁇ E is the ionization of atomic hydrogen (13.6 eV)
  • the applied magnetic flux is 0.1 tesla
  • the fraction of ionized hydrogen ( ⁇ q. (51)) is
  • the electric oscillator comprises a circuit in which a voltage varies sinusoidally about a central value. The frequency of oscillation depends of the inductance and the size of the capacitor in the circuit. Such circuits store energy as they oscillate. The stored energy may be delivered to an electrical load such as a resistive load.
  • two parallel plates 74 are situated between the pole faces of a magnet 73 so that the alternating electric field due to the orbiting ions is normal to the magnetic field.
  • the parallel plates are part of a resonant oscillator circuit 71 which receives the oscillating electric field from the cyclotron ions in the cell.
  • An ion such as an electron orbiting in a magnetic field with a cyclotron frequency characteristic of its mass to charge ratio can emit power of frequency v c .
  • Antennas such as microwave antennas with a high gain may achieve high reception efficiency such as 35-50%.
  • the cyclotron frequency ⁇ c (hence v c ) is independent of r and v separately and depends only on their ratio. An ion remains in resonance by decreasing its radius in proportion to its decrease in velocity. In an embodiment, the ion emission with a maximum intensity at the cyclotron frequency is converted to coherent electromagnetic radiation.
  • a preferred generator of coherent microwaves is a gyrotron shown in FIGURE 5. Since the power from the cell is primarily transmitted by the electrons of the plasma which further receive and transmit power from other ions in the cell, the conversion of power from catalysis to electric or electromagnetic power may be very efficient. The radiated power and the power produced by hydrogen catalysis may be matched such that a steady state of power production and power flow from the cell may be achieved.
  • the cell power may be removed by conversion to electricity or further transmitted as electromagnetic radiation via antenna 74, oscillator circuit 71 , and electrical load or broadcast system 77.
  • the rate of the catalysis reaction may be controlled by controlling the total pressure, the atomic hydrogen pressure, the catalyst pressure, the particular catalyst, the cell temperature, and an applied electric or magnetic field which influences the catalysis rate.
  • the power converter of the present invention further comprises an ion cyclotron resonance spectrometer such as that given by DeHaan, Llewellyn, and Beauchamp [F. DeHaan, Journal of Chemical Education, Volume 56, Number 10, October, ( 1979) pp. 687-692; P. M. Llewellyn, U. S. Patent No. 3,390,265, June 25, 1968; P. M. Llewellyn, U. S.
  • the ion cyclotron resonance spectrometers described by DeHaan, Llewellyn, and Beauchamp are known to those skilled in the art and are herein incorporated by reference.
  • the cyclotron energy causes the dissociation of molecular hydrogen to atomic hydrogen.
  • the applied cyclotron magnetic flux may be controlled to control the intensity and frequency of cyclotron emission from ions such as electrons formed in the cell to control the rate of hydrogen dissociation.
  • the rate of hydrogen dissociation may be used to control the rate of hydrogen catalysis and the power generated from hydrogen catalysis.
  • the hydrino hydride reactor cell plasma contains ions such as electrons with a range of energies and trajectories (momenta) and randomly distributed phases initially.
  • the present invention further comprises a means of amplification and generation of electromagnetic oscillations from the ions that may be connected with perturbations imposed by an external field on the ions. Induced radiation processes are due to the grouping of ions under the action of an external field such as the appearance of a macroscopic variable current (polarization) with coherent radiation of the resulting packets.
  • the superposition on the external field of the radiated macroscopic current (packets) leads either to an increase in the total electromagnetic energy (induced radiation) or to a reduction of it (absorption).
  • the radiation of interest is not the radiation of individual ions, but a collective phenomenon comprising the coherent radiation of the packets formed in the system of ions under the action of the so called "primary" electromagnetic field introduced from the system from outside.
  • the present invention is an amplifier.
  • coherent radiation is due to the action of the self-consistent field produced by the ions themselves.
  • the present invention is a feedback oscillator.
  • the theory of induced radiation of excited classical oscillators such as ions under the action of an external field and its use in high-frequency electronics is described by A. Gaponov et al. [A. Gaponov, M. I. Petelin, V. K. Yulpatov, Izvestiya VUZ. Radiofizika, Vol.
  • a power converter of the present invention converts the plasma formed in the cell into microwaves which may be rectified to provide DC electrical power.
  • the plasma is in nonthermal equilibrium and comprises the active medium.
  • One skilled in the art of microwave devices uses an active medium which may comprise a nonthermal plasma or an electron beam as a source of microwaves.
  • ions such as electrons which travel predominantly along a desired axis such as the z-axis may be considered a beam in the familiar sense of the operation of microwave devices.
  • an electric or magnetic field may be applied externally to bias the trajectory of the ions along a desired axis.
  • the power converter of the present invention generates high frequency radiation from the energy of the plasma formed in a hydrino hydride reactor.
  • the radiation such as microwaves are coherent.
  • the power converter may generate high frequency electromagnetic radiation by at least one of the mechanisms of Cherenkov or Smith-Purcell radiation, transition radiation, or bremsstrahlung radiation.
  • a review of the mechanism of microwave generation and microwave generators is given by Gold [S. H. Gold, and G. S. Nusinovich, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 68, ( 1 1), November (1997), pp. 3945-3974] which is herein incorporated by reference.
  • the radiation may be from any charged particle.
  • a preferred particle is an electron, but protons or other ions such as ions of the catalyst may be the desired radiating ion of the present power converter.
  • the particle may be specifically given as an electron, but other ions are implicit. And, the description according to the electron also applies to these other ions.
  • the scope to the present invention is not limited to the case of radiation by electrons.
  • the term beam may be used to refer to a packet of radiating ions. In the plasma of the hydrino hydride reactor, packets of ions will exist naturally or they may be created by the application of a biasing or focusing field such as an external electric or magnetic field. The term beam does not limit the scope of the invention which applies to ions of a plasma as well.
  • the radiation process can occur only when the refractive index is large enough: n > c/ v.
  • ⁇ is the angular frequency of the radiation
  • d is the structure period
  • / is the harmonic number
  • k z0 is the wave number of the zeroth order spatial harmonic (- ⁇ /d ⁇ k zQ ⁇ ⁇ /d)
  • the ratio of the coefficients A is determined by the shape of the structure.
  • Electromagnetic radiation from electrons in periodic slow wave structures is known as Smith-Purcell radiation.
  • Cherenkov/Smith-Purcell radiation include traveling-wave tubes (TWT) and backward-wave oscillators (BWOs).
  • TWT traveling-wave tubes
  • BWOs backward-wave oscillators
  • Cross-field devices such as magnetrons differ from linear- beam devices such as TWTs and BWOs in that they convert the potential energy of electrons into microwave power as the electrons drift from the cathode to the anode. Nevertheless, they can be treated as Cherenkov devices because the electron drift velocity in the crossed external electric and magnetic fields, v dr , is close to the phase velocity of a slow electromagnetic wave.
  • Transition radiation occurs when electrons pass through a border between two media with different refractive indices, or through some perturbation in the medium such as conducting grids or plates. In radio-frequency tubes, these perturbations are grids. In microwave tubes such as klystrons, they are short- gap cavities, within which the microwave fields are localized. Klystrons are the most common type of device based on coherent transition radiation from electrons.
  • a typical klystron amplifier consists of one or more cavities, separated by drift spaces, that are used to form electron bunches from an initially uniform electron flow by modulating the electron velocity using the axial electric fields of a transverse magnetic (TM) mode, followed by an output cavity that produces coherent radiation by decelerating the electron bunches.
  • TM transverse magnetic
  • Certain devices based on a transversely scanning electron beam also belong to the family of devices based on transition radiation. These devices are generally referred to as “scanning- beam” or “deflection-modulated” devices. Like klystrons, these devices include an input cavity where electrons are modulated by the input signal, a drift space free from microwaves, and an output cavity in which the electron beam is decelerated by microwave fields. However, unlike klystrons, axial bunching is not involved. Instead, an initially linear electron beam is deflected by the transverse fields of a rotating RF mode in a scanning resonator.
  • the direction of the deflection rotates at the RF frequency.
  • the transverse deflection produces a transverse displacement of the electron beam, which then enters the output cavity at an off-axis position that traverses a circle about the axis at the RF frequency.
  • the output cavity contains a mode whose phase velocity about the axis is synchronous with the scanning motion of the electron beam.
  • the transverse size of the beam in the output cavity is much smaller than the radiation wavelength, all electrons will see approximately the same phase of the rotating mode, creating the potential for a highly efficient interaction.
  • the gyrocon based on the transverse deflection of the beam by the RF magnetic field of a rotating TM no mode is capable of reaching efficiencies of 80%-90%.
  • radiation is by a bremsstrahlung mechanism which occurs when electrons oscillate in external magnetic or electric fields.
  • the radiated waves can be either fast (i.e. v ⁇ > c) or slow.
  • fast waves have real transverse wave numbers, which means that the waves are not localized near the walls of the microwave structure.
  • the interaction space can be extended in the transverse direction, which makes the use of fast waves especially advantageous for extraction of power from the hydrino hydride reactor of the present invention since the use of large wave-guide or cavity cross sections increases the reaction volume.
  • the radiating ions e.g. electrons
  • Coherent bremsstrahlung can occur when electron oscillations are induced either in constant or periodic fields.
  • the best known devices in which electrons oscillate in a constant magnetic field are the cyclotron resonance masers (CRMs).
  • CCMs cyclotron resonance masers
  • a survey of the electron cyclotron maser is given by Hirshfield [J. L. Hirshfield, V. L. Granatstein, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-25, No. 6, June, (1967), pp.
  • the electron bunching can be due to the effects of the EM field on both the axial velocity of the electrons v. which is present in the Doppler term, and on the oscillation frequency ⁇ since both cause changes in the phase relationship between the oscillating electrons and the wave.
  • changes in electron energy cause opposite changes in the Doppler term and in the electron cyclotron frequency (which is inversely proportional to the energy due to relativistic effects on the ion mass).
  • This effect is known as autoresonance.
  • the autoresonance condition (also call the synchronous case) is derived by Roberts and Buchsbaum [C. S. Roberts and S.
  • n > ⁇ the wave is more B than E, and the magnetically produced Doppler shift is the prime resonance destroyer. If n ⁇ ⁇ , the wave is more E than B, and the gain in mass is predominant. In either case the angle ⁇ between E and v ⁇ , which initially was ⁇ , changes with time until it finally becomes acute. When this happens, both effects reverse; the electron now loses energy, and the magnetic force has a component antiparallel to B and k_. This situation is maintained until ⁇ once again becomes obtuse, and the electron reverts to gaining energy. This alternate acceleration and deceleration of the electron by the E of the wave accounts for the periodicity of the dependence of energy on time.
  • a CRM may be designed to operate using either fast or slow waves.
  • slow-wave CRMs the dominant effect is the axial bunching due to the changes in the Doppler term; while for fast-wave CRMs, the dominant effect is the orbital bunching caused by the relativistic dependence of the electron cyclotron frequency on the electron energy.
  • Cyclotron masers in which this mutual compensation of these two mechanisms of electron bunching is significant are called cyclotron c autoresonance masers (CARMs).
  • CARMs cyclotron c autoresonance masers
  • a preferred cavity cyclotron resonance maser of the present invention for autoresonance operation is one that permits the electromagnetic wave to propagate in the direction of the static magnetic field with a phase velocity equal to the speed of light.
  • the number of natural modes with high Q of the cavity is low.
  • Preferred high Q modes of a cyclotron resonance maser waveguide and resonator cavity are TE 0] are TE-,, , respectively.
  • the gyrotron is a CRM in which a beam of ions
  • a single-cavity gyrotron oscillator is often referred to as a gyromonotron.
  • Gyrodevices like linear- beam devices, have many variants which are given by Gold [S. H. Gold, and G. S. Nusinovich, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 68, (11), November (1997), pp. 3945-3974] which is incorporated herein by reference.
  • ⁇ is the frequency of the electron oscillations
  • s the resonant harmonic number
  • ⁇ the frequency of the electromagnetic wave
  • k z is the phase velocity of the electromagnetic wave in the z-direction
  • v_ is the electron drift velocity in the z-direction.
  • There are many ways to provide macroscopic oscillatory motion of electrons i.e. to make them travel along periodic trajectories). Homogenous fields, fields inhomogeneous in the direction transverse to the electron drift, or periodic static fields may be used. In
  • any stationary electron beam only creates a static field by itself.
  • the influence of an electromagnetic wave on the beam gives rise to alternating currents which can lead to stimulated emission and absorption, thereby either increasing or decreasing the wave energy.
  • One mechanism to provide stimulated cyclotron radiation over stimulated absorption is associated with the relativistic dependence of the cyclotron frequency upon the electron energy.
  • a second mechanism is associated with the inhomogeneity of the alternating electromagnetic field. The first mechanism leads to azimuthal bunching of gyrating electrons. The second one gives rise to their longitudinal bunching.
  • the devices based on the induced cyclotron radiation of transiting electron beams are called cyclotron resonance masers (CRMs).
  • the plasma produced by the reactor of the present invention may have a large drift velocity dispersion. Therefore, the cyclotron resonance line would be severely Doppler broadened and, hence, would make it impossible to satisfy the resonance condition Eq. (67) for all electrons.
  • refers to the direction parallel to the applied magnetic field.
  • the subscript _L refers to the direction perpendicular to the applied magnetic field.
  • a wave of this sort is a superposition of uniform plane waves propagating in directions almost perpendicular to B).
  • Such an arrangement may be realized in a waveguide of gently varying cross section at a frequency close to cutoff, for example, in a quasi-optical open resonator.
  • the CRMs in which the interaction of helical electron beams with electromagnetic waves takes place in nearly uniform waveguides near their cutoff frequencies are called gyrotrons.
  • a gyrotron is described by Flyagin [V. A. Flyagin, A. V. Gaponov, M. I.
  • An embodiment of the hydrino hydride reactor may produce relativistic electrons, or electrons of a plasma produced by the catalysis of hydrogen may be accelerated to relativistic energies by an external field such as an applied electric field.
  • an external field such as an applied electric field.
  • the resonance between the decelerating electrons and the EM wave can be maintained by tapering the external fields that determine the oscillation frequency, ⁇ (i.e., the strength of the guide magnetic field and/or by the profiling of the walls of the microwave structure that determine the axial wave number k. in Eq. (67).
  • This embodiment is based on the initial formation of an electron bunch in the first section of the interaction region in which the external fields and the structure parameters are constant. Then this section is followed by the second stage in which these parameters are properly tapered for significant resonant deceleration of the bunch trapped by the large amplitude wave.
  • cyclotron resonance masers are based on coherent radiation of electromagnetic waves by electrons rotating in the homogeneous external magnetic field.
  • a slightly inhomogeneous external magnetic field may be used to improve the interaction efficiency in the most popular variety of CRMs, the gyrotron with a weakly relativistic electron beam as described by Nusinovich [G. S. Nusinovich, Phys. Fluids B, Vol. 4,
  • T — is the transit time of electrons passing through the v. interaction space of the length L with the axial velocity v..
  • N — is a large number of electron orbits in the interaction space.
  • Relativistic gyrotrons and cyclotron autoresonance masers are described by Bratman et al., Sprangle at al., and Petelin [V. L. Bratman, N. S. Ginzburg, G. S. Nusinovich, M. I. Petelin, and P. S. Strelkov, Int. J. Electronics, Vol. 51, No. 4, (1981), pp. 541-567; P. Sprangle and A. T. Drobot, IEEE
  • a variable magnetic field may be used to decelerate electrons trapped by the electromagnetic wave and thus increase the interaction efficiency.
  • the phase of electrons interacting with the traveling wave may be focused which is the inverse of the well-known method of synchronous particle acceleration in synchrotrons and resonance linear accelerators.
  • FIGURE 5 shows the most popular configuration of the gyrotron, namely, the axisymmetric gyrotron.
  • the symmetry originates with the solenoid 504 creating the magnetic field. Due to this symmetry, the cathode 502 may provide an electric field to provide a drift for an intense flow of plasma electrons. The flow undergoes compression by the magnetic field which increases in the direction from the cathode to the interaction space.
  • the compression section represents a reversed magnetic mirror ("corkless magnetic bottle") where the initial plasma and cathode orbital velocity of electrons v L grows according to the
  • the power converter may comprise a stack of parallel gyrotron cavities wherein the magnetic field parallel to the z-axis is provided by two strips of permanent magnets at the cathode and anode ends of the stack that are perpendicular to the z-axis.
  • the magnetic field may be increased and made more uniform in each cavity by use of a magnetic circuit in the region outside of the cavities. Such use of magnetic circuits is known by one skilled in the art.
  • the electrodynamic system has a gently varying cross section, with different sections functioning as the interaction space (open cavity), output, and input apertures.
  • the diffraction output aperture for the RF power (through the end of the open cavity) allows mode selection; thus, keeping the RF loading on the output window at a moderate level.
  • N is the length of the cavity
  • Q is the quality factor of the cavity
  • W ⁇ — )J
  • dxdydz is the RF energy stored in the cavity
  • P ⁇ is the power of the flowing plasma electrons
  • ⁇ is the fraction of the electron's energy given up to the RF field, i.e. the efficiency of the gyrotron.
  • the efficiency may be greater than several tens of percent.
  • the efficiency of any gyrotron may be increased by optimization of the electrodynamic system profile and of the longitudinal distribution of the magnetic field as described by Gaponov [A. V. Gaponov, M. I. Petelin, and V. K. Yulpatov, "The induced radiation of excited classical oscillators and its use in high frequency electronics," Radiophysics and Quantum Electronics, Vol. 10, (1967), pp. 794-813] which is herein incorporated by reference.
  • the power converter is a gyrotron since it has advantages over other types of CRMs for converting a plasma generated by the catalysis of hydrogen into coherent microwaves.
  • the interaction can take place in a smooth metal waveguide and does not require the periodic variation of the waveguide wall that is required to support slow waves as in the case of TWT microwave tubes, for example.
  • Fast waves have real transverse wave numbers, which means that the waves are not localized near the walls of the microwave structure.
  • the interaction space can be extended in the transverse direction, which makes the use of fast waves especially advantageous for extraction of power from the hydrino hydride reactor of the present invention since the use of large wave-guide or cavity cross sections increases the reaction volume.
  • the radiating ions e.g. electrons
  • a gyrotron is capable of a high efficiency for nonrelativistic electrons with a high velocity dispersion with arbitrary orientation with respect to the applied magnetic field and may be operated plasma filled which is the case of the present invention.
  • the number of electron orbits required for efficient bunching and deceleration of electrons can be large, which means that the resonant interaction has narrow bandwidth, and that the RF field may have moderate amplitudes which avoids breakdown.
  • the power converter is designed such that the generator in which the nonuniform waveguide is excited near its cutoff frequency is stable with respect to the electron velocity dispersion with low electron energies.
  • the generator may comprise an open-end rectangular cross-section cavity wherein the length of the cavity is much greater than the wavelength such as described by Gaponov [A. V. Gaponov, A. L. Goldenberg, D. P. Grigor'ev, I. M. Orlova, T. B. Pankratova, and M. I. Petelin, JETP Letters, Vol. 2, (1965), pp. 267-269] which is herein incorporated by reference.
  • the TE 0 mode (with one longitudinal variation of the RF field) is preferably excited in the generator.
  • the plasma power is run such that the device operates above its self-excitation threshold.
  • the power is efficiently extracted from the electrons by the RF field and transferred to the load with an output waveguide that tightly couples the cavity to the load.
  • the coupling may be achieved by using a cavity with a diffraction output for the RF field.
  • One of the ways to form a narrow radiation directivity pattern at the output of the gyrotron is the use of wave transformer in the form of the corrugated waveguide. Such a transformer may be used in a gyrotron with the 7E I3I mode for the transformation of the output wave to the TE n wave, for example.
  • a time dependent voltage is generated in at least one coil 78 oriented such that its plane is perpendicular to the magnetic flux provided by a source of applied magnetic field 73.
  • a magnetic induction power received by the at least one coil 78 is received by electrical load 79.
  • the plasma generated by the catalysis reaction is modulated in intensity with time.
  • the modulation is sinusoidal. More preferably, the modulation is a sinusoid at 60 Hz.
  • the intensity of the plasma is modulated by modulating an applied electric field with a source 76 which alters the catalysis rate.
  • the applied flux may be essentially constant in time. Ions formed via the power released by the catalysis of hydrogen follow a circular orbit about the magnetic flux lines at the cyclotron frequency given by Eq. (36).
  • the moving ions gives rise to a current given by Eq. (49).
  • the number of ions is time harmonic with a frequency of ⁇ E due to the modulation of the applied field at this frequency.
  • the modulation forces the catalysis rate and the number of ions to have the same frequency.
  • the total power P TE from the time dependent intensity of orbiting ions due to the applied magnetic flux and modulated rate controlling electric field is given by
  • V is the maximum sinusoidal voltage produced by the magnetic induction due to the time dependent ion current and R is the resistance of the receiving coil in a plane perpendicular to the constant applied magnetic flux.
  • A is the area of the receiving coil perpendicular to the sinusoidal flux B t ( ⁇ created by the sinusoidal current produced by the orbiting ions.
  • the magnetic flux 5,(t) may be determined from the contribution of each ion orbiting the applied constant magnetic flux B .
  • Each ion gives rise to a loop current.
  • the magnetic moment m of a current loop with current and area a is m - ia ( 87 )
  • the magnetic flux along the z-axis B.(t) due to a dipole of magnetic moment m oriented in the z direction is
  • the total maximum time dependent current I(t) from the orbiting ions is given by summing over the contributions of all of the ions.
  • the total maximum sinusoidal current is give by the number of ions N times the current from each ion.
  • the total sinusoidal current is
  • N may be given by Eq. (50).
  • the total time dependent flux from the orbiting ions is given by summing over the contributions of all of the ions.
  • the total sinusoidal flux is given by the number of ions times the flux from each ion. From Eq. (89) and Eq. (90), the total sinusoidal flux is
  • V. ⁇ n ⁇ ⁇ eN ⁇ - ⁇ c ⁇ —z 2 A . ⁇ 1 ⁇ - ⁇ 0 — ⁇ E -eN ⁇ c c -Az 2 ( n 94 , ,)
  • the power from cyclotron radiation given by Eq. (46) versus the power from modulating the plasma given by Eq. (95) may be compared by taking the ratio of the two powers
  • the wavenumber k is given by Eq. (48).
  • the plasma temperature is 12,000 K
  • the hydrogen pressure is 1 torr
  • the cell volume is one liter
  • the cell temperature is 1000 K
  • AE is the ionization of atomic hydrogen ( 13.6 eV)
  • the applied constant magnetic flux is 0.1 tesla
  • the applied electric field corresponding to P TE is modulated at 60 Hz
  • r. the distance from a magnetic dipole to the receiving coil corresponding to P TE , is approximated by an average value of 0.1 m
  • the resistance of the receiving coil corresponding to P TE is 100 ohms
  • the ratio of P ⁇ to P TE (Eq. (96)) is where Eqs.
  • the received power P TE may be increased by increasing the number of loops of the receiving coil since the magnetic induction voltage is proportional to the number of loops; however, the receiving coil resistance R also increases which decreases the received magnetic induction power.
  • the plasma intensity modulation frequency ⁇ E may also be increased to increase P_ T.E r .- Since the plasma is produced by hydrogen catalysis, the maximum frequency of ⁇ E is determined by the maximum frequency of the hydrogen catalysis reaction response to the modulating field electric field. The limit on ⁇ E is also determined by the capacitance and inductance of the cell that sets a limit on the time constant to establish the modulating electric field.
  • Photovoltaic Power Converter In addition to heat engine converters such as Sterling engines, thermionic converters, thermoelectric converters, conversion systems comprising gas and steam turbines, Rankine cycle devices, and Brayton cycle devices, and conventional magnetohydrodynamic systems, the power from catalysis may be converted to electricity using photovoltaics.
  • a photovoltaic power system comprising a hydride reactor of FIGURE 1 is shown in FIGURE 2.
  • a plasma is created of the gas in the cell 52 due to the power released by catalysis.
  • the light emission such as extreme ultraviolet, ultraviolet, and visible light may be converted to electrical power using photovoltaic receivers 81 which receive the light emitted from the cell and directly convert it to electrical power.
  • the power converter comprises at least two electrodes 81 that are physically separated in the cell and comprise conducting materials of different Fermi energies or ionization energies.
  • the power from catalysis causes ionization at one electrode to a greater extent relative to the at least one other electrode such that a voltage exists between the at least two electrodes.
  • the voltage is applied to a load 80 to remove electrical power from the cell.
  • the converter comprises two such electrodes which are at relative opposite sides of the cell.

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Abstract

La présente invention concerne une source de puissance, un convertisseur de puissance et un générateur de radiofréquences et de micro-ondes. La source de puissance comprend une cellule permettant de catalyser l'hydrogène atomique pour libérer de l'énergie et pour former de nouvelles espèce d'hydrogène et de compositions de matière renfermant de nouvelles formes d'hydrogène. Ces composés comprennent au moins une espèce d'hydrogène neutre, positive ou négative pourvue d'une énergie de liaison supérieure à celle de sa propre espèce d'hydrogène ordinaire correspondante, ou supérieure à n'importe quelle espèce d'hydrogène pour laquelle l'espèce d'hydrogène ordinaire correspondante est instable ou n'est pas observée. L'énergie libérée par la catalyse de l'hydrogène produit un plasma dans la cellule, tel que le plasma du catalyseur et de l'hydrogène. Le convertisseur de puissance et le générateur de radiofréquences et de micro-ondes comprend une source de champ magnétique appliqué à la cellule. Les électrons et ions du plasma gravitent autour d'un trajet circulaire situé dans un plan transversal au champ magnétique appliqué pour obtenir une intensité de champ suffisante à une fréquence cyclotronique d'ions φc qui est indépendante de la vitesse de l'ion. Les ions émettent un rayonnement électromagnétique avec une intensité maximale à la fréquence cyclotronique. La puissance contenue dans la cellule est convertie en rayonnement électromagnétique cohérent. Un générateur préféré de micro-ondes cohérentes est un gyrotron. Le rayonnement électromagnétique tel que les micro-ondes émises par les ions est reçu par au moins une antenne de réception résonante du convertisseur de puissance puis injecté à une charge électrique comme par exemple une charge résistive ou rayonnée telle qu'une source de radiofréquences ou de micro-ondes. En outre, on peut moduler le signal radiofréquences ou micro-ondes pendant la diffusion en régulant l'intensité du plasma en fonction du temps, ou en régulant le signal de manière électronique.
PCT/US2000/020820 1999-09-08 2000-09-08 Convertisseur de puissance cyclotronique des ions et generateur de radiofrequences et de micro-ondes WO2001022472A2 (fr)

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US60/176,502 2000-01-18
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Cited By (4)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US7188033B2 (en) 2003-07-21 2007-03-06 Blacklight Power Incorporated Method and system of computing and rendering the nature of the chemical bond of hydrogen-type molecules and molecular ions
US7689367B2 (en) 2004-05-17 2010-03-30 Blacklight Power, Inc. Method and system of computing and rendering the nature of the excited electronic states of atoms and atomic ions
US7773656B1 (en) 2003-10-24 2010-08-10 Blacklight Power, Inc. Molecular hydrogen laser
CN114441506A (zh) * 2022-04-08 2022-05-06 港湾之星健康生物(深圳)有限公司 量子磁光传感器

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WO2014064692A1 (fr) * 2012-10-24 2014-05-01 H2 Energy Now Système de génération d'énergie d'hydrogène à partir d'eau

Citations (1)

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Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
WO1992010838A1 (fr) * 1990-12-12 1992-06-25 Randell Lee Mills Procedes et structures de conversion de l'energie/de la matiere

Patent Citations (1)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
WO1992010838A1 (fr) * 1990-12-12 1992-06-25 Randell Lee Mills Procedes et structures de conversion de l'energie/de la matiere

Cited By (4)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US7188033B2 (en) 2003-07-21 2007-03-06 Blacklight Power Incorporated Method and system of computing and rendering the nature of the chemical bond of hydrogen-type molecules and molecular ions
US7773656B1 (en) 2003-10-24 2010-08-10 Blacklight Power, Inc. Molecular hydrogen laser
US7689367B2 (en) 2004-05-17 2010-03-30 Blacklight Power, Inc. Method and system of computing and rendering the nature of the excited electronic states of atoms and atomic ions
CN114441506A (zh) * 2022-04-08 2022-05-06 港湾之星健康生物(深圳)有限公司 量子磁光传感器

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WO2001022472A8 (fr) 2002-02-21
AU2723301A (en) 2001-04-24

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