US20240011100A1 - Large-scale epigenomic reprogramming links anabolic glucose metabolism to distant metastasis during the evolution of pancreatic cancer progression - Google Patents

Large-scale epigenomic reprogramming links anabolic glucose metabolism to distant metastasis during the evolution of pancreatic cancer progression Download PDF

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US20240011100A1
US20240011100A1 US18/229,064 US202318229064A US2024011100A1 US 20240011100 A1 US20240011100 A1 US 20240011100A1 US 202318229064 A US202318229064 A US 202318229064A US 2024011100 A1 US2024011100 A1 US 2024011100A1
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Oliver McDonald
Xin Li
Christine A. Iacobuzio-Donahue
Andrew P. Feinberg
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Johns Hopkins University
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Definitions

  • the invention relates generally to genetic analysis and more specifically to cancer and the epigenetic influence on progression and metastases of cancer.
  • pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma During the evolutionary progression of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), heterogeneous subclonal populations emerge that drive primary tumor growth, regional spread, distant metastasis, and patient death.
  • PDAC pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma
  • the genetics of metastases largely reflects that of the primary tumor in untreated patients, and PDAC driver mutations are shared by all subclones. This raises the possibility that an epigenetic process might be operative during metastasis.
  • Genome-wide mapping revealed that these global changes were targeted to thousands of large chromatin domains across the genome that collectively specified malignant traits, including euchromatin and large organized chromatin K9-modified (LOCK) heterochromatin.
  • LOCK large organized chromatin K9-modified
  • LOCK chromatin K9-modified
  • oxPPP pentose phosphate pathway
  • oxPPP inhibition selectively reversed reprogrammed chromatin and blocked tumorigenic potential.
  • divergent metabolic, epigenetic, and tumorigenic programs emerged during the evolution of pancreatic cancer progression.
  • PDAC Despite significant progress in survival rates for most human cancers, PDAC remains nearly universally lethal with survival rates of 8%. In fact, PDAC is projected to be the second-leading cause of cancer deaths in the western world by 2020.
  • Primary PDACs have been shown to contain distinct subclonal populations. However, these subclones share identical driver mutations and the genetics of metastases largely reflects that of the primary tumor. Furthermore, subclones are defined genetically by their unique progressor mutations, the vast majority if not all of which are thought to be passenger events. This raises questions as to what mechanisms might drive progression and metastasis during the natural history of disease evolution.
  • epigenomic regulation One prometastatic candidate is epigenomic regulation.
  • the inventors wished to investigate the role of large-scale epigenomic changes during PDAC subclonal evolution and distant metastasis, especially within heterochromatin domains including large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks.
  • K heterochromatin lysine
  • LOCKs heterochromatin lysine
  • These regions could represent selectable targets for large-scale epigenetic reprogramming, since they occupy over half of the genome, partially overlap with one another, and are found in many human cancers including PDAC. It was therefore hypothesized that epigenomic dysregulation within these regions could be a major selective force for tumor progression, given the lack of any consistent metastasis-specific driver mutations.
  • the present invention relates to a method of identifying targets for epigenetic reprogramming comprising detecting large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks in a sample containing DNA from a subject having cancer.
  • the method applies to a subject that has or is at risk of having PDAC and/or metastasis thereof.
  • the detection comprises analysis of H3K9Me2/3 and/or H4K20Me3.
  • the detection comprises analysis of H3K27Ac and/or H3K9Ac.
  • the invention provides for the use of differentially expressed genes to identify metastatic propensity in primary tumors, wherein the genes are selected from genes in the Tables herein, oxidative stress genes, EMT genes, immunological response genes, DNA repair genes, glucose metabolism genes, oxPPP genes, and PGD genes.
  • the invention provides a method for identifying agents or compounds to affect epigenomic changes, including inhibition of oxPPP comprising analyzing a sample from a subject before and after contacting with the agent or compound and determining the effect of the agent or compound on the epigenomic changes.
  • FIGS. 1 A- 1 E relate to global epigenetic reprogramming during the evolution of distant metastasis.
  • FIG. 1 A is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1 B is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1 C is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1 D is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1 E is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1 F is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 1 G is a series of graphical representations data.
  • FIGS. 2 A- 2 E relate to epigenomic reprogramming of chromatin domains during PDAC subclonal evolution.
  • FIG. 2 A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 2 B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 2 C is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 2 D is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 2 E is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIGS. 3 A- 3 G relate to reprogrammed chromatin domains encoding divergent malignant properties.
  • FIG. 3 A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 3 B is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 3 C is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 3 D is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 3 E is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 3 F is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 3 G is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 4 A- 4 F relate to hyperactive glucose metabolism and 6PG depletion in distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 4 A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 4 B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 4 C is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 4 D is a schematic diagram.
  • FIG. 4 E is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 4 F is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIGS. 5 A- 5 D relate to PGD-dependence in distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 5 A is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 5 B is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 5 C is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 5 D is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 6 A- 6 F relate to reversal of reprogrammed chromatin, tumorigenicity, and malignant gene expression programs by 6AN.
  • FIG. 6 A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 6 B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 6 C is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 6 D is a series of images and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 6 E is a series of graphical plots.
  • FIG. 6 F is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 7 A- 7 C relate to reprogrammed chromatin across distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 7 A is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 7 B is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 7 C is a series of western blot images.
  • FIGS. 8 A- 8 E relate to specificity of reprogrammed histone modifications.
  • FIG. 8 A is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 8 B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 8 C is a table.
  • FIG. 8 D is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 8 E is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 9 is a series of graphical plots relating to enrichment of heterochromatin modifications within LOCKs.
  • FIGS. 10 A- 10 B relate to reprogramming of H3K9Me3 in LOCKs during PDAC subclonal evolution.
  • FIG. 10 A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 10 B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIGS. 11 A- 11 B relate to local reprogramming of DE gene loci within LOCKs.
  • FIG. 11 A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 11 B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 12 is a series of graphical plots relating to enrichment of euchromatin modifications within ECDs.
  • FIGS. 13 A- 13 E relate to reprogramming of large LOCKs during PDAC evolution.
  • FIG. 13 A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 13 B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 13 C is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 13 D is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 13 E is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIGS. 14 A- 14 F relate to malignant heterogeneity between A38 subclones.
  • FIG. 14 A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 14 B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 14 C is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 14 D is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 14 E is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 14 F is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 15 A- 15 C relate to rearrangements targeted to Large LOCKS and ECDs.
  • FIG. 15 A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 15 B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 15 C is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIGS. 16 A- 16 B relate to enhanced glucose metabolism with depleted 6PG levels across distant metastases.
  • FIG. 16 A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 16 B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIGS. 17 A- 17 C relate to 6AN targeting of glucose metabolism and the PGD step of the PPP.
  • FIG. 17 A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 17 B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 17 C is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIGS. 18 A- 18 C relate to 6AN selectively modulation of the reprogrammed chromatin state of distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 18 A is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 18 B is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 18 C is a series of western blot images.
  • FIGS. 19 A- 19 D relate to 6AN regulated gene expression in LOCK-EI regions.
  • FIG. 19 A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 19 B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 19 C is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 19 D is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIGS. 20 A- 20 C relate to 6AN selectively blocked tumor formation in distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 20 A is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 20 B is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 20 C is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 21 A- 21 C relates to reprogramming of the TOP2B locus in response to 6AN.
  • FIG. 21 A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 21 B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 21 C is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 22 is a screen shot illustrating data directly linking loss of large-scale heterochromatic regions as described herein to increased variability of gene expression, allowing for increased phenotypic plasticity.
  • An example is a gene SHC4 that is involved in ERK signaling and tumor invasion and metastasis. Its expression variability statistical index measured by single cell RNA experiments is +1.12 in the A38-5 (epigenomically altered, distant metastatic) line in the paper, and ⁇ 2.68 in the corresponding A38-41 (epigenomically stable, locally invasive) line, with a FDR p value of 0.00.
  • FIG. 22 represents the data showing the loss of LOCKs over the gene in 38-5.
  • the present invention is based on the seminal discovery that a prometastatic candidate is epigenomic regulation.
  • the invention is based on discovery of the role of large-scale epigenomic changes during PDAC subclonal evolution and distant metastasis, especially within heterochromatin domains including large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks.
  • K heterochromatin lysine
  • LOCKs large DNA hypomethylated blocks.
  • These regions represent selectable targets for large-scale epigenetic reprogramming, since they occupy over half of the genome, partially overlap with one another, and are found in many human cancers including PDAC.
  • the inventors therefore hypothesized that epigenomic dysregulation within these regions could be a major selective force for tumor progression, given the lack of any consistent metastasis-specific driver mutations.
  • the present invention provides a method of identifying targets for epigenetic reprogramming comprising detecting large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks in a sample containing DNA from a subject having cancer.
  • the method applies to a subject that has or is at risk of having PDAC and/or metastasis thereof.
  • the detection comprises analysis of H3K9Me2/3 and/or H4K20Me3.
  • reprogramming is intended to refer to a process that alters or reverses the differentiation status of a somatic cell that is either partially or terminally differentiated.
  • Reprogramming of a somatic cell may be a partial or complete reversion of the differentiation status of the somatic cell.
  • reprogramming is complete wherein a somatic cell is reprogrammed into an iPS cell.
  • reprogramming may be partial, such as reversion into any less differentiated state. For example, reverting a terminally differentiated cell into a cell of a less differentiated state, such as a multipotent cell.
  • pluripotent cells include cells that have the potential to divide in vitro for an extended period of time (greater than one year) and have the unique ability to differentiate into cells derived from all three embryonic germ layers, namely endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm.
  • Somatic cells for use with the present invention may be primary cells or immortalized cells.
  • Such cells may be primary cells (non-immortalized cells), such as those freshly isolated from an animal, or may be derived from a cell line (immortalized cells).
  • the somatic cells are mammalian cells, such as, for example, human cells or mouse cells. They may be obtained by well-known methods, from different organs, such as, but not limited to skin, brain, lung, pancreas, liver, spleen, stomach, intestine, heart, reproductive organs, bladder, kidney, urethra and other urinary organs, or generally from any organ or tissue containing living somatic cells, or from blood cells.
  • Mammalian somatic cells useful in the present invention include, by way of example, adult stem cells, sertoli cells, endothelial cells, granulosa epithelial cells, neurons, pancreatic islet cells, epidermal cells, epithelial cells, hepatocytes, hair follicle cells, keratinocytes, hematopoietic cells, melanocytes, chondrocytes, lymphocytes (B and T lymphocytes), erythrocytes, macrophages, monocytes, mononuclear cells, fibroblasts, cardiac muscle cells, other known muscle cells, and generally any live somatic cells.
  • fibroblasts are used.
  • somatic cell is also intended to include adult stem cells.
  • An adult stem cell is a cell that is capable of giving rise to all cell types of a particular tissue.
  • Exemplary adult stem cells include hematopoietic stem cells, neural stem cells, and mesenchymal stem cells.
  • alterations in methylation patterns occur during differentiation or dedifferentiation of a cell which work to regulate gene expression of critical factors that are ‘turned on’ or ‘turned off’ at various stages of differentiation.
  • agents are capable of altering the methylation status of one or more nucleic acid sequences of a somatic cell to induce pluripotency that may be suitable for use with the present invention.
  • an agent is intended to include any agent capable of altering the methylation status of one or more nucleic acid sequences of a somatic cell.
  • an agent useful in any of the method of the invention may be any type of molecule, for example, a polynucleotide, a peptide, a peptidomimetic, peptoids such as vinylogous peptoids, chemical compounds, such as organic molecules or small organic molecules, or the like.
  • the agent may be a polynucleotide, such as DNA molecule, an antisense oligonucleotide or RNA molecule, such as microRNA, dsRNA, siRNA, stRNA, and shRNA.
  • MicroRNA are single-stranded RNA molecules whose expression is known to be regulated by methylation to play a key role in regulation of gene expression during differentiation and dedifferentiation of cells.
  • an agent may be one that inhibits or induces expression of miRNA or may be a mimic miRNA.
  • miRNAs which are intended to mean a microRNA exogenously introduced into a cell that have the same or substantially the same function as their endogenous counterpart.
  • an agent that alters the methylation status of one or more nucleic acid sequences is a nuclear reprogramming factor.
  • Nuclear reprogramming factors may be genes that induce pluripotency and utilized to reprogram differentiated or semi-differentiated cells to a phenotype that is more primitive than that of the initial cell, such as the phenotype of a pluripotent stem cell.
  • genes and agents are capable of generating a pluripotent stem cell from a somatic cell upon expression of one or more such genes having been integrated into the genome of the somatic cell or upon contact of the somatic cell with the agent or expression product of the gene.
  • a gene that induces pluripotency is intended to refer to a gene that is associated with pluripotency and capable of generating a less differentiated cell, such as a pluripotent stem cell from a somatic cell upon integration and expression of the gene.
  • the expression of a pluripotency gene is typically restricted to pluripotent stem cells and is crucial for the functional identity of pluripotent stem cells.
  • genes have been found to be associated with pluripotency and suitable for use with the present invention as reprogramming factors.
  • Such genes include, by way of example, SOX family genes (SOX′, SOX2, SOX3, SOX15, SOX18), KLF family genes (KLF1, KLF2, KLF4, KLF5), MYC family genes (C-MYC, L-MYC, N-MYC), SALL4, OCT4, NANOG, LIN28, STELLA, NOBOX, POU5F1 or a STAT family gene.
  • STAT family members may include for example STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT4, STAT5 (STAT5A and STAT5B), and STAT6.
  • pluripotency While in some instances, use of only one gene to induce pluripotency may be possible, in general, expression of more than one gene is required to induce pluripotency.
  • two, three, four or more genes may be simultaneously integrated into the somatic cell genome as a polycistronic construct to allow simultaneous expression of such genes.
  • four genes are utilized to induce pluripotency including OCT4, POU5F1, SOX2, KLF4 and C-MYC. Additional genes known as reprogramming factors suitable for use with the present invention are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/997,146 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/289,873, incorporated herein by reference.
  • genes commonly exist in mammals, including human, and thus homologues from any mammals may be used in the present invention, such as genes derived from mammals including, but not limited to mouse, rat, bovine, ovine, horse, and ape.
  • mutant gene products including substitution, insertion, and/or deletion of several (e.g., 1 to 10, 1 to 6, 1 to 4, 1 to 3, and 1 or 2) amino acids and having similar function to that of the wild-type gene products can also be used.
  • the combinations of factors are not limited to the use of wild-type genes or gene products. For example, Myc chimeras or other Myc variants can be used instead of wild-type Myc.
  • a nuclear reprogramming factor may comprise one or more gene products.
  • the nuclear reprogramming factor may also comprise a combination of gene products as discussed herein.
  • Each nuclear reprogramming factor may be used alone or in combination with other nuclear reprogramming factors as disclosed herein.
  • nuclear reprogramming factors of the present invention can be identified by screening methods, for example, as discussed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/997,146, incorporated herein by reference.
  • the nuclear reprogramming factor of the present invention may contain one or more factors relating to differentiation, development, proliferation or the like and factors having other physiological activities, as well as other gene products which can function as a nuclear reprogramming factor.
  • the nuclear reprogramming factor may include a protein or peptide.
  • the protein may be produced from a gene as discussed herein, or alternatively, in the form of a fusion gene product of the protein with another protein, peptide or the like.
  • the protein or peptide may be a fluorescent protein and/or a fusion protein.
  • a fusion protein with green fluorescence protein (GFP) or a fusion gene product with a peptide such as a histidine tag can also be used.
  • fusion protein with the TAT peptide derived from the virus HIV, intracellular uptake of the nuclear reprogramming factor through cell membranes can be promoted, thereby enabling induction of reprogramming only by adding the fusion protein to a medium thus avoiding complicated operations such as gene transduction. Since preparation methods of such fusion gene products are well known to those skilled in the art, skilled artisans can easily design and prepare an appropriate fusion gene product depending on the purpose.
  • the agent alters the methylation status of one or more nucleic acid sequences, such as any gene listed in a Table set forth herein.
  • Expression profiling of reprogrammed somatic cells to assess their pluripotency characteristics may also be conducted. Expression of individual genes associated with pluripotency may also be examined. Additionally, expression of embryonic stem cell surface markers may be analyzed.
  • expression refers to the production of a material or substance as well as the level or amount of production of a material or substance. Thus, determining the expression of a specific marker refers to detecting either the relative or absolute amount of the marker that is expressed or simply detecting the presence or absence of the marker.
  • marker refers to any molecule that can be observed or detected.
  • a marker can include, but is not limited to, a nucleic acid, such as a transcript of a specific gene, a polypeptide product of a gene, a non-gene product polypeptide, a glycoprotein, a carbohydrate, a glycolipd, a lipid, a lipoprotein or a small molecule.
  • a nucleic acid such as a transcript of a specific gene, a polypeptide product of a gene, a non-gene product polypeptide, a glycoprotein, a carbohydrate, a glycolipd, a lipid, a lipoprotein or a small molecule.
  • iPS cells may express any number of pluripotent cell markers, including: alkaline phosphatase (AP); ABCG2; stage specific embryonic antigen-1 (SSEA-1); SSEA-3; SSEA-4; TRA-1-60; TRA-1-81; Tra-2-49/6E; ERas/ECATS, E-cadherin; ⁇ -III-tubulin; ⁇ -smooth muscle actin ( ⁇ -SMA); fibroblast growth factor 4 (Fgf4), Cripto, Dax1; zinc finger protein 296 (Zfp296); N-acetyltransferase-1 (Nat1); ES cell associated transcript 1 (ECAT1); ESG1/DPPA5/ECAT
  • differentiation refers to a change that occurs in cells to cause those cells to assume certain specialized functions and to lose the ability to change into certain other specialized functional units.
  • Cells capable of differentiation may be any of totipotent, pluripotent or multipotent cells. Differentiation may be partial or complete with respect to mature adult cells.
  • “Differentiated cell” refers to a non-embryonic, non-parthenogenetic or non-pluripotent cell that possesses a particular differentiated, i.e., non-embryonic, state.
  • the three earliest differentiated cell types are endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
  • Pluripotency can also be confirmed by injecting the cells into a suitable animal, e.g., a SCID mouse, and observing the production of differentiated cells and tissues. Still another method of confirming pluripotency is using the subject pluripotent cells to generate chimeric animals and observing the contribution of the introduced cells to different cell types. Methods for producing chimeric animals are well known in the art and are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,642,433, incorporated by reference herein.
  • Yet another method of confirming pluripotency is to observe cell differentiation into embryoid bodies and other differentiated cell types when cultured under conditions that favor differentiation (e.g., removal of fibroblast feeder layers).
  • methylation status is converted to an M value.
  • an M value can be a log ratio of intensities from total (Cy3) and McrBC-fractionated DNA (Cy5): positive and negative M values are quantitatively associated with methylated and unmethylated sites, respectively.
  • a DNA block is hypomethylated when less than 50% of the methylation sites analyzed are not methylated. DNA block.
  • Methods for determining methylation states are provided herein and are known in the art.
  • methylation status is converted to an M value.
  • an M value can be a log ratio of intensities from total (Cy3) and McrBC-fractionated DNA (Cy5): positive and negative M values are quantitatively associated with methylated and unmethylated sites, respectively.
  • M values are calculated as described in the Examples. In some embodiments, M values which range from ⁇ 0.5 to 0.5 represent unmethylated sites as defined by the control probes, and values from 0.5 to 1.5 represent baseline levels of methylation.
  • the determining of methylation status in the methods of the invention is performed by one or more techniques selected from the group consisting of a nucleic acid amplification, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), methylation specific PCR, bisulfite pyrosequencing, single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis, restriction analysis, microarray technology, and proteomics.
  • analysis of methylation can be performed by bisulfite genomic sequencing.
  • Bisulfite treatment modifies DNA converting unmethylated, but not methylated, cytosines to uracil.
  • Bisulfite treatment can be carried out using the METHYLEASY bisulfite modification kit (Human Genetic Signatures).
  • bisulfite pyrosequencing which is a sequencing-based analysis of DNA methylation that quantitatively measures multiple, consecutive CpG sites individually with high accuracy and reproducibility, may be used.
  • primers listed above can be used in different pairs.
  • additional primers can be identified within the hypomethylated blocks, especially primers that allow analysis of the same methylation sites as those analyzed with primers that correspond to the primers disclosed herein.
  • Altered methylation can be identified by identifying a detectable difference in methylation. For example, hypomethylation can be determined by identifying whether after bisulfite treatment a uracil or a cytosine is present a particular location. If uracil is present after bisulfite treatment, then the residue is unmethylated. Hypomethylation is present when there is a measurable decrease in methylation.
  • the method for analyzing methylation of a hypomethylated block can include amplification using a primer pair specific for methylated residues within a DMR.
  • selective hybridization or binding of at least one of the primers is dependent on the methylation state of the target DNA sequence (Herman et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93:9821 (1996)).
  • the amplification reaction can be preceded by bisulfite treatment, and the primers can selectively hybridize to target sequences in a manner that is dependent on bisulfite treatment.
  • one primer can selectively bind to a target sequence only when one or more base of the target sequence is altered by bisulfite treatment, thereby being specific for a methylated target sequence.
  • methylation status of a hypomethylated block including, but not limited to, array-based methylation analysis and Southern blot analysis.
  • Methods using an amplification reaction can utilize a real-time detection amplification procedure.
  • the method can utilize molecular beacon technology (Tyagi et al., Nature Biotechnology, 14: 303 (1996)) or TaqmanTM technology (Holland et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:7276 (1991)).
  • methyl light Trinh et al., Methods 25(4):456-62 (2001), incorporated herein in its entirety by reference
  • Methyl Heavy Methyl Heavy
  • SNuPE single nucleotide primer extension
  • selective hybridization or “selectively hybridize” refers to hybridization under moderately stringent or highly stringent physiological conditions, which can distinguish related nucleotide sequences from unrelated nucleotide sequences.
  • the conditions used to achieve a particular level of stringency will vary, depending on the nature of the nucleic acids being hybridized. For example, the length, degree of complementarity, nucleotide sequence composition (for example, relative GC:AT content), and nucleic acid type, for example, whether the oligonucleotide or the target nucleic acid sequence is DNA or RNA, can be considered in selecting hybridization conditions. An additional consideration is whether one of the nucleic acids is immobilized, for example, on a filter. Methods for selecting appropriate stringency conditions can be determined empirically or estimated using various formulas, and are well known in the art (see, e.g., Sambrook et al., supra, 1989).
  • An example of progressively higher stringency conditions is as follows: 2 ⁇ SSC/0.1% SDS at about room temperature (hybridization conditions); 0.2 ⁇ SSC/0.1% SDS at about room temperature (low stringency conditions); 0.2 ⁇ SSC/0.1% SDS at about 42° C. (moderate stringency conditions); and 0.1 ⁇ SSC at about 68° C. (high stringency conditions). Washing can be carried out using only one of these conditions, for example, high stringency conditions, or each of the conditions can be used, for example, for 10 to 15 minutes each, in the order listed above, repeating any or all of the steps listed.
  • the degree of methylation in the DNA associated with the DMRs being assessed may be measured by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) by means of probes which identify and differentiate between genomic DNAs, associated with the DMRs being assessed, which exhibit different degrees of DNA methylation.
  • FISH fluorescent in situ hybridization
  • the biological sample will typically be any which contains sufficient whole cells or nuclei to perform short term culture.
  • the sample will be a sample that contains 10 to 10,000, or, for example, 100 to 10,000, whole cells.
  • methyl light, methyl heavy, and array-based methylation analysis can be performed, by using bisulfate treated DNA that is then PCR-amplified, against microarrays of oligonucleotide target sequences with the various forms corresponding to unmethylated and methylated DNA.
  • nucleic acid molecule is used broadly herein to mean a sequence of deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides that are linked together by a phosphodiester bond. As such, the term “nucleic acid molecule” is meant to include DNA and RNA, which can be single stranded or double stranded, as well as DNA/RNA hybrids.
  • nucleic acid molecule includes naturally occurring nucleic acid molecules, which can be isolated from a cell, as well as synthetic molecules, which can be prepared, for example, by methods of chemical synthesis or by enzymatic methods such as by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and, in various embodiments, can contain nucleotide analogs or a backbone bond other than a phosphodiester bond.
  • PCR polymerase chain reaction
  • polynucleotide and oligonucleotide also are used herein to refer to nucleic acid molecules. Although no specific distinction from each other or from “nucleic acid molecule” is intended by the use of these terms, the term “polynucleotide” is used generally in reference to a nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide, or a peptide portion thereof, whereas the term “oligonucleotide” is used generally in reference to a nucleotide sequence useful as a probe, a PCR primer, an antisense molecule, or the like. Of course, it will be recognized that an “oligonucleotide” also can encode a peptide. As such, the different terms are used primarily for convenience of discussion.
  • a polynucleotide or oligonucleotide comprising naturally occurring nucleotides and phosphodiester bonds can be chemically synthesized or can be produced using recombinant DNA methods, using an appropriate polynucleotide as a template.
  • a polynucleotide comprising nucleotide analogs or covalent bonds other than phosphodiester bonds generally will be chemically synthesized, although an enzyme such as T7 polymerase can incorporate certain types of nucleotide analogs into a polynucleotide and, therefore, can be used to produce such a polynucleotide recombinantly from an appropriate template.
  • the present invention includes kits that are useful for carrying out the methods of the present invention.
  • the components contained in the kit depend on a number of factors, including: the particular analytical technique used to detect methylation or measure the degree of methylation or a change in methylation, and the one or more hypomethylated blocks being assayed for.
  • the present invention provides a kit for determining a methylation status of one or more hypomethylated blocks of the invention.
  • DNA methylation DNA methylation
  • CHARM array-based relative methylation
  • CHARM is 100% specific at 90% sensitivity for known methylation marks identified by other methods (for example, in promoters) and includes the approximately half of the genome not identified by conventional region preselection. The CHARM results were also extensively corroborated by quantitative bisulfate pyrosequencing analysis.
  • methylation density is determined for a region of nucleic acid. Density may be used as an indication of a hypomethylated block region of DNA, for example. A density of about 0.2 to 0.7, about 0.3 to 0.7, 0.3 to 0.6 or 0.3 to 0.4, or 0.3, may be indicative of a hypomethylated block (the calculated DNA methylation density is the number of methylated CpGs divided by the total number of CpGs sequenced for each sample). Methods for determining methylation density are well known in the art. For example, a method for determining methylation density of target CpG islands has been established by Luo et al. Analytical Biochemistry , Vol. 387:2 2009, pp.
  • DNA microarray was prepared by spotting a set of PCR products amplified from bisulfite-converted sample DNAs. This method not only allows the quantitative analysis of regional methylation density of a set of given genes but also could provide information of methylation density for a large amount of clinical samples as well as use in the methods of the invention regarding iPS cell generation and detection. Other methods are well known in the art (e.g., Holemon et al., BioTechniques, 43:5, 2007, pp. 683-693).
  • the present invention is described partly in terms of functional components and various processing steps. Such functional components and processing steps may be realized by any number of components, operations and techniques configured to perform the specified functions and achieve the various results.
  • the present invention may employ various biological samples, biomarkers, elements, materials, computers, data sources, storage systems and media, information gathering techniques and processes, data processing criteria, statistical analyses, regression analyses and the like, which may carry out a variety of functions.
  • the invention is described in the medical diagnosis context, the present invention may be practiced in conjunction with any number of applications, environments and data analyses; the systems described herein are merely exemplary applications for the invention.
  • An exemplary analysis system may be implemented in conjunction with a computer system, for example a conventional computer system comprising a processor and a random access memory, such as a remotely-accessible application server, network server, personal computer or workstation.
  • the computer system also suitably includes additional memory devices or information storage systems, such as a mass storage system and a user interface, for example a conventional monitor, keyboard and tracking device.
  • the computer system may, however, comprise any suitable computer system and associated equipment and may be configured in any suitable manner.
  • the computer system comprises a stand-alone system.
  • the computer system is part of a network of computers including a server and a database.
  • the software required for receiving, processing, and analyzing biomarker information may be implemented in a single device or implemented in a plurality of devices.
  • the software may be accessible via a network such that storage and processing of information takes place remotely with respect to users.
  • the analysis system according to various aspects of the present invention and its various elements provide functions and operations to facilitate biomarker analysis, such as data gathering, processing, analysis, reporting and/or diagnosis.
  • the present analysis system maintains information relating to methylation and samples and facilitates analysis and/or diagnosis.
  • the computer system executes the computer program, which may receive, store, search, analyze, and report information relating to the epigenome.
  • the computer program may comprise multiple modules performing various functions or operations, such as a processing module for processing raw data and generating supplemental data and an analysis module for analyzing raw data and supplemental data to generate a disease status model and/or diagnosis information.
  • the procedures performed by the analysis system may comprise any suitable processes to facilitate analysis and/or disease diagnosis.
  • the analysis system is configured to establish a disease status model and/or determine disease status in a patient. Determining or identifying disease status may comprise generating any useful information regarding the condition of the patient relative to the disease, such as performing a diagnosis, providing information helpful to a diagnosis, assessing the stage or progress of a disease, identifying a condition that may indicate a susceptibility to the disease, identify whether further tests may be recommended, predicting and/or assessing the efficacy of one or more treatment programs, or otherwise assessing the disease status, likelihood of disease, or other health aspect of the patient.
  • the analysis system may also provide various additional modules and/or individual functions.
  • the analysis system may also include a reporting function, for example to provide information relating to the processing and analysis functions.
  • the analysis system may also provide various administrative and management functions, such as controlling access and performing other administrative functions.
  • the analysis system suitably generates a disease status model and/or provides a diagnosis for a patient based on raw biomarker data and/or additional subject data relating to the subjects.
  • the data may be acquired from any suitable biological samples.
  • epigenomic regulation As discussed previously, one prometastatic candidate is epigenomic regulation.
  • K heterochromatin lysine
  • LOCKs heterochromatin lysine
  • These regions could represent selectable targets for large-scale epigenetic reprogramming, since they occupy over half of the genome, partially overlap with one another, and are found in many human cancers including PDAC.
  • K9Me2/3 IHC Diffusely Positive (Founder regional + Primary TP53 Bev. Clone) Distant Tumor SMAD4 metastases A38PrS1 Local- Tissue: KRAS Gem. K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive (Peritoneal regional + Primary TP53 Bev. Precursor Distant Tumor SMAD4 Subclone) metastases A38PrS2 Local- Tissue: KRAS Gem. K9Me2/3 IHC: Positive + Negative (Liver/Lung regional + Primary TP53 Bev. Precursor Distant Tumor SMAD4 Subclone) metastases SMARCA2 c A38Lg1 Local- Tissue: KRAS Gem.
  • K9Me2/3 IHC Diffusely Negative (Metastasis) regional + Lung TP53 Bev. Distant SMAD4 metastases A38Per Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 High (100%, cont.) (Metastasis) regional + Peritoneum TP53 Bev. Western Blot: Distant SMAD4 K9Me2 High (100%, cont.) metastases ChIP-seq: WGBS: High (79%, cont.) AsPC1 d Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 High (102%) (N/A) regional Ascites CDKN2A Western Blot: TP53 SMAD4 HPAFII d Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem.
  • Western blot data reflect densitometry percentages of H3K9Me2 signals relative to A38Per controls (cont.). Western blots are shown in Supplementary FIG. 1 and the absolute densitometry values are shown in FIG. 1g with p-values included in the figure legend.
  • ChIP-seq data reflect percent of LOCK Mb with reduced H3K9Me2 relative to A38Per controls (cont.), as detailed with Mb and RPKM values in Supplementary Data File 2.
  • WGBS data reflect percent of DNA methylation within LOCKs relative to A124Pr controls (tissues) and A38Per controls (cell lines), as detailed in Supplementary FIGS. 1 and 2.
  • H3K9Me2/3 and H4K20Me3 that was coupled to hyper-acetylation of H3K9Ac and H3K27Ac in distant metastases (summarized in FIG. 1 G and Table 1, shown in FIG. 7 B ).
  • H3K9 methylation is critical for encoding heterochromatic epigenetic states over large genomic regions including LOCKs, and H3K27Ac encodes gene regulatory elements.
  • ChIP-seq was performed on sequence-verified cell lines isolated from matched subclones, including a peritoneal metastasis (A38Per) matched to a lung metastasis (A38Lg) from the same patient, and two primary tumor subclones (A13Pr1, A13Pr2) that were also matched to a lung metastasis (A13Lg) from the same patient.
  • A38Per peritoneal metastasis
  • A38Lg lung metastasis
  • A13Pr1, A13Pr2 two primary tumor subclones that were also matched to a lung metastasis from the same patient.
  • heterochromatin domains defined by strong, broad enrichments of H3K9Me2 and H3K27Me3 with depletion of euchromatin modifications ( FIG. 2 A , FIG. 9 , and Supplementary methods).
  • Thousands of heterochromatin domains were detected in each sample (range: 2,008-3,166) and were organized into large block-like segments (median lengths: 232 Kb-311 Kb) that occupied more than half of the genome in each subclone (average: 61.7% of the genome, range: 54.1-71.7%, Supplementary Data 2).
  • Loss of LOCK-wide H3K9Me3 was also detected between the paired primary tumor subclones in patient A13 (106 Mb/118 Mb, 90.0% in A13Pr2 vs. A13Pr1, p ⁇ 2.2e-16), and similar to western blot findings (Supplementary FIG. 1 C ) this change was inherited in the distant metastatic subclone (152 Mb/169 Mb, 90.2% in A13Lg vs. A13Pr1, p ⁇ 2.2e-16). Finally, localized reprogramming events were also detected specifically within chromatin encoding differentially expressed (DE) genes in LOCKs ( FIGS. 11 A- 11 B , Supplementary Data 3).
  • DE differentially expressed
  • LOCKs correspond to a subset of block-like regions that are DNA hypomethylated in pancreatic and other human cancers
  • EMT epithelial and EMT expression changes
  • A38Lg showed loss of phosphorylated ERK ( FIG. 3 E ), resistance to ERK inhibition ( FIG. 3 F ), and minimal response to knockdown of oncogenic KRAS in 3D tumor forming assays ( FIG. 3 G , FIGS. 14 E- 14 F ), despite possessing identical KRAS G12V mutations as A38Per.
  • mapping previously reported rearrangements from this patient to chromatin domains revealed that rearrangements were preferentially targeted to ECDs and the small subset of uniquely reprogrammed large LOCK domains, whereas other LOCKs were strongly depleted ( FIGS. 15 A- 15 C ).
  • Distant metastases also hyper-consumed glucose, as we detected elevated glucose uptake and lactate secretion in distant metastases and their precursors relative to peritoneal carcinomatosis ( FIG. 16 A ).
  • To determine if excess glucose uptake was specifically incorporated into downstream metabolic pathways we selected paired peritoneal and distant metastatic subclones from the same patient, incubated them with 13 C[1-2]-labeled glucose, and measured glucose incorporation into metabolic products with liquid chromatography followed by high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). These experiments revealed elevated incorporation of both C1- and C1,2-labeled glucose into lactate and nucleotides in the distant metastasis ( FIGS. 4 D- 4 E ), consistent with enhanced glucose entry into both glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP).
  • PPP pentose phosphate pathway
  • Glucose may enter the PPP via the oxidative (oxPPP) or the non-oxidative (noxPPP) branch of the pathway, which are thought to be uncoupled.
  • oxPPP oxidative
  • noxPPP non-oxidative
  • Glucose deprivation, RNAi against PGD, and 6-aminonicotinamide (6AN, a nicotinamide antimetabolite prodrug reported to preferentially inhibit PGD) had no effect on global chromatin modifications in the peritoneal subclone, while all treatments reversed the reprogrammed chromatin state of the paired lung metastasis from the same patient ( FIG. 5 A ).
  • PGD loss-of-function appeared specific, as PGD knockdown did not alter expression of KRAS or other PPP components ( FIG. 5 B ).
  • PGD knockdown might affect intrinsic tumor forming capacity across a larger panel of subclones. Despite their aggressive behavior in patients, distant metastatic subclones were unable to effectively form metastatic tumors in immunodeficient mice, and PGD RNAi was not toxic to any subclones grown in routine 2-D cultures (data not shown). To bypass these limitations, we treated cells with RNAi and used 3-D matrigel tumor-forming assays to measure the effects of PGD knockdown on intrinsic tumor-forming capacity. PGD RNAi had minimal effect on the ability of HPDE cells to form spheres or local-regional PDACs to form tumors by these assays ( FIG. 5 C ).
  • PGD RNAi universally interfered with the ability of distant metastatic subclones to form tumors ( FIG. 5 D ). These findings suggested that PGD might represent a therapeutic target with selectivity for PDAC distant metastasis. Because 6AN could represent a lead compound for future design of PGD targeted therapies, we stringently tested it for activity against distant metastases with metabolomics, western blots, multiple 3D tumorigenic assays, RNA-seq, and ChIP experiments.
  • 6AN treatments slowed rates of glucose consumption and lactate secretion with no effect on glutamine consumption or glutamate secretion in distant metastatic and precursor subclones ( FIG. 17 A ), and 6AN reversed the previously detected high incorporation of glucose into lactate and nucleotides ( FIG. 17 B ). Furthermore, steady state levels of glucose and metabolites directly upstream of the PGD reaction were dramatically elevated in response to 6AN with corresponding reductions in downstream metabolites ( FIG. 17 C ), which is consistent with strong PGD inhibition as previously reported by others.
  • 6AN modulated the global epigenetic state, we hypothesized that it might also selectively block tumorigenic potential in distant metastatic subclones, similar to PGD knockdown experiments. Strikingly, 6AN selectively and strongly blocked tumor formation in distant metastatic and primary tumor precursor subclones but not local-regional PDACs across multiple 3D tumorigenic experimental platforms, including suspension tumorsphere assays (Supplementary FIGS. 20 A- 20 C ), matrigel tumor forming assays ( FIG. 6 B ), and injection of PDAC cells into organotypic stroma that recapitulates aspects of in vivo patient tumors ( FIG. 6 C ). Thus, like PGD knockdown, chemical inhibition of PGD by 6AN selectively blocked the tumorigenic potential of distant metastatic subclones.
  • Comparative GO analyses on these gene subsets produced overlapping results that were strongly enriched for cancer-related functions, including mitotic cell cycle control, acetylation, chromosome stability, DNA repair, cell stress responses, and anabolic/biosynthetic activities (Tables 8-10).
  • CDH2 and TOP2B are both thought to be important for cancer progression, are not known to be mutated in PDAC, can be therapeutically targeted, were recurrently over-expressed across distant metastatic and primary tumor precursor subclones by RNA-seq (Supplementary Data 3), and were selectively repressed by 6AN which we confirmed with RT-PCR ( FIG. 6 E top panels).
  • CDH2 was located within a reprogrammed LOCK targeted by 6AN, and TOP2B was located immediately adjacent to a LOCK boundary.
  • ChIP-qPCR assays performed on control and 6AN treated cells showed nearly identical enrichments for H3K9Me2 and H3K27Ac across these gene loci in the peritoneal subclone ( FIG. 6 E left panels and FIG. 21 A ).
  • 6AN treatments on the matched lung metastasis from the same patient resulted in enrichment of H3K9Me2 across both loci with concordant reductions of H3K27Ac over the CDH2 genic region ( FIG. 6 E right panels, FIG. 21 A ).
  • RNAi selectively blocked 3D tumor formation in distant metastatic and precursor subclones that over-expressed CDH2 and TOP2B, with no effect on HPDE cells or peritoneal carcinomatosis ( FIG. 6 F ).
  • FIGS. 1 A- 1 G a global epigenetic reprogramming occurred during the evolution of distant metastasis.
  • the immunohistochemical (IHC) stains against H3K9Me2/3 performed on tumor sections from 6 subclones collected from two patients who presented with widespread peritoneal carcinomatosis (a: patient A124, b: patient A141) showed similar strong nuclear staining across all primary tumor and peritoneal subclones.
  • IHC against the indicated modifications performed on tumor sections representing 4 paired subclones from a patient (patient A38) that presented with both peritoneal carcinomatosis and distant metastases shows that the peritoneal precursor subclone in the primary tumor that seeded carcinomatosis inherited strong nuclear staining of heterochromatin modifications as seen in the parental clone that founded the neoplasm.
  • the primary tumor precursor subclone that seeded distant metastases showed cell-to-cell variation in staining, with complete loss of staining in the paired lung metastasis. Staining for the euchromatin modification H3K36Me3 remained stable across all subclones.
  • reprogrammed chromatin domains encode divergent malignant properties.
  • A38Lg was remarkably resistant to H 2 O 2 treatments compared to A38Per.
  • Western blots for proteins involved in epithelial and EMT differentiation were differentially expressed between A38Per and A38Lg, as predicted by GO analyses of reprogrammed DE genes from LOCKs.
  • A38Lg was completely resistant to gemcitabine compared to A38Per, as predicted by GO analyses of reprogrammed DE genes from ECDs.
  • MTT signals reflect cell viability normalized to untreated controls.
  • n 4 technical replicates, *p ⁇ 0.01.
  • A38Lg possessed elevated levels of yH2AX by western blot, consistent with activation of DNA repair pathways.
  • Western blots showed that A38Lg lost hyper-phosphorylated ERK and f, was resistant to ERK targeted therapy, compared to A38Per.
  • MTT signals reflect cell viability, normalized to untreated controls.
  • n 4 technical replicates, *p ⁇ 0.03.
  • A38Lg also lost sensitivity to KRAS knockdown by Matrigel®3D tumor forming assays, compared to A38Per.
  • n 4 technical replicates, *p ⁇ 0.01.
  • Glucose that enters the oxidative branch of the PPP has one labeled carbon cleaved during conversion of 6PG to Ru5P (m+1), whereas glucose that travels through glycolysis or the non-oxidative PPP retains both labeled carbons (m+2).
  • cross-talk allows glucose with either labeling pattern to re-enter the other pathway and incorporate.
  • Steady state LC-HRMS measurements for 6PG showed either complete (ND: not detected) or near complete loss of metabolite across distant metastases and their precursors compared to peritoneal carcinomatosis and HPDE cells.
  • FIGS. 5 A- 5 D a PGD-dependence in distant metastatic subclones was observed.
  • Western blots against indicated histone modifications performed on paired peritoneal (A38Per) and distant metastatic (A38Lg) subclones from the same patient showed that global levels of reprogrammed H3K9Me2/3 and acetylation in A38Lg were reversed by removal of glucose from the media (left panel), PGD RNAi (middle panel), and 6AN treatments (right panel).
  • Western blots on A38Lg indicated that PGD knockdown by RNAi did not perturb expression of other PPP components or KRAS.
  • FIGS. 7 A- 7 C reprogrammed chromatin across distant metastatic subclones was detected.
  • Western blots showed minimal or inconsistent changes for the indicated histone modifications between local-regional PDAC samples, including A38Per (Per).
  • A38Per Per
  • a panel of distant metastatic subclones showed recurrent changes in specific modifications, compared to A38Per.
  • Reprogramming was also observed between primary tumor subclones (Pr1, Pr2) and the lung met from the same patient.
  • Ki67 stains showed similar cell cycle rates for peritoneal and the matched lung met grown in serum, and serum-free media (SFM) arrested growth. Serial cell counts for the indicated times confirmed equal growth rates and growth arrest in SFM. GO analysis on RNA-seq data from cells cultured in serum vs. SFM further confirmed growth arrest in SFM (lung data, peritoneal gave identical results). Western blots showed persistence of reprogrammed chromatin modifications in serum/proliferative ( ⁇ ) and SFM/growth arrested (+) cells.
  • H3K9Me3 was enriched and DNA hypomethylated in large LOCK domains. Striking reprogramming of H3K9Me3/2 and DNA methylation was detected in a subset of A38 large LOCKs. H3K9Me3 was also enriched across large HPDE LOCKs. Examples of reprogrammed domains between samples were obtained.
  • 6AN targets glucose metabolism and the PGD step of the PPP.
  • 6AN selectively slowed rates of extra-cellular glucose consumption and lactate secretion in metastatic subclones with no effect on glutamine/glutamate.
  • 6AN reduced incorporation of intracellular 013-labeled glucose into metabolites downstream of the PPP.
  • 6AN greatly increased metabolite levels of PGD substrate (6PG) and upstream metabolites (G1,5L) with corresponding reductions in downstream products.
  • 6AN selectively modulated the reprogrammed chromatin state of distant metastatic subclones.
  • 6AN treatments generally increased global H3K9Me2 with corresponding decreased acetylation in distant metastatic subclones. Normal cells and local-regional PDACs did not show such changes. 6AN changes persisted after 3d treatment (+) followed by removal of 6AN from the media (+ ⁇ ) for an additional 3d.
  • FIGS. 19 A- 19 D it was found that 6AN targeted reprogrammed LOCK regions. Mapping 6AN repressed DE genes to A38Lg LOCKs revealed that these were located in reprogrammed LOCK-El regions. ChIP-seq on DMSO vs. 6AN treated A38Lg detected a quantitative increase in LOCK-wide H3K9Me2 from reprogrammed regions (as aligned to A38Per LOCKs). ChIP-seq also detected 6AN-reduced H3K27Ac specifically from genes repressed in LOCKs with unchanged H3K27Me3.
  • RT-qPCR top panels
  • ChIP assays showed that 6AN induced spreading of H3K9Me2 across the locus in the lung metastasis, with no effect on the paired peritoneal subclone.
  • Representative RT-qPCR verified RNAi knockdown of CDH2 and TOP2B with minimal effect on vimentin (normalized to ERK, which was equally expressed across all conditions).
  • evolutionarily divergent subclones from the same patient showed changes in gene expression from reprogrammed regions consistent with their individual malignant properties, including oxidoreductase capacity, differentiation state, chemoresistance, oncogene addiction, and patterns of genome instability.
  • PGD step of the oxPPP controlled aspects of reprogrammed chromatin and tumorigenicity in distant metastatic subclones, as shown by metabolomics, genetic knockdown of PGD, chemical inhibition of PGD, and knockdown of downstream target genes. This strongly suggests that this anabolic glucose pathway was selected during the evolution of distant metastasis to maintain malignant epigenetic state and tumorigenic properties.
  • PGD/oxPPP activity controls global epigenetic state, which are likely to be complex. This could be mediated through any of the known oxPPP-dependent changes in cellular metabolism, including redox balance, fatty acid biosynthesis, and/or ribose biosynthesis, any of which can affect global epigenetic state through control of metabolite cofactors that activate or inhibit entire classes of chromatin modifying enzymes.
  • PGD activity itself is also complex and subject to several modes of regulation, including transcriptional over-expression, post-transcriptional repression, post-translational modification, protein:protein interactions, substrate availability, feedback inhibition, cross-talk with other pathways, and subcellular localization including a highly conserved yet uncharacterized nuclear fraction (C. Lyssiotis, personal communication). PGD-dependence may be selected for by any of these mechanisms during the evolution of distant metastasis in different patients.
  • Tissue samples and cell lines were previously collected from PDAC patients by rapid autopsy, sequenced-validated, and monitored for mycoplasma as previously described.
  • Low passage (2-17) rapid autopsy cell lines were cultured at 37° C. in DMEM with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS, Gibco).
  • FBS fetal bovine serum
  • MTT assays 15,000 cells/well were plated into 96 well plates in triplicate, treated 12 hours later, and assayed after 24 hr (glucose responses) or 6 days (chemotherapy) with CellTiter96 (Promega).
  • glucose response assays nutrient-deplete DMEM (no glucose, glutamine, pyruvate, or serum) was used with addition of glucose as indicated.
  • Glucose uptake and lactate secretion were measured with a YSI 7100 Bioanalyzer as described in the supplementary methods.
  • Histones were acid extracted as described and western blots performed on 3.5 ug histones, which were checked by Ponceau stains prior to western blot to ensure equal loading. Densitometry was performed with ImageJ software. RNA was extracted with Trizol reagent (Life Technologies) and isopropanol precipitated. Genomic DNA was purified with MasterPure DNA extraction reagents (Epicenter). Immunohistochemistry, H&E staining, and immunofluorescence on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue microarray sections (TMAs) were performed according to standard procedures. Antibodies used for western blot, IHC, and ChIP are listed in Table 11.
  • RNAi experiments were performed with siRNA transfections (Oligofectamine, Life Technologies) using negative control siRNA (Sigma, SIC001) and pre-designed siRNA oligonucleotides against indicated genes in parallel (Sigma, PGD: SASI_Hs02_00334150, CDH2: SASI_Hs01_00153995, TOP2B: SASI_Hs02_00311874).
  • siRNAs against mutant KRAS G12V (CUACGCCAACAGCUCCAAC) (SEQ ID NO:1) were custom designed. Cells were incubated with siRNAs for 4 days after transfection and harvested. For drug treatments in 2-D, cells were grown to 70-80% confluency and treated for 3 days with 250 uM 6AN or DMSO negative control.
  • 3-D matrigel assays were adapted from Cheung et al. (Control of alveolar differentiation by the lineage transcription factors GATA6 and HOPX inhibits lung adenocarcinoma metastasis. Cancer Cell 23, 725-38 (2013)). Briefly, 2-D cultures were trypsinized into single cells, 4,000 cells/mL were suspended and thoroughly mixed in ice-cold DMEM containing 5% matrigel (BD systems) and 2% FBS (+/ ⁇ DMSO/6AN as needed), 500 ul plated in quadruplicate into 24 well ultra-low attachment plates and incubated for at least 7 days to allow tumor growth. Well-formed tumors were then counted and representative photographs taken with an EVOS instrument. 3-D suspension tumorsphere assays were performed with 20,000 starting cells/well in ultra-low attachment 6 well plates as described, and tumors counted/photographed after at least 7 days of tumor growth.
  • Organotypic tumor forming assays were adapted from Ridky et al. (P. A. Invasive three-dimensional organotypic neoplasia from multiple normal human epithelia. Nat Med 16, 1450-5 (2010)) and Andl et al. (Epidermal growth factor receptor mediates increased cell proliferation, migration, and aggregation in esophageal keratinocytes in vitro and in vivo. J Biol Chem 278, 1824-30 (2003)). Briefly, 6 well permeable transwell plates (Costar 3414) were overlayed with 1 mL type 1 collagen containing 10 ⁇ DMEM (acellular layer).
  • Human dermal fibroblasts (ATCC) were suspended (12 ⁇ 10 6 cells/mL) in a mixture of ice cold 10 ⁇ DMEM, 10% FBS, 52.5% collagen, and 17.5% matrigel (cellular layer), thoroughly mixed, and 2 mL/well plated over the acellular layer. The mixture was allowed to partially solidify for approximately 15 minutes at 37° C., followed by triplicate injection of 1 ⁇ 10 6 PDAC (suspended in 20 ul DMEM) cells into the cellular layer. Cells were incubated for 24 hours in fibroblast growth media above and below the inserts to initiate contraction of the discs.
  • ATCC Human dermal fibroblasts
  • Fresh media with DMSO or 6AN was then added and replenished every 2 days for 6 additional days, followed by addition of DMEM with DMSO or 6AN underneath the inserts (no media on the top) for an additional 7 days.
  • Discs were harvested, fixed overnight in 10% formalin, thinly sectioned, paraffin embedded, and stained with H&E. Tumors were photographed and measured with an Olympus BX53 microscope using cellSens Standard software.
  • Tests for statistical significance were performed on data collected from technical replicate (performed in parallel at the same time) or biological replicate (performed at different times) experiments as indicated in the figure legends using excel software for western blot densitometry, MTT assays, and tumor measurements.
  • Whole genome bisulfate sequencing and RNA-seq were performed with HiSeq instruments (Illumina) as described in Hansen et al. (Increased methylation variation in epigenetic domains across cancer types. Nat Genet 43, 768-75 (2011)).
  • ChIP assays were performed as previously described for fixed cells with sonication.
  • ChIP-qPCR For ChIP-qPCR, equal amounts of paired input/IP DNA were amplified by real-time PCR (Roche LightCycler96) and fold enrichments calculated. Primer sequences are listed in Supplementary Table 11. For ChIP-seq, immunoprecipitated and input DNA was further sheared to 200-300 bp fragments, size-selected on agarose gels, and sequenced on either HiSeq (Illumina) or SOLiD (Applied Biosystems) formats with comparable results. IP sequencing reads were normalized to their corresponding inputs. Sequencing procedures, bioinformatics methods including domain calls, and statistical analyses are described in detail within the supplementary methods section.
  • LC-HRMS Metabolite Profiling LC-HRMS samples were prepared and analyzed as described in Liu et al. (Development and quantitative evaluation of a high-resolution metabolomics technology. Anal Chem 86, 2175-84 (2014)).
  • glucose tracing experiments cells were plated into 6 well plates in triplicate, grown in DMEM with 10% FBS until 70-80% confluent, washed 2 ⁇ with nutrient deplete DMEM, and incubated in nutrient deplete DMEM containing 10 mM 13 C-1,2 labeled glucose (Cayman) and 10% dialyzed FBS (Invitrogen) for an additional 36 hours. Additional replicates were also included and counted at the end of the experiment for normalization.
  • Metabolism was quenched by quickly removing media and adding 1 mL pre-chilled ( ⁇ 80° C.) LC-MS grade 80% methanol (Sigma), incubated at ⁇ 80° C. for at least 20 minutes, followed by scraping into the methanol and pelleting of metabolites by centrifugation.
  • cells were incubated in standard DMEM+/ ⁇ DMSO/6AN for 36 hours, followed by incubation in labeled glucose media+/ ⁇ DMSO/6AN for an additional 36 hours, quenched and pelleted as above.
  • Pellets were reconstituted in equal volumes of 1:1 LC-MS grade acetonitrile:methanol and water and 5 ul were injected to the LC-QE-MS for analysis.
  • Raw data collected from the LC-QE-MS was processed on Sieve 2.0 (Thermo Scientific) using a targeted frame-seed that included glycolytic/PPP metabolites as required for the analysis.
  • the output file including detected m/z and relative intensity in different samples is obtained after data processing, and replicates of selected metabolites from each sample were graphed and presented as shown in the figures.
  • Sequencing adapters were then ligated onto the DNA for 15 minutes at room temperature followed by cleaning with MiniElute columns. Samples were then run on 2% agarose gels and DNA from 216 bp-366 bp (DNA plus adapters) were cut from the gel and purified with Qiagen Gel extraction kits. Concentrations were then checked on a bioanalyzer and 8 ng were PCR amplified with Phusion polymerase (Fisher) for 15 cycles (10 sec 98° C., 30 sec 65° C., 30 sec 72° C.) followed by 5 minutes at 72° C. Samples were then cleaned with Ampure kits (Illumina) and washed with 80% ethanol.
  • Phusion polymerase Frasher
  • DNA samples were resuspended at the end of the cleanup into 17.5 ul buffer EB (Qiagen) and subjected to next generation sequencing on Illumina HiSeq platform according to manufacturer's instructions.
  • SOLID sequencing ChIP DNA was prepared and samples were processed according to manufacturer's protocols in the Johns Hopkins CRBII core facility.
  • BS-Seq data processing 100 bp paired-end HiSeq2000 sequencing reads were aligned by BSmooth bisulfite alignment pipeline (version 0.7.1) as previously described in Hansen et al. (Increased methylation variation in epigenetic domains across cancer types. Nat Genet 43, 768-75 (2011)). Briefly, reads were aligned by Bowtie2 (version 2.0.1) against human genome (hg19) as well as the lambda phage genome. After alignment, methylation measurements for each CpG were extracted from aligned reads.
  • RNA-Seq data processing 100 bp paired-end HiSeq2000 sequencing reads were aligned against human genome (hg19) by OSA (version 2.0.1) with default parameters. After alignment, only uniquely aligned reads were kept for further analysis. Gene annotation information was downloaded from ENSEMBL (ensembl.com, release 66). Reads count for each gene of all samples were estimated using HTSeq (huber.embl.de/users/anders/HTSeq/doc/overview.html) and then were used to identify differentially expressed (DE) genes using DESeq package. Genes with FDR ⁇ 0.01 and fold-change >1.5 were considered DE genes.
  • Chip-seq data processing For 46 bp paired-end Illumina HiSeq2000 sequencing data, reads were aligned against human genome (hg19) using BWA with default parameters as described in Li et al. (Fast and accurate short read alignment with Burrows-Wheeler transform. Bioinformatics 25, 1754-60 (2009)). After alignment, duplicate reads were removed and only uniquely aligned reads were kept for further analysis. For 48 bp single-end Solid sequencing data, reads were aligned using Bowtie 7 with default parameters and only uniquely aligned reads were kept for further analysis. For narrow histone modification peaks (H3K4Me3 and H3K27Ac), MACS2 were used for peak calling with default parameters 8 .
  • H3K4Me3 and H3K27Ac narrow histone modification peaks
  • H3K36Me3, H3K27me3, and H3K9Me2/3 peak calling was performed using RSEG which is based on hidden Markov model (HMM) and specifically designed for identifying broad histone peaks (see Song et al. (Identifying dispersed epigenomic domains from ChIP-Seq data. Bioinformatics 27, 870-1 (2011))).
  • LOCK domains for heterochromatin modifications (H3K9Me2/H3K27Me3) based on the peak calling results from RSEG. Briefly, peaks shorter than 5 kb were first removed to prevent regions with many nearby, short peaks being called as LOCKs. Then, neighboring peaks with distance less than 20 kb were merged to into one domain. Merged regions greater than 100 Kb identified in both biological replicates were called LOCKs.
  • H3K27Ac alone was sufficient for these calls H3K4Me3 was also used for the initial test dataset with A38Per/Lg, but not required in subsequent datasets (A13Pr1/2, A13Lg). All codes used for domain calls are available upon request.
  • ChIP enrichment was measured and normalized as described in Hawkins et al. (Distinct epigenomic landscapes of pluripotent and lineage-committed human cells. Cell Stem Cell 6, 479-91 (2010)). In brief, the number of reads per kilobase of bin per million reads sequenced was calculated for each ChIP and its input control (denoted as RPKM chip and RPKM input ).
  • Supplementary Data 1 This lists numbers of sequencing reads (total reads and uniquely aligned reads) for all replicate samples for ChIP-seq, WGBS, and RNA-seq experiments and includes correlation coefficients between the replicate samples.
  • Supplementary Data 1A Summary of ChIP-seq reads for all replicate samples
  • Supplementary Data 1B Summary of WGBS reads for all replicate samples
  • Supplementary Data 1C Summary of RNA-seq reads for all replicate samples
  • Supplementary Data 2 This provides summaries of chromatin domain calls for LOCKs, large LOCKs, and ECDs for each sample including median lengths, ranges, % genome coverage, and levels of individual histone modifications in each type of domain. Median lengths, ranges, and % genome coverage for each individual heterochromatin modification individually (irrespective of domain location) is also included.
  • Supplementary Data 2A Summary of large chromatin domains detected by ChIP-seq
  • FIG. 2A H3K9Me2 Reduction Across LOCKs (vs A38Per) K9Me2 p-value Mb K9Me2 Enrichment (RPKM ⁇ A38Per Reduction (vs p-value (Reduced Mb vs Samples (ARPKM) Wilcox Test) A38Per) A38Per, Chi-square Test) A38Per, Peritoneal 0.082 NA (reference) NA (reference) N/A (reference) A38Lg, Lung 0.069 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 763 Mb (52.7%) p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 Metastasis A13Pr1, Primary 0.038 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 1110 Mb (76.6%) p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 Tumor 1 A13Pr2, Primary 0.065 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 286 Mb (19.7%) p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 Tumor 2 A13Lg, Lung 0.048 p ⁇ 2.2
  • Supplementary Data 3B p-values for reprogrammed euchromatin modifications from DE genes
  • FIG. 2E Genes Up-regulated from Euchromatin (vs Peritoneal: A38Per) pvalue K27Ac pvalue K36Me3 Sample (>A38Per Wilcox) (>A38Per Wilcox) A38Lg, Lung Metastasis p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 A13Pr1, Primary Tumor 1 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 A13Pr2, Primary Tumor 2 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 A13Lg, Lung Metastasis p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 p ⁇ 2.2e ⁇ 16 FIG.
  • Supplementary Data 3C p-values for reprogramming of H3K9Me3 across LOCKs
  • Supplementary Data 3D p-values for reprogramming of modifications from LOCK DE genes
  • Supplementary Data 3E p-values for reprogramming across Large LOCK domains
  • FIGS. 13B-13C Reprogramming Across Large LOCK Domains H3K9Me2 (>A38Lg H3K9Me3 ( ⁇ A38Lg DNA Methylation FIG. 13B Wilcox) Wilcox) (>A38Lg Wilcox)
  • FIGS. 19C-19D 6AN Decrease of H3K27Ac Over DE Genes Repressed From LOCKs
  • Supplementary Data 4H Comparison of overlaps between DE genes between matched lung and peritoneal subclones (A38Lg vs. A38Per) and DE genes between control and 6AN treated A38Lg cells.
  • Supplementary Data 41 Comparison of overlaps between recurrent DE genes across all samples (vs. A38Per) and DMSO vs. 6AN treated A38Lg cells

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Abstract

The present invention relates to a method of identifying epigenetic reprogramming. Identifying epigenetic reprogramming comprises detecting large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks in a sample containing DNA from a subject having cancer, for example, PDAC.

Description

    CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
  • This application is a divisional application of U.S. application Ser. No. 16/340,069 filed Apr. 5, 2019, now pending; which is a 35 USC § 371 National Stage application of International Application No. PCT/US2017/055376 filed Oct. 5, 2017, now expired; which claims the benefit under 35 USC § 119(e) to U.S. Application Ser. No. 62/405,155 filed Oct. 6, 2016, now expired. The disclosure of each of the prior applications is considered part of and is incorporated by reference in the disclosure of this application.
    • STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT
  • This invention was made with government support under CA054358, CA140599, CA179991, CA180682 and CA095103 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.
    • INCORPORATION OF SEQUENCE LISTING
  • The material in the accompanying sequence listing is hereby incorporated by reference into this application. The accompanying sequence listing .xml file, named JHU4080-2_ST26.xml, was created on Jul. 19, 2023 and is 55,580 bytes in size.
    • BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention
  • The invention relates generally to genetic analysis and more specifically to cancer and the epigenetic influence on progression and metastases of cancer.
    • Background Information
  • During the evolutionary progression of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), heterogeneous subclonal populations emerge that drive primary tumor growth, regional spread, distant metastasis, and patient death. However, the genetics of metastases largely reflects that of the primary tumor in untreated patients, and PDAC driver mutations are shared by all subclones. This raises the possibility that an epigenetic process might be operative during metastasis. Here we detected striking epigenetic reprogramming of global chromatin modifications during the natural evolutionary history of distant metastasis. Genome-wide mapping revealed that these global changes were targeted to thousands of large chromatin domains across the genome that collectively specified malignant traits, including euchromatin and large organized chromatin K9-modified (LOCK) heterochromatin. Parallel to these changes, distant metastases co-evolved a dependence on the oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway (oxPPP), and oxPPP inhibition selectively reversed reprogrammed chromatin and blocked tumorigenic potential. Thus, divergent metabolic, epigenetic, and tumorigenic programs emerged during the evolution of pancreatic cancer progression.
  • Despite significant progress in survival rates for most human cancers, PDAC remains nearly universally lethal with survival rates of 8%. In fact, PDAC is projected to be the second-leading cause of cancer deaths in the western world by 2020. Primary PDACs have been shown to contain distinct subclonal populations. However, these subclones share identical driver mutations and the genetics of metastases largely reflects that of the primary tumor. Furthermore, subclones are defined genetically by their unique progressor mutations, the vast majority if not all of which are thought to be passenger events. This raises questions as to what mechanisms might drive progression and metastasis during the natural history of disease evolution.
  • One prometastatic candidate is epigenomic regulation. In particular, the inventors wished to investigate the role of large-scale epigenomic changes during PDAC subclonal evolution and distant metastasis, especially within heterochromatin domains including large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks. These regions could represent selectable targets for large-scale epigenetic reprogramming, since they occupy over half of the genome, partially overlap with one another, and are found in many human cancers including PDAC. It was therefore hypothesized that epigenomic dysregulation within these regions could be a major selective force for tumor progression, given the lack of any consistent metastasis-specific driver mutations.
    • SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
  • The present invention relates to a method of identifying targets for epigenetic reprogramming comprising detecting large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks in a sample containing DNA from a subject having cancer. For example, the method applies to a subject that has or is at risk of having PDAC and/or metastasis thereof. In one aspect, the detection comprises analysis of H3K9Me2/3 and/or H4K20Me3. In another aspect, the detection comprises analysis of H3K27Ac and/or H3K9Ac.
  • In another embodiment, the invention provides for the use of differentially expressed genes to identify metastatic propensity in primary tumors, wherein the genes are selected from genes in the Tables herein, oxidative stress genes, EMT genes, immunological response genes, DNA repair genes, glucose metabolism genes, oxPPP genes, and PGD genes.
  • In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for identifying agents or compounds to affect epigenomic changes, including inhibition of oxPPP comprising analyzing a sample from a subject before and after contacting with the agent or compound and determining the effect of the agent or compound on the epigenomic changes.
    • BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
  • FIGS. 1A-1E relate to global epigenetic reprogramming during the evolution of distant metastasis.
  • FIG. 1A is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1B is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1C is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1D is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1E is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 1F is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 1G is a series of graphical representations data.
  • FIGS. 2A-2E relate to epigenomic reprogramming of chromatin domains during PDAC subclonal evolution.
  • FIG. 2A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 2B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 2C is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 2D is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 2E is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIGS. 3A-3G relate to reprogrammed chromatin domains encoding divergent malignant properties.
  • FIG. 3A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 3B is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 3C is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 3D is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 3E is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 3F is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 3G is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 4A-4F relate to hyperactive glucose metabolism and 6PG depletion in distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 4A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 4B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 4C is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 4D is a schematic diagram.
  • FIG. 4E is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 4F is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIGS. 5A-5D relate to PGD-dependence in distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 5A is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 5B is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 5C is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 5D is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 6A-6F relate to reversal of reprogrammed chromatin, tumorigenicity, and malignant gene expression programs by 6AN.
  • FIG. 6A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 6B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 6C is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 6D is a series of images and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 6E is a series of graphical plots.
  • FIG. 6F is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 7A-7C relate to reprogrammed chromatin across distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 7A is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 7B is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 7C is a series of western blot images.
  • FIGS. 8A-8E relate to specificity of reprogrammed histone modifications.
  • FIG. 8A is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 8B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 8C is a table.
  • FIG. 8D is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 8E is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 9 is a series of graphical plots relating to enrichment of heterochromatin modifications within LOCKs.
  • FIGS. 10A-10B relate to reprogramming of H3K9Me3 in LOCKs during PDAC subclonal evolution.
  • FIG. 10A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 10B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIGS. 11A-11B relate to local reprogramming of DE gene loci within LOCKs.
  • FIG. 11A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 11B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 12 is a series of graphical plots relating to enrichment of euchromatin modifications within ECDs.
  • FIGS. 13A-13E relate to reprogramming of large LOCKs during PDAC evolution.
  • FIG. 13A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 13B is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 13C is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 13D is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 13E is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIGS. 14A-14F relate to malignant heterogeneity between A38 subclones.
  • FIG. 14A is a graphical representation of data.
  • FIG. 14B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 14C is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 14D is a series of immunohistochemical stains.
  • FIG. 14E is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 14F is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 15A-15C relate to rearrangements targeted to Large LOCKS and ECDs.
  • FIG. 15A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 15B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 15C is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIGS. 16A-16B relate to enhanced glucose metabolism with depleted 6PG levels across distant metastases.
  • FIG. 16A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 16B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIGS. 17A-17C relate to 6AN targeting of glucose metabolism and the PGD step of the PPP.
  • FIG. 17A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 17B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 17C is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIGS. 18A-18C relate to 6AN selectively modulation of the reprogrammed chromatin state of distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 18A is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 18B is a series of western blot images.
  • FIG. 18C is a series of western blot images.
  • FIGS. 19A-19D relate to 6AN regulated gene expression in LOCK-EI regions.
  • FIG. 19A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 19B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 19C is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 19D is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIGS. 20A-20C relate to 6AN selectively blocked tumor formation in distant metastatic subclones.
  • FIG. 20A is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 20B is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIG. 20C is a series of images of tumor forming assays and related graphical plots.
  • FIGS. 21A-21C relates to reprogramming of the TOP2B locus in response to 6AN.
  • FIG. 21A is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 21B is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 21C is a series of graphical representations of data.
  • FIG. 22 is a screen shot illustrating data directly linking loss of large-scale heterochromatic regions as described herein to increased variability of gene expression, allowing for increased phenotypic plasticity. An example is a gene SHC4 that is involved in ERK signaling and tumor invasion and metastasis. Its expression variability statistical index measured by single cell RNA experiments is +1.12 in the A38-5 (epigenomically altered, distant metastatic) line in the paper, and −2.68 in the corresponding A38-41 (epigenomically stable, locally invasive) line, with a FDR p value of 0.00. FIG. 22 represents the data showing the loss of LOCKs over the gene in 38-5.
    •  DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
  • The present invention is based on the seminal discovery that a prometastatic candidate is epigenomic regulation. The invention is based on discovery of the role of large-scale epigenomic changes during PDAC subclonal evolution and distant metastasis, especially within heterochromatin domains including large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks. These regions represent selectable targets for large-scale epigenetic reprogramming, since they occupy over half of the genome, partially overlap with one another, and are found in many human cancers including PDAC. The inventors therefore hypothesized that epigenomic dysregulation within these regions could be a major selective force for tumor progression, given the lack of any consistent metastasis-specific driver mutations.
  • Before the present systems and methods are described, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to particular systems, methods, and experimental conditions described, as such systems, methods, and conditions may vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for purposes of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be limited only in the appended claims.
  • As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, references to “the method” includes one or more methods, and/or steps of the type described herein which will become apparent to those persons skilled in the art upon reading this disclosure and so forth.
  • Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the invention, the preferred methods and materials are now described.
  • The present invention provides a method of identifying targets for epigenetic reprogramming comprising detecting large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks in a sample containing DNA from a subject having cancer. For example, the method applies to a subject that has or is at risk of having PDAC and/or metastasis thereof. In one aspect, the detection comprises analysis of H3K9Me2/3 and/or H4K20Me3.
  • As used herein, reprogramming, is intended to refer to a process that alters or reverses the differentiation status of a somatic cell that is either partially or terminally differentiated. Reprogramming of a somatic cell may be a partial or complete reversion of the differentiation status of the somatic cell. In an exemplary aspect, reprogramming is complete wherein a somatic cell is reprogrammed into an iPS cell. However, reprogramming may be partial, such as reversion into any less differentiated state. For example, reverting a terminally differentiated cell into a cell of a less differentiated state, such as a multipotent cell.
  • As used herein, pluripotent cells include cells that have the potential to divide in vitro for an extended period of time (greater than one year) and have the unique ability to differentiate into cells derived from all three embryonic germ layers, namely endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm.
  • Somatic cells for use with the present invention may be primary cells or immortalized cells. Such cells may be primary cells (non-immortalized cells), such as those freshly isolated from an animal, or may be derived from a cell line (immortalized cells). In an exemplary aspect, the somatic cells are mammalian cells, such as, for example, human cells or mouse cells. They may be obtained by well-known methods, from different organs, such as, but not limited to skin, brain, lung, pancreas, liver, spleen, stomach, intestine, heart, reproductive organs, bladder, kidney, urethra and other urinary organs, or generally from any organ or tissue containing living somatic cells, or from blood cells. Mammalian somatic cells useful in the present invention include, by way of example, adult stem cells, sertoli cells, endothelial cells, granulosa epithelial cells, neurons, pancreatic islet cells, epidermal cells, epithelial cells, hepatocytes, hair follicle cells, keratinocytes, hematopoietic cells, melanocytes, chondrocytes, lymphocytes (B and T lymphocytes), erythrocytes, macrophages, monocytes, mononuclear cells, fibroblasts, cardiac muscle cells, other known muscle cells, and generally any live somatic cells. In particular embodiments, fibroblasts are used. The term somatic cell, as used herein, is also intended to include adult stem cells. An adult stem cell is a cell that is capable of giving rise to all cell types of a particular tissue. Exemplary adult stem cells include hematopoietic stem cells, neural stem cells, and mesenchymal stem cells.
  • As discussed herein, alterations in methylation patterns occur during differentiation or dedifferentiation of a cell which work to regulate gene expression of critical factors that are ‘turned on’ or ‘turned off’ at various stages of differentiation. As such, one of skill in the art would appreciate that many types of agents are capable of altering the methylation status of one or more nucleic acid sequences of a somatic cell to induce pluripotency that may be suitable for use with the present invention.
  • An agent, as used herein, is intended to include any agent capable of altering the methylation status of one or more nucleic acid sequences of a somatic cell. For example, an agent useful in any of the method of the invention may be any type of molecule, for example, a polynucleotide, a peptide, a peptidomimetic, peptoids such as vinylogous peptoids, chemical compounds, such as organic molecules or small organic molecules, or the like. In various aspects, the agent may be a polynucleotide, such as DNA molecule, an antisense oligonucleotide or RNA molecule, such as microRNA, dsRNA, siRNA, stRNA, and shRNA.
  • MicroRNA (miRNA) are single-stranded RNA molecules whose expression is known to be regulated by methylation to play a key role in regulation of gene expression during differentiation and dedifferentiation of cells. Thus, an agent may be one that inhibits or induces expression of miRNA or may be a mimic miRNA. As used herein, “mimic” microRNAs which are intended to mean a microRNA exogenously introduced into a cell that have the same or substantially the same function as their endogenous counterpart.
  • In various aspects of the present invention, an agent that alters the methylation status of one or more nucleic acid sequences is a nuclear reprogramming factor. Nuclear reprogramming factors may be genes that induce pluripotency and utilized to reprogram differentiated or semi-differentiated cells to a phenotype that is more primitive than that of the initial cell, such as the phenotype of a pluripotent stem cell. Those skilled in the art would understand that such genes and agents are capable of generating a pluripotent stem cell from a somatic cell upon expression of one or more such genes having been integrated into the genome of the somatic cell or upon contact of the somatic cell with the agent or expression product of the gene. As used herein, a gene that induces pluripotency is intended to refer to a gene that is associated with pluripotency and capable of generating a less differentiated cell, such as a pluripotent stem cell from a somatic cell upon integration and expression of the gene. The expression of a pluripotency gene is typically restricted to pluripotent stem cells and is crucial for the functional identity of pluripotent stem cells.
  • Several genes have been found to be associated with pluripotency and suitable for use with the present invention as reprogramming factors. Such genes are known in the art and include, by way of example, SOX family genes (SOX′, SOX2, SOX3, SOX15, SOX18), KLF family genes (KLF1, KLF2, KLF4, KLF5), MYC family genes (C-MYC, L-MYC, N-MYC), SALL4, OCT4, NANOG, LIN28, STELLA, NOBOX, POU5F1 or a STAT family gene. STAT family members may include for example STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT4, STAT5 (STAT5A and STAT5B), and STAT6. While in some instances, use of only one gene to induce pluripotency may be possible, in general, expression of more than one gene is required to induce pluripotency. For example, two, three, four or more genes may be simultaneously integrated into the somatic cell genome as a polycistronic construct to allow simultaneous expression of such genes. In an exemplary aspect, four genes are utilized to induce pluripotency including OCT4, POU5F1, SOX2, KLF4 and C-MYC. Additional genes known as reprogramming factors suitable for use with the present invention are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/997,146 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/289,873, incorporated herein by reference.
  • All of these genes commonly exist in mammals, including human, and thus homologues from any mammals may be used in the present invention, such as genes derived from mammals including, but not limited to mouse, rat, bovine, ovine, horse, and ape. Further, in addition to wild-type gene products, mutant gene products including substitution, insertion, and/or deletion of several (e.g., 1 to 10, 1 to 6, 1 to 4, 1 to 3, and 1 or 2) amino acids and having similar function to that of the wild-type gene products can also be used. Furthermore, the combinations of factors are not limited to the use of wild-type genes or gene products. For example, Myc chimeras or other Myc variants can be used instead of wild-type Myc.
  • The present invention is not limited to any particular combination of nuclear reprogramming factors. As discussed herein a nuclear reprogramming factor may comprise one or more gene products. The nuclear reprogramming factor may also comprise a combination of gene products as discussed herein. Each nuclear reprogramming factor may be used alone or in combination with other nuclear reprogramming factors as disclosed herein. Further, nuclear reprogramming factors of the present invention can be identified by screening methods, for example, as discussed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/997,146, incorporated herein by reference. Additionally, the nuclear reprogramming factor of the present invention may contain one or more factors relating to differentiation, development, proliferation or the like and factors having other physiological activities, as well as other gene products which can function as a nuclear reprogramming factor.
  • The nuclear reprogramming factor may include a protein or peptide. The protein may be produced from a gene as discussed herein, or alternatively, in the form of a fusion gene product of the protein with another protein, peptide or the like. The protein or peptide may be a fluorescent protein and/or a fusion protein. For example, a fusion protein with green fluorescence protein (GFP) or a fusion gene product with a peptide such as a histidine tag can also be used. Further, by preparing and using a fusion protein with the TAT peptide derived from the virus HIV, intracellular uptake of the nuclear reprogramming factor through cell membranes can be promoted, thereby enabling induction of reprogramming only by adding the fusion protein to a medium thus avoiding complicated operations such as gene transduction. Since preparation methods of such fusion gene products are well known to those skilled in the art, skilled artisans can easily design and prepare an appropriate fusion gene product depending on the purpose.
  • In certain embodiments, the agent alters the methylation status of one or more nucleic acid sequences, such as any gene listed in a Table set forth herein.
  • Expression profiling of reprogrammed somatic cells to assess their pluripotency characteristics may also be conducted. Expression of individual genes associated with pluripotency may also be examined. Additionally, expression of embryonic stem cell surface markers may be analyzed. As used herein, “expression” refers to the production of a material or substance as well as the level or amount of production of a material or substance. Thus, determining the expression of a specific marker refers to detecting either the relative or absolute amount of the marker that is expressed or simply detecting the presence or absence of the marker. As used herein, “marker” refers to any molecule that can be observed or detected. For example, a marker can include, but is not limited to, a nucleic acid, such as a transcript of a specific gene, a polypeptide product of a gene, a non-gene product polypeptide, a glycoprotein, a carbohydrate, a glycolipd, a lipid, a lipoprotein or a small molecule.
  • Detection and analysis of a variety of genes known in the art to be associated with pluripotent stem cells may include analysis of genes such as, but not limited to OCT4, NANOG, SALL4, SSEA-1, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, or a combination thereof iPS cells may express any number of pluripotent cell markers, including: alkaline phosphatase (AP); ABCG2; stage specific embryonic antigen-1 (SSEA-1); SSEA-3; SSEA-4; TRA-1-60; TRA-1-81; Tra-2-49/6E; ERas/ECATS, E-cadherin; β-III-tubulin; γ-smooth muscle actin (γ-SMA); fibroblast growth factor 4 (Fgf4), Cripto, Dax1; zinc finger protein 296 (Zfp296); N-acetyltransferase-1 (Nat1); ES cell associated transcript 1 (ECAT1); ESG1/DPPA5/ECAT2; ECAT3; ECAT6; ECAT7; ECAT8; ECAT9; ECAT10; ECAT15-1; ECAT15-2; Fth117; Sa114; undifferentiated embryonic cell transcription factor (Utf1); Rex1; p53; G3PDH; telomerase, including TERT; silent X chromosome genes; Dnmt3a; Dnmt3b; TRIM28; F-box containing protein (Fbx15); Nanog/ECAT4; Oct3/4; Sox2; Klf4; c-Myc; Esrrb; TDGF1; GABRB3; Zfp42, FoxD3; GDF3; CYP25A1; developmental pluripotency-associated 2 (DPPA2); T-cell lymphoma breakpoint 1 (Tcl1); DPPA3/Stella; DPPA4; as well as other general markers for pluripotency, for example any genes used during induction to reprogram the cell. iPS cells can also be characterized by the down-regulation of markers characteristic of the differentiated cell from which the iPS cell is induced.
  • As used herein, “differentiation” refers to a change that occurs in cells to cause those cells to assume certain specialized functions and to lose the ability to change into certain other specialized functional units. Cells capable of differentiation may be any of totipotent, pluripotent or multipotent cells. Differentiation may be partial or complete with respect to mature adult cells.
  • “Differentiated cell” refers to a non-embryonic, non-parthenogenetic or non-pluripotent cell that possesses a particular differentiated, i.e., non-embryonic, state. The three earliest differentiated cell types are endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
  • Pluripotency can also be confirmed by injecting the cells into a suitable animal, e.g., a SCID mouse, and observing the production of differentiated cells and tissues. Still another method of confirming pluripotency is using the subject pluripotent cells to generate chimeric animals and observing the contribution of the introduced cells to different cell types. Methods for producing chimeric animals are well known in the art and are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,642,433, incorporated by reference herein.
  • Yet another method of confirming pluripotency is to observe cell differentiation into embryoid bodies and other differentiated cell types when cultured under conditions that favor differentiation (e.g., removal of fibroblast feeder layers).
  • In various aspects of the invention, methylation status is converted to an M value. As used herein an M value, can be a log ratio of intensities from total (Cy3) and McrBC-fractionated DNA (Cy5): positive and negative M values are quantitatively associated with methylated and unmethylated sites, respectively.
  • In various aspects of the invention large hypomethylated blocks are identified Hypomethylation is present when there is a measurable decrease in methylation. In some embodiments, a DNA block is hypomethylated when less than 50% of the methylation sites analyzed are not methylated. DNA block. Methods for determining methylation states are provided herein and are known in the art. In some embodiments methylation status is converted to an M value. As used herein an M value, can be a log ratio of intensities from total (Cy3) and McrBC-fractionated DNA (Cy5): positive and negative M values are quantitatively associated with methylated and unmethylated sites, respectively. M values are calculated as described in the Examples. In some embodiments, M values which range from −0.5 to 0.5 represent unmethylated sites as defined by the control probes, and values from 0.5 to 1.5 represent baseline levels of methylation.
  • Numerous methods for analyzing methylation status of a gene are known in the art and can be used in the methods of the present invention to identify either hypomethylation or hypermethylation of the one or more DMRs. In various embodiments, the determining of methylation status in the methods of the invention is performed by one or more techniques selected from the group consisting of a nucleic acid amplification, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), methylation specific PCR, bisulfite pyrosequencing, single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis, restriction analysis, microarray technology, and proteomics. As illustrated in the Examples herein, analysis of methylation can be performed by bisulfite genomic sequencing. Bisulfite treatment modifies DNA converting unmethylated, but not methylated, cytosines to uracil. Bisulfite treatment can be carried out using the METHYLEASY bisulfite modification kit (Human Genetic Signatures).
  • In some embodiments, bisulfite pyrosequencing, which is a sequencing-based analysis of DNA methylation that quantitatively measures multiple, consecutive CpG sites individually with high accuracy and reproducibility, may be used.
  • It will be recognized that depending on the site bound by the primer and the direction of extension from a primer, that the primers listed above can be used in different pairs. Furthermore, it will be recognized that additional primers can be identified within the hypomethylated blocks, especially primers that allow analysis of the same methylation sites as those analyzed with primers that correspond to the primers disclosed herein.
  • Altered methylation can be identified by identifying a detectable difference in methylation. For example, hypomethylation can be determined by identifying whether after bisulfite treatment a uracil or a cytosine is present a particular location. If uracil is present after bisulfite treatment, then the residue is unmethylated. Hypomethylation is present when there is a measurable decrease in methylation.
  • In an alternative embodiment, the method for analyzing methylation of a hypomethylated block can include amplification using a primer pair specific for methylated residues within a DMR. In these embodiments, selective hybridization or binding of at least one of the primers is dependent on the methylation state of the target DNA sequence (Herman et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93:9821 (1996)). For example, the amplification reaction can be preceded by bisulfite treatment, and the primers can selectively hybridize to target sequences in a manner that is dependent on bisulfite treatment. For example, one primer can selectively bind to a target sequence only when one or more base of the target sequence is altered by bisulfite treatment, thereby being specific for a methylated target sequence.
  • Other methods are known in the art for determining methylation status of a hypomethylated block, including, but not limited to, array-based methylation analysis and Southern blot analysis.
  • Methods using an amplification reaction, for example methods above for detecting hypomethylation or hypermethylation of one or more hypomethylated blocks, can utilize a real-time detection amplification procedure. For example, the method can utilize molecular beacon technology (Tyagi et al., Nature Biotechnology, 14: 303 (1996)) or Taqman™ technology (Holland et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:7276 (1991)).
  • Also methyl light (Trinh et al., Methods 25(4):456-62 (2001), incorporated herein in its entirety by reference), Methyl Heavy (Epigenomics, Berlin, Germany), or SNuPE (single nucleotide primer extension) (see e.g., Watson et al., Genet Res. 75(3):269-74 (2000)) Can be used in the methods of the present invention related to identifying altered methylation of DMRs.
  • As used herein, the term “selective hybridization” or “selectively hybridize” refers to hybridization under moderately stringent or highly stringent physiological conditions, which can distinguish related nucleotide sequences from unrelated nucleotide sequences.
  • As known in the art, in nucleic acid hybridization reactions, the conditions used to achieve a particular level of stringency will vary, depending on the nature of the nucleic acids being hybridized. For example, the length, degree of complementarity, nucleotide sequence composition (for example, relative GC:AT content), and nucleic acid type, for example, whether the oligonucleotide or the target nucleic acid sequence is DNA or RNA, can be considered in selecting hybridization conditions. An additional consideration is whether one of the nucleic acids is immobilized, for example, on a filter. Methods for selecting appropriate stringency conditions can be determined empirically or estimated using various formulas, and are well known in the art (see, e.g., Sambrook et al., supra, 1989).
  • An example of progressively higher stringency conditions is as follows: 2×SSC/0.1% SDS at about room temperature (hybridization conditions); 0.2×SSC/0.1% SDS at about room temperature (low stringency conditions); 0.2×SSC/0.1% SDS at about 42° C. (moderate stringency conditions); and 0.1×SSC at about 68° C. (high stringency conditions). Washing can be carried out using only one of these conditions, for example, high stringency conditions, or each of the conditions can be used, for example, for 10 to 15 minutes each, in the order listed above, repeating any or all of the steps listed.
  • The degree of methylation in the DNA associated with the DMRs being assessed, may be measured by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) by means of probes which identify and differentiate between genomic DNAs, associated with the DMRs being assessed, which exhibit different degrees of DNA methylation. FISH is described, for example, in de Capoa et al. (Cytometry. 31:85-92, 1998) which is incorporated herein by reference. In this case, the biological sample will typically be any which contains sufficient whole cells or nuclei to perform short term culture. Usually, the sample will be a sample that contains 10 to 10,000, or, for example, 100 to 10,000, whole cells.
  • Additionally, as mentioned above, methyl light, methyl heavy, and array-based methylation analysis can be performed, by using bisulfate treated DNA that is then PCR-amplified, against microarrays of oligonucleotide target sequences with the various forms corresponding to unmethylated and methylated DNA.
  • The term “nucleic acid molecule” is used broadly herein to mean a sequence of deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides that are linked together by a phosphodiester bond. As such, the term “nucleic acid molecule” is meant to include DNA and RNA, which can be single stranded or double stranded, as well as DNA/RNA hybrids. Furthermore, the term “nucleic acid molecule” as used herein includes naturally occurring nucleic acid molecules, which can be isolated from a cell, as well as synthetic molecules, which can be prepared, for example, by methods of chemical synthesis or by enzymatic methods such as by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and, in various embodiments, can contain nucleotide analogs or a backbone bond other than a phosphodiester bond.
  • The terms “polynucleotide” and “oligonucleotide” also are used herein to refer to nucleic acid molecules. Although no specific distinction from each other or from “nucleic acid molecule” is intended by the use of these terms, the term “polynucleotide” is used generally in reference to a nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide, or a peptide portion thereof, whereas the term “oligonucleotide” is used generally in reference to a nucleotide sequence useful as a probe, a PCR primer, an antisense molecule, or the like. Of course, it will be recognized that an “oligonucleotide” also can encode a peptide. As such, the different terms are used primarily for convenience of discussion.
  • A polynucleotide or oligonucleotide comprising naturally occurring nucleotides and phosphodiester bonds can be chemically synthesized or can be produced using recombinant DNA methods, using an appropriate polynucleotide as a template. In comparison, a polynucleotide comprising nucleotide analogs or covalent bonds other than phosphodiester bonds generally will be chemically synthesized, although an enzyme such as T7 polymerase can incorporate certain types of nucleotide analogs into a polynucleotide and, therefore, can be used to produce such a polynucleotide recombinantly from an appropriate template.
  • In another aspect, the present invention includes kits that are useful for carrying out the methods of the present invention. The components contained in the kit depend on a number of factors, including: the particular analytical technique used to detect methylation or measure the degree of methylation or a change in methylation, and the one or more hypomethylated blocks being assayed for.
  • Accordingly, the present invention provides a kit for determining a methylation status of one or more hypomethylated blocks of the invention.
  • To examine DNA methylation (DNAm) on a genome-wide scale, comprehensive high-throughput array-based relative methylation (CHARM) analysis, which is a microarray-based method agnostic to preconceptions about DNAm, including location relative to genes and CpG content was carried out. The resulting quantitative measurements of DNAm, denoted with M, are log ratios of intensities from total (Cy3) and McrBC-fractionated DNA (Cy5): positive and negative M values are quantitatively associated with methylated and unmethylated sites, respectively. For each sample, ˜4.6 million CpG sites across the genome of iPS cells, parental somatic cells and ES cells were analyzed using a custom-designed NimbleGen HD2 microarray, including all of the classically defined CpG islands as well as all nonrepetitive lower CpG density genomic regions of the genome. 4,500 control probes were included to standardize these M values so that unmethylated regions were associated, on average, with values of 0. CHARM is 100% specific at 90% sensitivity for known methylation marks identified by other methods (for example, in promoters) and includes the approximately half of the genome not identified by conventional region preselection. The CHARM results were also extensively corroborated by quantitative bisulfate pyrosequencing analysis.
  • In one aspect of the invention, methylation density is determined for a region of nucleic acid. Density may be used as an indication of a hypomethylated block region of DNA, for example. A density of about 0.2 to 0.7, about 0.3 to 0.7, 0.3 to 0.6 or 0.3 to 0.4, or 0.3, may be indicative of a hypomethylated block (the calculated DNA methylation density is the number of methylated CpGs divided by the total number of CpGs sequenced for each sample). Methods for determining methylation density are well known in the art. For example, a method for determining methylation density of target CpG islands has been established by Luo et al. Analytical Biochemistry, Vol. 387:2 2009, pp. 143-149. In the method, DNA microarray was prepared by spotting a set of PCR products amplified from bisulfite-converted sample DNAs. This method not only allows the quantitative analysis of regional methylation density of a set of given genes but also could provide information of methylation density for a large amount of clinical samples as well as use in the methods of the invention regarding iPS cell generation and detection. Other methods are well known in the art (e.g., Holemon et al., BioTechniques, 43:5, 2007, pp. 683-693).
  • The present invention is described partly in terms of functional components and various processing steps. Such functional components and processing steps may be realized by any number of components, operations and techniques configured to perform the specified functions and achieve the various results. For example, the present invention may employ various biological samples, biomarkers, elements, materials, computers, data sources, storage systems and media, information gathering techniques and processes, data processing criteria, statistical analyses, regression analyses and the like, which may carry out a variety of functions. In addition, although the invention is described in the medical diagnosis context, the present invention may be practiced in conjunction with any number of applications, environments and data analyses; the systems described herein are merely exemplary applications for the invention.
  • Methods for analysis according to various aspects of the present invention may be implemented in any suitable manner, for example using a computer program operating on the computer system. An exemplary analysis system, according to various aspects of the present invention, may be implemented in conjunction with a computer system, for example a conventional computer system comprising a processor and a random access memory, such as a remotely-accessible application server, network server, personal computer or workstation. The computer system also suitably includes additional memory devices or information storage systems, such as a mass storage system and a user interface, for example a conventional monitor, keyboard and tracking device. The computer system may, however, comprise any suitable computer system and associated equipment and may be configured in any suitable manner. In one embodiment, the computer system comprises a stand-alone system. In another embodiment, the computer system is part of a network of computers including a server and a database.
  • The software required for receiving, processing, and analyzing biomarker information may be implemented in a single device or implemented in a plurality of devices. The software may be accessible via a network such that storage and processing of information takes place remotely with respect to users. The analysis system according to various aspects of the present invention and its various elements provide functions and operations to facilitate biomarker analysis, such as data gathering, processing, analysis, reporting and/or diagnosis. The present analysis system maintains information relating to methylation and samples and facilitates analysis and/or diagnosis. For example, in the present embodiment, the computer system executes the computer program, which may receive, store, search, analyze, and report information relating to the epigenome. The computer program may comprise multiple modules performing various functions or operations, such as a processing module for processing raw data and generating supplemental data and an analysis module for analyzing raw data and supplemental data to generate a disease status model and/or diagnosis information.
  • The procedures performed by the analysis system may comprise any suitable processes to facilitate analysis and/or disease diagnosis. In one embodiment, the analysis system is configured to establish a disease status model and/or determine disease status in a patient. Determining or identifying disease status may comprise generating any useful information regarding the condition of the patient relative to the disease, such as performing a diagnosis, providing information helpful to a diagnosis, assessing the stage or progress of a disease, identifying a condition that may indicate a susceptibility to the disease, identify whether further tests may be recommended, predicting and/or assessing the efficacy of one or more treatment programs, or otherwise assessing the disease status, likelihood of disease, or other health aspect of the patient.
  • The analysis system may also provide various additional modules and/or individual functions. For example, the analysis system may also include a reporting function, for example to provide information relating to the processing and analysis functions. The analysis system may also provide various administrative and management functions, such as controlling access and performing other administrative functions.
  • The analysis system suitably generates a disease status model and/or provides a diagnosis for a patient based on raw biomarker data and/or additional subject data relating to the subjects. The data may be acquired from any suitable biological samples.
  • The following examples are provided to further illustrate the advantages and features of the present invention but are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. While they are typical of those that might be used, other procedures, methodologies, or techniques known to those skilled in the art may alternatively be used.
    • Example 1 Large-Scale Epigenomic Reprogramming Links Anabolic Glucose Metabolism to Distant Metastasis During the Evolution of Pancreatic Cancer Progression Background and Hypothesis
  • As discussed previously, one prometastatic candidate is epigenomic regulation. In particular, we wished to investigate the role of large-scale epigenomic changes during PDAC subclonal evolution and distant metastasis, especially within heterochromatin domains including large organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs) and large DNA hypomethylated blocks. These regions could represent selectable targets for large-scale epigenetic reprogramming, since they occupy over half of the genome, partially overlap with one another, and are found in many human cancers including PDAC. The inventors therefore hypothesized that epigenomic dysregulation within these regions could be a major selective force for tumor progression, given the lack of any consistent metastasis-specific driver mutations.
    • Results Reprogramming of Global Epigenetic State During the Evolution of Distant Metastasis
  • To test this hypothesis, we first determined whether large-scale changes in epigenetic modifications could be detected during PDAC evolution in patient samples in vivo. We previously collected matched primary and metastatic PDAC lesions from individual patients by rapid autopsy and reported the genetic progression of subclonal evolution by whole exome and sanger sequencing for mutations, paired-end sequencing for rearrangements, and whole genome sequencing in a subset of these samples. These samples represent a unique resource especially suited to study tumor evolution, since they were collected from matched primary and metastatic tumors from the same patient(s), each has been deep sequenced, individual subclones have been identified, and no metastasis-specific driver mutations are present. From these patients, we selected a large panel of diverse PDAC samples to test for global epigenomic reprogramming during subclonal evolution. As summarized in Table 1, these samples were chosen because they represented the diversity of PDAC evolution (different regions of primary tumor paired to peritoneal and distant metastases), each sample represented a sequence-verified (sub)clonal population, patients were both treated and untreated, driver mutations were shared by all subclones in each patient in the absence of metastasis-specific drivers, formalin-fixed tissue was available for immunoassays, frozen tissue was available for whole-genome bisulfate sequencing, and cell lines were available for all other experiments.
  • TABLE 1
    PDAC sample characteristics with LOCK epigenetic changes
    Assaysb
    Sample Driver Genes IHC, Western Resultsb
    (Clonal Disease (in primary Blots, ChIP- LOCK Methylation
    Relationa) Present. Source and mets) Chemo seq, WGBS Change
    A124PrF Local- Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Founder regional Primary CDKN2A
    Clone) Tumor SMAD4
    ATM
    A124PrS Local- Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Subclone) regional Primary CDKN2A WGBS: High (75%, control)
    Tumor SMAD4
    ATM
    A124Per Local- Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Metastasis) regional Peritoneum CDKN2A WGBS: High (74%)
    SMAD4
    ATM
    A141PrF Local- Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Founder regional Primary CDKN2A
    Clone) Tumor TP53
    MLL3
    ARID1B
    A141PrS Local- Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Subclone) regional Primary CDKN2A
    Tumor TP53
    MLL3
    ARID1B
    A141Per Local- Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Metastasis) regional Peritoneum CDKN2A
    TP53
    MLL3
    ARID1B
    A125PrF Distant Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Founder metastases Primary CDKN2A WGBS: High (74%)
    Clone) Tumor TP53
    ARID1A
    A125PrS Distant Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Positive + Negative
    (Subclone) metastases Primary CDKN2A WGBS: Reduced (51%)
    Tumor TP53
    ARID1A
    A125Lvl Distant Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Negative
    (Metastasis) metastases Liver CDKN2A WGBS: Reduced (57%)
    TP53
    ARID1A
    A125Lv2 Distant Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Negative
    (Metastasis) metastases Liver CDKN2A WGBS: Reduced (59%)
    TP53
    ARID1A
    A132PrF Distant Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Founder metastases Primary CDKN2A
    Clone) Tumor TP53
    ATM
    A132PrS Distant Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Positive + Negative
    (Subclone) metastases Primary CDKN2A
    Tumor TP53
    ATM
    A132Lv Distant Tissue: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 IHC: Positive + Negative
    (Metastasis) metastases Liver CDKN2A
    TP53
    ATM
    A38PrF Local- Tissue: KRAS Gem. K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Founder regional + Primary TP53 Bev.
    Clone) Distant Tumor SMAD4
    metastases
    A38PrS1 Local- Tissue: KRAS Gem. K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Positive
    (Peritoneal regional + Primary TP53 Bev.
    Precursor Distant Tumor SMAD4
    Subclone) metastases
    A38PrS2 Local- Tissue: KRAS Gem. K9Me2/3 IHC: Positive + Negative
    (Liver/Lung regional + Primary TP53 Bev.
    Precursor Distant Tumor SMAD4
    Subclone) metastases SMARCA2c
    A38Lg1 Local- Tissue: KRAS Gem. K9Me2/3 IHC: Diffusely Negative
    (Metastasis) regional + Lung TP53 Bev.
    Distant SMAD4
    metastases
    A38Per Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 High (100%, cont.)
    (Metastasis) regional + Peritoneum TP53 Bev. Western Blot:
    Distant SMAD4 K9Me2 High (100%, cont.)
    metastases ChIP-seq:
    WGBS: High (79%, cont.)
    AsPC1d Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 High (102%)
    (N/A) regional Ascites CDKN2A Western Blot:
    TP53
    SMAD4
    HPAFIId Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 High (94%)
    (N/A) regional Ascites TP53 Western Blot:
    Capan2d Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 High (93%)
    (N/A) regional Primary CDKN2A Western Blot:
    Tumor TP53
    A2Lg Local- Cell Line: KRAS Taxoprex. K9Me2 Reduced (40%)
    (Metastasis) regional + Lung TP53 Gem. Western Blot:
    Distant
    metastases
    A2Lv Local- Cell Line: KRAS Taxoprex. K9Me2 Reduced (50%)
    (Metastasis) regional + Liver TP53 Gem. Western Blot:
    Distant
    metastases
    A6Lv Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 Reduced (47%)
    (Metastasis) regional + Liver TP53 Trox. Western Blot:
    Distant MLL3
    metastases
    A10Lv Distant Cell Line: KRAS Untreated K9Me2 Reduced (61%)
    (Metastasis) metastases Liver TP53 Western Blot:
    MLL3
    A13Pr1 Distant Cell Line: KRAS Untreated K9Me2 Reduced (64%)
    (Subclone) metastases Primary CDKN2A Western Blot:
    Tumor MYC K9Me2 Reduced (25%)
    TP53 ChIP-seq:
    WGBS: Reduced (72%)
    A13Pr2 Distant Cell Line: KRAS Untreated K9Me2 Reduced (51%)
    (Subclone) metastases Primary CDKN2A Western Blot:
    Tumor MYC K9Me2 Reduced (81%)
    TP53 ChIP-seq:
    WGBS: Reduced (73%)
    A13Lg Distant Cell Line: KRAS Untreated K9Me2/3 Reduced (53%)
    (Metastasis) metastases Lung CDKN2A Western Blot:
    MYC K9Me2 Reduced (86%)
    TP53 ChIP-seq:
    WGBS: Reduced (71%)
    A32O Local- Cell Line: KRAS 5-FU K9Me2 Reduced (58%)
    (Metastasis) regional + Omentume TP53 Western Blot:
    Distant
    metastases
    A38Lv Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 Reduced (47%)
    (Metastasis) regional + Liver TP53 Bev. Western Blot:
    Distant SMAD4 WGBS: Reduced (67%)
    metastases
    A38Lg Local- Cell Line: KRAS Gem. K9Me2 Reduced (58%)
    (Metastasis) regional + Lung TP53 Bev. Western Blot:
    Distant SMAD4 K9Me2 Reduced (48%)
    metastases ChIP-seq:
    WGBS: Reduced (72%)
    Table 1: Summary of H3K9 and DNA methylation changes across tissue and cell line samples. Samples from patients with local-regional spread (peritoneal/ascites) showed relatively high global H3K9/DNA methylation as indicated by multiple assays (right two columns), while samples from patients with distant metastases showed reduced methylation across all assays, which initiated in primary tumors as indicated.
    Abbreviations:
    Gem. (Gemcitabine), Bev. (Bevacizumab), Taxoprex. (Taxoprexin), Trox. (Troxacitabine).
    Superscript Notes
    aClonal origins represent phylogenetic estimates from previously published (ref. 1) and other unpublished (text footnote 1) whole-genome sequencing data.
    bWestern blot data reflect densitometry percentages of H3K9Me2 signals relative to A38Per controls (cont.). Western blots are shown in Supplementary FIG. 1 and the absolute densitometry values are shown in FIG. 1g with p-values included in the figure legend. ChIP-seq data reflect percent of LOCK Mb with reduced H3K9Me2 relative to A38Per controls (cont.), as detailed with Mb and RPKM values in Supplementary Data File 2. WGBS data reflect percent of DNA methylation within LOCKs relative to A124Pr controls (tissues) and A38Per controls (cell lines), as detailed in Supplementary FIGS. 1 and 2.
    cThis metastasis from a chemotherapy-treated patient had a missense mutation in SMARCA2 of unclear significance.
    dThese cell lines were not from the rapid autopsy cohort and rely on previously published genotyping data which may underestimate the driver mutations.
    eThe A32O cell line was isolated from an omental mass lesion in a patient with very aggressive disease including widespread lung metastases, and showed findings similar to the other distant (lung/liver) metastatic subclones.
  • We began our analysis with the formalin-fixed tissue samples (totaling 16 uniquely matched, sequence-verified tumor sections, Table 1). We performed immunostains against heterochromatin modifications (e.g., H3K9Me2/3) in order to detect global changes from heterochromatin domains (including LOCKs as defined in Wen et al. (Large histone H3 lysine 9 dimethylated chromatin blocks distinguish differentiated from embryonic stem cells. Nat Genet 41, 246-50 (2009)), and McDonald et al. (Genome-scale epigenetic reprogramming during epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Nat Struct Mol Biol 18, 867-74 (2011))) that might be selectable targets during subclonal evolution. Immunostains revealed diffusely positive (>80%) H3K9Me2/3 staining of PDAC cell nuclei across both primary tumor and peritoneal metastatic subclones from patients who presented with peritoneal carcinomatosis (FIGS. 1A-1B and Table 1). In contrast, samples from patients who presented with distant metastatic disease displayed progressive loss of H3K9Me2/3 during subclonal evolution. This manifested as heterogeneous (mixtures of positive+negative PDAC nuclei) staining in primary tumors followed by either diffusely negative (<20%) staining or retention of heterogeneous staining in the paired metastases (FIGS. 1C-1D and Table 1). We also observed similar results during subclonal evolution from a patient for which sequence-verified primary tumor subclones that seeded both peritoneal and distant metastases were available. The peritoneal precursor retained diffusely strong staining of heterochromatin modifications as seen in the clone that founded the neoplasm (FIG. 1E, top two panels). In contrast, cell-to-cell heterogeneity of staining patterns emerged in the primary tumor subclone that seeded distant metastasis, followed by diffuse loss of staining at the distant metastatic site (FIG. 1E, bottom two panels). The collective findings across samples from patients with distant metastatic disease thus suggested that reprogramming initiated during subclonal evolution in the primary tumor, and that these changes were inherited or even accentuated in subclones that formed tumors at the distant metastatic sites themselves.
  • To expand our analysis to more patient samples and test the generality of our findings, we employed twelve low-passaged cell lines collected from eight patients (Table 1), including a subset that corresponded to the patient tissues above. Cell lines were isolated from nine distant metastatic subclones, a peritoneal metastasis with paired liver and lung metastases that corresponded to the patient presented in FIG. 1E, and two (non-founder) primary tumor subclones matched to a lung metastasis collected from the same patient. Importantly, six of the nine distant metastatic cell lines were previously whole exome sequenced, and mutations present in the cell lines were also present in the corresponding patient tissues as detected by Sanger sequencing. Because rapid autopsy cell lines were largely isolated from patients who presented with distant metastases, additional PDAC samples from other sources of regional disease were also included: malignant ascites fluid from two patients with peritoneal carcinomatosis (AsPC1, HPAFII), and a primary tumor from a long-term survivor without distant metastases (Capan2).
  • We then examined whether global changes in chromatin as seen in the patient tissues were maintained in cell lines, which could reflect genome-wide reprogramming events. We began by performing western blots for eight histone modifications with well-understood functions. Comparison of local-regional PDAC samples (A38Per, AsPC1, HPAFII, Capan2) by western blots showed minimal or non-recurrent global changes across all histone modifications tested (FIG. 7A), similar to the evolution of peritoneal carcinomatosis observed in patient tissues. In contrast, distant metastases displayed striking reprogramming of methylation and acetylation that was targeted to specific histone residues (FIG. 7B), including between the paired peritoneal (A38Per) and distant metastatic (A38Lv, A38Lg) subclones that corresponded to the patient presented in FIG. 1E (FIG. 1F). This manifested as recurrent reductions in H3K9Me2/3 and H4K20Me3 that was coupled to hyper-acetylation of H3K9Ac and H3K27Ac in distant metastases (summarized in FIG. 1G and Table 1, shown in FIG. 7B). H3K9 methylation is critical for encoding heterochromatic epigenetic states over large genomic regions including LOCKs, and H3K27Ac encodes gene regulatory elements. Reprogramming appeared specific, as we observed no consistent/recurrent changes in H3K27Me3 or H3K36Me3 across samples (FIG. 1G, FIGS. 7A-7C) and the reprogrammed modifications themselves were not dependent on proliferation rates and could not be induced by PDAC chemotherapy (FIGS. 8A-8E). Finally, western blots on cell lines isolated from matched primary tumor (A13Pr1, A13Pr2) and distant metastatic (A13Lg) subclones collected from a patient who presented with widespread distant metastases in the absence of regional (peritoneal) spread also showed reductions in H3K9Me3 and H4K20Me3 between the primary tumor subclones, which was retained in the distant metastasis (FIG. 7C), further suggesting that reprogramming initiated in the primary tumor during the evolution of distant metastasis. Thus, in vivo tissue and in vitro cell culture findings across the collective 30 patient samples strongly suggested that global epigenetic state was reprogrammed during the evolution of distant metastasis.
    • The Epigenomic Landscape of PDAC Subclonal Evolution
  • We next wished to map the locations of reprogrammed chromatin modifications across the PDAC genome. To this end, we comprehensively mapped the epigenetic landscape of PDAC evolution with chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) for histone modifications with well-understood functions (heterochromatin: H3K9Me2, H3K9Me3, H3K27Me3; euchromatin: H3K27Ac, H3K36Me3). To capture the diversity of subclonal evolution and malignant progression, ChIP-seq was performed on sequence-verified cell lines isolated from matched subclones, including a peritoneal metastasis (A38Per) matched to a lung metastasis (A38Lg) from the same patient, and two primary tumor subclones (A13Pr1, A13Pr2) that were also matched to a lung metastasis (A13Lg) from the same patient. For each patient, all subclones shared identical driver gene mutations without acquisition of new metastasis-specific drivers (Table 1). We also performed RNA-seq in parallel to identify matched gene expression changes. Finally, we complemented these datasets with whole genome bisulfate sequencing (WGBS) across these cell lines and frozen tumor tissues that corresponded to a subset of the formalin-fixed tumor sections presented in FIGS. 1A-1G. In all, we generated 183 datasets with 19.3×10 9 uniquely aligned sequencing reads, including >15.0×106 (median: 32.3×10 6) uniquely aligned reads for each ChIP experiment as recommended by ENCODE guidelines (Supplementary Data 1). Experiments were performed as biological replicates, with good correlation between replicates (median correlation coefficient: 0.956; range: 0.746-0.997, Supplementary Data 1). To our knowledge, this represents the first comprehensive genome-wide analysis of epigenetic reprogramming during the evolutionary progression of a human cancer.
  • Because global chromatin modifications were stably inherited during the evolution of peritoneal carcinomatosis whereas reprogramming emerged during distant metastasis, we began by comparing the peritoneal subclone against the distant metastatic subclones and their matched primary tumor subclones. This analysis revealed a striking and unexpected degree of genome-wide epigenetic reprogramming that was targeted to thousands of chromatin domains covering >95% of the PDAC genome. These included heterochromatin regions corresponding to large organized chromatin lysine (K)-modified domains (LOCKs) that occupied approximately half the genome, gene-rich euchromatin domains (ECDs), and a smaller subset of very large LOCK domains that were uniquely reprogrammed compared to other heterochromatin regions. The collective domain characteristics are detailed in Supplementary Data 2, and comprehensive statistical analyses across experiments are presented in Supplementary Data 3.
  • We first analyzed heterochromatin domains defined by strong, broad enrichments of H3K9Me2 and H3K27Me3 with depletion of euchromatin modifications (FIG. 2A, FIG. 9 , and Supplementary methods). Thousands of heterochromatin domains were detected in each sample (range: 2,008-3,166) and were organized into large block-like segments (median lengths: 232 Kb-311 Kb) that occupied more than half of the genome in each subclone (average: 61.7% of the genome, range: 54.1-71.7%, Supplementary Data 2). The domain calls were robust as determined by sensitivity analyses across multiple thresholds (Supplementary Data 3), and the called heterochromatin regions themselves overlapped significantly with previously reported LOCK heterochromatin domains (avg: 76.7+/−16.9% overlap; p<0.01 by permutation testing), suggesting that heterochromatin largely corresponded to LOCKs. Similar to immunostain (FIGS. 1A-1D) and western blot data (FIG. 1E-1F), we detected strong H3K9Me2 enrichment across LOCKs in the peritoneal subclone, whereas these same regions displayed global reductions of H3K9Me2 in the distant metastases and their matched primary tumor subclones (FIG. 2A, average: 591 Mb/1,470 Mb; range: 204-1,110 Mb/1,470 Mb; p<2.2e-16 by chi square; Table 1 and Supplementary Data 3). In contrast, high global levels of H3K27Me3 were detected from these regions across all subclones (FIG. 2A), similar to the western blot findings (FIG. 1G). We also detected patient-specific patterns of global H3K9Me3 reprogramming in LOCKS (FIGS. 10A-10B). In patient A38, H3K9Me3 was largely absent from A38Lg LOCKs relative to A38Per (loss of H3K9Me3 from 184/208 Mb, 88.5%, p<2.2e-16). Loss of LOCK-wide H3K9Me3 was also detected between the paired primary tumor subclones in patient A13 (106 Mb/118 Mb, 90.0% in A13Pr2 vs. A13Pr1, p<2.2e-16), and similar to western blot findings (Supplementary FIG. 1C) this change was inherited in the distant metastatic subclone (152 Mb/169 Mb, 90.2% in A13Lg vs. A13Pr1, p<2.2e-16). Finally, localized reprogramming events were also detected specifically within chromatin encoding differentially expressed (DE) genes in LOCKs (FIGS. 11A-11B, Supplementary Data 3). This included reciprocal changes in H3K27Ac and H3K9Me2 over promoters coupled to similar reciprocal changes in H3K36Me3 and H3K27Me3 over gene bodies of LOCK genes that were up- and down-regulated. This suggested that DE genes from LOCKs were situated in specific sub-regions that possessed gene regulatory potential, consistent with hybrid LOCK-euchromatin islands (LOCK-EIs). Collectively, these findings indicated that heterochromatin domains (LOCKs) represented a major target for both global and local chromatin reprogramming events during the evolution of distant metastasis.
  • Because LOCKs correspond to a subset of block-like regions that are DNA hypomethylated in pancreatic and other human cancers, we also asked whether DNA methylation changes were targeted to LOCKs during PDAC subclonal evolution. For this analysis, we performed WGBS on all of the cell lines with ChIP-seq data reported above. Because frozen tissues corresponding to the cell lines had been exhausted during previous studies, we selected 7 other frozen tissue samples for in vivo WGBS that were uniquely matched to the same formalin-fixed tissues with IHC data presented in FIG. 1A (A124, local-regional spread) and FIG. 1C (A125, distant metastasis). Normal pancreas was included with frozen tissue samples as an internal control. All samples and results of WGBS with corresponding IHC, western blot, and ChIP-seq findings are summarized in Table 1, and quantified WGBS results with statistical analyses are presented in Tables 2 and 3. These experiments revealed significant reductions in LOCK-wide DNA methylation across cell lines isolated from distant metastases relative to peritoneal carcinomatosis (FIGS. 2B-2C, Table 3). These findings matched the reductions of H3K9Me2 in LOCKs detected by ChIP-seq on the same samples (FIG. 2A), revealing that reprogramming of DNA methylation in hypomethylated block regions is targeted to LOCKs with reprogrammed histone methylation (Table 1). Analysis of the same LOCK regions from the frozen tissue samples also revealed relatively high DNA methylation in LOCKs from patient A124 (peritoneal spread) and the founder clone from patient A125, while the primary tumor and distant metastatic subclone descendants displayed striking loss of DNA methylation that was even more pronounced than that seen in the cell lines (FIGS. 2B-2C, Table 1, and Table 2). We also detected strong, localized DNA hypomethylation from down-regulated DE genes in the hybrid LOCK-EI sub-regions, while up-regulated genes remained hypermethylated with sharp dips at the 5′-ends of genes, similar to H3K9Me2 (FIGS. 11A-11B). Thus, DNA methylation was globally and locally reprogrammed across LOCKs from primary tumor and distant metastatic subclones, similar to histone modifications. Based on the collective immunostain (FIGS. 1A-1E), western blot (FIGS. 1F-1G), ChIP-seq (FIG. 2A), and WGBS (FIGS. 2B-2C) data (Summarized in Table 1), we conclude that a substantial fraction of global reprogramming events was targeted to heterochromatin domains (LOCKs) during the evolution of distant metastasis.
  • TABLE 2
    Percent CpG Methylation levels across LOCK domains detected in
    frozen tissue samples by WGBS. DNA methylation levels were relatively
    high in both primary tumor and metastatic tumors from patient
    A124, who presented with peritoneal carcinomatosis. Similar
    high levels of DNA methylation were also detected in the founder
    clone from patient A125, which were significantly reduced in
    the primary tumor subclone that seeded distant metastases and
    in the liver metastases themselves. P-values were calculated
    with paired wilcox tests using a 3% threshold.
    Samples Global LOCK Methylation
    Sample name % CpG Methylation in Significant Difference
    Sample source LOCKs by WGBS p-value vs. A124Pr
    A124PrF 75.37% N/A (Highest
    Primary Tumor Methylation)
    A124Per 74.17% 1
    Peritoneal Met
    A125PrF 73.65% 1
    Primary Tumor #1
    (Founder Clone)
    A125PrS 51.12% 2.20E−16
    Primary Tumor #2
    (Subclone)
    A125Lv1 56.95% 2.20E−16
    Liver Met #1
    A125Lv2 59.47% 2.20E−16
    Liver Met #2
    Normal Pancreas 67.75% 2.20E−16
  • TABLE 3
    Percent CpG Methylation levels across LOCK domains detected in
    cell lines by WGBS. DNA methylation levels were highest for the
    peritoneal subclone A38Per across cell lines. Methylation was
    significantly reduced in distant metastases from the same patient
    (A38Lv, A38Lg) and in primary tumor precursors (A13Pr1/2) and
    the matched lung metastasis from patient A13. P-values were calculated
    with paired wilcox tests using a 3% threshold.
    Samples Global LOCK Methylation
    Name % CpG Methylation in Significant Difference
    Source LOCKs by WGBS p-value vs. A38Per
    A38Per 78.58% N/A (Highest
    Peritoneal Met Methylation)
    A38Lv 67.39% 2.20E−16
    Liver Met
    A38Lg 71.67% 2.20E−16
    Lung Met
    A13Pr1 72.46% 2.18E−07
    Primary Tumor 1
    Subclone
    A13Pr2 73.48% 2.14E−06
    Primary Tumor 2
    Subclone
    A13Lg 71.30% 2.20E−16
    Lung Met
  • We next analyzed reprogramming within ECDs, which were defined by enrichments for global euchromatin modifications H3K27Ac and H3K36Me3 with depletion of heterochromatin modifications (FIG. 12 ). Similar to heterochromatin, thousands of these domains (range: 1,935-2,318) were partitioned into large, block-like segments (median lengths: 207 Kb-277 Kb) that occupied similar lengths of the genome across subclones (average: 29% of the genome; range: 23.5%-32.0%, Supplementary Data 2). All subclones displayed similar global patterns of modifications within ECDs, including broad H3K36Me3 signals over gene bodies that were flanked by sharp peaks of H3K27Ac and dips in DNA methylation at gene regulatory elements, consistent with actively transcribed euchromatin (FIG. 2D). However, mapping DE genes from RNA-seq data to ECDs (Supplementary Data 3) identified clear patterns of local reprogramming events within chromatin encoding these genes (FIG. 2E, Supplementary Data 3). Genes up-regulated from ECDs acquired increased levels of both H3K36Me3 and H3K27Ac, which could reflect a permissive chromatin state or hyperactive transcription. In contrast, down-regulated genes displayed greatly reduced H3K36Me3 with relatively minor reductions of H3K27Ac, which could reflect an inactive yet poised chromatin state or direct transcriptional repression. Unlike LOCKs, DNA methylation remained stable around DE genes in ECDs (data not shown). Thus, reprogramming in ECDs was largely localized and targeted to H3K27Ac and H3K36Me3 in chromatin encoding DE genes.
  • Finally, we also detected patient-specific reprogramming targeted to a unique subset of very large LOCK domains. Although these regions were situated within DNA hypomethylated blocks similar to other LOCKS, they differed in several other respects. First, these domains were substantially larger (median lengths: 730 Kb-1,340 Kb vs. 232-311 Kb for other LOCKs, Supplementary Data 2). Second, they were strongly enriched with H3K9Me3 yet depleted of H3K9Me2/H3K27Me3 (FIGS. 13A-13E and Supplementary Data 2). Third, their abundance was patient-specific: subclones from patient A13 possessed very few of these domains (range: 50-111 domains covering 1.4-3.5% of the genome) while they occupied a much higher fraction of the A38 genome (range: 226-344 domains covering 14.5-20.6% of the genome, FIG. 13A and Supplementary Data 2). Finally, unlike reprogramming changes detected in other LOCKs (loss of H3K9Me2/3 and DNA methylation), reprogramming in these LOCKs was characterized by loss of H3K9Me3 coupled to increased H3K9Me2 and DNA methylation (FIGS. 13B-13E). Although the functional significance of these findings is uncertain, they could hold implications for patterns of genome instability that emerged during subclonal evolution, as outlined below.
    • Reprogrammed Chromatin Domains Specify Malignant Heterogeneity
  • Subclonal evolution may generate significant phenotypic heterogeneity within an individual patient, and we have hypothesized that such diversity could be encoded by large-scale epigenetic changes similar to those detected above. We therefore wished to investigate in-depth whether reprogrammed chromatin domains might encode heterogeneous malignant properties between PDAC subclones from the same patient. To this end, we selected matched peritoneal and lung metastasis subclones from the same patient (A38Per and A38Lg), performed gene ontology (GO) analyses on reprogrammed LOCK and ECD genes that were differentially expressed between the subclones (Tables 4-7, derived from reprogrammed genes as shown in FIG. 2E and FIGS. 11A-11B), and then tested whether GO results matched actual phenotypic differences measured by experimental assays. This analysis revealed that reprogrammed LOCKs and ECDs encoded substantial phenotypic differences that emerged during subclonal evolution, as described below.
  • TABLE 4
    GO analysis of DE genes that were up-regulated from reprogrammed
    LOCKs in A38Lg, relative to A38Per. Genes involved in redox
    balance (oxidation-reduction, NADP) and EMT (cell adhesion,
    migration) were up-regulated from reprogrammed DE genes
    in LOCKs (Detailed in Supplementary Data 3).
    GO Terms # of Genes % of Genes P-value
    Oxidation-reduction 64 6.0 3.9e−6
    Oxidoreductase 56 5.2 4.7e−6
    EGF-like domain 28 2.6 6.4e−5
    Transferase 105 9.8 1.0e−4
    NADP 21 2.0 1.7e−4
    Cell Adhesion 41 3.8 1.8e−4
    Cell Migration 31 2.9 2.7e−4
    Cell Morphogenesis 29 2.7 3.8e−4
    Mitochondrion 67 6.3 4.0e−4
    Acetylation 174 16.3 5.0e−4
  • TABLE 5
    GO analysis of DE genes that were down-regulated from reprogrammed
    LOCKs in A38Lg, relative to A38Per. Genes involved in
    differentiation state (cell adhesion, development, epithelial
    genes), immune regulation (immune response, cytokines,
    inflammation), and response to environmental cues (transmembrane
    signaling, extracellular matrix, secretion, locomotion)
    were down-regulated from reprogrammed LOCKs (Detailed
    in Supplementary Data 3).
    # of % of
    GO Terms Genes Genes P-value
    Signal 399 32.4  1.5e−31
    Glycoprotein 488 40.0  1.0e−30
    Disulfide Bond 352 28.5  1.0e−25
    Secreted 217 17.6  1.5e−18
    Membrane 582 47.2  1.7e−15
    Polymorphism 951 77.1  1.5e−13
    Immune Response 106 8.6  1.6e−13
    Immunoglobin Domain 75 6.1  8.5e−11
    Cytokine-Cytokine Receptor Interaction 54 4.4  2.3e−10
    Ion Channel 55 4.5 2.1e−9
    Inflammatory Response 55 4.5 7.6e−9
    Cell Adhesion 93 7.5 1.4e−8
    Developmental Protein 98 7.9 4.4e−8
    Cell Motion 69 5.6 4.7e−8
    Transmembrane Protein 82 6.7 3.4e−7
    Protease Inhibitor 25 2.0 3.9e−7
    Response to Wounding 71 5.8 7.0e−7
    Extracellular Matrix 40 3.2 1.2e−6
    Epithelial Cell Differentiation 28 2.3 1.6e−6
  • TABLE 6
    GO analysis of DE genes that were up-regulated from
    reprogrammed ECDs in A38Lg, relative to A38Per. Genes
    involved in post-translational modifications, cell
    cycle control, DNA repair, response to stress, and
    DNA/RNA/protein biosynthesis were up-regulated from
    reprogrammed ECDs (Detailed in Supplementary Data 3).
    % of
    GO Terms # of Genes Genes P-value
    Acetylation
    622 21.7 1.1e−59
    Phosphoprotein 1290 45.0 5.1e−53
    Cell Cycle 154 5.4 3.4e−30
    Mitotic Cell Cycle 137 4.8 4.9e−30
    Organelle Fission 95 3.3 3.7e−25
    DNA Metabolic Process 157 5.5 9.4e−25
    DNA Repair 95 3.3 1.4e−17
    Response to DNA Damage Stimulus 113 3.9 3.8e−17
    DNA Replication 68 2.4 2.7e−14
    Cellular Response to Stress 144 5.0 3.1e−14
    Protein Biosynthesis 62 2.1 2.8e−12
    ATP Binding 256 8.9 1.3e−11
    Ribonucleoprotein 78 2.7 4.1e−11
    Nucleotide Binding 309 10.7 4.3e−11
    Translation 86 3.0 2.5e−9 
    ncRNA Metabolic Process 66 2.3 3.5e−9 
    Mitochondrion 167 5.8 4.3e−9 
    DNA Recombination 39 1.4 4.6e−9 
    Microtubule-based Process 70 2.4 5.9e−9 
  • TABLE 7
    GO analysis of DE genes that were down-regulated from reprogrammed
    ECDs in A38Lg, relative to A38Per. Genes involved in oncogenic
    signal transduction cascades (Sh3 domains, transmembrane
    proteins, kinases, Ras signaling), cell motion (wounding,
    migration, locomotion), and cell death control (apoptosis)
    were down-regulated from reprogrammed ECDs (Detailed in
    Supplementary Data 3).
    % of
    GO Terms # of Genes Genes P-value
    Alternative Splicing 1195 49.0  1.5e−16
    Sh3 Domain 65 2.7  6.8e−10
    Phosphoprotein 1112 45.0 1.3e−9
    Membrane 964 39.4 1.4e−9
    Response to Wounding 117 4.8 9.0e−8
    Pleckstrin Homology 71 2.9 2.8e−7
    Cell Migration 49 2.0 3.4e−7
    Small GTPase Signal Transduction 65 2.7 3.9e−7
    Locomotion 52 2.1 1.4e−6
    Intracellular Signaling Cascade 227 9.3 3.5e−6
    Tyrosine Protein Kinase 34 1.4 5.4e−6
    Regulation of Apoptosis 153 6.2 1.1e−5
    Protein Kinase Cascade 81 3.3 1.4e−5
    Protein Amino Acid Phosphorylation 130 5.3 1.8e−5
    Ankyrin Repeat 56 2.3 3.7e−5
    Ras Protein Signal Transduction 51 2.1 4.6e−5
  • First, a large number of DE genes involved in redox (oxidation-reduction) balance were up-regulated from reprogrammed LOCKs in A38Lg (Table 4, Supplementary Data 3). This subclone was accordingly highly resistant to H2O2-mediated oxidative stress (FIG. 3A) and possessed higher oxidoreductase activity and NADPH levels than A38Per (FIGS. 14A-14B). Second, genes encoding differentiation state (epithelial vs. EMT) were reciprocally expressed from A38Per and A38Lg LOCKs (Table 5, Supplementary Data 3), and we confirmed several well-known epithelial and EMT expression changes (e.g., CDH1/E-cadherin, CDH2/N-cadherin) at the protein level by western blots (FIG. 3B). Further consistent with GO results, A38Per maintained well-differentiated (epithelial) morphology while A38Lg was poorly differentiated (EMT-like) across multiple in vitro culture conditions (FIG. 14C), and immunofluorescence experiments showed that EMT emerged in the primary tumor subclone that seeded the A38Lg metastasis in vivo (FIG. 14D). We also note that immune-related genes were differentially expressed from reprogrammed LOCKs (Table 5), which could hold implications for PDAC immunotherapy. Third, genes involved in DNA repair and cell stress responses were significantly up-regulated in ECDs from A38Lg, including genes crucial for maintenance of genome integrity (Fanconi anemia complex, non-homologous end joining, and the TOP2B/OGG1/KDM1A complex, among others, Table 6, Supplementary Data 3). This subclone was accordingly highly resistant to PDAC chemotherapy (gemcitabine) compared to A38Per (FIG. 3C), and western blots showed hyper-phosphorylation of histone H2AX S139 (γH2AX, a signature of activated DNA repair pathways, FIG. 3D). Fourth, genes involved in oncogenic signal transduction cascades were down-regulated in ECDs from A38Lg, especially KRAS/ERK-related genes (Table 7, Supplementary Data 3). Indeed, A38Lg showed loss of phosphorylated ERK (FIG. 3E), resistance to ERK inhibition (FIG. 3F), and minimal response to knockdown of oncogenic KRAS in 3D tumor forming assays (FIG. 3G, FIGS. 14E-14F), despite possessing identical KRASG12V mutations as A38Per. Finally, mapping previously reported rearrangements from this patient to chromatin domains revealed that rearrangements were preferentially targeted to ECDs and the small subset of uniquely reprogrammed large LOCK domains, whereas other LOCKs were strongly depleted (FIGS. 15A-15C).
  • Thus, reprogrammed chromatin domains collectively specified malignant gene expression programs, divergent phenotypic properties, and patterns of genome instability that emerged during subclonal evolution in patient A38. This patient was unusual in having received chemotherapy prior to tissue harvesting and had a missense mutation in SMARCA2 of unclear significance (CID, unpublished observations), and thus in this case epigenetic selection may have occurred downstream of a genetic driver. Although the nature and extent of such findings will certainly vary among patients, they imply that PDAC is capable of acquiring substantial epigenetic and malignant diversity during subclonal evolution, even in the same cancer from the same patient.
    • Anabolic Glucose Metabolism Controls Epigenetic State and Tumorigenicity
  • We next asked whether a recurrent, metastasis-intrinsic pathway might have been selected for during subclonal evolution to exert upstream control over global epigenetic state and tumorigenic potential. Several recent studies have linked nutrient status and metabolic activity to global levels of histone modifications. Because distant metastases in the rapid autopsy cohort were largely isolated from organs (liver, lung) that provide a rich supply of glucose, we asked whether reprogrammed chromatin and tumorigenicity in these subclones might have evolved a dependence on specific aspects of glucose metabolism.
  • Altered glucose metabolism (i.e., Warburg effect) is a well-known property of neoplastic and highly proliferative cells. Although most of our metastatic subclones actually displayed modest proliferative rates in culture (e.g., FIGS. 8A-8E) and in vivo, we nonetheless asked whether distant metastases might have acquired further adaptations in glucose metabolism. Surprisingly, relative to proliferative (immortalized) normal HPDE cells and local-regional PDAC samples, glucose strongly stimulated metabolic (oxidoreductase) activity across distant metastatic subclones (FIG. 4A), and glucose was accordingly required for these subclones to withstand oxidative stress (FIGS. 4B-4C). Distant metastases also hyper-consumed glucose, as we detected elevated glucose uptake and lactate secretion in distant metastases and their precursors relative to peritoneal carcinomatosis (FIG. 16A). To determine if excess glucose uptake was specifically incorporated into downstream metabolic pathways, we selected paired peritoneal and distant metastatic subclones from the same patient, incubated them with 13C[1-2]-labeled glucose, and measured glucose incorporation into metabolic products with liquid chromatography followed by high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). These experiments revealed elevated incorporation of both C1- and C1,2-labeled glucose into lactate and nucleotides in the distant metastasis (FIGS. 4D-4E), consistent with enhanced glucose entry into both glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP).
  • We next asked whether distant metastases might have evolved a dependence on specific enzymatic steps in either of these glucose-driven pathways, which we hypothesized would manifest as severe depletion of metabolite substrate secondary to hyper-consumption. To test this, we surveyed glycolytic and PPP metabolite profiles across a diverse panel of samples including HPDE cells, peritoneal carcinomatosis, distant metastases, and primary tumor precursor subclones. Analysis of all detected glycolytic and pentose phosphate metabolites (FIG. 16B) revealed a striking, recurrent depletion of 6-phosphogluconic acid (6PG) across distant metastases and their precursors (FIG. 4F). 6PG is the substrate for 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGD), an enzyme involved in anabolic glucose metabolism that operates within the oxidative branch of the PPP.
  • Glucose may enter the PPP via the oxidative (oxPPP) or the non-oxidative (noxPPP) branch of the pathway, which are thought to be uncoupled. Although some studies in other cancers have suggested that PGD is an important oncogene, it is KRAS-mediated noxPPP activation that drives primary tumor growth in mouse models of PDAC. Because KRAS and other driver mutations are acquired early in PDAC progression and shared by all subclones that evolve thereafter, we hypothesized that PGD dependence might have been selected for specifically during the evolution of distant metastasis to maintain reprogrammed chromatin and tumorigenicity. Glucose deprivation, RNAi against PGD, and 6-aminonicotinamide (6AN, a nicotinamide antimetabolite prodrug reported to preferentially inhibit PGD) had no effect on global chromatin modifications in the peritoneal subclone, while all treatments reversed the reprogrammed chromatin state of the paired lung metastasis from the same patient (FIG. 5A). PGD loss-of-function appeared specific, as PGD knockdown did not alter expression of KRAS or other PPP components (FIG. 5B).
  • We next asked whether PGD knockdown might affect intrinsic tumor forming capacity across a larger panel of subclones. Despite their aggressive behavior in patients, distant metastatic subclones were unable to effectively form metastatic tumors in immunodeficient mice, and PGD RNAi was not toxic to any subclones grown in routine 2-D cultures (data not shown). To bypass these limitations, we treated cells with RNAi and used 3-D matrigel tumor-forming assays to measure the effects of PGD knockdown on intrinsic tumor-forming capacity. PGD RNAi had minimal effect on the ability of HPDE cells to form spheres or local-regional PDACs to form tumors by these assays (FIG. 5C). Remarkably, PGD RNAi universally interfered with the ability of distant metastatic subclones to form tumors (FIG. 5D). These findings suggested that PGD might represent a therapeutic target with selectivity for PDAC distant metastasis. Because 6AN could represent a lead compound for future design of PGD targeted therapies, we stringently tested it for activity against distant metastases with metabolomics, western blots, multiple 3D tumorigenic assays, RNA-seq, and ChIP experiments.
  • 6AN treatments slowed rates of glucose consumption and lactate secretion with no effect on glutamine consumption or glutamate secretion in distant metastatic and precursor subclones (FIG. 17A), and 6AN reversed the previously detected high incorporation of glucose into lactate and nucleotides (FIG. 17B). Furthermore, steady state levels of glucose and metabolites directly upstream of the PGD reaction were dramatically elevated in response to 6AN with corresponding reductions in downstream metabolites (FIG. 17C), which is consistent with strong PGD inhibition as previously reported by others.
  • We next tested the effects of 6AN on epigenetic state. Strikingly, 6AN treatments quantitatively reversed several reprogrammed chromatin modifications across distant metastatic subclones with minimal effect on normal cells or local-regional PDACs (FIGS. 18A-18B; summarized in FIGS. 6A-6B), and this effect persisted upon removal of 6AN from the media (FIG. 18C). Because these changes mirrored aspects of LOCK reprogramming, we examined the chromatin state of LOCK DE genes regulated by 6AN, as identified by RNA-seq (Supplementary Data 3, 4). This revealed that DE genes were located within the reprogrammed hybrid LOCK-EI regions that possessed strong H3K27Ac and H3K36Me3, low H3K27Me3, and sharp 5′-depletion (dips) of H3K9Me2 (FIG. 19A, Supplementary Data 3). ChIP-seq experiments on control and 6AN-treated A38Lg cells further showed that the quantitative increase of global H3K9Me2 was targeted to LOCK regions that were reprogrammed in A38Lg vs. A38Per (FIG. 19B), while the reduced H3K27Ac was specifically targeted to genes repressed from LOCKs with no effect on other LOCK genes or ECD-regulated genes (FIG. 19C). Levels of H3K27Me3 remained stable across all regions in response to 6AN (FIG. 19B, FIG. 19D), similar to western blot findings. Collectively, these experiments demonstrated that 6AN selectively and quantitatively targeted several chromatin changes within LOCKs that emerged during the evolution of distant metastasis.
  • Because 6AN modulated the global epigenetic state, we hypothesized that it might also selectively block tumorigenic potential in distant metastatic subclones, similar to PGD knockdown experiments. Strikingly, 6AN selectively and strongly blocked tumor formation in distant metastatic and primary tumor precursor subclones but not local-regional PDACs across multiple 3D tumorigenic experimental platforms, including suspension tumorsphere assays (Supplementary FIGS. 20A-20C), matrigel tumor forming assays (FIG. 6B), and injection of PDAC cells into organotypic stroma that recapitulates aspects of in vivo patient tumors (FIG. 6C). Thus, like PGD knockdown, chemical inhibition of PGD by 6AN selectively blocked the tumorigenic potential of distant metastatic subclones.
  • We next examined our RNA-seq datasets to explore whether the above findings might be linked to regulation of malignant gene expression programs. Remarkably, over half (952/1832, 52%, Supplementary Data 4) of 6AN down-regulated genes from A38Lg corresponded to genes that were over-expressed in this subclone (compared to the peritoneal subclone from the same patient). In addition, a large fraction of 6AN up-regulated genes also matched DE genes that were repressed (914/2122, 42%, Supplementary Data 4). Even more striking, nearly one-third (255/891, 29%, Supplementary Data 4) of recurrently over-expressed genes across distant metastatic subclones were down-regulated by 6AN. Comparative GO analyses on these gene subsets produced overlapping results that were strongly enriched for cancer-related functions, including mitotic cell cycle control, acetylation, chromosome stability, DNA repair, cell stress responses, and anabolic/biosynthetic activities (Tables 8-10).
  • TABLE 8
    GO Analysis of Genes that were both Recurrently Over-Expressed
    in Distant Metastases and Down-Regulated by 6AN, Detected
    by RNA-seq (Detailed in Supplementary Data 3).
    Go Terms # of Genes % of Genes P-value
    Nucleus 112 40.0 1.4e−19
    Phosphoprotein 150 53.6 1.3e−18
    Acetylation 80 28.6 2.7e−16
    DNA Metabolic Process 36 12.9 1.2e−15
    Cell Cycle 39 13.9 3.4e−12
    M-phase 29 8.9 1.8e−11
    DNA Repair 22 7.9 2.8e−10
    DNA Replication 18 6.4 8.5e−10
    Cellular Response to Stress 27 9.6 5.0e−8 
    Ribonucleotide Biogenesis 13 4.6 6.3e−6 
  • TABLE 9
    GO analysis of recurrently over-expressed genes detected
    by RNA-seq in distant metastatic subclones and primary
    tumor precursors, relative to peritoneal carcinomatosis
    (detailed in Supplementary Data 3).
    % of
    GO Terms # of Genes Genes P-value
    Acetylation 217 20.7  8.0e−28
    Phosphoprotein 428 40.0  5.3e−24
    Protein Biosynthesis 36 3.4  1.4e−14
    Nucleus 256 24.4  1.8e−13
    Ribonucleoprotein 41 3.9  1.4e−12
    Translation 47 4.5  1.5e−12
    DNA Metabolic Process 53 5.1 4.5e−9
    Cell Cycle 65 6.2 3.4e−7
    Mitochondria 64 6.1 5.4e−7
    DNA Repair 31 3.0 5.2e−6
    Nitrogen Compound Biosynthesis 33 3.1 1.1e−5
    Nucleotide Binding 102 9.7 1.4e−6
    M-phase 33 3.1 1.4e−5
    Cellular Response to Stress 47 4.5 2.5e−5
    Transit Peptide 39 3.7 3.3e−5
    Nucleotide Biosynthetic Process 22 2.1 5.1e−5
    ATP Binding 82 7.8 5.3e−5
    DNA Replication 22 2.1 7.0e−5
    WD40 Repeat 24 2.3 1.4e−4
  • TABLE 10
    GO analysis of DE genes detected by RNA-seq that were down-
    regulated in response to 6AN, compared to DMSO control cells
    (A38Lg subclone, detailed in Supplementary Data 3).
    % of
    GO Terms # of Genes Genes P-value
    Cell Cycle 226 12.2 2.5e−57
    Acetylation 465 25.2 5.6e−57
    Phosphoprotein 935 50.6 2.5e−55
    M-phase 135 7.3 1.2e−52
    DNA Metabolic Process 153 13.2 2.6e−40
    Nucleus 582 31.5 1.4e−34
    DNA Replication 82 4.4 1.0e−33
    Chromosome Segregation 45 2.4 3.1e−24
    DNA Repair 88 4.5 5.6e−24
    Cytoplasm 444 24.0 3.5e−23
    ATP Binding 221 12.0 4.1e−22
    Cellular Response to Stress 125 6.8 1.6e−19
    Chromosome Organization 107 5.8 9.3e−17
    Microtubule-based Process 70 3.8 3.6e−16
    Nucleotide Binding 244 13.2 4.2e−16
    Cytoskeleton 113 6.1 3.2e−15
    Ubl Conjugation 103 5.6 9.5e−12
    DNA Recombination 36 1.9 1.6e−11
    Macromolecular Complex Assembly 115 6.2 3.0e−10
  • The above findings led us to hypothesize that 6AN-ablation of tumorigenicity in distant metastatic subclones might be mediated through epigenetic control of cancer-related genes important to maintain tumorigenic capacity. To validate this, we selected two candidate genes for in-depth experiments: N-cadherin (CDH2) and topoisomerase 213 (TOP2B). CDH2 and TOP2B are both thought to be important for cancer progression, are not known to be mutated in PDAC, can be therapeutically targeted, were recurrently over-expressed across distant metastatic and primary tumor precursor subclones by RNA-seq (Supplementary Data 3), and were selectively repressed by 6AN which we confirmed with RT-PCR (FIG. 6E top panels). Furthermore, CDH2 was located within a reprogrammed LOCK targeted by 6AN, and TOP2B was located immediately adjacent to a LOCK boundary. ChIP-qPCR assays performed on control and 6AN treated cells showed nearly identical enrichments for H3K9Me2 and H3K27Ac across these gene loci in the peritoneal subclone (FIG. 6E left panels and FIG. 21A). In contrast, 6AN treatments on the matched lung metastasis from the same patient resulted in enrichment of H3K9Me2 across both loci with concordant reductions of H3K27Ac over the CDH2 genic region (FIG. 6E right panels, FIG. 21A). This strongly suggested that a major downstream effect of 6AN treatments was epigenetic repression of over-expressed cancer genes. We therefore performed RNAi experiments to test whether knockdown of these genes might be important to selectively maintain tumorigenicity. Indeed, RNAi selectively blocked 3D tumor formation in distant metastatic and precursor subclones that over-expressed CDH2 and TOP2B, with no effect on HPDE cells or peritoneal carcinomatosis (FIG. 6F). Collectively, these targeted validation studies strongly supported conclusions inferred from the sequencing data, in that inhibition of PGD/oxPPP by 6AN selectively targeted gene expression, epigenetic state, and downstream tumorigenic functions of over-expressed cancer genes (CDH2/TOP2B).
  • As detailed in FIGS. 1A-1G, a global epigenetic reprogramming occurred during the evolution of distant metastasis. The immunohistochemical (IHC) stains against H3K9Me2/3 performed on tumor sections from 6 subclones collected from two patients who presented with widespread peritoneal carcinomatosis (a: patient A124, b: patient A141) showed similar strong nuclear staining across all primary tumor and peritoneal subclones. Similar stains on 6 subclones from two patients who presented with widespread distant metastases (c: patient A125, d: patient A132) showed progressive loss of nuclear staining that initiated in primary tumor subclones that seeded metastases (middle panel) and was further lost (c) or stably inherited (d) in the liver metastases. Scale bars=100 μm for IHC, 20 μm for IF. IHC against the indicated modifications performed on tumor sections representing 4 paired subclones from a patient (patient A38) that presented with both peritoneal carcinomatosis and distant metastases shows that the peritoneal precursor subclone in the primary tumor that seeded carcinomatosis inherited strong nuclear staining of heterochromatin modifications as seen in the parental clone that founded the neoplasm. In contrast, the primary tumor precursor subclone that seeded distant metastases showed cell-to-cell variation in staining, with complete loss of staining in the paired lung metastasis. Staining for the euchromatin modification H3K36Me3 remained stable across all subclones. f, Similar to IHC on tissues (e), western blots on cells lines collected from the peritoneal subclone (Per), liver metastasis, and lung metastasis from patient A38 also showed loss of heterochromatin modifications in distant metastatic subclones, with corresponding increased acetylation. Levels of H3K27Me3 and H3K36Me3 did not differ between subclones. g, Densitometry summary of western blot findings for the indicated histone modifications across cell lines from distant metastatic subclones compared to peritoneal carcinomatosis (n=8 biological replicates, error bars=s.e.m., *p<0.01).
  • As detailed in FIGS. 2A-2E, an epigenomic reprogramming of chromatin domains during PDAC subclonal evolution was observed. Representative (left panels) and total summarized (right panels) ChIP-seq experiments revealed loss of H3K9Me2 from LOCKs between peritoneal (A38Per) and distant metastatic and primary tumor precursor subclones (others). H3K27Me3 remained strong in all subclones. Bisulfite-seq data on cell lines (A38, A13, top panel) and frozen tissue samples (A124, A125 panels) showed that samples from local regional spread and parental clones (A38Per, A124PrF, A124Per, A125PrF) possessed hypermethylated LOCKs. In contrast, distant metastatic subclones (A125Lv1/2, A13Lg, A38Lv, A38Lg) and their primary tumor subclones (A125PrS, A13Pr1, A13Pr2) showed hypomethylation of DNA across the same LOCK regions. Global levels of H3K36Me3, H3K27Ac, and DNA methylation within ECDs did not show any clear differences between subclones. In contrast, distant metastatic subclones and primary tumor subclones displayed local reprogramming of H3K36Me3 and H3K27Ac specifically over DE genes within ECDs, compared to the same DE genic ECD regions from A38Per.
  • As detailed in FIGS. 3A-3G, reprogrammed chromatin domains encode divergent malignant properties. A38Lg was remarkably resistant to H2O2 treatments compared to A38Per. MTT signals reflect cell viability normalized to untreated controls. n=4 technical replicates, *p<0.03. Western blots for proteins involved in epithelial and EMT differentiation were differentially expressed between A38Per and A38Lg, as predicted by GO analyses of reprogrammed DE genes from LOCKs. A38Lg was completely resistant to gemcitabine compared to A38Per, as predicted by GO analyses of reprogrammed DE genes from ECDs. MTT signals reflect cell viability normalized to untreated controls. n=4 technical replicates, *p<0.01. A38Lg possessed elevated levels of yH2AX by western blot, consistent with activation of DNA repair pathways. Western blots showed that A38Lg lost hyper-phosphorylated ERK and f, was resistant to ERK targeted therapy, compared to A38Per. MTT signals reflect cell viability, normalized to untreated controls. n=4 technical replicates, *p<0.03. A38Lg also lost sensitivity to KRAS knockdown by Matrigel®3D tumor forming assays, compared to A38Per. n=4 technical replicates, *p<0.01.
  • As detailed in FIGS. 4A-4F, hyperactive glucose metabolism and 6PG depletion were observed in distant metastatic subclones. MTT assays performed on equal numbers (20K) of viable, growth-arrested cells from the indicated subclones showed greatly elevated signal (oxidoreductase activity) across distant metastatic subclones, compared to HPDE and local-regional PDAC samples (n=4 technical replicates for each, error bars=s.d.m., *p<10-5). Normalized cell counts for the indicated samples incubated with (+) or without (−) 10 mM glucose and treated with 1 mM H2O2 as indicated (+, −) for 24h showed that normal HPDE cells were sensitive to H2O2 under either glucose condition (as expected), whereas local-regional PDAC samples were resistant to H2O2 irrespective of glucose availability (n=3 technical replicates for each, error bars=s.d.m). In contrast, distant metastatic subclones were sensitive to H2O2 when glucose was not present in the media (n=3 technical replicates for each, error bars=s.d.m, *p<0.001). Simplified schematic of 13C-(1,2)-labeled glucose flow through glycolysis and the PPP. Glucose that enters the oxidative branch of the PPP has one labeled carbon cleaved during conversion of 6PG to Ru5P (m+1), whereas glucose that travels through glycolysis or the non-oxidative PPP retains both labeled carbons (m+2). Note that cross-talk allows glucose with either labeling pattern to re-enter the other pathway and incorporate. LC-MS for nucleotides and lactate showed that these downstream metabolites acquired greatly elevated 13C-1,2 labels from glucose in the lung metastasis from patient A38 (A38Lg), compared to its paired peritoneal subclone (A38Per, n=3 biological replicates, error bars=s.d.m., *p<0.01). Steady state LC-HRMS measurements for 6PG showed either complete (ND: not detected) or near complete loss of metabolite across distant metastases and their precursors compared to peritoneal carcinomatosis and HPDE cells.
  • As detailed in FIGS. 5A-5D, a PGD-dependence in distant metastatic subclones was observed. Western blots against indicated histone modifications performed on paired peritoneal (A38Per) and distant metastatic (A38Lg) subclones from the same patient showed that global levels of reprogrammed H3K9Me2/3 and acetylation in A38Lg were reversed by removal of glucose from the media (left panel), PGD RNAi (middle panel), and 6AN treatments (right panel). Western blots on A38Lg indicated that PGD knockdown by RNAi did not perturb expression of other PPP components or KRAS. PGD RNAi did not affect the ability of normal HPDE cells or local-regional PDAC samples to form tumors in 3D Matrigel® assays (representative photomicrographs shown with quantified numbers of tumors/well, n=4 technical replicates for each, error bars=s.d.m.). In contrast, PGD RNAi significantly reduced tumor formation across all distant metastatic subclones that were available for testing from the rapid autopsy cohort (n=4 technical replicates for each, error bars=s.d.m., *p<0.01). Scale bars: 200 μm.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 6A-6F, a reversal of reprogrammed chromatin, tumorigenicity, and malignant gene expression programs by 6AN was observed. Densitometry summary of western blots performed on 8 biological replicates, error bars=s.e.m., *p<0.01. 6AN selectively reversed reprogrammed H3K9Me2 and acetylation across most distant metastatic subclones, with minimal or non-recurrent effects on H3K27Me3 or H4K20Me3. Densitometry summary of western blots performed on 6 biological replicates, error bars=s.e.m. 6AN had minimal effects on histone modifications across normal (HPDE, fibroblast) or local-regional PDAC samples. 6AN ablated tumor formation in 3D Matrigel® assays (n=4 technical replicates for each, error bars=s.d.m., *p<0.01, scale bars: 200 μm) and 3D tumorsphere assays across distant metastatic subclones. 6AN had minimal effects on local-regional PDAC samples by either assay. 6AN also blocked the ability of distant metastatic subclones to form tumors when injected into 3D organotypic stromal cultures (n=3 technical replicates for each, error bars=s.d.m., *p<0.05; scale bars: 200 μm). Real-time RT-PCR (top panels) showed that the distant metastatic subclone (A38Lg) over-expressed CDH2 relative to the peritoneal subclone (A38Per) from the same patient, and that expression was repressed by 6AN (n=4 technical PCR replicates from two biological replicate experiments, error bars: s.d.m., *p=0.002). ChIP assays for H3K9Me2 and H3K27Ac with PCR primers (location indicated by numbers) spaced across the 1.4 Mb chromatin domain showed that 6AN induced spreading of H3K9Me2 across the locus with corresponding loss of H3K27Ac in A38Lg, with no effect on A38Per (n=2 biological replicates, error bars=s.e.m.). RNAi against both CDH2 and TOP2B selectively blocked tumor formation in distant metastatic and precursor subclones that over-expressed these genes by RNA-seq, with no effect on A38Per or HPDE cells (n=4 technical replicates for each, error bars=s.d.m., *p<0.01; scale bars: 200 μm). Specific RNAi knockdown of gene expression is shown.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 7A-7C, reprogrammed chromatin across distant metastatic subclones was detected. Western blots showed minimal or inconsistent changes for the indicated histone modifications between local-regional PDAC samples, including A38Per (Per). In contrast, a panel of distant metastatic subclones showed recurrent changes in specific modifications, compared to A38Per. Reprogramming was also observed between primary tumor subclones (Pr1, Pr2) and the lung met from the same patient.
  • As illustrated in FIG. 8A-8E, the specificity of reprogrammed histone modifications was established. Ki67 stains showed similar cell cycle rates for peritoneal and the matched lung met grown in serum, and serum-free media (SFM) arrested growth. Serial cell counts for the indicated times confirmed equal growth rates and growth arrest in SFM. GO analysis on RNA-seq data from cells cultured in serum vs. SFM further confirmed growth arrest in SFM (lung data, peritoneal gave identical results). Western blots showed persistence of reprogrammed chromatin modifications in serum/proliferative (−) and SFM/growth arrested (+) cells. Treatment of the peritoneal subclone with PDAC chemotherapies (Gem: Gemcitabine, G+FU: Gemcitabine+5-Fluorouracil) did not induce loss of methylation or gain of acetylation as seen between peritoneal and distant metastases, confirming that reprogramming was unrelated to treatment effects.
  • As illustrated in FIG. 9 , an enrichment of heterochromatin modifications within LOCKs was identified. Plots of ChIP-seq read densities normalized to inputs for histone modifications (left labels) showed that heterochromatin modifications (H3K9Me2/3, H3K27Me3) were enriched in regions that were called LOCKs (0% to 100%, bottom panel labels) for each subclone (indicated above graphs). In contrast, euchromatin modifications (H3K36Me3, H3K27Ac) were depleted from LOCKs.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 10A-10B, the reprogramming of H3K9Me3 in LOCKs during PDAC subclonal evolution was observed. ChIP-seq data from paired peritoneal (A38Per) and lung (A38Lg) metastatic subclones detected dramatic reduction of H3K9Me3 in A38Lg, that overlapped with H3K9Me2 (which marks LOCK domains). Similar data for patient A13, which also showed loss of H3K9Me3 from LOCK regions in A13Pr2/A13Lg subclones, compared to the Al 3Pr1 primary tumor subclone.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 11A-11B, the local reprogramming of DE gene loci within LOCKs was observed. Mapping DE genes from RNA-seq (distant mets and precursors vs. A38Per) to LOCKs revealed reciprocal changes in H3K27Me3 and H3K27Ac/H3K36Me3/DNA methylation around genes downregulated in LOCKs. The opposite changes in H3K27Me3 and H3K27Ac/H3K36Me3 were detected from genes upregulated in LOCKs. DNA methylation remained high in these regions. P-values for each comparison are listed in Supplementary Data 3.
  • As illustrated in FIG. 12 , an enrichment of euchromatin modifications within ECDs was observed. Plots of ChIP-seq read densities normalized to inputs for histone modifications (left labels) showed that euchromatin modifications (H3K36Me3, H3K4Me3, H3K27Ac) were enriched in regions that were called ECDs (0% to 100%, bottom panel labels) for each subclone (indicated above the graphs). In contrast, heterochromatin modifications (H3K9Me2/3, H3K27Me3) were depleted from ECDs.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 13A-13E, the reprogramming of large LOCKs during PDAC evolution was observed. H3K9Me3 was enriched and DNA hypomethylated in large LOCK domains. Striking reprogramming of H3K9Me3/2 and DNA methylation was detected in a subset of A38 large LOCKs. H3K9Me3 was also enriched across large HPDE LOCKs. Examples of reprogrammed domains between samples were obtained.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 14A-14F, malignant heterogeneity between A38 subclones was discovered. Oxidoreductase capacity was measured with MTT assays performed on equal numbers of growth-arrested cells in the absence of serum, and MTT signals normalized to total cell numbers per well. Consistent with GO results, A38Lg possessed higher oxidoreductase activity. n=4 technical replicates. NADPH/NADP levels were measured with enzyme cycling assays on equal numbers of growth arrested cells. More NADPH/million cells were detected in A38Lg. n=2 biological replicates. A38Per and A38Lg maintained well/poorly differentiated morphology in patient tissues and across three separate in vitro culture conditions as indicated. IF performed on fixed tissues from the primary tumor showed loss of E-cadherin with gain of vimentin in the precursor subclone that seeded A38Lg, consistent with EMT. RNAi knockdown of KRAS blocked 3-D tumor formation in suspension assays more efficiently in A38Per than A38Lg. n=4 technical reps.
  • As illustrated in FIG. 15A-15C, it was found that rearrangements were targeted to Large LOCKs and ECDs. Total breakpoints were not significantly enriched within Large LOCKs or ECDs. Unlike typical LOCKs, Large LOCK/ECD breakpoints were significantly joined to breakpoints from homologous domains to form rearrangements. Examples of Large LOCK rearrangements that generated translocations and amplifications were observed.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 16A-16B, an enhanced glucose metabolism with depleted 6PG levels across distant metastases was observed. Extra-cellular glucose consumption and lactate secretion were elevated in distant mets relative to per. (n=3). Schematic of glycolytic (outside) and PPP (boxed) metabolites with intra-cellular metabolite levels plotted for each sample. Data represent LC-MS signals normalized to protein (n=3-5).
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 17A-17C, it was found that 6AN targets glucose metabolism and the PGD step of the PPP. 6AN selectively slowed rates of extra-cellular glucose consumption and lactate secretion in metastatic subclones with no effect on glutamine/glutamate. 6AN reduced incorporation of intracellular 013-labeled glucose into metabolites downstream of the PPP. 6AN greatly increased metabolite levels of PGD substrate (6PG) and upstream metabolites (G1,5L) with corresponding reductions in downstream products.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 18A-18C, it was found that 6AN selectively modulated the reprogrammed chromatin state of distant metastatic subclones. 6AN treatments generally increased global H3K9Me2 with corresponding decreased acetylation in distant metastatic subclones. Normal cells and local-regional PDACs did not show such changes. 6AN changes persisted after 3d treatment (+) followed by removal of 6AN from the media (+−) for an additional 3d.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 19A-19D, it was found that 6AN targeted reprogrammed LOCK regions. Mapping 6AN repressed DE genes to A38Lg LOCKs revealed that these were located in reprogrammed LOCK-El regions. ChIP-seq on DMSO vs. 6AN treated A38Lg detected a quantitative increase in LOCK-wide H3K9Me2 from reprogrammed regions (as aligned to A38Per LOCKs). ChIP-seq also detected 6AN-reduced H3K27Ac specifically from genes repressed in LOCKs with unchanged H3K27Me3.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 20A-20C: 6AN selectively blocked tumor formation in distant metastatic subclones. 6AN did not interfere with the ability of local-regional PDAC samples to form tumors in 3-D Matrigel® assays or in 3-D suspension tumorsphere assays. n=2-4. In contrast, 6AN strongly blocked the ability of distant metastatic subclones to form tumors in 3-D suspension tumorsphere assays (shown) and 3-D Matrigel® assays (FIG. 5B). n=4, p<0.003. Scalebars: 200 uM.
  • As illustrated in FIGS. 21A-21C, the reprogramming of the TOP2B locus in response to 6AN was observed. RT-qPCR (top panels) showed that 6AN selectively repressed TOP2B the lung metastatic subclone. Similarly, ChIP assays showed that 6AN induced spreading of H3K9Me2 across the locus in the lung metastasis, with no effect on the paired peritoneal subclone. Representative RT-qPCR verified RNAi knockdown of CDH2 and TOP2B with minimal effect on vimentin (normalized to ERK, which was equally expressed across all conditions).
    • Discussion
  • The first major result of this study was widespread epigenetic reprogramming during the evolution of distant metastasis in the absence of metastasis-specific driver mutations, i.e., those not already present in the founder clone of the primary tumor. These involved large-scale reprogramming of histone H3K9 and DNA methylation within large heterochromatin domains (LOCKS and hypomethylated blocks), as well as regional changes in gene regulatory modifications (H3K27Ac, H3K36Me3). Second, these changes specified heterogeneous malignant properties that emerged during subclonal evolution. In particular, evolutionarily divergent subclones from the same patient showed changes in gene expression from reprogrammed regions consistent with their individual malignant properties, including oxidoreductase capacity, differentiation state, chemoresistance, oncogene addiction, and patterns of genome instability. Third, it was the PGD step of the oxPPP that controlled aspects of reprogrammed chromatin and tumorigenicity in distant metastatic subclones, as shown by metabolomics, genetic knockdown of PGD, chemical inhibition of PGD, and knockdown of downstream target genes. This strongly suggests that this anabolic glucose pathway was selected during the evolution of distant metastasis to maintain malignant epigenetic state and tumorigenic properties.
  • These findings also raise several important but complex questions, which we are pursuing in other studies. Perhaps the most complicated pertains to the extent of epigenetic and malignant heterogeneity between subclones across patients. Just to answer this in a single patient, a combination of whole-genome mapping, RNA-seq, bioinformatics, and several downstream experimental approaches were required. We hypothesize that such heterogeneity is a function of evolutionary time: patients who present with late-stage, widely metastatic disease may possess more epigenetic and malignant divergence between subclones in their tumors than patients who present with early-stage disease. This possibility underscores the pressing need to detect cancers early, before such malignant heterogeneity arises.
  • Also unclear are the precise mechanisms whereby PGD/oxPPP activity controls global epigenetic state, which are likely to be complex. This could be mediated through any of the known oxPPP-dependent changes in cellular metabolism, including redox balance, fatty acid biosynthesis, and/or ribose biosynthesis, any of which can affect global epigenetic state through control of metabolite cofactors that activate or inhibit entire classes of chromatin modifying enzymes. PGD activity itself is also complex and subject to several modes of regulation, including transcriptional over-expression, post-transcriptional repression, post-translational modification, protein:protein interactions, substrate availability, feedback inhibition, cross-talk with other pathways, and subcellular localization including a highly conserved yet uncharacterized nuclear fraction (C. Lyssiotis, personal communication). PGD-dependence may be selected for by any of these mechanisms during the evolution of distant metastasis in different patients.
  • A final question is how global epigenetic changes are targeted to specific chromatin domains that encode gene expression changes during subclonal evolution. We hypothesize that transcription factors and chromatin modifying enzymes that directly bind these regions play major roles in targeting the reprogramming events, and several candidates were recurrently over-expressed in our RNA-seq datasets. This includes the histone demethylase KDM1A (LSD1), which could be particularly important since we previously showed that this enzyme controls LOCK reprogramming and other studies have shown that it regulates breast cancer metastasis.
  • In summary, our findings in conjunction with deep sequencing studies on many of the same samples reported here suggest a model whereby driver mutations arise early to initiate PDAC tumorigenesis, followed by a period of subclonal evolution that generates heterogeneous metabolic, epigenetic, and malignant properties. Like driver mutations, those properties that confer increased fitness to cells that acquire them may be selected for and clonally expanded during invasive tumor growth and metastatic spread. The strong oxPPP-PGD dependence we observe in distant metastatic subclones could reflect such selection: distant metastatic sites provide ample glucose to fuel the pathway, pathway products (glucose-dependent NADPH) reduce oxygen species encountered within the sites, and the pathway itself is coupled to epigenetic programs that promote tumorigenesis. As such, reversal of malignant epigenetic programs by targeting the oxPPP could represent an effective therapeutic strategy for metastatic PDAC, one of the most lethal of all human malignancies.
    • Data Deposits
  • All ChIP-seq, RNA-seq, and bisulfite-seq sequencing data has been deposited online (GEO Number: GSE63126) at the following URL: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?token=sxyjkaqsvfalheh&acc=GSE63126
    • Methods Summary
  • Tissue samples and cell lines were previously collected from PDAC patients by rapid autopsy, sequenced-validated, and monitored for mycoplasma as previously described. Low passage (2-17) rapid autopsy cell lines were cultured at 37° C. in DMEM with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS, Gibco). For MTT assays, 15,000 cells/well were plated into 96 well plates in triplicate, treated 12 hours later, and assayed after 24 hr (glucose responses) or 6 days (chemotherapy) with CellTiter96 (Promega). For glucose response assays, nutrient-deplete DMEM (no glucose, glutamine, pyruvate, or serum) was used with addition of glucose as indicated. For glucose-dependent oxidative stress analysis, cells plated in triplicate and grown to 80% confluence followed by incubation in nutrient-deplete DMEM containing 10% dialyzed FBS with or without 10 mM glucose and 1 mM H2O2 for 24 hours. Cells were then washed with PBS, trypsinized, and viable cells counted with a hemocytometer. Glucose uptake and lactate secretion were measured with a YSI 7100 Bioanalyzer as described in the supplementary methods. For 13C-1,2 glucose tracing and steady state metabolite profiling, the Q Exactive MS (QE-MS; Thermo Scientific) coupled to liquid chromatography (LC Ultimate 3000 UHPLC) was used for metabolite separation and detection as previously described. Detailed conditions are provided in the supplementary methods.
  • Histones were acid extracted as described and western blots performed on 3.5 ug histones, which were checked by Ponceau stains prior to western blot to ensure equal loading. Densitometry was performed with ImageJ software. RNA was extracted with Trizol reagent (Life Technologies) and isopropanol precipitated. Genomic DNA was purified with MasterPure DNA extraction reagents (Epicenter). Immunohistochemistry, H&E staining, and immunofluorescence on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue microarray sections (TMAs) were performed according to standard procedures. Antibodies used for western blot, IHC, and ChIP are listed in Table 11.
  • TABLE 11
    Antibodies and conditions used for western
    blots, immunostain, and ChIP experiments
    Antibody Source Catalogue # Western dilution Immuno dilution
    CDH1 Cell Signaling 4065 1/500 1/100, IF
    Vimentin NeoMarkers Ms-129-P 1/500 1/100, IF
    G6PD Cell Signaling 8866S 1/500 N/A
    PGD Cell Signaling 13389S 1/500 N/A
    TKT Cell Signaling 8616S 1/500 N/A
    TALDO1 Santa Cruz Sc-134795 2 ug/ml N/A
    ERK1/2 Cell Signaling 4696S 1/500 N/A
    p-ERK1/2 Cell Signaling 4370S 1/500 N/A
    KRAS Santa Cruz Sc-30 2 ug/ml N/A
    RPE Santa Cruz Sc-162124 2 ug/ml N/A
    RPIA Abcam Ab181235 1/500 N/A
    CD44 Cell Signaling 5640S 1/500 N/A
    Epcam Millipore CBL251 1/500 N/A
    CDH2 Cell Signaling 4061S 1/250 N/A
    H3K9Me2 Abcam ab1220 1/10,000 1/5000 IHC, IF
    H3K9Me3 Abcam ab8898 1/10,000 1/5000 IHC
    H3K27Me3 Millipore 07-449 1/7500 N/A
    H3K9Ac Millipore 07-352 1/10,000 N/A
    H3K36Me3 Abcam ab9050 1/10,000 1/5000 IHC
    H3K27Ac Abcam ab4729 1/5000 N/A
    H4K20Me3 Millipore 07-463 1/1000 1/5000 IHC
    H4K16Ac Millipore, 07-329, ab109463 1/10,000 N/A
    Abcam
    total H3 Abcam ab 1791 1/30,000 N/A
    total H4 Abcam ab 10158 1/30,000 N/A
    YH2AX Abcam ab11174 1/5,000 N/A
  • RNAi experiments were performed with siRNA transfections (Oligofectamine, Life Technologies) using negative control siRNA (Sigma, SIC001) and pre-designed siRNA oligonucleotides against indicated genes in parallel (Sigma, PGD: SASI_Hs02_00334150, CDH2: SASI_Hs01_00153995, TOP2B: SASI_Hs02_00311874). siRNAs against mutant KRASG12V (CUACGCCAACAGCUCCAAC) (SEQ ID NO:1) were custom designed. Cells were incubated with siRNAs for 4 days after transfection and harvested. For drug treatments in 2-D, cells were grown to 70-80% confluency and treated for 3 days with 250 uM 6AN or DMSO negative control.
  • 3-D matrigel assays were adapted from Cheung et al. (Control of alveolar differentiation by the lineage transcription factors GATA6 and HOPX inhibits lung adenocarcinoma metastasis. Cancer Cell 23, 725-38 (2013)). Briefly, 2-D cultures were trypsinized into single cells, 4,000 cells/mL were suspended and thoroughly mixed in ice-cold DMEM containing 5% matrigel (BD systems) and 2% FBS (+/−DMSO/6AN as needed), 500 ul plated in quadruplicate into 24 well ultra-low attachment plates and incubated for at least 7 days to allow tumor growth. Well-formed tumors were then counted and representative photographs taken with an EVOS instrument. 3-D suspension tumorsphere assays were performed with 20,000 starting cells/well in ultra-low attachment 6 well plates as described, and tumors counted/photographed after at least 7 days of tumor growth.
  • Organotypic tumor forming assays were adapted from Ridky et al. (P. A. Invasive three-dimensional organotypic neoplasia from multiple normal human epithelia. Nat Med 16, 1450-5 (2010)) and Andl et al. (Epidermal growth factor receptor mediates increased cell proliferation, migration, and aggregation in esophageal keratinocytes in vitro and in vivo. J Biol Chem 278, 1824-30 (2003)). Briefly, 6 well permeable transwell plates (Costar 3414) were overlayed with 1 mL type 1 collagen containing 10×DMEM (acellular layer). Human dermal fibroblasts (ATCC) were suspended (12×106 cells/mL) in a mixture of ice cold 10×DMEM, 10% FBS, 52.5% collagen, and 17.5% matrigel (cellular layer), thoroughly mixed, and 2 mL/well plated over the acellular layer. The mixture was allowed to partially solidify for approximately 15 minutes at 37° C., followed by triplicate injection of 1×106 PDAC (suspended in 20 ul DMEM) cells into the cellular layer. Cells were incubated for 24 hours in fibroblast growth media above and below the inserts to initiate contraction of the discs. Fresh media with DMSO or 6AN was then added and replenished every 2 days for 6 additional days, followed by addition of DMEM with DMSO or 6AN underneath the inserts (no media on the top) for an additional 7 days. Discs were harvested, fixed overnight in 10% formalin, thinly sectioned, paraffin embedded, and stained with H&E. Tumors were photographed and measured with an Olympus BX53 microscope using cellSens Standard software.
  • Tests for statistical significance (two-tailed students t-test) were performed on data collected from technical replicate (performed in parallel at the same time) or biological replicate (performed at different times) experiments as indicated in the figure legends using excel software for western blot densitometry, MTT assays, and tumor measurements. Whole genome bisulfate sequencing and RNA-seq were performed with HiSeq instruments (Illumina) as described in Hansen et al. (Increased methylation variation in epigenetic domains across cancer types. Nat Genet 43, 768-75 (2011)). ChIP assays were performed as previously described for fixed cells with sonication. For ChIP-qPCR, equal amounts of paired input/IP DNA were amplified by real-time PCR (Roche LightCycler96) and fold enrichments calculated. Primer sequences are listed in Supplementary Table 11. For ChIP-seq, immunoprecipitated and input DNA was further sheared to 200-300 bp fragments, size-selected on agarose gels, and sequenced on either HiSeq (Illumina) or SOLiD (Applied Biosystems) formats with comparable results. IP sequencing reads were normalized to their corresponding inputs. Sequencing procedures, bioinformatics methods including domain calls, and statistical analyses are described in detail within the supplementary methods section.
  • TABLE 12
    Real-time PCR primer sequences used for
    ChIP-qPCR and RT-PCR experiments
    Locus/Assay Primer Name: Sequence (5′-3′) SEQ ID NO:
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_24.258F: GCTCAGCCCTGTATCAGCCAGC  2
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_24.258R: GGGTTACAGGTATGAGCCACTGC  3
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_24.506F: AATGGAGAAGTCAGGAATGTAGTCC  4
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_24.506R: GTATTTCATTTATCAAGTTGCAGCTCC  5
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_24.834F: TTTGCTTCTCACTCCAAGTTCATCC  6
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_24.834R: CAACCTCAGGAACAATGCATCAGC  7
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.125.6F: CGAAACAGTCCAGCTGCTATGG  8
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.125.6R: CTTGGCTATTGTGACTGGTACTGC  9
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.428.000F: CCAATGCACTAATTTAATGTCATGC 10
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.428.000R: CGTGCTAATTTCTATGGTACACTGG 11
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.632F: CCTAATCCAATATGCCTGGTGTCC 12
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.632R: CTGGAAGTCTGAGATCAAGGTGC 13
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.778F: AATAATCACGAAGCACTTCTGTATTGC 14
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.778R: TCACCAGCAGACATAGTCATACTTCC 15
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.808F: CCTTGGAGGTGGAGTCTACAGAGG 16
    CDH2 ChIP Chr18_25.808R: CTGCTAGCGTAGCCATCTGAGATCG 17
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.398F: GCCCTGTCTTCCCAGAATCATTGC 18
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.398R: CATGAAGCCTATGAAGATCATTATGG 19
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.540F: TTTAGCCAGCAAGTATTCTAGCATGG 20
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.540R: GTCAGTGTGATTCAGTAACAATGATGG 21
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.622F: CCTGCTCAAGGCTGACATGTCACC 22
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.622R: GTCGGACTCGATGGTCAGCACTGG 23
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.733F: AACCCGAAACTTTCAATGCACTTGG 24
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.733R: CTTCCTCTATAGTGAAGACCCTAGG 25
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.812F: TATGGCCATTCTTGCAGCAGTAAGG 26
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.812R: AAAGTTGGCTAAGGACATGAATAGGC 27
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.973F: GGAGATTCCCTCAGGTGCCTATACC 28
    TOP2B ChIP Chr3_25.973R: CTGGTGTTCCAGGCACCACTGAGG 29
    CDH2 RT-PCR CDH2F: TTATTACTCCTGGTGCGAGT 30
    CDH2 RT-PCR CDH2R: GAGCTGATGACAAATAGCGG 31
    TOP2B RT- TOP2BF: GTTACAGGTGGTCGTAATGGTT 32
    TOP2B RT- TOP2BR: TTGGCTTCAGAAGTCTTCATCA 33
    • Supplementary Methods
  • YSI metabolite analysis. Metabolite consumption (glucose and glutamine) and production (lactate and glutamate) were measured using a YSI 7100 Bioanalyzer. Indicated cell lines were plated at day −1 in a 6-well plate. At day 0 cells were counted (3 wells) or cultured in either regular medium or medium supplemented with the indicated compound. Tissue culture supernatants (1 mL, n=3, each condition) were harvested 72 hours after cell plating. Tissue culture conditions were optimized to ensure nutrient availability and exponential cell growth. Metabolite consumption/production data were normalized to cell number area under the curve, as previously described (Lee et al 2014: PMID: 24998913). The area under the curve (AUC) was calculated as N(T)d/ln2(1-2−T/d), where N(T) is the final cell count, d is doubling time, and T is time of experiment. Doubling time was calculated as d=(T)[log(2)/log(Q2/Q1)], where Q1 is starting cell number and Q2 is final cell number, as determined by manual counting using a hemocytometer.
  • LC-HRMS Metabolite Profiling. LC-HRMS samples were prepared and analyzed as described in Liu et al. (Development and quantitative evaluation of a high-resolution metabolomics technology. Anal Chem 86, 2175-84 (2014)). For glucose tracing experiments, cells were plated into 6 well plates in triplicate, grown in DMEM with 10% FBS until 70-80% confluent, washed 2× with nutrient deplete DMEM, and incubated in nutrient deplete DMEM containing 10 mM 13C-1,2 labeled glucose (Cayman) and 10% dialyzed FBS (Invitrogen) for an additional 36 hours. Additional replicates were also included and counted at the end of the experiment for normalization. Metabolism was quenched by quickly removing media and adding 1 mL pre-chilled (−80° C.) LC-MS grade 80% methanol (Sigma), incubated at −80° C. for at least 20 minutes, followed by scraping into the methanol and pelleting of metabolites by centrifugation. For drug treatments, cells were incubated in standard DMEM+/−DMSO/6AN for 36 hours, followed by incubation in labeled glucose media+/−DMSO/6AN for an additional 36 hours, quenched and pelleted as above. Pellets were reconstituted in equal volumes of 1:1 LC-MS grade acetonitrile:methanol and water and 5 ul were injected to the LC-QE-MS for analysis. For steady state measurements cells were incubated in growth media (DMEM with 10% FBS for PDACs, keratinocyte serum-free media for HPDE) until they reached 80-90% confluence, followed by 48 hours in DMEM without serum (for PDACs, since the standard growth media for comparison HPDE cells also did not contain serum). Metabolism was then quenched with methanol and metabolites pelleted as above. Pellets were reconstituted into a volume normalized to protein content (15 uL of 1:1 acetonitrile:methanol and 15 uL of water was used per 1 mg protein) and analyzed by LC-QE-MS. Raw data collected from the LC-QE-MS was processed on Sieve 2.0 (Thermo Scientific) using a targeted frame-seed that included glycolytic/PPP metabolites as required for the analysis. The output file including detected m/z and relative intensity in different samples is obtained after data processing, and replicates of selected metabolites from each sample were graphed and presented as shown in the figures.
  • Preparation of sequencing libraries. Libraries were prepared from 2-10 ng of IP ChIP DNA and 100 ng of input DNA and sequenced on Illumina HiSeq (APF laboratory). Briefly, samples were checked for quality and concentration from 150-250 bp on a bioanalyzer. DNA was end-repaired using Klenow polymerase in 58 ul of reaction buffer. For IP DNA, Klenow was diluted 1:5. Samples were incubated at 20° C. for 30 minutes and subsequently purified on QIAquick PCR purification columns. A-tails were then added to the DNA with Klenow and dATP in NEB buffer 2 at 37° C. for 30 minutes and cleaned with Qiagen MiniElute PCR purification columns. Sequencing adapters were then ligated onto the DNA for 15 minutes at room temperature followed by cleaning with MiniElute columns. Samples were then run on 2% agarose gels and DNA from 216 bp-366 bp (DNA plus adapters) were cut from the gel and purified with Qiagen Gel extraction kits. Concentrations were then checked on a bioanalyzer and 8 ng were PCR amplified with Phusion polymerase (Fisher) for 15 cycles (10 sec 98° C., 30 sec 65° C., 30 sec 72° C.) followed by 5 minutes at 72° C. Samples were then cleaned with Ampure kits (Illumina) and washed with 80% ethanol. DNA samples were resuspended at the end of the cleanup into 17.5 ul buffer EB (Qiagen) and subjected to next generation sequencing on Illumina HiSeq platform according to manufacturer's instructions. For SOLID sequencing, ChIP DNA was prepared and samples were processed according to manufacturer's protocols in the Johns Hopkins CRBII core facility.
  • BS-Seq data processing. 100 bp paired-end HiSeq2000 sequencing reads were aligned by BSmooth bisulfite alignment pipeline (version 0.7.1) as previously described in Hansen et al. (Increased methylation variation in epigenetic domains across cancer types. Nat Genet 43, 768-75 (2011)). Briefly, reads were aligned by Bowtie2 (version 2.0.1) against human genome (hg19) as well as the lambda phage genome. After alignment, methylation measurements for each CpG were extracted from aligned reads. We filtered out measurements with mapping quality <20 or nucleotide base quality on cytosine position <10 and we also removed measurements from the 5′ most 10 nucleotides of both mates. Then, bsseq package in BSmooth was used to identify small and large differentially methylated regions (DMRs). Only CpGs with at least coverage of 3 in all samples were included in our analysis. For small DMRs, smooth window of 20 CpGs or 1 kb was used, and t-statistic cutoff of −4.6, 4.6 and methylation difference greater than 20% were used for identifying small DMRs. While for large DMRs, smooth window of 200 CpGs or 10,000 bps was used, and t-statistic cutoff of −2, 2, methylation difference greater than 10% and length of DMRs >5 kb were used for identifying large DMRs.
  • RNA-Seq data processing. 100 bp paired-end HiSeq2000 sequencing reads were aligned against human genome (hg19) by OSA (version 2.0.1) with default parameters. After alignment, only uniquely aligned reads were kept for further analysis. Gene annotation information was downloaded from ENSEMBL (ensembl.com, release 66). Reads count for each gene of all samples were estimated using HTSeq (huber.embl.de/users/anders/HTSeq/doc/overview.html) and then were used to identify differentially expressed (DE) genes using DESeq package. Genes with FDR <0.01 and fold-change >1.5 were considered DE genes.
  • Chip-seq data processing. For 46 bp paired-end Illumina HiSeq2000 sequencing data, reads were aligned against human genome (hg19) using BWA with default parameters as described in Li et al. (Fast and accurate short read alignment with Burrows-Wheeler transform. Bioinformatics 25, 1754-60 (2009)). After alignment, duplicate reads were removed and only uniquely aligned reads were kept for further analysis. For 48 bp single-end Solid sequencing data, reads were aligned using Bowtie7 with default parameters and only uniquely aligned reads were kept for further analysis. For narrow histone modification peaks (H3K4Me3 and H3K27Ac), MACS2 were used for peak calling with default parameters8. For broad histone modification enrichments (H3K36Me3, H3K27me3, and H3K9Me2/3), peak calling was performed using RSEG which is based on hidden Markov model (HMM) and specifically designed for identifying broad histone peaks (see Song et al. (Identifying dispersed epigenomic domains from ChIP-Seq data. Bioinformatics 27, 870-1 (2011))).
  • Identifying large chromatin domains. We define LOCK domains for heterochromatin modifications (H3K9Me2/H3K27Me3) based on the peak calling results from RSEG. Briefly, peaks shorter than 5 kb were first removed to prevent regions with many nearby, short peaks being called as LOCKs. Then, neighboring peaks with distance less than 20 kb were merged to into one domain. Merged regions greater than 100 Kb identified in both biological replicates were called LOCKs. We noticed another unique subset of LOCKs that were invariably larger than 500 kb, strongly enriched with H3K9Me3, depleted of H3K9Me2 and H3K27Me3, and flanked by strong peaks of H3K27Me3 at the boundaries. Because of this, we defined these LOCKS by H3K9Me3 regions with length greater than 500 kb and less than 50% of their length overlapped with H3K27me3. Finally, the large regions (>50 kb) between heterochromatin domains that contained at least one gene with corresponding euchromatic H3K4Me3/H3K27Ac regulatory peaks were defined as ECDs. Because we found that H3K27Ac alone was sufficient for these calls, H3K4Me3 was also used for the initial test dataset with A38Per/Lg, but not required in subsequent datasets (A13Pr1/2, A13Lg). All codes used for domain calls are available upon request.
  • Defining different gene groups. Genes were classified as belonging within euchromatin (>50% of genic region located in ECDs) or heterochromatin (>50% of genic region located in those heterochromatin domains including LOCKS and G-LOCKs). A handful of other genes that did not fit these criteria and were classified as “other”.
  • Quantifying and enrichment plotting of ChIP-seq and RNA-seq. To plot each histone modification on defined large chromatin domains and their flanking regions, we divided flanking sequences of chromatin domains into bins with fixed length (in bp) and domains themselves into bins with fixed percentage of each domain length. ChIP enrichment was measured and normalized as described in Hawkins et al. (Distinct epigenomic landscapes of pluripotent and lineage-committed human cells. Cell Stem Cell 6, 479-91 (2010)). In brief, the number of reads per kilobase of bin per million reads sequenced was calculated for each ChIP and its input control (denoted as RPKMchip and RPKMinput). ChIP enrichment is measured as ΔRPKM=RPKMChIP−RPKMinput and ChIP enrichment regions should have ΔRPKM>0. Then all ΔRPKM were normalized to a scale between 0 and 1 and the average normalized ChIP enrichment signals across all large chromatin domains were plotted for each histone mark. RNA-Seq data was also normalized by the number of reads per kilobase of bin per million reads sequenced and plotted similarly.
    • Supplementary Data
  • Supplementary Data 1. This lists numbers of sequencing reads (total reads and uniquely aligned reads) for all replicate samples for ChIP-seq, WGBS, and RNA-seq experiments and includes correlation coefficients between the replicate samples.
  • Supplementary Data 1A: Summary of ChIP-seq reads for all replicate samples
  • Samples
    (Name_replicate#_IP Uniquely
    antibody) Total reads aligned reads
    38Per_1_K27ac 27,100,820 23,396,028
    38Per_2_K27ac 20,750,076 17,913,278
    38Lg_1_K27ac 22,821,996 19,946,514
    38Lg_2_K27ac 25,996,970 22,475,058
    38Per_1_K9ac 27,148,594 22,200,344
    38Per_2_K9ac 25,585,898 18,706,456
    38Lg_1_K9ac 26,607,612 21,750,232
    38Lg_2_K9ac 28,316,524 23,222,230
    38Per_1_K4me3 28,059,734 23,718,542
    38Per_1_K4me3 43,068,697 20,704,383
    38Lg_2_K4me3 24,455,456 21,184,788
    38Lg_2_K4me3 44,715,633 17,458,603
    38Per_1_K36me3 44,738,783 23,961,134
    38Per_2_K36me3 25,140,434 19,239,814
    38Lg_1_K36me3 25,532,398 18,263,078
    38Lg_2_K36me3 48,929,336 24,747,992
    38Per_1_K27me3 26,546,612 21,523,318
    38Per_1_K27me3 47,076,156 21,613,912
    38Lg_2_K27me3 25,528,442 20,886,386
    38Lg_2_K27me3 44,444,667 16,568,247
    38Per_1_K9me2 69,629,048 55,830,176
    38Per_K9me2_2 64,949,506 51,281,848
    38Lg_K9me2_1 51,787,694 39,725,736
    38Lg_2_K9me2 71,421,136 55,643,850
    38Per_1_K9me3 28,530,078 18,843,038
    38Per_2_K9me3 30,869,994 19,860,544
    38Lg_1_K9me3 33,055,178 20,251,534
    38Lg_2_K9me3 36,205,418 22,568,940
    38Per_1_Input 28,748,102 22,637,100 for 38Per_1 K16ac, K27ac, K9ac,
    K4me3, K27me3, K9me2 and K9me3
    38Per_1_Input 43,698,893 20,955,594 for 38Per_1 Solid K4me3, K36me3
    and K27me3
    38Per_1_Input 78,376,368 61,062,024 for 38Per_1 K9me2
    38Per_2_Input 26,162,800 20,358,392 for 38Per_2 K16ac, K9ac, K36me3,
    K9me2 and K9me3
    38Per_2_Input 22,795,752 17,717,432 for 38Per_2 K27ac
    38Per_2_Input 73,425,982 57,237,686 for 38Per_2 K9me2
    38Lg_1_Input 30,391,444 23,128,054 for 38Lg_1 K16ac, K27ac, K9ac and
    K9me3
    38Lg_1_Input 26,527,468 20,878,592 for 38Lg_1 K36me3 and K9me2
    38Lg_1_Input 56,918,912 44,006,646 for 38Lg_1 K9me2
    38Lg_2_Input 24,372,670 21,204,480 for 38Lg_2 K16ac, K27ac, K9ac,
    K4me3, K27me3 and K9me3
    38Lg_2_Input 43,698,893 19,884,219 for 38Lg_2 Solid K4me3 and K27me3
    38Lg_2_Input 42,655,553 25,391,128 for 38Lg_2 Solid K36me3
    38Lg_2_Input 82,576,576 65,151,312 for 38Lg_2 K9me2
    13Pr2_1_K27Me3 45,562,122 35,405,382
    13Pr2_2_K27Me3 48,647,198 37,601,820
    13Pr2_1_K36Me3 50,525,636 40,320,884
    13Pr2_2_K36Me3 43,172,826 34,777,556
    13Pr2_1_K9Me3 52,034,354 28,398,244
    13Pr2_2_K9Me3 47,846,284 27,025,984
    13Pr2_1_K27Ac 39,057,664 32,754,504
    13Pr2_2_K27Ac 45,988,666 38,419,042
    13Pr2_1_K9Me2 36,367,760 27,747,040
    13Pr2_2_K9Me2 49,421,058 36,685,524
    13Pr2_1_Input 42,932,496 34,453,136 for 13Pr2_1 K27Ac and K9Me2
    13Pr2_2_input 39,166,036 31,527,030 for 13Pr2_2 K27Ac and K9me2
    13Pr2_1_Input 43,812,050 33,019,642 for 13Pr2_1 K36Me3
    13Pr2_2_Input 42,483,790 32,000,834 for 13Pr2_2 K36Me3
    13Pr2_1_Input 36,646,218 27,841,600 for 13Pr2_1 K27Me3 and K9Me3
    13Pr2_2_Input 37,605,184 28,502,806 for 13Pr2_2 K27Me3 and K9Me3
    13Pr1_1_K27Me3 42,464,788 32,291,936
    13Pr1_2_K27Me3 42,717,990 32,886,274
    13Pr1_1_K36Me3 45,628,144 34,403,256
    13Pr1_2_K36Me3 47,010,260 35,169,858
    13Pr1_1_K27Ac 42,969,352 36,362,084
    13Pr1_2_K27Ac 52,912,056 43,709,782
    13Pr1_1_K9Me3 43,261,454 27,946,136
    13Pr1_2_K9Me3 48,134,638 30,111,834
    13Prl_1_K9Me2 51,237,440 37,126,410
    13Pr1_2_K9Me2 44,260,552 34,079,972
    13Pr1_1_K4Me3 47,817,718 40,460,332
    13Pr1_2_K4Me3 39,916,242 34,219,430
    13Pr1_1_Input 27,015,968 21,991,728 for 13Pr1_1 K9Me3 and K9Me2
    13Pr1_2_Input 42,754,918 34,651,668 for 13Pr1_2 K9Me3 and K9Me2
    13Pr1_1_Input 37,703,540 30,589,064 for 13Pr1_1 K36Me3 and K27Ac
    13Pr1_2_Input 37,251,906 30,188,840 for 13Pr1_2 K36Me3 and K27Ac
    13Pr1_1_Input 45,330,014 36,495,018 for 13Pr1_1 K27Me3 and K4Me3
    13Pr1_2_Input 41,671,660 33,507,094 for 13Pr1_2 K27Me3 and K4Me3
    13Lg_1_K27Me3 46,174,838 35,837,518
    13Lg_2_K27Me3 47,763,132 36,963,900
    13Lg_1_K36Me3 48,735,296 39,047,890
    13Lg_2_K36Me3 44,439,570 35,973,060
    13Lg_1_K27Ac 52,682,716 44,187,348
    13Lg_2_K27Ac 38,043,964 32,298,344
    13Lg_1_K9Me3 44,449,474 25,717,050
    13Lg_2_K9Me3 49,020,848 28,456,692
    13Lg_1_K9Me2 40,580,872 31,979,380
    13Lg_2_K9Me2 42,760,754 33,395,094
    13Lg_1_input 53,086,242 42,631,966 for 13Lg_1 K27Ac and K9Me2
    13Lg_2_input 41,676,088 33,503,572 for 13Lg_2 K27Ac and K9Me2
    13Lg_1_Input 40,822,392 31,354,916 for 13Lg_1 K36Me3
    13Lg_2_Input 45,292,342 35,189,166 for 13Lg_2 K36Me3
    13Lg_1_Input 49,243,126 37,741,490 for 13Lg_1 K27Me3 and K9Me3
    13Lg_2_Input 47,226,322 36,317,110 for 13Lg_2 K27Me3 and K9Me3
    HPDE_1_K27Me3 41,619,730 1,644,221,182
    HPDE_2_K27Me3 45,844,562 1,870,133,582
    HPDE_1_K36Me3 38,327,244 28,084,826
    HPDE_2_K36Me3 35,519,752 27,012,400
    HPDE_1_K27Ac 52,294,724 43,428,888
    HPDE_2_K27Ac 35,271,886 30,001,598
    HPDE_1_K9Me3 49,006,354 31,150,780
    HPDE_2_K9Me3 49,995,186 31,313,578
    HPDE_1_K9Me2 47,415,884 36,297,824
    HPDE_2_K9Me2 47,621,364 36,772,334
    HPDE_1_K4Me3 45,262,500 39,528,934
    HPDE_2_K4Me3 34,511,978 30,181,046
    HPDE_1_Input 50,286,666 40,743,792 for HPDE_1 K9Me3 and K9Me2
    HPDE_2_Input 45,780,736 37,154,676 for HPDE_2 K9Me3 and K9Me2
    HPDE_1_Input 36,424,754 29,600,008 for HPDE_1 K36Me3 and K27Ac
    HPDE_2_Input 48,330,362 39,054,926 for HPDE_2 K36Me3 and K27Ac
    HPDE_1_Input 38,269,792 30,829,930 for HPDE_1 K27Me3 and K4Me3
    HPDE_2_Input 37,635,368 30,421,766 for HPDE_2 K27Me3 and K4Me3
    38Lg_DMSO_1_K27Me3 45,364,340 33,889,440
    38Lg_DMSO_2_K27Me3 37,628,254 29,077,804
    38-5_DMSO_1_K9Me2 57,024,354 42,891,924
    38Lg_DMSO_1_K27Ac 44,665,878 37,664,038
    38-5_DMSO_1_Input_batch4 69,705,942 56,571,128 for 38-5_DMSO_1 K9Me2
    38Lg_DMSO_1_Input 37,296,752 30,470,440 for 38Lg_DMSO_1 K27Ac
    38Lg_DMSO_1_Input 49,727,864 40,284,668 for 38Lg_DMSO_1 K27Me3
    38Lg_DMSO_2_Input 40,505,458 32,886,902 for 38Lg_DMSO_2 K27Me3
    38Lg_6AN_1_K27Me3 50,310,568 39,528,064
    38Lg_6AN_2_K27Me3 38,884,546 32,325,978
    38-5_6AN_1_K9Me2 33,324,396 24,956,330
    38Lg_6AN_1_K27Ac 40,895,998 34,565,998
    38-5_6AN_1_Input_batch4 42,480,878 34,537,520 for 38-5_6AN_1 K9Me2
    38Lg_6AN_1_Input_batch3 40,615,920 33,033,908 for 38Lg_6AN_1 K27Ac
    38Lg_6AN_1_Input_batch5 45,637,332 37,039,730 for 38Lg_6AN_1 K27Me3
    38Lg_6AN_2_Input_batch5 36,771,474 29,835,218 for 38Lg_6AN_2 K27Me3
    Total 7,441,856,062
  • Supplementary Data 1B: Summary of WGBS reads for all replicate samples
  • Aligned Coverage
    Samples Total reads Aligned reads Total CpGs CpGs per replicate
    38Per rep1 281,674,084 234,515,645 28,217,448 24,736,894 5.74
    38Per rep2 279,677,926 233,819,498 28,217,448 24,668,800 5.65
    38Lg rep1 246,354,388 242,041,867 28,217,448 24,079,382 4.96
    38Lg rep2 293,066,340 203,060,037 28,217,448 24,568,234 5.87
    38-Lv rep1 481,671,728 394,675,778 28,217,448 25,699,745 12.06
    38-Lv rep2 550,721,820 443,244,002 28,217,448 25,797,654 13.57
    13Pr2 rep1 470,251,572 378,466,223 28,217,448 25,763,514 11.83
    13Pr2 rep2 515,334,056 421,725,378 28,217,448 25,287,251 12.01
    13Pr1 rep1 421,949,244 340,966,300 28,217,448 25,733,843 10.58
    13Pr1 rep2 383,229,986 308,746,570 28,217,448 25,613,462 9.58
    13Lg rep1 489,959,480 400,936,046 28,217,448 25,342,333 11.59
    13Lg rep2 505,568,682 415,435,288 28,217,448 25,358,384 11.74
    HPDE rep1 319,334,144 259,838,538 28,217,448 25,498,338 8.14
    HPDE rep2 409,472,974 329,823,993 28,217,448 25,755,008 10.07
    38Lg DMSO 381,562,458 313,237,618 28,217,448 25,509,209 9.67
    rep1
    38Lg DMSO 462,809,566 378,726,614 28,217,448 25,716,790 11.67
    rep2
    38Lg 6AN 668,822,798 546,162,307 28,217,448 25,987,966 16.62
    rep1
    38Lg 6AN 408,683,276 329,596,955 28,217,448 25,586,266 10.20
    rep2
    A124PerMet 388,402,336 313,722,746 28,217,448 25,551,642 7.39
    A124Pr 348,071,524 281,407,466 28,217,448 25,424,592 6.73
    Normal 335,262,856 264,003,665 28,217,448 25,423,437 6.37
    A125LvMet2 299,092,468 241,196,683 28,217,448 24,124,822 5.55
    A125LvMet1 256,878,816 210,595,185 28,217,448 24,190,459 5.09
    A125Pr2 274,964,060 226,288,821 28,217,448 24,326,375 5.39
    A125Pr1 338,097,576 277,039,476 28,217,448 25,344,423 6.55
    Total 7,989,272,699
  • Supplementary Data 1C: Summary of RNA-seq reads for all replicate samples
  • Genes with
    Uniquely aligned at least
    Samples Total reads reads one read
    38Per rep1 136,981,522 126,989,515 24,629
    38Per rep2 209,196,426 194,285,575 25,767
    38Per SFM rep1 131,806,836 120,661,977 23,750
    38Per SFM rep2 170,418,406 157,947,694 25,204
    38Lg rep1 157,009,238 146,313,205 22,347
    38Lg rep2 126,740,896 118,431,884 21,849
    38Lg SFM rep1 157,587,660 144,483,739 23,085
    38Lg SFM rep2 136,421,728 124,124,770 22,387
    38-Lv rep1 121,404,350 99,124,421 23,033
    38-Lv rep2 201,919,638 160,412,909 24,203
    13Pr2 rep1 189,720,644 163,161,693 25,011
    13Pr2 rep2 154,397,366 132,746,732 24,122
    13Pr1 rep1 194,020,194 152,395,660 25,013
    13Pr1 rep2 159,731,916 124,045,393 24,300
    13Lg rep1 258,937,646 222,764,245 25,530
    13Lg rep2 104,375,982 89,301,099 24,908
    HPDE rep1 142,777,652 115,147,712 23,274
    HPDE rep2 148,752,028 119,731,612 23,348
    38Per DMSO rep1 103,160,056 90,683,198 23,718
    38Per DMSO rep2 205,086,938 175,208,405 25,285
    38Per 6AN rep1 163,145,386 144,907,391 24,514
    38Per 6AN rep2 163,346,616 145,684,561 24,049
    38Lg DMSO rep1 183,580,116 158,065,524 23,609
    38Lg DMSO rep2 177,808,970 156,924,338 23,334
    38Lg 6AN rep1 231,471,388 201,726,950 24,544
    38Lg 6AN rep2 181,401,400 157,469,565 23,376
    Total 3,742,739,767
  • Supplementary Data 1D: Summary of sequencing correlation coefficients for each replicate
  • Samples Modification Correlation coefficients between replicates
    38Per K4Me3 0.8487501
    38Per K36Me3 0.7908561
    38Per K27Me3 0.8087827
    38Per K9Me2 0.9533903
    38Per K9Me3 0.973981
    38Per K9Ac 0.8405352
    38Per K27Ac 0.9662306
    38Per K16Ac 0.8958976
    38Lg K4Me3 0.8977917
    38Lg K36Me3 0.7457856
    38Lg K27Me3 0.8283084
    38Lg K9Me2 0.9345982
    38Lg K9Me3 0.9870598
    38Lg K9Ac 0.8557192
    38Lg K27Ac 0.9749662
    38Lg K16Ac 0.8634484
    13Pr2 K27Ac 0.9795735
    13Pr2 K27Me3 0.957889
    13Pr2 K36Me3 0.970403
    13Pr2 K9Me2 0.9710885
    13Pr2 K9Me3 0.9918936
    13Pr1 K27Ac 0.9797524
    13Pr1 K27Me3 0.9481441
    13Pr1 K36Me3 0.9697859
    13Pr1 K9Me2 0.9238059
    13Pr1 K9Me3 0.9841044
    13Pr1 K4Me3 0.9969566
    13Lg K27Ac 0.9824737
    13Lg K27Me3 0.9518218
    13Lg K36Me3 0.9647369
    13Lg K9Me2 0.9505661
    13Lg K9Me3 0.9927826
    HPDE K27Ac 0.9969341
    HPDE K27Me3 0.9694532
    HPDE K36Me3 0.9582686
    HPDE K9Me2 0.9820727
    HPDE K9Me3 0.9655677
    HPDE K4Me3 0.991134
    38Lg_DMSO K27Ac 0.9523149
    38Lg_DMSO K27Me3 0.9190836
    38Lg_DMSO K36Me3 0.8830686
    38Lg_6AN K27Ac 0.9515394
    38Lg_6AN K27Me3 0.9328865
    38Lg_6AN K36Me3 0.8750725
    Average 0.9331653
    Median 0.9556397
  • Supplementary Data 2. This provides summaries of chromatin domain calls for LOCKs, large LOCKs, and ECDs for each sample including median lengths, ranges, % genome coverage, and levels of individual histone modifications in each type of domain. Median lengths, ranges, and % genome coverage for each individual heterochromatin modification individually (irrespective of domain location) is also included.
  • Supplementary Data 2A: Summary of large chromatin domains detected by ChIP-seq
  • Samples Median K9Me2 K9Me3 K27Me3
    (name, Ranges lengths Total length % of enrichment enrichment enrichment
    source) Domains Nos. (bp) (bp) (bp) genome (ΔRPKM) (ΔRPKM) (ΔRPKM)
    A38Per, LOCKs 2,648 100,001~ 311,251 1,547,508,645 54.11% 0.082 0.003 0.102
    Peritoneal 24,067,001
    ECDs 2,021 50,499~ 271,999 895,772,411 31.32% −0.116 −0.225 −0.139
    8,760,499
    Large 344 500,501~ 1,287,251 589,313.343 20.61% 0.012 0.458 −0.020
    LOCKs 10,773,501
    A38Lg, LOCKs 3,166 100,001~ 298,251 1,627,719,164 56.91% 0.069 −0.101 0.118
    Lung Met 14,074,501
    ECDs 2,318 50,499~ 241,499 838,469,352 29.32% −0.112 −0.243 −0.159
    12,388,255
    Large 226 505,501~ 1,340,751 416,070,225 14.55% 0.004 1.040 −0.152
    LOCKs 10,428,001
    A13Pr1, LOCKs 2,446 100,001~ 279,501 1,745,065,095 61.02% 0.038 0.063 0.124
    Primary 1 30,694,501
    ECDs 2,008 50,499~ 255,167 914,964,363 31.99% −0.062 −0.176 −0.221
    5,944,499
    Large 77 504,001~ 994,501 97,292,576 3.40% −0.045 0.640 0.043
    LOCKs 5,223,501
    A13Pr2, LOCKs 2,862 100,001~ 298,251 1,845,941,860 64.54% 0.065 0.051 0.107
    Primary 2 24,749,001
    ECDs 1,968 50,499~ 277,249 914,565,095 31.98% −0.122 −0.141 −0.199
    10,621,499
    GHDs 50 501,501~ 711,001 40,355,550 1.41% 0.015 0.990 −0.112
    1,742,001
    A13Lg, LOCKs 3,140 100,001~ 293,501 2,052,192,139 71.75% 0.048 0.027 0.089
    Lung Met 31,395,001
    ECDs 1,935 50,499~ 207,499 672,028,952 23.50% −0.125 −0.155 −0.231
    3,447,581
    Large 111 500,501~ 735,501 100,336,111 3.51% −0.034 0.558 −0.180
    LOCKs 2,878,501
  • Supplementary Data 2B: Summary of broad heterochromatin modifications detected by ChIP-seq
  • Samples Median
    (name, Large histone Ranges lengths Total length % of
    source) modifications Numbers (bp) (bp) (bp) genome
    A38Per, K9Me2 2,331 100,001~ 335,001 1,449,305,831 50.68%
    Peritoneal 24,067,001
    K9Me3 (large 344 500,501~ 1,287,251 589,313,343 20.61%
    LOCKs) 10,773,501
    K9me3 (LOCKs) 711 102,001~ 219,501 207,546,709 7.26%
    1,690,501
    K27Me3 1,523 100,001~ 186,001 360,026,522 12.59%
    1,127,001
    A38Lg, K9Me2 2,010 100,001~ 255,501 979,113,009 34.23%
    Lung Met 14,074,501
    K9Me3 (large 226 505,501~ 1,340,751 416,070,225 14.55%
    LOCKs) 10,428,001
    K9me3 (LOCKs) 189 101,501 215,000 49,777,688 1.74%
    1,027,001
    K27Me3 2,649 100,001~ 244,501 882,095,148 30.84%
    2,197,001
    A13Pr1, K9Me2 1,696 100,001~ 176,501 407,098,196 14.23%
    Primary 1 1,428,501
    K9Me3 (large 77 504,001~ 994,501 97,292,576 3.40%
    LOCKs) 5,223,501
    K9me3 (LOCKs) 1,181 100,501~ 322,501 573,396,678 20.05%
    11,051,001
    K27Me3 2,211 100,001~ 232,001 803,104,711 28.08%
    30,694,501
    A13Pr2, K9Me2 2,693 100,001~ 295,501 1,738,982,692 60.80%
    Primary 2 24,749,001
    K9Me3 (large 50 501,501~ 711,001 40,355,550 1.41%
    LOCKs) 1,742,001
    K9me3 (LOCKs) 505 101,001~ 187,501 117,705,503 4.12%
    1,203,001
    K27Me3 1,828 100,001~ 220,001 589,055,827 20.60%
    2,887,501
    A13Lg, K9Me2 3,091 100,001~ 283,501 1,898,353,591 66.38%
    Lung Met 24,749,001
    K9Me3 (large 111 500,501~ 735,501 100,336,111 3.51%
    LOCKs) 2,878,501
    K9me3 (LOCKs) 711 101,501~ 194,501 168,847,710 5.90%
    1,748,001
    K27Me3 2,553 100,001~ 237,001 1,003,794,552 35.10%
    31,395,001
  • Supplementary Data 3. This provides all p-values calculated for sequencing experiments, as designated by the figure labels. Sensitivity analyses for LOCK domain calls are also included.
  • Supplementary File 3A: p-values for H3K9Me2 reprogramming across LOCKs
  • FIG. 2A: H3K9Me2 Reduction Across LOCKs (vs A38Per)
    K9Me2 p-value Mb K9Me2
    Enrichment (RPKM < A38Per Reduction (vs p-value (Reduced Mb vs
    Samples (ARPKM) Wilcox Test) A38Per) A38Per, Chi-square Test)
    A38Per, Peritoneal 0.082 NA (reference) NA (reference) N/A (reference)
    A38Lg, Lung 0.069 p < 2.2e−16 763 Mb (52.7%) p < 2.2e−16
    Metastasis
    A13Pr1, Primary 0.038 p < 2.2e−16 1110 Mb (76.6%) p < 2.2e−16
    Tumor 1
    A13Pr2, Primary 0.065 p < 2.2e−16 286 Mb (19.7%) p < 2.2e−16
    Tumor 2
    A13Lg, Lung 0.048 p < 2.2e−16 204 (14.1%) p < 2.2e−16
    Metastasis
  • Supplementary Data 3B: p-values for reprogrammed euchromatin modifications from DE genes
  •
    FIG. 2E Genes Up-regulated from Euchromatin (vs Peritoneal: A38Per)
    pvalue K27Ac pvalue K36Me3
    Sample (>A38Per Wilcox) (>A38Per Wilcox)
    A38Lg, Lung Metastasis p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Pr1, Primary Tumor 1 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Pr2, Primary Tumor 2 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Lg, Lung Metastasis p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    FIG. 2E Genes Down-regulated from Euchromatin (vs Peritoneal: A38Per)
    pvalue K27Ac pvalue K36Me3
    Sample (<A38Per Wilcox) (<A38Per Wilcox)
    A38Lg, Lung Metastasis p = 0.0000007224 p = 6.41le−09
    A13Pr1 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Pr2 p = 0.0000001401 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Lg p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
  • Supplementary Data 3C: p-values for reprogramming of H3K9Me3 across LOCKs
  • FIGS. 10A-10B: H3K9Me3 Enrichment over LOCKs
    Comparison H3K9Me2 (Wilcox Test) H3K9Me3 (Wilcox Test)
    A38Per vs A38Lg p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Pr1 vs A13Pr2 p = 0.1086 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Pr1 vs A13Lg p = 0.2364 p < 2.2e−16
  • Supplementary Data 3D: p-values for reprogramming of modifications from LOCK DE genes
  •
    FIG. 11A: DE genes Downregulated from LOCKs (vs A38Per)
    DNA
    K9Me2 K27me3 K27ac K36me3 Methylation
    (>A38Per (>A38Per (<A38Per (<A38Per (<A38Per
    Sample Wilcox) Wilcox) Wilcox) Wilcox) Wilcox)
    A38Lg p = 0.99 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Pr2 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Pr1 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    A13Lg p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
    FIG. 11B: DE genes Upregulated from LOCKs (vs A38Per)
    DNA
    K9Me2 K27me3 K27ac K36me3 Methylation
    (<A38Per (<A38Per (>A38Per (>A38PerWi (>A38Per
    Sample Wilcox) Wilcox) Wilcox) lcox) Wilcox)
    A38Lg p = 0.99 p < 2.2e−16 p = 1.163e−06 p = 0.000000007195 p = 0.01699
    A13Pr2 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p = 3.312e−08
    A13Pr1 p = 0.51 p = 2.738e−06 p = 1.362e−06 p = 0.0004268 p = 0.99
    A13Lg p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p = 2.362e−13 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16
  • Supplementary Data 3E: p-values for reprogramming across Large LOCK domains
  • FIGS. 13B-13C: Reprogramming Across Large LOCK Domains
    H3K9Me2 (>A38Lg H3K9Me3 (<A38Lg DNA Methylation
    FIG. 13B Wilcox) Wilcox) (>A38Lg Wilcox)
    A38Per Large LOCKs p = 0.0006861 p < 2.2e−16 p = 0.000007037
    H3K9Me2 (>A38Per H3K9Me3 (<A38Per DNA Methylation
    FIG. 13C Wilcox) Wilcox) (>A38Per Wilcox)
    A38Lg Large LOCKs p = 0.00002502 p < 2.2e−16 p = 3.52e−16
  • Supplementary Data 3F: p-values for 6AN RNA/ChIP-seq experiments
  •
    FIG. 19A: 6AN Down-regulation of DE Genes from LOCKs
    with Pre−Existing Regulatory Modifications (6AN vs.
    other LOCK genes)
    K27Ac K36me3 K27Me3 K9Me2
    (6AN > Other) (6AN > Other) (6AN < Other) (6AN < Other)
    Wilcox Test p- p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p < 2.2e−16 p = 0.02238
    value
    FIG. 19B: 6AN Increase of H3K9Me2 Across
    Reprogrammed LOCKs (DMSO vs 6AN Over LOCKs
    Reprogrammed between A38Lg vs A38Per)
    K9Me2 K27Me3
    (6AN > DMSO) (6AN > DMSO)
    Wilcox Test p- p = 2.29le−07 p = 0.6333
    value
    FIGS. 19C-19D: 6AN Decrease of H3K27Ac
    Over DE Genes Repressed From LOCKs
    FIG. 19C K27Ac LOCK K27Ac Other K27Ac ECD
    Down Genes LOCK Genes Down Genes
    (6AN < DMSO) (6AN < DMSO) (6AN < DMSO)
    Wilcox Test p- p = 0.01549 p = 0.94462 p = 0.8944
    value
    FIG. 19D K27Me3 LOCK K27Me3 Other K27Me3 ECD
    Down Genes LOCK Genes Down Genes
    (6AN < DMSO) (6AN < DMSO) (6AN < DMSO)
    Wilcox Test p- p = 0.9417 p = 0.5139 p = 0.7957
    value
  • Supplementary Data 3G: LOCK sensitivity analyses
  • Sensitivity Testing of LOCK Domain Calls
    Test Test
    Original Parameter
    1 Overlap Parameter 2 Overlap
    Parameters Called Analysis Called Analysis
    Called Domain Domain Percent Domain Percent
    Sample Lengths Lengths Overlap Lengths Overlap
    Small Peaks 5 Kb vs 5 Kb vs
    Removed 5 kb 2 kb 2 Kb 10 kb 10 Kb
    38Per K9me2 1449305831 1475751351 98.02% 1389543312 95.65%
    38Lg K9me2 979113009 1042797151 93.44% 870263273 88.44%
    38Per K27me3 360026522 383258588 92.44% 321712391 88.43%
    38Lg K27me3 882095148 886275657 99.53% 863791604 97.89%
    Minimal
    Merge 20Kb vs 20Kb vs
    Distance 20Kb 15Kb 15Kb 25Kb 25Kb
    38Per K9me2 1449305831 1387108909 95.42% 1504614743 96.11%
    38Lg K9me2 979113009 887961919 89.91% 1053584044 91.69%
    38Per K27me3 360026522 314837912 86.64% 396029094 89.89%
    38Lg K27me3 882095148 848539120 96.00% 906322630 97.16%
  • Supplementary Data 4. This file lists all differentially expressed (DE) genes detected in each sample by RNA-seq, including level of expression, p-values, directional changes, and chromatin domains that each DE gene mapped to. Analysis of recurrent DE genes detected across distant metastatic samples and between control (DMSO) and 6AN treated cells is also reported.
  • Supplementary Data 4A: Summary of DE genes between A38Per and A13Pr1 detected by RNA-seq and mapped to chromatin domains (data not shown—publicly available on the World Wide Web at nature.com/ng/journal/v49/n3/full/ng.3753.html?foxtrotcallback=true#supplementary-information by clicking link “Supplementary Table 7”).
  • Supplementary Data 4B: Summary of DE genes between A38Per and A13Pr2 detected by RNA-seq and mapped to chromatin domains (data not shown—publicly available on the World Wide Web at nature.com/ng/journal/v49/n3/full/ng.3753.html?foxtrotcallback=true #supplementary-information by clicking link “Supplementary Table 7”).
  • Supplementary Data 4C: Summary of DE genes between A38Per and A13Lg detected by RNA-seq and mapped to chromatin domains (data not shown—publicly available on the World Wide Web at nature.com/ng/journal/v49/n3/full/ng.3753.html?foxtrotcallback=true #supplementary-information by clicking link “Supplementary Table 7”).
  • Supplementary Data 4D: Summary of DE genes between A38Per and A38Lg detected by RNA-seq and mapped to chromatin domains (data not shown—publicly available on the World Wide Web at nature.com/ng/journal/v49/n3/full/ng.3753.html?foxtrotcallback=true #supplementary-information by clicking link “Supplementary Table 7”).
  • Supplementary Data 4E: Summary of DE genes between A38Per and A38Lv detected by RNA-seq (ChIP-seq not performed for chromatin domains) (data not shown-publicly available on the World Wide Web at nature.com/ng/journal/v49/n3/full/ng.3753.html?foxtrotcallback=true #supplementary-information by clicking link “Supplementary Table 7”).
  • Supplementary Data 4F: Summary of DE genes recurrently up/down-regulated across primary tumor precursor (A13Pr1/2) and distant metastatic subclones (A13Lg, A38Lg, A38Lg) vs. A38Per (data not shown—publicly available on the World Wide Web at nature. com/ng/journal/v49/n3/full/ng.3753.html?foxtrotcallback=true #supplementary-information by clicking link “Supplementary Table 7”).
  • Supplementary Data 4G: Summary of DE genes between control (DMSO) and 6AN treated A38Lg cells detected by RNA-seq and mapped to chromatin domains (data not shown—publicly available on the World Wide Web at nature.com/ng/journal/v49/n3/full/ng.3753.html?foxtrotcallback=true #supplementary-information by clicking link “Supplementary Table 7”).
  • Supplementary Data 4H: Comparison of overlaps between DE genes between matched lung and peritoneal subclones (A38Lg vs. A38Per) and DE genes between control and 6AN treated A38Lg cells.
  •
    38Lg up/ Genes 38Lg down/ Genes 38Lg up/ Genes 38Lg down/ Genes
    6AN down 6AN up 6AN up 6AN down
    Coregulated/ GDF5OS Coregulated/ CCT6B Coregulated/ WDR25 Coregulated/ RP11-
    6AN down: 6AN up: 6AN up: 6AN down 400K9.4.1
    1032/1968 915/2192 379/2192 277/1968
    (52%) (42%) (17%) (14%)
    Coregulated/ EDN2 Coregulated/ JAK2 Coregulated/ TOMM7 Coregulated/ C14orf105
    38Lg up: 38Lg down: 38Lg up 38Lg down
    1032/4368 915/4402 379/4368 277/4402
    (24%) (21%) (0.09%) (0.06%)
    C1QTNF2 TMEM63A IGFBP1 CCK
    CLDN2 FAM101A SLC9A3R2 RP11-
    255B23.3.1
    FAT2 KRCC1 C7orf60 CFTR
    (Coregulated: RBM24 ERRFI1 ZFYVE28 CD22
    genes present
    in both 38Lg
    and
    matched 6AN KMO LRRC6 CTSD RGS7
    datasets)
    TPRG1-AS1 TNFAIP2 GATA6 ERVMER34-1
    DOCK2 MAST3 RP11- CCNI2
    480A16.1.1
    FAM101B ABCC10 GXYLT2 ADAMTS14
    KRT7 RP11- AC002472.8.1 ANO1
    65J3.1.1
    TCF7 SLC12A7 C3orf23 PADI3
    RP11- WASH7P TMEM43 CHST4
    845M18.3.1
    C4orf49 ANKRD13D FUT11 FER1L6
    SLC1A3 ZBTB7A IFFO1 TNNT2
    DMC1 WASH6P SLC1A4 RP11-
    597D13.9.1
    TMSB15A IL32 DDT RP11-
    6F2.4.1
    LHX4 RNF217 IDI1 MYO5B
    KIAA1324 EFNB1 SARM1 KRT23
    ITPRIPL1 KHNYN HOTAIR MUC4
    PPAPDC1A TMEM59 TSC22D1 RP11-
    346D6.6.1
    RGS5 GAS8 NBAS ITGAM
    RP11- ABC7- ENG PTPRZ1
    618G20.2.1 42389800N19.1.1
    RIPPLY1 RASSF7 SSTR5 GPR116
    UHRF1 MRPS6 CRIP2 CYP24A1
    SUSD5 RP11- NUDT18 DHRS9
    353B9.1.1
    KRT80 GRAMD4 RPL31 GRPR
    KRT32 SERINC5 KIAA1143 AIF1L
    SLC26A7 TMEM102 DNAJC3-AS1 CGN
    TFPI2 TMPRSS5 C1R RP11-
    314P12.3.1
    RP11- TMEM63B GAB2 CYFIP2
    314P12.2.1
    MMP7 FAM109A FAM174B ATP6V0A4
    KLHL23 TLR4 SYT11 MPP7
    C1orf110 C20orf96 DET1 KREMEN1
    GRIN2A SMAD6 TBC1D8B TTN
    PADI2 VAMP4 TAZ LEF1
    AL162759.1.1 MYO1E UCP2 SP140
    MYBL2 DVL1 RP4- SP6
    647C14.2.1
    GLYATL2 AC069513.3.1 AARS ANXA10
    RRM2 ITPKC DALRD3 NYAP2
    E2F2 USP18 SEMA3C MCOLN3
    CPA4 RAB33B ATP2B1 DENND2A
    HHIP RP11- THTPA HSH2D
    325F22.3.1
    MYPN ADHFE1 GPER C1orf106
    RP11- LENG8 ITPK1 EVL
    150O12.6.1
    CLSPN RILPL2 IL1RAP C7orf58
    WDR69 TSNARE1 RPL29 RP1-
    95L4.4.1
    RP11- SPIRE2 EFHC1 IL11
    150O12.1.1
    AKAP12 MMAA CRTAP DDN
    DOCK10 SLC15A3 B3GAT1 snoU13
    PSG5 PLEKHM1 SEL1L SLC27A2
    SPC25 RP11- ME1 DGAT2
    403I13.8.1
    TM4SF4 STARD10 TBC1D9B SHANK2
    FAM71D SNPH EEF1A1P5 HNRPCP
    OLFML2A EME2 VKORC1 AC005083.1.1
    OXCT1 DHRS3 SNX21 S1PR3
    FAM111B MX1 KDELC1 ARL14
    snoU13 RRN3P1 AIP SAMD5
    AC073130.1.1 FAM100A RP1- ARHGDIB
    34B21.6.1
    CCNE2 DDO OSBPL6 GNG4
    CDC25A TPRN C4orf34 CDC42BPG
    RP3- CD58 FAM18B2 SMO
    324O17.4.1
    MCM10 PLCG2 TXNDC15 TIAM1
    RP11- RP11- LIN7A NMU
    424C20.2.1 220I1.1.1
    MSRB3 ZNF554 CTD- SOX6
    2287O16.1.1
    HEATR7B1 GLI4 FLYWCH1 PPFIBP2
    TP73 TRAF1 C11orf2 LY6D
    PRKDC ANKRA2 CHST12 PLAC1
    DLEU2 SYNGR2 FTX SYTL5
    CTB- FAM113B CCNO SELL
    164N12.1.1
    SDPR CROCC AL844908.5.1 MYO5C
    POLE2 HIVEP2 RP11- UNC5A
    996F15.2.1
    MEST RHBDD2 CPEB2 SPNS2
    ASTN2 GATS.1 PDIA6 BIK
    LAMP5 RALGPS1 STON1 PPYR1
    MKI67 VWA1 ARRDC3 FAM46B
    TMEFF2 HEATR7A C7orf23 COL17A1
    CPA5 HLA-K TESK1 MACC1
    ANKRD18DP MAF1 HEG1 DNAH12
    ESCO2 TMEM8A RP11- CYP2J2
    85K15.2.1
    TUBA1B DDX58 MTHFD2 LDLRAD3
    WNT7A PYROXD1 RWDD2A RAB6B
    MCM4 CYP27C1 RPL10 BTBD11
    AKAP5 RNF145 PHACTR1 PLA2G7
    TYMS ZDHHC14 NUDT22 TBC1D30
    CDCA2 KLF7 TRIM4 SNX25P1
    CAP2 KYNU RHOG TESC
    RP11- LDLR EIF1B COL1A1
    527N22.2.1
    RP11- ZDHHC11B SSR4 FERMT1
    297M9.2.1
    DEPDC1B AC007383.3.1 ARG2 MED12L
    DPF1 SRCRB4D TCEAL1 RP11-
    582J16.5.1
    RP11- LRP5L ZFPL1 BRI3BP
    554I8.2.1
    RP11- FOXC1 RGS10 LAD1
    33N16.1.1
    MAP3K14 AACS MEIS3 C16orf74
    EXO1 SLC44A2 LLGL1 CD163L1
    RP11- SEPP1 C9orf37 ANXA8L1
    253E3.3.1
    FABP6 ARHGAP25 USE1 AEN
    RP11- STAT6 YPEL1 C8orf46
    184I16.2.1
    FOSL1 RP11- PLA2G15 CDH1
    27I1.2.1
    CCDC99 VPS28 RPS27 XDH
    AC016831.7.1 R3HDM2 VEGFB XK
    FJX1 C11orf35 CELSR3 ANXA8L2
    SCN5A ARHGEF10L EPHX1 COL12A1
    RP11- PSMD9 TINF2 PPARGC1B
    687M24.3.1
    ILDR2 METTL7A ZNF70 C6orf132
    MUC5AC TMTC2 C3orf18 TTC3P1
    AC092614.2.1 NFE2L1 PITPNC1 GALNT6
    APOBEC3B C5orf13 ISL1 SEMA7A
    RP11- ZNF768 CORO6 F2RL1
    54A9.1.1
    NCAPG SIK1 NEK3 ALDH1A1
    ATAD2 OSCP1 RP11- CRABP2
    313D6.4.1
    SMC4 ACADS RPL27A CA2
    FUT9 HERC6 RP11- FGFBP1
    216F19.1.1
    ZNF488 CLDN9 ABCA3 SNAI2
    TK1 RHEBL1 PITPNM2 PLS1
    CTD- CHST6 LGR5 KLHL13
    2023N9.1.1
    HELLS VMAC AGA RP5-
    862P8.2.1
    MMP24 AQP3 FAM113A RAB38
    SLITRK3 DNAL4 GPR37 SLC7A8
    ELOVL2 HBP1 VASH1 WNT3
    SERINC2 ZG16B CAMKK1 SARDH
    AC002066.1.1 FAM100B MAST1 TPM1
    DIAPH3 EREG RP11- RASEF
    574K11.20.1
    RP11- ZNF862 RPL12 SKAP1
    291L15.2.1
    GINS1 NARFL NSUN5P2 TRIM14
    RP5- SWSAP1 RP11- CTSL2
    968P14.2.1 477I4.3.1
    DHFR YPEL5 NSUN5P1 GK
    ROR1 SLFN5 HAUS4 VEPH1
    MCM3 CCNDBP1 TMEM234 RP11-
    800A3.4.1
    RP1- PAQR8 MRC2 FGFR3
    140K8.5.1
    GLYATL1 SLC25A27 PYCR1 PADI1
    CDCA7 GOLGA8B SLC26A6 CDS1
    CSMD2 IKZF2 C3orf78 JPH1
    RBPMS2 HSD17B11 CD68 FAM81A
    RBL1 LMBR1L AP003068.23.1 GALNT12
    RP11- KCNJ14 PAK3 DPY19L2
    677M14.3.1
    CCBE1 DDR1 GMPPA ITGBL1
    CCND1 C7orf53 EEF1A1P6 SYNPO2
    E2F8 RELB AC093673.5.1 RP11-
    157P1.4.1
    CDC45 WASH3P CBS ANKRD22
    LMNB1 PDCD4 MIF4GD GRHL1
    C11orf41 NR1D1 CNPY4 KRT15
    BEST3 NCOA7 GGT7 RP11-
    93L9.1.1
    CTPS GOLGA2 LRP1B C15orf62
    RASSF10 CEBPG FAIM2 AADAC
    POLA1 C2orf15 ZNF333 AC112229.1.1
    TUBB6 KLF13 AGXT2L2 TRIM59
    HOMER1 GEMIN8 B9D1 DNAH10
    CD200 ARRDC2 EEF1A1 CTD-
    2021J15.2.1
    CENPM SLC39A11 ATRNL1 KRT19
    ERCC6L SAT2 PAOX KIAA1199
    HMMR ZER1 CTSA GPM6A
    CENPW KIAA1407 SLC45A1 AKAP6
    RP11- OAS1 RAB3IL1 GPR110
    298I3.4.1
    RP11- AC004410.1 C6orf1 QPCT
    259P6.1.1
    THBS1 DGAT1 CTD- RP11-
    2314G24.2.1 382A18.1.1
    GPR63 RNF103 CYP4X1 METTL7B
    DTL EFHC2 HCFC1R1 PHACTR2
    RP11- C17orf69 FAM70B PLEKHA7
    101K10.8.1
    RP11- LINC00493 SHMT2 PLAU
    204J18.3.1
    WDR4 ST6GALNAC2 SEC14L5 SLC4A3
    BRIP1 KLHL31 CLK4 KRT18
    LMNB2 LGMN UGDH-AS1 C3orf52
    C14orf49 LLGL2 ITGA11 SYTL2
    EIF6 ENDOV CGREF1 PKDCC
    ARHGEF26 CST1 RPL22L1 ASB9
    ETNK2 RP13- FKBP2 SLC22A20
    516M14.1.1
    POLQ LIPA OXA1L IGSF3
    RP11- FAM13A C10orf102 CLDN10
    573I11.2.1
    APLN ST3GAL1 DNASE1L1 MBOAT1
    RP11- APOBEC3G HIGD2A TMEM169
    304F15.3.1
    NDC80 PLAUR MLLT3 SYK
    MCM6 ACYP2 AP001496.1 MAST4
    CAV1 RTN2 FAM156B SDC1
    RP11- HIF1A TRPT1 RP11-
    53M11.3.1 613M10.6.1
    MARK1 DNASE2 RP11- PPM1H
    571M6.6.1
    CTA- CA11 RP11- GCHFR
    445C9.15.1 243J18.3.1
    USP13 SLC7A7 SGSH RHOD
    RP5- ABCA10 CTD- EZR
    1172A22.1.1 3074O7.5.1
    UCN2 PTK6 CNTNAP1 RP11-
    303E16.2.1
    MCAM RPS6KA2 TNFRSF10C RCC2
    ZWINT WHAMMP3 B3GNT1 KDR
    LINC00460 ENGASE LRP1 RP11-
    416I2.1.1
    BIRC5 LPCAT4 P2RX6 GPR65
    FLNC EPS8L3 SSBP2 BCL7A
    SYNE2 TMEM198B ZC3H6 PPCDC
    HMGN2 PRICKLE3 CCNG1 NBPF10
    ADCY3 PDE4DIP TBC1D4 AC108463.1
    PDSS1 GPR108 MAGED2 CADM4
    CDCA3 TMC4 DNAJC1 SPTBN5
    AXL PTP4A3 PCK2 CUEDC1
    KIAA0101 ITGAX MANF CMTM4
    NAV3 TSSC4 ZCWPW2 CDK5R1
    KIF11 ANO9 C1orf213 C19orf21
    LPCAT2 PPP1R3B CACNG6 C1orf116
    KIF4A ANTXR2 AC004540.5.1 UNC5C
    CTD- ARHGEF3 TSLP ALDH5A1
    2334D19.1.1
    EML5 C10orf32 RP5- MB21D2
    1103G7.4.1
    NME1 PGM2L1 C1S RP11-
    7K24.3.1
    ARHGAP11A HLA-H SPATA25 DSG2
    MCM2 TUBG2 PPAP2A PLD6
    SLC5A11 SLC16A3 RP11- GALNT5
    390P2.4.1
    CHN1 CCNL2 RP11- ZNF185
    539L10.3.1
    KIF23 SGK1 SH2B2 P2RY2
    ARHGAP19 MEF2C NEURL2 PLCXD1
    SLC8A1 CAMTA2 KLHDC2 AIG1
    FBN2 HLA-F-AS1 SHISA2 PALM
    FKBP5 PIWIL4 PXK PKP4
    IGSF9B LSS WBSCR27 ZNF462
    KIF15 PCMTD2 DSEL SAA1
    NUP210 CFI TRIM46 SPATA13
    AS3MT ARL4D CTSF LAMA3
    TNFAIP8L3 MVK KLHL35 NID1
    PM20D2 CDH17 PDIA5 PEAR1
    OPN3 MAFF PLK3 PYGL
    RRM1 CACNB1 ZNF815 USP40
    DNA2 C2orf63 NICN1 DIS3L
    DEPDC1 IL15 SCAND1 ID2
    PDE1A ST3GAL6 CALHM3 FUT1
    ALYREF C9orf7 RP5- PRSS3
    827C21.4.1
    MORC4 ENDOU LETMD1 NMNAT2
    FBXO5 PIM3 JAKMIP3 DNAJA4
    DPY19L2P1 CLDN7 LZTFL1 DOCK9
    CENPF DAB2IP CTNS DDI2
    GPR19 TARSL2 RP11- PLAC8
    280F2.2.1
    SYCE2 REC8 PDK1 FBP1
    GINS4 FAM160A2 MBL1P RAG1
    XRCC2 ZFP36 LHPP PRPF4
    DARS2 RP11- BLVRB RPS6KA1
    73K9.2.1
    HMGB3 STARD4 CALHM2 DSP
    KIAA1524 SGK2 RP11- SLC22A5
    277P12.20.1
    NUP188 CIR1 PTCHD2 AADAT
    DPF3 MAPK8IP3 UST FARP2
    STMN1 USP20 IRF2BPL MCC
    WDHD1 RP11- PLK1S1 ZNF658
    149I23.3.1
    NCAPD3 RP11- TTC39B B3GNT5
    108M9.4.1
    CCNE1 HIP1R ABHD14B NT5DC3
    TRPV2 CYP4F3 DLG4 ABCC9
    CDKN3 SH3YL1 PCDHGA7 PNPLA4
    PRR11 TNFSF12 MAGED1 ZNF717
    CSRP2 TMEM8B LEPREL2 RAVER2
    COTL1 IGSF8 LOXL2 MREG
    MSH2 PTK2B SLC43A2 RBP1
    KIF18B NR4A2 ZEB1-AS1 RAPGEF3
    SKP2 SPIRE1 LENG8-AS1 CNKSR3
    ADORA2B DLL1 C17orf72 RP11-
    757F18.5.1
    GFRA3 TMED1 C16orf93 PRSS12
    ZNF724P SQLE ARHGAP4 HOOK1
    RASGRF1 ABCC6 CNTD1 COL16A1
    FAM83D VSIG10L PCDHGA3 MST4.1
    BUB1 FA2H STK32A CMIP
    MTHFD1 OSBPL7 SLC29A4 SMC5
    DHX9 KCNIP3 LEPRE1 ANXA2P2
    NRG1 LYNX1 HOMER3 STEAP2
    PCNA ULK3 MCEE NUDT14
    UTP20 HINT3 XBP1 MMD
    MIR17HG FDFT1 ALDH1L2 ANKRD56
    ANLN TRIB1 MAP2 SURF2
    RUVBL1 NPDC1 NNMT SH2D3A
    MYO1B VEGFC NUCB1 MAP3K1
    NCAPG2 GPRC5C KLRC2 UACA
    FH SIGIRR TMEM158 TAF2
    GNG11 TCEANC SEPT7L DCBLD2
    GS1- MKNK2 RP11- RP11-
    465N13.1.1 161M6.4.1 295M3.1.1
    MT1L N4BP2L1 AC079922.3.1 NAALADL2
    TNS1 KCNMB4 PCDHB7 CNTRL
    BARD1 RP5- HSD17B7P2 CD82
    1182A14.3.1
    THOP1 GET4 NAT6 FBXL19-AS1
    SKA1 FKBP10 PTX3 RHBDL2
    C1QL1 RDH10 ZNF836 RP11-
    448G15.3.1
    C11orf82 SLC22A15 TMEM106A RP11-
    357H14.19.1
    CCNA2 CCDC57 TFF2 TUBGCP5
    SLC35F3 SHB CYP1A1 INADL
    C10orf140 TMPRSS3 PPP1R3E C9orf64
    NEXN NYNRIN TMEM120A ARAP2
    ASF1B TNFRSF9 POLN KRT16
    PRTFDC1 SESN3 RAPGEF4 ALS2CL
    FAT3 A2LD1 RABAC1
    H2AFX RP11- CACNA1G
    475N22.4.1
    PRIM1 ZNF628 LOX
    SNX18P3 JAG2 FAM151B
    RP11- RP11- PTPRM
    973F15.1.1 244H3.1.1
    ADRB2 GOLGA8A CLEC2B
    FBXL13 TP53INP2 KDELR3
    CDC20 WASH4P ISYNA1
    CENPK TNIP1 RASL11A
    CDCA4 RP4- CALR
    659J6.2.1
    ATAD5 CCDC126 RP11-
    108K14.4.1
    SMC1A PTPRB METTL12
    FAM196B U6 BNIP3
    UGT1A1 SPRY3 FAM175A
    CTD- MMP15 CRLF2
    2574D22.2.1
    MCM5 SLC23A3 TMEM231
    MELK TBC1D3F CRELD2
    LYPD1 ABCA5 PLXNA3
    DLGAP5 RP4- AC026202.3.1
    798A10.2.1
    NUSAP1 CLDN15 ASNS
    TUBBP1 TMC7 RASIP1
    MYH10 TCTEX1D2 SFRP5
    MIR155HG NOS3 RP11-
    66N24.3.1
    CCDC138 ARHGEF16 ABCC3
    ERCC2 TPBG RIBC1
    KIF20A FAAH HSP90B1
    TMEM14B TMEM150A HYOU1
    H2AFY2 LRRC56 BAMBI
    OXTR CEP85L TPP1
    RDM1 MIA ZCCHC24
    PLEK2 CDH6 FAM161B
    SHCBP1 PON3 AC004080.12.1
    GJC1 CCDC92 MAPT
    SNRNP25 PTPRH AC018755.11.1
    KCNQ5 FOXQ1 PLOD2
    ODC1 J01415.23 MAN1A1
    EBNA1BP2 PPFIA3 NUCB2
    FABP3 SMPDL3A DERL3
    MCM7 AC007283.5.1 SCN1B
    CHAC2 ALPPL2 FN1
    BORA MTHFR PLCD1
    ASRGL1 WASH2P CCDC85B
    VIPR1 RSAD2 BTBD19
    PTTG1 LIMA1 AP000769.1
    ACTB PPP1R16A AC147651.3.1
    TOP2A PIK3C2B ATHL1
    NEIL3 XAF1 CYP2E1
    ALDH1B1 KIAA0513 FAM182B
    CEP250 GRAMD1C PDIA4
    FAM131B GLDN ZFP2
    FAH GPCPD1 SLC25A29
    CIT CABP4 RAB24
    CDCA8 NXNL2 RP11-
    755F10.1.1
    CDK2 SEMA4C QPCTL
    EZH2 PHYHIP ALDOC
    PSMC3 AC093734.11.1 AKR1C1
    FGGY IRF9 LRRC29
    NXPH4 ZNF517 RP11-
    307O13.1.1
    FRMD4A RP5- SEMA3F
    1187M17.10.1
    CSPG4 HIST1H1C RUSC1-AS1
    CSE1L ANKRD42 EVI2B
    KIF20B ZC3H12A TIE1
    C2CD3 JUND HSPA5
    PPIAP29 SEMA4B TSPYL2
    CTA- CTAGE5 HERPUD1
    221G9.10.1
    TPX2 NLRP1 AQP2
    DKK1 GNE RP4-
    794H19.2.1
    PFAS LTB4R2 C2orf16
    PBK BBS12 AKR1C2
    TRIP13 DICER1-AS ANGPTL4
    CCDC18 CMPK2 HCN2
    UBE2T CALB2 NOG
    AL357673.1 DHRS2 AKR1B1
    PDE12 LRFN3 ST7-AS1
    NUP155 PROC EVI2A
    ARNTL2 PROS1 AC022007.5.1
    POLD2 TMEM80 ZNF575
    NCAPD2 RALGDS RCN3
    VCL SLC6A8 PCDHB15
    CCDC85C TMC6 RP13-
    895J2.7.1
    FANCD2 HMGCR C9orf150
    RP11- TBC1D17 ANGPT1
    117P22.1.1
    MYLK TBC1D3 ARSA
    RP11- GRN RP11-
    394B2.4.1 49I11.1.1
    PRLR ROM1 PRPH
    AP2B1 MID1IP1 AC004383.5.1
    RASSF2 C15orf61 P4HA1
    PRKAG2 SPATA20 ANGPTL2
    COL4A6 FAM78A AC002480.4.1
    PSMC3IP STAT2 MTMR9LP
    ARRB2 PYGM CRELD1
    CAMK4 RHBDF1 UPB1
    TSPAN2 LRCH4 AC002480.3.1
    RFC2 PODN RP11-
    554A11.9.1
    PLK2 SPRY4 GALNT9
    SRRT CITED4 AL137145.2
    WNT7B LIPG VLDLR
    ADORA1 CAPS IFITM10
    C22orf29 EIF1 LDHD
    HTR1B CYP4F12 ERO1LB
    ITGB8 AKAP17A NTNG2
    ZNF660 ACTR1B NPY1R
    EPB41L2 WDR66
    COQ3 AP001468.1
    AASS AP001372.2.1
    PAICS FAM214A
    CENPI GSN
    CASC5 FAM193B
    TUBA1C TPRG1L
    NUDCD1 ARHGEF2
    L2HGDH TNFAIP3
    CHML CDA
    CCNB1 PLA2R1
    RP11- ZSWIM4
    799O21.1.1
    DNMT1 IRAK2
    CDK1 LYZ
    RP11- TJP3
    673C5.1.1
    NUP37 C8orf55
    TPMT CTB-
    131B5.5.1
    AURKA AC103810.1
    PEA15 PCDHGB2
    NRGN KLC4
    PLK1 RP4-
    541C22.5.1
    ZNF124 SIX5
    CGNL1 SEL1L3
    SNRPD1 MIR29C
    PTPN14 MZF1
    CDC7 ADAM8
    DERA WDR45
    PYGO1 ZNFX1-AS1
    LRRCC1 AC017099.3.1
    FAM173B ARSD
    AHCY DLX4
    UBAC2-AS1 HK2
    HIGD1A HS3ST1
    GMNN ABCG1
    NCAPH CCDC146
    CEP128 EGLN3
    SLC38A5 CLK1
    TUBB4B UPK3B
    RP11- SLC16A6
    512F24.1.1
    BICC1 HLA-F
    HMGB1P5 NT5M
    NUF2 BTG1
    VCAN C7orf63
    FAM64A RASSF9
    DNAJC9 CTSL1
    RANBP1 ENDOD1
    C4BPB FAM116B
    C9orf140 KNDC1
    SKA2 PPP1R3F
    RP11- LARP6
    181C3.2.1
    PKMYT1 FBXO6
    RFWD3 CCDC69
    TCOF1 PRRT1
    KNTC1 CTD-
    2258A20.4.1
    DKC1 TSPAN1
    MPP2 RP11-
    362F19.1.1
    CCNF SLC2A10
    C1orf112 CTD-
    2341M24.1.1
    AC046143.7.1 C2orf81
    STMN3 FZD4
    OIP5 RAB40C
    DGKH EXD3
    NRM IFIT3
    RFC3 PCDHGC5
    RBBP8 RP11-
    285F7.2.1
    HTR7P1 RHBDF2
    NMT2 PRICKLE4
    ARHGAP11B RABL2A
    DPYSL3 WBP1
    TCAM1.1 LAMB3
    YBX1 RP4-
    697K14.7.1
    HSP90AA1 TMEM91
    ACTA2 PCDHAC1
    MPP5 TRIM2
    C8orf84 C16orf7
    ASPM RTP4
    LRRC8C KIAA1875
    TBC1D7 RP11-
    540D14.6.1
    RP11- JUP
    462L8.1.1
    ZNF367 NEU1
    RP11- DDX60
    956J14.1.1
    CCT5 HOOK2
    C6orf52 BCO2
    NEK6 TBC1D8
    TSPY26P PRRX1
    MRPL1 KRTCAP3
    FARSB PINK1
    PKP2 NFIL3
    CAND2 LCN2
    MRTO4 TYMP
    KIAA0586 RP11-
    429J17.2.1
    DEK WARS
    FAM54A COL6A1
    FEN1 LZTS2
    RP3- NPIPL2
    510D11.2.1
    SMC2 LCA5L
    RELT KB-1460A1.5.1
    SGOL1 CYP4V2
    ANKRD1 FAM59A
    SUV39H2 SEZ6L2
    KDELC2 PTPRE
    HMGB2 NR2F6
    ATRIP COL11A2
    SACS RENBP
    DEPDC7 AQP6
    HMGB1 ULBP1
    RP11- CX3CL1
    380J14.1.1
    POP1 CCDC149
    GFAP ASAH1
    NUP205 TNFRSF14
    CENPA C12orf63
    TPGS2 C12orf57
    CD109 PSPN
    WDR3 RP11-
    263K19.6.1
    NOP56 MAPRE3
    PTRF RP11-
    44N21.1.1
    PHIP TNFSF13B
    QSER1 FMO5
    FAM86A PRX
    POC1A GSDMB
    CYB5RL JUNB
    H2AFZ HMGCS1
    AC092329.1 CSF2RA
    RAD51AP1 HEXDC
    CCP110 PLXND1
    CEP55 NFAM1
    ZNF347 PER1
    NCS1 CALCOCO1
    RAD54L DRAM1
    MDM2 AOC2
    SMTN GAS7
    CDC25C IFIT2
    TFDP1 MTRNR2L9
    NEURL1B TSTD1
    TBCD NR4A1
    KRBOX1 TM6SF1
    SAE1 CBLB
    CHEK1 CCDC24
    RP11- FAM66C
    678B3.2.1
    REV3L C9orf16
    SPC24 KDM6B
    TMPO TBX6
    DHRS4L2 MMP28
    MYOF ACSL1
    TUBA4A G0S2
    ADAT2 CDC42EP2
    RP11- SCD
    348A11.4.1
    BST1 NFKBIA
    FOXM1 PLEKHF1
    AC027612.6.1 AGFG2
    RP11- LEPREL4
    1334A24.4.1
    UBE2N ULK1
    PRIM2 ADAMTS13
    S100A2 CAMK2N1
    NEGR1 PDE7B
    HNRNPAB AC073343.1
    CCDC41 AC002117.1.1
    CAMK1 SPSB3
    GTSE1 SLC5A12
    MMP2 PLA2G6
    BOLA3 HOXD4
    SYT15 HS3ST3B1
    BCL2 JAK3
    ECHDC3 C10orf10
    KIFC1 NFKBIZ
    G3BP1 DUSP8
    PFN1 NEIL1
    RAET1K ECEL1P2
    MNS1 RP11-
    783K16.13.1
    SIRPA KLHDC1
    RP11- MST1
    152N13.12.1
    PORCN ROBO4
    NOC3L SYT17
    RAD18 NR1H3
    ESPL1 GDPD3
    PTER CEBPB
    RP11- SDCBP2
    1277A3.2.1
    NUP107 NOV
    SGOL2 DNAH7
    DIO2 IER5L
    ZNF726 FANK1
    SFXN2 ORAI3
    FRMD6 SLC5A3
    CENPN B3GALT4
    NT5DC2 ZDHHC1
    RFC4 KIF27
    NOP16 GIMAP2
    TUBG1 CDC42EP5
    DZIP1 AC006028.9.1
    IPO5 PRSS16
    LHFP TGFBR3
    ARHGAP22 FASN
    TMEM48 ATP1B1
    RPA3 C17orf108
    TMCO7 EPHB6
    THSD1 BCL6
    AC013461.1.1 RP4-
    811H24.6.1
    CCDC165 RP11-
    496I9.1.1
    MAGOHB CXCL2
    EFEMP1 CACNA2D4
    EED PPM1K
    KIF14 C17orf103
    NUP35 MXD1
    DTYMK MAGIX
    SSX2IP PTPRCAP
    CELF2 DPM3
    NETO2 EVPL
    PHLPP2 SLC2A13
    PTBP1 IL1B
    FKBP3 KCNE4
    URB2 INPP5J
    EEF1E1 FRAT1
    BEGAIN DUOX2
    CACYBP FBXL15
    HMGN5 C15orf48
    HJURP FAM86FP
    DBF4 NR3C2
    XRCC3 STX1B
    TMCC3 RP11-
    273G15.2.1
    SPAG5 RASSF4
    AC108488.3.1 P2RX4
    ATOX1 TPD52L1
    SLC25A3 RP11-
    420G6.4.1
    TUBB P2RY11
    CCDC152 ADCK3
    CENPL PARP10
    GAS6 AC103810.2
    RP11- HERC5
    540A21.2.1
    NXT2 TFEB
    LRR1 FAM84B
    E2F1 AC093627.10.1
    RP11- OAS2
    122A3.2.1
    KCNH4 ARHGAP9
    MYEOV FBXO24
    TMEM194B CD34
    RANGAP1 CD14
    CNTF OTUD1
    NASP ICA1
    MAP7D3 AC005152.2.1
    RP1- WDFY3-AS2
    239B22.1.1
    DUS2L HIST1H2AC
    FKBP1A SELPLG
    NOLC1 PDGFRB
    ZNF702P RP11-
    566K11.1.1
    CDCA5 SHC2
    IMMP2L CES3
    SUPT16H GBP5
    MIR621 MYL5
    RP11- JHDM1D
    64D22.2.1
    CEP97 YPEL2
    ITGB3BP DHX58
    ERCC8 IFIT1
    WDR62 RP3-
    395M20.8.1
    ZNF239 DFNB31
    RP11- LYG1
    680F8.1.1
    GNL3L FAM66D
    MAPKAPK3 RP5-
    882C2.2.1
    ADK IL1R1
    CENPV LTB4R
    UTRN PDXDC2P
    PSMD1 IL4I1
    GTF2H3 FOXO4
    USP49 AC127496.1
    C3orf26 ANKZF1
    CYP26B1 CSF2
    JAM3 LENG9
    SPA17 AC097500.2.1
    BTG3 CCDC19
    MRPL15 FURIN
    KPNA2 IFIH1
    RRP15 GBP4
    HSPB11 CCNG2
    C17orf89 FZD1
    HAT1 SNHG5
    UBE2S PDZD7
    RBM12B DAPK2
    MRPL47 C20orf195
    MSI2 C9orf163
    KIAA0020 PCSK4
    PTPN1 KIF26B
    GLRX3 SERPINE2
    CFL1 MSMO1
    CDH24 CTC-
    523E23.1.1
    HNRNPA3 HIST1H3E
    XYLB PAQR6
    DRAP1 P4HA2
    ACTR3B AOC3
    CHCHD3 IRS2
    H2AFV MAFB
    NSMCE1 MXD4
    COLQ DNER
    CEP41 MDGA1
    NUTF2 CH25H
    SMARCC1 TST
    KIF2C RARRES3
    ATP5G1 UNC13A
    ISPD MST1P9
    CHTF8 DNAH2
    IPO9 KCNK5
    AC026271.4.1 PPIL6
    TTF2 RP11-
    1391J7.1.1
    DHRS4 RHPN1
    AC068282.3.1 FOSB
    SF3B3 RP11-
    202P11.1.1
    GSG2 MIR29B2
    AHCTF1 CEACAM1
    LPHN3 RNF24
    KIF22 YPEL3
    IMMP1L GPT
    SNRPB CALML6
    DCLRE1A RP1-163M9.6.1
    ZNF681 NPPA-AS1
    CDH2 PELI2
    GPR125 FAM71E1
    ANKRD18A BPI
    RP11- RASSF5
    110I1.12.1
    SCD5 TMEM53
    ARMC10 ABTB1
    AC009948.5.1 UCN
    KIF5C IDUA
    RP11- GDPD1
    381E24.1.1
    PACSIN3 RP4-
    758J18.10.1
    GNB4 BMF
    RP11- TRIB2
    58E21.3.1
    PARP1 DYRK1B
    HSPA4L SCNN1D
    PRPS1 CLIP2
    PPIL1 INHA
    XRCC6 FAM47E
    COQ2 LRRC24
    CBX2 GFI1
    LBH EPB41L4A-AS1
    RNASEH1 MVD
    RFT1 THBS3
    C1orf114 CARNS1
    ITSN1 C16orf79
    ATXN10 SLC16A13
    WHSC1 CTD-
    2292P10.4.1
    RP5- PDE5A
    991G20.4.1
    SAAL1 CTC-
    378H22.2.1
    FER MUC1
    RP1- AC008440.10.1
    152L7.5.1
    MCM8 PCSK9
    C4orf10 CTD-
    2547L24.3.1
    CROT ICAM5
    GTF2H2 MUC20
    BAG2 PPP1R3C
    METTL8 KLF4
    SEC14L2 NINJ1
    C20orf94 CLIP3
    HDAC8 CTD-
    2517M22.14.1
    PRMT3 AC022098.1
    HAUS1 ABCA6
    POLR3G BBC3
    CCT2 RP13-
    15E13.1.1
    RP11- CXCL3
    14N7.2.1
    AC034193.5.1 RP11-
    369J21.5.1
    CNTLN PRR15
    CCDC34 C14orf45
    DLX1 TMEM198
    ABCC4 ZNF425
    RFC5 GAL3ST1
    PSMC5 SLC1A7
    CSTF2 ISG15
    LIG1 ATF3
    SLC19A1 ICOSLG
    BRCC3 ATP8A1
    ZW10 LINC00324
    AFAP1L1 FBXO32
    CDC123 EXOC3L4
    RP11- SRCIN1
    521B24.3.1
    LRRC58 HSF4
    ALMS1 DBP
    FAM111A CDH3
    PUS7 AC021593.1
    DYNC1H1 RNF152
    EFNB2 ISG20
    BCAS4 KIAA1683
    MYH9 RP5-
    885L7.10.1
    HSPA14 CARD14
    TMEM56 PIP5K1B
    ZDHHC2 NCF2
    KIF18A PPP1R32
    CDK4 RAB17
    CKAP2L CHPF
    MRE11A KLHL24
    PSRC1 PDGFRA
    NUP88 DNAH10OS
    RCC1 RP11-
    454H13.6.1
    GEMIN4 ABCA7
    C1orf74 TCP11L2
    VRK1 S1PR1
    PSMC1 HIST1H2BD
    DOCK1 NEURL3
    ALDH3A1 SYT5
    GLT8D2 GPR35
    KATNAL1 CARD9
    SERBP1 CTD-
    2313N18.5.1
    WDR77 LIPH
    PHTF2 EFNA3
    PSMB2 C3
    BCAT1 MID2
    STRA13 RP11-
    536G4.2.1
    UBE2C PNPLA7
    PHEX CYP7A1
    ADSL TESK2
    HSDL2 TNFSF15
    CEP192 ZNF385C
    GOT2 RP11-
    757G1.6.1
    STIP1 FBXO2
    VBP1 LRRN1
    GNPNAT1 ZSCAN4
    DLC1 PRSS27
    FUBP1 EFNA1
    HEATR1 CNNM1
    TBC1D1 DDIT4
    ECT2 SCN9A
    GALNT1 C2
    EXOG CCDC114
    CTD- RRM2P3
    2366F13.1.1
    POLA2 AP000696.2.1
    SLC25A15 PDE4C
    NEU3 CATSPERG
    DOCK5 ELF5
    CETN3 HS3ST3A1
    BMP4 AC073321.5.1
    CCDC72 CFB
    SORL1 PARM1
    UCHL5 C1orf145
    ARPC4 C19orf51
    FAM198B CTC-
    454M9.1.1
    KIAA1586 CCPG1
    GSTO1 CTH
    AC097359.1 MALAT1
    BMP2K TRIB3
    SSBP1 NYAP1
    C3orf67 KLF9
    SMC3 LINC00176
    AP1B1 IER3
    ACAD9 GBP2
    C2CD4C VEGFA
    SLIRP SAT1
    SNAPC1 BAIAP3
    RPL26L1 RP11-
    93B14.5.1
    MGAT5B ANKRD24
    FSTL1 GAA
    PARVB CASP5
    TIMM23 OASL
    KLF12 MLXIPL
    C1QBP RP11-
    115C10.1.1
    CCRL1 TSC22D3
    SLC16A7 OPRL1
    CDC6 SERPINA5
    AC004381.6.1 SLCO4A1
    CBFB IGSF10
    APAF1 S100P
    PRKAR1B EPAS1
    FAM72D SCARF1
    FOXRED2 TNFSF10
    TMEM209 ECT2L
    CEP76 PSD
    DLG5 CHAC1
    AC003665.1.1 ANG
    ACTL6A CA9
    PDP1 PIK3IP1
    C11orf51 FLRT3
    RPL39L RP11-
    736K20.5.1
    NUBPL CEACAM22P
    SFPQ MYO15B
    EME1 DPEP1
    FANCM KLK10
    HMBS ADM2
    HNRNPR ACCN3
    HDAC9 LDB3
    HECW1 FER1L4
    GCSH CEBPD
    LAPTM4B TMEM105
    GDF11 CCDC40
    NAV2 RP3-
    395C13.1.1
    NR2F2 ADCY4
    INO80C NKPD1
    PPAT SLC6A9
    UMPS C13orf33
    CACNB4 SERPINA3
    PLCL2 ACSS2
    PRMT5 SLC2A6
    ACADSB EGR1
    INCENP TSPEAR-AS1
    LARS2 MAPK15
    ZNF714 RP11-
    178D12.1.1
    CCDC86 FOS
    PSMD2 ANGPTL1
    LRRC20 ZNF467
    ROCK2 RP11-
    712B9.2.1
    C12orf48 PRSS35
    TNPO1 NHLRC4
    PPAP2B SLC6A12
    C14orf126 ICAM1
    CDC42BPA C2CD4A
    BCCIP GPR132
    PSIP1 STRC
    LSM3 C6orf223
    MALT1 NFE2
    AAK1 CTD-
    2319I12.1.1
    CABYR FAM167B
    RBM12 PNCK
    CYCS TPPP3
    SFMBT1 ITGA10
    MPHOSPH9 ODF3B
    SEH1L WFDC10B
    DCAF13 GRIP2
    TIMM10 TXNIP
    LYRM1 NUPR1
    FAM171A1 ARRDC4
    CENPH SSPO
    RP11- TBX4
    117L6.1.1
    BRIX1 LAMP3
    PEG10 SLCO4C1
    THOC7 HPN
    CDCA7L FAM132A
    HPRT1 GAL3ST2
    CEP170 NGFR
    SF3A3 C2CD4B
    PMVK RANBP3L
    HSPD1 C17orf28
    TDP1 C21orf90
    DNMT3B MYO15A
    CKAP2 LRRC4C
    C12orf24 PLCH2
    ANKRD28 HSPA6
    CKAP5 IGFALS
    POLR1E KLB
    DCUN1D5 AC005013.5.1
    ORC1 CSF3R
    KCTD1 RYR1
    PSMA7
    CCDC134
    PSMC2
    PLS3
    PIGN
    CTD-
    2224J9.2.1
    NUP153
    ME3
    PITPNM3
    ABCD3
    IQCC
    DCLRE1B
    USP1
    AC108463.2.1
    UPF2
    SSRP1
    ALG8
    STARD13
    NEK2
    FCF1
    GNG12
    MASTL
    TBC1D5
    AP3B1
    CBX3
    PGRMC1
    ATG3
    POLH
    PDCD11
    RP11-
    666A20.1.1
    ZDHHC23
    RGS17
    FAM72A
    SEPHS1
    FAM122B
    VOPP1
    PSMA3
    FLVCR2.1
    LIN9
    MANEA
    FAM208B
    GTPBP4
    TTI1
    CCDC88A
    FAM48A
    TMSB15B
    SELRC1
    RIMKLB
    WDR17
    ODZ3
    CNOT1
    SMCHD1
    RDX
    POLD3
    LAS1L
    CLTC
    PPP1R14B
    GEMIN5
    AGK
    C10orf125
    SMS
    PDAP1
    LYPD6
    RP11-
    290F20.1.1
    SLC36A1
    TRAIP
    RP6-
    65G23.3.1
    PPIA
    RP11-
    85G18.4.1
    KCNC4
    GDAP1
    CABLES1
    LGALS1
    RPP30
    PI4K2B
    DSN1
    ZNF620
    USP6NL
    C9orf100
    CAV2
    PTCD2
    KIAA1147
    TOP2B
    TXNRD1
    MYL6
    RNASEH2A
    RBFOX2
    CCT6A
    AMMECR1
    DLD
    BAI2
    ORC5
    TIMM8A
    BEND6
    TSC22D2
    NAP1L5
    ATIC
    SIGLEC15
    AP4S1
    BAX
    TTK
    WDR12
    TFAM
    GPRIN1
    PRDX1
    GEMIN6
    MMACHC
    JUN
    ERC1
    EPHB2
    XPO6
    KIF24
    SRGAP1
    AURKB
    TRRAP
    GPD2
    SCFD2
    SMAP2
    GSS
  • Supplementary Data 41: Comparison of overlaps between recurrent DE genes across all samples (vs. A38Per) and DMSO vs. 6AN treated A38Lg cells
  •
    Recurrent Up/ Genes Recurrent Down/ Genes Recurrent Up/ Genes Recurrent Down/ Genes
    6AN Down 6AN Up 6AN Up 6AN Down
    Coregulated/ PPIA Coregulated/ SAT1 Coregulated/ EEF1A1 Coregulated/ KRT19 +
    6AN down: 6AN up: 6AN up: 6AN down: M2:M52
    255/1968 332/2192 82/2192 111/1968
    (13%) (15%) (0.04%) (0.06%)
    Coregulated/ DYNC1H1 Coregulated/ ATP1B1 Coregulated/ AKR1C2 Coregulated/ DCBLD2
    Recurrent up: Recurrent down: Recurrent up: Recurrent down:
    255/891 332/1842 82/891 111/1842
    (28.6%) (18%) (9%) (0.06%)
    CCT5 GRN RPL12 PLAU
    YBX1 JUP RPL31 EZR
    HNRNPA3 LCN2 RPL29 GPR110
    XRCC6 CST1 IDI1 COL17A1
    PRDX1 TXNIP XBP1 ANO1
    SERBP1 LAMB3 ATP2B1 PADI1
    DPYSL3 DDR1 HERPUD1 SDC1
    ECT2 DUOX2 MTHFD2 CD82
    CBX3 SLCO4A1 MAN1A1 CGN
    SLC25A3 GSN SHMT2 LY6D
    HMGN2 LIMA1 MAP2 CRABP2
    TMPO LYZ ABCA3 DOCK9
    CYCS MUC1 TOMM7 SPNS2
    PAICS GNE ASNS RAPGEF3
    MYL6 DAB2IP PYCR1 FGFBP1
    NOP56 TNIP1 TBC1D4 RBP1
    HNRNPR LIPH UCP2 PRSS12
    FKBP1A RHBDF2 CELSR3 C1orf106
    THBS1 HS3ST1 LETMD1 QPCT
    DEK RDH10 KLHDC2 STEAP2
    ASPM MUC20 ARG2 ARHGDIB
    NUP210 CLIP2 LEPRE1 ZNF185
    PCNA KLK10 SLC25A29 DHRS9
    HNRNPAB SLC44A2 PCK2 CDC42BPG
    ATIC EFNB1 SLC26A6 NBPF10
    NCAPD2 NFKBIA PTPRM MUC4
    RANGAP1 EVPL SYT11 PLEKHA7
    MYO1B ENDOD1 FAM113A AIG1
    MTHFD1 ICAM1 GAB2 RP11-
    800A3.4.1
    FAM208B CDC42EP2 CRELD2 MMD
    GPD2 CTSL1 SLC1A4 SAA1
    GTPBP4 DRAM1 ABHD14B ARAP2
    TUBA4A TRIM2 PDK1 ANKRD22
    SMCHD1 NFKBIZ C9orf150 CDS1
    FOXM1 ADAM8 MLLT3 ALS2CL
    SMARCC1 TRIB2 SSBP2 GALNT6
    TFDP1 GSDMB C3orf23 KRT15
    XPO6 SGK1 DDT XDH
    TOP2B ARHGEF16 SARM1 DGAT2
    HEATR1 LRCH4 OSBPL6 FBP1
    ODC1 HERC5 LEPREL2 CLDN10
    ZWINT PLEKHM1 EEF1A1P5 RHOD
    ATXN10 ASAH1 HCN2 PRSS3
    NUP155 TMEM8A VLDLR CTSL2
    CDCA7L PRICKLE4 BAMBI SNAI2
    SNRPB NEU1 USE1 GALNT12
    GNPNAT1 TNFSF15 CGREF1 P2RY2
    WDR3 PLAUR ATHL1 RAG1
    HJURP AC103810.2 GPR37 PADI3
    KNTC1 RHBDF1 DERL3 TESC
    REV3L HSD17B11 PLK3 SELL
    CDH2 ROBO4 SLC29A4 GPR116
    FARSB EREG TMEM234 GCHFR
    CCDC88A VWA1 RP11- RP11-
    66N24.3.1 314P12.3.1
    NETO2 TJP3 CORO6 CHST4
    NUP153 PDCD4 C9orf37 SHANK2
    USP1 PTPRE EEF1A1P6 DNAH10
    MCM6 C15orf48 DNAJC3-AS1 KRT23
    POLD2 TPBG C3orf78 COL1A1
    SF3A3 TNFAIP3 MCEE NMNAT2
    TYMS PROS1 RP11- AKAP6
    480A16.1.1
    KIAA1324 GPR108 ZNF70 AADAC
    TMEM48 AGFG2 NAT6 VEPH1
    TCOF1 RHBDD2 SEMA3F C7orf58
    PHIP DGAT1 VKORC1 DNAH12
    BRIX1 HBP1 RP5- SLC22A20
    1103G7.4.1
    UTP20 RNF103 P2RX6 MCC
    CTPS TSC22D3 C10orf102 RP11-
    7K24.3.1
    RANBP1 CAPS THTPA ANKRD56
    SACS SLC2A6 FTX CTD-
    2021J15.2.1
    DTL ABCA7 AC002472.8.1 ARL14
    CDC20 TMC4 RP11- C15orf62
    243J18.3.1
    AP1B1 FAM193B CTD- METTL7B
    307407.5.1
    CDC6 VPS28 RP11- SLC4A3
    574K11.20.1
    ABCD3 ARSD CES4A KLHL13
    EBNA1BP2 NCF2 METTL12 RP11-
    357H14.19.1
    PHTF2 MMP28 RP11- FGFR3
    390P2.4.1
    TRIP13 PARP10 RP11- PKDCC
    216F19.1.1
    RUVBL1 LZTS2 RP11- RP11-
    85K15.2.1 157P1.4.1
    RCC1 ANKRD13D SEPT7L SMO
    MYBL2 DNASE2 CD22
    CHML LYNX1 SYTL5
    CCDC165 APOBEC3G TNNT2
    SEH1L CDH3 ADAMTS14
    WDR12 AQP3 ANXA10
    TMEM56 NYNRIN TTC3P1
    ERC1 ABCG1 NMU
    RFC3 SH3YL1 RP11-
    597D13.9.1
    DEPDC1 FBXO2 UNC5C
    RP1- PPP1R16A AADAT
    239B22.1.1
    BMP2K SESN3 GRHL1
    NT5DC2 TMPRSS3 TMEM169
    MPHOSPH9 HEATR7A CYP24A1
    HDAC9 KYNU RP11-
    448G15.3.1
    STMN3 METTL7A ASB9
    MRTO4 FA2H NAALADL2
    CDCA8 ZC3H12A FAM46B
    S100A2 CFI CFTR
    PI4K2B SLC15A3 C16orf74
    MCM8 SIGIRR RP11-
    416I2.1.1
    GTF2H3 FER1L4 PLAC1
    JUN SLC39A11 ZNF658
    TTF2 FOXQ1 SP6
    FAM171A1 RASSF5 TTN
    FKBP5 DHRS3 C8orf46
    ADSL ARHGEF3 GPR65
    DIAPH3 S100P LEF1
    KIAA0586 ZG16B RP11-
    6F2.4.1
    POLQ PTK6 DENND2A
    EXO1 CDA
    EEF1E1 IL32
    ODZ3 ZNF862
    SSX2IP CD14
    CEP97 TMED1
    ABCC4 G0S2
    RAD51AP1 ENDOV
    MRPL47 SMAD6
    C9orf140 MIA
    GEMIN5 CACNB1
    FANCD2 ARL4D
    CCNE2 JAK2
    UMPS KCNMB4
    BARD1 IRAK2
    USP13 RELB
    CENPV CEBPB
    SMTN MAFF
    PRPS1 C9orf16
    CCNF RALGPS1
    RFC5 LTB4R
    ATP5G1 CSF2RA
    POLR3G C10orf32
    CBX2 SAT2
    NOP16 ALPPL2
    MCM10 CCDC69
    SLC16A7 NR1H3
    POP1 GRAMD1C
    CLSPN FAM113B
    PFAS WASH7P
    KLF12 TGFBR3
    GEMIN4 YPEL3
    C3orf26 LRRN1
    GMNN MAST3
    CENPN ABC7-
    42389800N19.1.1
    KIF15 ZNF467
    GDAP1 XAF1
    THOC7 C16orf7
    OPN3 RP3-
    395M20.8.1
    C22orf29 DNAH2
    BAG2 ADCY4
    ERCC2 CDC42EP5
    JAM3 ITGAX
    DERA ANKRD42
    GPRIN1 NLRP1
    E2F2 AC021593.1
    CDC45 N4BP2L1
    ARRB2 CLDN15
    NCS1 PIWIL4
    SFMBT1 S1PR1
    RAD54L HLA-H
    C1orf112 NEURL3
    PRKAR1B P2RX4
    FANCM AC007283.5.1
    CENPL CA11
    SELRC1 DPEP1
    DOCK10 TBC1D3F
    ORC1 IER5L
    ALDH1B1 PER1
    BCL2 ZSWIM4
    PSMC3IP ITGA10
    SNRNP25 IL15
    PRIM1 SERPINA3
    HSPA4L RTP4
    SUV39H2 GLI4
    MAGOHB C17orf103
    HMGB1P5 SIX5
    RP11- SNPH
    14N7.2.1
    WDR77 PIP5K1B
    CENPH TFEB
    NME1 IDUA
    LRRC8C TMEM102
    AC027612.6.1 SPRY3
    METTL8 FMO5
    POLR1E MTRNR2L9
    HOMER1 VSIG10L
    RGS17 GIMAP2
    DCLRE1B PLCH2
    POLE2 LRRC6
    CENPW LRFN3
    SKA1 RILPL2
    ADAT2 TNFSF12
    CCDC41 CROCC
    WDR4 HLA-K
    CCDC18 PRICKLE3
    PDSS1 CXCL3
    C12orf24 NOS3
    PARVB FBXO6
    MMP24 CCDC146
    C14orf126 CSF2
    SLC25A15 CEP85L
    NEGR1 GEMIN8
    CAP2 ZNF628
    OIP5 CXCL2
    KIF5C ZDHHC1
    ARHGAP11B NR3C2
    FAM86A RP11-
    285F7.2.1
    TBC1D7 PLEKHF1
    CEP128 RP11-
    403I13.8.1
    DLEU2 B3GALT4
    BOLA3 NEIL1
    COQ3 KNDC1
    C17orf89 PON3
    ARHGEF26 CFB
    GDF11 ENDOU
    ACTR3B FOXO4
    ASRGL1 DDO
    XYLB BBC3
    RP1- KB-
    140K8.5.1 1460A1.5.1
    SFXN2 SLC16A13
    TIMM8A GAS7
    MNS1 RNF152
    GTF2H2 ABCA6
    AC009948.5.1 SLC16A6
    ZNF239 RENBP
    RP11- KIAA1683
    253E3.3.1
    ASTN2 BBS12
    CHAC2 CACNA2D4
    CSMD3 UPK3B
    RASSF2 AP001372.2.1
    CCDC138 ZNF517
    C1orf74 ACYP2
    CCDC134 ARHGAP25
    CABYR PRX
    RP6- CES3
    65G23.3.1
    PPIAP29 ACCN3
    CYB5RL C19orf51
    RP11- IL4I1
    521B24.3.1
    RP1- VMAC
    152L7.5.1
    C20orf94 TNFRSF9
    AL357673.1 RP11-
    757G1.6.1
    ISPD NFAM1
    ELOVL2 RP11-
    353B9.1.1
    RBM24 PDZD7
    RP11- CARD14
    204J18.3.1
    DPF1 NYAP1
    RP11- CD34
    381E24.1.1
    RP11- RP11-
    1334A24.4.1 325F22.3.1
    MIR621 EXOC3L4
    AC092329.1 RP5-
    1182A14.3.1
    RP3- JAK3
    324O17.4.1
    CTD- WDFY3-AS2
    2574D22.2.1
    PDE1A PDGFRA
    RP11- MLXIPL
    33N16.1.1
    RP11- KLHDC1
    618G20.2.1
    MIR29C
    RP11-
    712B9.2.1
    CTD-
    2292P10.4.1
    PCSK4
    CLDN9
    PODN
    COL11A2
    RP11-
    65J3.1.1
    PPP1R32
    EFHC2
    TMEM105
    AC005152.2.1
    CASP5
    TBX6
    DNAH10OS
    SCARF1
    RP11-
    420G6.4.1
    ROM1
    PYGM
    SLCO4C1
    CCDC114
    FAM71E1
    RP11-
    263K19.6.1
    CTD-
    2341M24.1.1
    PCDHAC1
    CLIP3
    C7orf63
    C17orf108
    ECEL1P2
    LRRC24
    ZNF385C
    TPPP3
    RP11-
    108M9.4.1
    ANKRD24
    SRCRB4D
    MIR29B2
    DNAH7
    RP11-
    454H13.6.1
    RP11-
    369J21.5.1
    TMPRSS5
    PTPRCAP
    BCO2
    C2orf81
    FAM66C
    LINC00176
    GPR132
    SLC5A12
    PDE4C
    ICAM5
    C20orf195
    FBXO24
    NGFR
    TNFSF13B
    MST1P9
    CH25H
    CTC-
    523E23.1.1
    NFE2
    CTC-
    378H22.2.1
    FAM132A
    GBP5
    HOXD4
    UCN
    NKPD1
    ELF5
    LINC00324
    RP11-
    115C10.1.1
    ANGPTL1
    RP11-
    536G4.2.1
    FAM66D
    RP4-
    541C22.5.1
    HSPA6
    CTD-
    2313N18.5.1
    CTD-
    2547L24.3.1
    CYP7A1
    IGFALS
    RRM2P3
    U7
  • Although the invention has been described with reference to the above example, it will be understood that modifications and variations are encompassed within the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is limited only by the following claims.

Claims (18)

1-12. (canceled)
13. A method for identifying a subject's responsiveness to a treatment regime comprising analysis of changes in global chromatin modifications in a DNA sample from the subject prior to and following the treatment regime to provide a prognosis or analysis of responsiveness to the treatment regime.
14. A The method of claim 13, wherein identifying changes in global chromatin modification comprises identifying changes in large-organized heterochromatin lysine (K)-9 modified domains (LOCKs), changes in large LOCKs, and/or changes in euchromatin domains (ECDs).
15. The method of claim 14, wherein analyzing is by combinatorial methods.
16. (canceled)
17. The method of claim 15, wherein combinatorial methods comprise Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), whole genome bisulfite sequencing, or a combination thereof.
18. The method of claim 13, wherein the sample is DNA from a cancer cell from a solid tumor.
19. The method of claim 1, wherein the solid tumor is pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC).
20. The method of claim 14, wherein identifying changes in LOCKs comprises identifying changes in H3K9Me2 and/or H4K9Me3.
21. The method of claim 20, wherein detecting a loss of H3K9Me2 in LOCKs in a cell from a primary tumor or from a local metastasis is indicative of a likelihood of evolution to distant metastasis.
22. The method of claim 14, wherein identifying changes in ECDs comprises identifying changes in H3K26Me3 and/or H3K27Ac.
23. The method of claim 22, wherein detecting local reprogramming of H3K26Me3 and/or H3K27Ac over differentially expressed genes withing ECDs in a cell from a primary tumor or from a local metastasis is indicative of a likelihood of evolution to distant metastasis.
24. The method of claim 14, wherein a LOCK has a length ranging from about 100 kb to 30 Mb.
25. The method of claim 14, wherein a LOCK has an average length of about 232 Kb-311 Kb.
26. The method of claim 14, wherein a large LOCK has a length ranging from about 500 Kb to 30 Mb.
27. The method of claim 14, wherein a large LOCK has an average length of about 73 0 Kb-1,340 Kb.
28. The method of claim 14, wherein an ECD has a length ranging from about 50 kb to 12 Mb.
29. The method of claim 14, wherein a LOCK has an average length of about 207 Kb-277 Kb.
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