US20230019159A1 - Rapid drug discovery methods for pathogen inactivation - Google Patents

Rapid drug discovery methods for pathogen inactivation Download PDF

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US20230019159A1
US20230019159A1 US17/856,266 US202217856266A US2023019159A1 US 20230019159 A1 US20230019159 A1 US 20230019159A1 US 202217856266 A US202217856266 A US 202217856266A US 2023019159 A1 US2023019159 A1 US 2023019159A1
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Otakuye Conroy-Ben
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Arizona Board of Regents of ASU
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    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01N—PRESERVATION OF BODIES OF HUMANS OR ANIMALS OR PLANTS OR PARTS THEREOF; BIOCIDES, e.g. AS DISINFECTANTS, AS PESTICIDES OR AS HERBICIDES; PEST REPELLANTS OR ATTRACTANTS; PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
    • A01N57/00—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic phosphorus compounds
    • A01N57/10—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic phosphorus compounds having phosphorus-to-oxygen bonds or phosphorus-to-sulfur bonds
    • A01N57/16—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic phosphorus compounds having phosphorus-to-oxygen bonds or phosphorus-to-sulfur bonds containing heterocyclic radicals
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01N—PRESERVATION OF BODIES OF HUMANS OR ANIMALS OR PLANTS OR PARTS THEREOF; BIOCIDES, e.g. AS DISINFECTANTS, AS PESTICIDES OR AS HERBICIDES; PEST REPELLANTS OR ATTRACTANTS; PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
    • A01N33/00—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic nitrogen compounds
    • A01N33/16—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic nitrogen compounds containing nitrogen-to-oxygen bonds
    • A01N33/18—Nitro compounds
    • A01N33/20—Nitro compounds containing oxygen or sulfur attached to the carbon skeleton containing the nitro group
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01N—PRESERVATION OF BODIES OF HUMANS OR ANIMALS OR PLANTS OR PARTS THEREOF; BIOCIDES, e.g. AS DISINFECTANTS, AS PESTICIDES OR AS HERBICIDES; PEST REPELLANTS OR ATTRACTANTS; PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
    • A01N35/00—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic compounds containing a carbon atom having two bonds to hetero atoms with at the most one bond to halogen, e.g. aldehyde radical
    • A01N35/02—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic compounds containing a carbon atom having two bonds to hetero atoms with at the most one bond to halogen, e.g. aldehyde radical containing aliphatically bound aldehyde or keto groups, or thio analogues thereof; Derivatives thereof, e.g. acetals
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01N—PRESERVATION OF BODIES OF HUMANS OR ANIMALS OR PLANTS OR PARTS THEREOF; BIOCIDES, e.g. AS DISINFECTANTS, AS PESTICIDES OR AS HERBICIDES; PEST REPELLANTS OR ATTRACTANTS; PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
    • A01N57/00—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic phosphorus compounds
    • A01N57/18—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic phosphorus compounds having phosphorus-to-carbon bonds
    • A01N57/20—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic phosphorus compounds having phosphorus-to-carbon bonds containing acyclic or cycloaliphatic radicals
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01N—PRESERVATION OF BODIES OF HUMANS OR ANIMALS OR PLANTS OR PARTS THEREOF; BIOCIDES, e.g. AS DISINFECTANTS, AS PESTICIDES OR AS HERBICIDES; PEST REPELLANTS OR ATTRACTANTS; PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
    • A01N57/00—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic phosphorus compounds
    • A01N57/34—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing organic phosphorus compounds having phosphorus-to-halogen bonds; Phosphonium salts
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01N—PRESERVATION OF BODIES OF HUMANS OR ANIMALS OR PLANTS OR PARTS THEREOF; BIOCIDES, e.g. AS DISINFECTANTS, AS PESTICIDES OR AS HERBICIDES; PEST REPELLANTS OR ATTRACTANTS; PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
    • A01N59/00—Biocides, pest repellants or attractants, or plant growth regulators containing elements or inorganic compounds
    • A01N59/16—Heavy metals; Compounds thereof
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N1/00—Microorganisms, e.g. protozoa; Compositions thereof; Processes of propagating, maintaining or preserving microorganisms or compositions thereof; Processes of preparing or isolating a composition containing a microorganism; Culture media therefor
    • C12N1/14—Fungi; Culture media therefor
    • C12N1/16—Yeasts; Culture media therefor
    • C12N1/18—Baker's yeast; Brewer's yeast
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12Q—MEASURING OR TESTING PROCESSES INVOLVING ENZYMES, NUCLEIC ACIDS OR MICROORGANISMS; COMPOSITIONS OR TEST PAPERS THEREFOR; PROCESSES OF PREPARING SUCH COMPOSITIONS; CONDITION-RESPONSIVE CONTROL IN MICROBIOLOGICAL OR ENZYMOLOGICAL PROCESSES
    • C12Q1/00—Measuring or testing processes involving enzymes, nucleic acids or microorganisms; Compositions therefor; Processes of preparing such compositions
    • C12Q1/02—Measuring or testing processes involving enzymes, nucleic acids or microorganisms; Compositions therefor; Processes of preparing such compositions involving viable microorganisms
    • C12Q1/18—Testing for antimicrobial activity of a material
    • C12Q1/20—Testing for antimicrobial activity of a material using multifield media
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01N—PRESERVATION OF BODIES OF HUMANS OR ANIMALS OR PLANTS OR PARTS THEREOF; BIOCIDES, e.g. AS DISINFECTANTS, AS PESTICIDES OR AS HERBICIDES; PEST REPELLANTS OR ATTRACTANTS; PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
    • A01N2300/00—Combinations or mixtures of active ingredients covered by classes A01N27/00 - A01N65/48 with other active or formulation relevant ingredients, e.g. specific carrier materials or surfactants, covered by classes A01N25/00 - A01N65/48
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N1/00—Microorganisms, e.g. protozoa; Compositions thereof; Processes of propagating, maintaining or preserving microorganisms or compositions thereof; Processes of preparing or isolating a composition containing a microorganism; Culture media therefor
    • C12N1/20—Bacteria; Culture media therefor
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12Q—MEASURING OR TESTING PROCESSES INVOLVING ENZYMES, NUCLEIC ACIDS OR MICROORGANISMS; COMPOSITIONS OR TEST PAPERS THEREFOR; PROCESSES OF PREPARING SUCH COMPOSITIONS; CONDITION-RESPONSIVE CONTROL IN MICROBIOLOGICAL OR ENZYMOLOGICAL PROCESSES
    • C12Q1/00—Measuring or testing processes involving enzymes, nucleic acids or microorganisms; Compositions therefor; Processes of preparing such compositions
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12Q—MEASURING OR TESTING PROCESSES INVOLVING ENZYMES, NUCLEIC ACIDS OR MICROORGANISMS; COMPOSITIONS OR TEST PAPERS THEREFOR; PROCESSES OF PREPARING SUCH COMPOSITIONS; CONDITION-RESPONSIVE CONTROL IN MICROBIOLOGICAL OR ENZYMOLOGICAL PROCESSES
    • C12Q1/00—Measuring or testing processes involving enzymes, nucleic acids or microorganisms; Compositions therefor; Processes of preparing such compositions
    • C12Q1/02—Measuring or testing processes involving enzymes, nucleic acids or microorganisms; Compositions therefor; Processes of preparing such compositions involving viable microorganisms
    • C12Q1/025—Measuring or testing processes involving enzymes, nucleic acids or microorganisms; Compositions therefor; Processes of preparing such compositions involving viable microorganisms for testing or evaluating the effect of chemical or biological compounds, e.g. drugs, cosmetics

Definitions

  • an antimicrobial composition comprising: (a) a biocide; and (b) a Group D3 metal; wherein the composition has a coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) less than or equal to 0.5.
  • the metal can be gold and the biocide can be disulfiram, thiosalisylic acid, novobiocin, chlorpromazine, or a biocide selected from the group consisting of a glycopeptide, a macrolide, and a sodium channel inhibitor.
  • the glycopeptide can be selected from bleomycin and vancomycin.
  • the macrolide can be selected from the group consisting of erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, spiramycin, troleandomycin, and tylosin.
  • the sodium channel inhibitor can be lidocaine or procaine.
  • the metal can be silver and the biocide can be selected from the group consisting of 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine, 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline, 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline, 9-aminoacridine, acriflavine, novobiocin, proflavine, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, dichlofluanid, tolylfluanid, lidocaine, procaine, D,L-serine hydroxamate, D,L-methionine hydroxamate, L-glutamic- ⁇ -hydroxamate, erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, trole
  • the metal can be copper and the biocide can be selected from the group consisting of chlorodinitrobenzene, methyl viologen, thioctic acid, iodonitrotetrazolium violet, fusidic acid, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, a nitrofuran, a triazole, a fenicol, lauryl sulfobetaine, niaproof, menadione, and lidocaine.
  • the biocide can be selected from the group consisting of chlorodinitrobenzene, methyl viologen, thioctic acid, iodonitrotetrazolium violet, fusidic acid, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, a nitrofuran, a triazole, a fenicol, lauryl sulfobetaine, niaproof, menadione, and lidocaine.
  • microorganism in another aspect, provided herein is a method of killing a microorganism or inhibiting its growth by the application of an effective amount of an antimicrobial composition as provided herein.
  • the microorganism can be a bacterium.
  • a method for inhibiting microbiological growth on, or in, a medium which comprises coating the medium with an antimicrobial composition as provided herein.
  • the medium can be a medical device. Coating the medium with the antimicrobial composition can inhibit growth of one or more types of microorganisms.
  • a method of screening for synergistically effective metal-biocide combinations can comprise or consist essentially of contacting microorganisms to test biocides deposited on a solid surface, wherein the microorganisms are in a culture medium comprising a soluble Group IB metal; culturing the contacted microorganisms in the culture medium for a predetermined length of time; and screening for synergistically effective combinations of a test biocide and the metal, wherein screening comprises measuring relative growth and determining a coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) for each metal-biocide combination, wherein a combination is synergistically effective against the microorganisms if CDI ⁇ 0.5.
  • CDI coefficient of drug interaction
  • the soluble Group IB metal can be silver, gold, or copper.
  • the microorganisms can be bacteria.
  • the contacted microorganisms can be cultured in the culture medium for about 12 to about 24 hours.
  • the contacted microorganisms can be cultured in the culture medium for about 16 hours.
  • the test biocides can comprise radioactive isotopes, toxic metal ions, nanomaterials, or plasmid curing agents.
  • FIG. 1 presents drug-metal combinations that resulted in synergistic coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) values.
  • FIG. 2 demonstrates enhanced cell toxicity when grown on sulfonamide (sulfadiazine), amikacin (an aminoglycoside), and tetracycline with and without silver.
  • FIG. 3 presents growth curves demonstrating that certain antibiotic classes did not exhibit synergy when combined with, and instead are similar to, silver or the antibiotic alone.
  • FIG. 4 presents 24-hour growth curves demonstrating growth inhibition of certain silver-biocide combinations.
  • FIG. 5 presents copper-biocide interactions that resulted in synergistic CDI values.
  • FIG. 6 demonstrates synergistic toxic interactions between gold and phenothiazines, glycopeptides, macrolides, and polymyxins.
  • FIG. 7 presents data from checkerboard assays of four metal-antibiotic combinations.
  • compositions provided herein are based at least in part on the inventors' development of a rapid, large-scale screening method for identifying metal-biocide combinations that are synergistically effective to kill and/or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
  • antimicrobial compositions comprising (a) an antimicrobial agent; and (b) a Group D3 metal, the composition having a coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) less than 0.5 (CDI ⁇ 0.5).
  • CDI is used to evaluate whether responses to drug combinations are additive, synergistic, or antagonistic. Using Equation 1, combinations are considered to be additive if CDI about 1, synergistic if CDI is less than ( ⁇ ) 1, and antagonistic if CDI is greater than (>) 1.
  • a CDI of less than 0.5 is considered to have significantly synergistic effects on bacterial growth as demonstrated in the Examples.
  • a metal-biocide combination is considered to be strongly synergistic against a microorganism if CDI ⁇ 0.1.
  • Relative growth meaning growth normalized to that in LB media or chloride-free LB, was calculated for cultures grown in the antibiotic (A) alone, the metal ion alone (B), or the metal-antibiotic mixture (A+B).
  • CDI A + B A ⁇ B ( Equation ⁇ 1 )
  • Agents that inhibit the growth of a microorganism or culture of microorganisms can be any agent that reduces growth, inhibits reproduction, and/or causes death upon contact or exposure to the microorganism or culture of microorganisms.
  • antiimicrobial microbicidal
  • biocidal refer to the ability to kill at least some types of microorganisms, or to inhibit the growth or reproduction of at least some types of microorganisms.
  • antimicrobial agent or “biocide” refer to any compound or substance that kills, inhibits, or slows the growth or propagation of at least some types of microorganisms which include, for example, bacteria, fungi (such as yeasts and mold), mycoplasma , viruses, parasites, and algae.
  • Antimicrobial agents include, without limitation, bactericides, bacteristats, fungicides, fungistats, algaecides and algistats, depending on the dose level applied, system conditions, and the level of microbial control desired.
  • group IB metal refers to elements of group D3 (also referred to as Group 11) of the Periodic Table of Elements.
  • exemplary group IB metals are copper, silver, and gold, also known as “coinage metals.”
  • Group IB metals include metal oxides and metal salts.
  • the group IB metal is AgNO 3 , CuSO 4 , or HAuC 14 .
  • the metal is gold and the biocide is selected from the group consisting of a glycopeptide, a macrolide, and a sodium channel inhibitor.
  • exemplary glycopeptides that act synergistically with gold include bleomycin, and vancomycin.
  • the metal is silver and the biocide is selected from 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine, 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline, 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline, 9-aminoacridine, acriflavine, novobiocin, proflavine, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, dichlofluanid, tolylfluanid, lidocaine, procaine, D,L-serine hydroxamate, D,L-methionine hydroxamate, L-glutamic- ⁇ -hydroxamate, erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, troleandomycin, tylosin, benserazide, chlorpromazine, promethazine, thioridazine, trifluoperazine, dodine, guanidine hydrochloride, atropine, orphenadrine, 2-nitroimidazole
  • the metal is silver and the biocide is selected from doxycycline, rolitetracycline, penimepicycline, and tetracycline.
  • the metal is copper and the biocide is selected from the group consisting of chlorodinitrobenzene, methyl viologen, thioctic acid, iodonitrotetrazolium violet, fusidic acid, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, a nitrofuran analog, a triazole, a phenicol, lauryl sulfobetaine, niaproof, menadione, and lidocaine.
  • nitrofuran analogs include, without limitation, 5-Nitro-2-furaldehyde semicarbazone, furaltadone, and nitrofurantoin.
  • Exemplary triazoles include, without limitation, guanazole and 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole.
  • Exemplary phenicols include, without limitation, chloramphenicol and thiamphenicol.
  • the method can be used to screen a large number of test agents in a short amount of time with reproducible results.
  • the method comprises contacting microorganisms to test biocides deposited on a surface (e.g., a solid surface), where the microorganisms are provided in a culture medium comprising a soluble Group IB metal.
  • the soluble Group D3 metal is preferably silver, gold, or copper.
  • the soluble metal is silver nitrate, copper sulfate, and gold chloride.
  • the method comprises culturing the contacted microorganisms in the culture medium for a predetermined length of time; and then screening the cultures for synergistically effective combinations of a test agent (e.g., candidate biocide) and the metal.
  • screening comprises measuring relative growth of the microorganism culture and determining a CDI for each metal-biocide combination, where a combination is synergistically effective against the microorganisms if CDI ⁇ 0.5.
  • a metal-biocide combination is considered to be strongly synergistic against a microorganism if CDI ⁇ 0.1.
  • the contacted microorganisms are cultured in the culture medium for about 12 to about 24 hours, and preferably 16 hours.
  • absorbance after about 16 hours in culture can be measured and used to compare the growth of the bacteria in the presence of metal alone, biocide alone, and metal-biocide combinations. Relative growth can be converted to the combination drug index as described herein.
  • the term “surface” refers to a material upon which a sample or specimen (e.g., a sample of microorganism) can be placed for the methods described herein. Surfaces may in principle be of any type. In some cases, the surface is a solid material or substantially solid (e.g., porous) material. Exemplary surfaces include, without limitation, a petri dish, a multiwell plate, a microscope slide, a microtiter plate, a cartridge, a test tube, a probe, a membrane, a film, and a filter.
  • microorganisms that can be grown in liquid culture can be used for the screening methods.
  • the microorganisms comprise one or more species of bacteria, virus, fungus, mycoplasma , or parasite.
  • Bacteria include, without limitation, clinically relevant species such as E.
  • coli M tuberculosis, Salmonella , Streptococci, Staphylococci, Enterobacteriaceae, Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Burkholderia cepacia, Alcaligenes xylosoxidans, Acinetobacter, Haemophilus, Neisseria species, Francisella tularensis, Yersinia pestis, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Burkholderia mallei, Rickettsia prowazekii, Coxiella burnetti, Campylobacter jejuni, Shigella, Moraxella catarrhalis , and Chlamydia trachomatis .
  • CRE Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae
  • Pseudomonas aeruginosa Stenotrophomonas mal
  • microorganisms for use according to the screening methods include clinically relevant species of fungi (e.g., Candida species, Aspergillus species), viruses, mycoplasma , and parasites (e.g., protozoan and metazoan pathogens such as Plasmodia species, Leishmania species, Schistosoma species, Trypanosoma species).
  • fungi e.g., Candida species, Aspergillus species
  • viruses e.g., viruses, mycoplasma
  • parasites e.g., protozoan and metazoan pathogens such as Plasmodia species, Leishmania species, Schistosoma species, Trypanosoma species.
  • test biocides include, without limitation, radioactive isotopes, metal ions (e.g., iron (Fe)), nanomaterials, or plasmid curing agents.
  • an effective amount of a synergistic antimicrobial composition refers to the quantity of active therapeutic agent sufficient to yield a desired response without undue adverse side effects such as toxicity, irritation, or allergic response.
  • the specific “effective amount” will, obviously, vary with such factors as the particular microorganism, the duration of the treatment, and the specific formulations employed and the structure of the compounds or its derivatives. The optimum effective amounts can be readily determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using routine experimentation.
  • compositions of this disclosure are used as antimicrobial surface coatings for objects including, without limitation, healthcare-associated products, medical devices and components, medical electronics, products used in dental and veterinary fields, products used in food preparation or food storage, consumable products, products for cell culture (e.g., growth media), and other products for which the prevention of bacterial and/or fungal growth and spread is important.
  • the terms “approximately” or “about” in reference to a number are generally taken to include numbers that fall within a range of 5% in either direction (greater than or less than) the number unless otherwise stated or otherwise evident from the context (except where such number would exceed 100% of a possible value). Where ranges are stated, the endpoints are included within the range unless otherwise stated or otherwise evident from the context.
  • E. coli is a gram-negative bacterium that expresses resistant genes in response to toxin exposure. Intrinsic mechanisms exist that allow E. coli to survive toxic environments, and it can acquire resistance operons through horizontal and vertical gene transfer. E. coli harbors multiple antibiotic and metal resistance efflux proteins, as well as enzymes, which export and or/destroy copper, silver, bile salts, hormones, antibiotics and biocides. Proteins such as exporter AcrAB-TolC are constitutively expressed, while others are epigenetically regulated by exposure to the biocide, resulting in overexpression of the designated protein. The combination of acquired and intrinsic resistance allows for the survival of E. coli in natural, engineered, and toxic environments.
  • Silver Interactions with Silver—Silver is among the most lethal of metals to microorganisms. Silver ion has the ability to generate reactive oxygen species, induce DNA damage, and bind to sulfur-containing proteins. Adverse effects on microbes differ from eukaryotic cells in severity, making silver application an attractive option for pathogen elimination, while inducing little damage to the host organism. Combinations of silver with antimicrobials enhances the activity of both, a strategy employed when bacteria develop resistance mechanisms and survive pharmaceutical therapy. For example, E. coli have developed resistance mechanisms to silver, including the intrinsically expressed CusCFBA and loss of expression of outer membrane porins.
  • Antibiotics with silver Herisse et al. (Molecular Microbiology. 2017; 105(1):115-26) reported that silver enhances the activity of aminoglycosides, and oxidative stress caused by silver ion was not necessary for elevated toxicity. Membrane permeability also increased with silver application, allowing vancomycin (a glycopeptide) inhibition to be enhanced. Sulfonamides interfere with folate synthesis, and interactions with silver enhance the antimicrobial effects. Silver sulfadiazine is inhibitory against E. coli and Staphylococcus , a combination that is available commercially and is typically used to treat Pseudomonas aeruginosa infected burn wounds. The combination is more effective with nanoparticle delivery.
  • Silver and gold sulfamethoxazole were effective against E. coli greater than the sulfonamide alone, along with silver sulfathiazole and sulfamethoxazole. Trimethoprim and silver are synergistic towards a number of pathogens. Elevated activity with the fluoroquinolone ofloxacin has been reported. Diamide, an oxidizing agent, in combination with metals and ROS acted synergistically towards E. coli.
  • Metal chelators with silver As a transition metal, silver can form complexes with heteroatoms, leading to a complicated mechanism of lethality. The complex could tie up silver internally, preventing efflux, or the complex itself is toxic. Previously, silver complexes of hydroxycoumarins and phenanthroline act synergistically on E. coli . Imidazole-derivatives with silver were inhibitory towards E. coli , where silver complexes with the nitrogen of imidazole heteroatoms. These studies did not report antimicrobial pathways.
  • Efflux pump inhibitors with silver Silver mixed with ionophores such as Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) and Carbonyl cyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (FCCP) have been used to test the real-time efflux of silver by metal exporters. Efflux of the ion is halted by the ionophore, which then increased intracellular toxicity by silver ions. Phenothiazines are also efflux pump inhibitors, and may prevent the resistance nodulation cell division (RND) protein CusCFBA from exporting silver ions. Silver phenothiazine activity was measured using the zone of inhibition method and minimum inhibitory concentration in a separate study, but the complex was not effective compared to the control (as determined by the zone of inhibition).
  • RTD resistance nodulation cell division
  • Kanamycin-copper has been shown to degrade RNA, while gentamicin-copper degrades DNA and is involved in lipid peroxidation. Copper complexes to tetracycline act synergistically and damage DNA. Copper and cationic detergent synergism was observed in tests against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa . Reported combinations included copper with the detergent cetrimide, a quaternary ammonium salt (QAS) and cationic detergent. A formulation of biocidal paint containing copper and the antifungal tolylfluanid that supports chemical interactions between the two was reported; however, the analysis lacked microbial evidence.
  • QAS quaternary ammonium salt
  • copper-biocide interactions include copper-salicylates, copper ketoprofen, which likely binds to DNA, copper imidazole complexes, which are bacteriostatic in gram-negative bacteria, DNA-damaging copper-rifamycin, and copper complexes of substituted guanidines.
  • Copper chelators may bind the metal and eliminate toxicity by preventing the Fenton-like ROS generation, thereby enhancing growth. Copper bound to phenanthroline is an oxidizing agent and mimics DNAse intracellularly, while copper complexes of 2,2′bipyridyl inhibit the electron transport chain in bacteria.
  • the copper chelating classes imidazoles and pyrroles increase antimicrobial effectiveness in molds, yeast, and fungi, and was observed with ornidazole, a nitroimidazole antibiotic, on E. coli.
  • Oxidizing agents may play multiple roles in increasing toxicity when applied with copper, including maintaining copper as Cu′, preventing export of the monovalent ion by CusCFBA.
  • Mechanism have been previously reported, including copper complexes to lawsone, where it binds to double stranded DNA. Copper complexes to plumbagin are cytotoxic to cancer cells, and those to plumbagin derivatives are antimicrobial through R-plasmid curing. Plumbagin is also involved in redox cycling of copper. Other oxidants have increased antimicrobial activity, including mixtures of Cu-iodoacetate and Cu-diamide derivatives.
  • Gold polymyxin complexes have been used to identify the site location of the antibiotic in E. coli .
  • Phenothiazines alone are inhibitory towards gram-negative bacteria, act by intercalating with DNA, and contribute to in vitro plasmid elimination.
  • Gold-phenothiazines are not mutagenic (DNA) in the host, but are anti-plasmid to the vector.
  • Guanidine is used to bind gold ions, and guanidine itself is antimicrobial.
  • Gold thiosalicylate has been synthesized and can inhibit growth in bacteria.
  • Biocide Class chemicals Chelator Carboxylic acid: EDTA, EGTA, fusaric acid Hydroxy quinoline: 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine, 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline, 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline N-heterocycle: 1,10-phenanthroline, 2,2′-dipyridyl Other: sodium pyrophosphate decahydrate DNA & DNA alkylation: chlorambucil, 5-Azacytidine RNA Fluoroquinolone: ciprofloxacin, enoxacin, lomefloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin Intercalator: 2-phenylphenol, 4-hydroxycoumarin, 9-aminoacridine, acriflavine, coumarin
  • E. coli strain W3110 was pre-cultured in LB media or chloride-free LB (for silver ion studies) and seeded (5 ⁇ 10 5 cell/mL) in increasing amounts of silver nitrate (Sigma Aldrich, >99%), copper sulfate (Sigma Aldrich, >99%), and gold chloride (Sigma Aldrich). Cultures were grown for 16 hours, after which the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined.
  • MIC minimum inhibitory concentration
  • CDI coefficient of drug interaction
  • the coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) was used to evaluate if responses to drug combinations were additive, synergistic, or antagonistic. Using Equation 1, combinations were labelled additive if CDI 1, synergistic if CDI ⁇ 1, and antagonistic if CDI >1.
  • Relative growth the growth normalized to that in LB media or chloride-free LB, was calculated for cultures grown in the antibiotic (A) alone, the metal ion alone (B), or the metal-antibiotic mixture (A+B). Data presented are the average of the two runs.
  • CDI A + B A ⁇ B ( Equation ⁇ 1 )
  • C applied is the final in-well concentration of antibiotic or metal
  • MIC is the minimum inhibitory concentration of the respective metal or antibiotic.
  • the isobologram generated shows the lines deflect towards the origin, indicating synergism. Integration of growth curve analysis, CDI values at 16 hours of the Biolog panels, and additional testing of individual chemicals on the checkerboard provides substantial evidence for synergism.
  • the objective of using a high-throughput screen was to evaluate the applicability of coefficient of drug interaction analysis on a commercially available set of microbial toxins. Comparable results were observed between published results and synergistic chemical pairs with this assay ( FIG. 1 , Tables 2-4), indicating that the biocide classes and plated concentrations are employable in combination tests. We also sought to use this as a preliminary screen to discover new Group IB/biocide pairs, laying the groundwork to pursue toxic mechanisms and optimal metal/biocide ratios.
  • Table 5 presents CDI data for silver, copper, and gold mixed with biocides. Values calculated as described above. “Tox” entries represent toxic biocides for which there was no growth, leading to errors in CDI calculation. Synergistic combinations (CDI ⁇ 0.5) were determined from this CDI data of combinations of Ag/Cu/Au (3 concentrations each) with 240 biocides (four concentrations each), which was the average of two independent experiments.
  • this example describes development of a streamlined screening process to find synergistic combinations of soluble Group IB metals with biocides to inactivate E. coli .
  • Results were reproducible when compared to conventional MIC, checkerboard, and time-kill tests reviewed in literature.
  • Silver not only works synergistically with antimicrobials, but also with chelators and efflux pump inhibitors. Further convincing results validated copper synergism with ionophores and oxidizing agents.
  • gold synergy with macrolides and glycopeptides reveals a new direction in antimicrobial therapy.
  • the high-throughput method can be used as a preliminary screen to evaluate other combinations of antimicrobials, including those with radiation, toxic ions, nanomaterials, and plasmid curing agents.
  • This high-throughput screen lays the foundation to apply fundamental microbial toxicity tests and to further study mechanisms of inactivation.

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Abstract

Provided herein are rapid, large-scale screening methods for identifying metal-biocide combinations that are synergistically effective to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Also provided herein are novel, synergistically antimicrobial metal-biocide combinations and uses of such compositions to curb or slow microbial growth.

Description

    CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
  • This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/823,126, filed Mar. 25, 2019, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
    • STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH
  • Not applicable.
    • BACKGROUND
  • The World Health Organization has listed antimicrobial resistance as one of the top threats facing health today. The over-prescription of antibiotics, use of biocides in commercial products, and misuse of antimicrobials has led to microbes surviving drug application. Consequently, stronger pharmaceuticals are often necessary to fight infections. Accordingly, there remains a need in the art for rapid drug discovery methods to identify drug combinations that inactivate bacteria. Moreover, there is a need for additional combinations of antimicrobial compounds having enhanced activity to provide effective control of the microorganisms. The problems addressed by this disclosure include providing such additional combinations of antimicrobial compounds.
    • SUMMARY
  • In a first aspect, provided herein is an antimicrobial composition comprising: (a) a biocide; and (b) a Group D3 metal; wherein the composition has a coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) less than or equal to 0.5. The metal can be gold and the biocide can be disulfiram, thiosalisylic acid, novobiocin, chlorpromazine, or a biocide selected from the group consisting of a glycopeptide, a macrolide, and a sodium channel inhibitor. The glycopeptide can be selected from bleomycin and vancomycin. The macrolide can be selected from the group consisting of erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, spiramycin, troleandomycin, and tylosin. The sodium channel inhibitor can be lidocaine or procaine. The metal can be silver and the biocide can be selected from the group consisting of 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine, 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline, 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline, 9-aminoacridine, acriflavine, novobiocin, proflavine, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, dichlofluanid, tolylfluanid, lidocaine, procaine, D,L-serine hydroxamate, D,L-methionine hydroxamate, L-glutamic-γ-hydroxamate, erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, troleandomycin, tylosin, benserazide, chlorpromazine, promethazine, thioridazine, trifluoperazine, dodine, guanidine hydrochloride, atropine, orphenadrine, 2-nitroimidazole, ornidazole, methyl viologen, D,L-propanolol, patulin, sanguinarine, and iodoacetate. The metal can be copper and the biocide can be selected from the group consisting of chlorodinitrobenzene, methyl viologen, thioctic acid, iodonitrotetrazolium violet, fusidic acid, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, a nitrofuran, a triazole, a fenicol, lauryl sulfobetaine, niaproof, menadione, and lidocaine.
  • In another aspect, provided herein is a method of killing a microorganism or inhibiting its growth by the application of an effective amount of an antimicrobial composition as provided herein. The microorganism can be a bacterium.
  • In another aspect, provided herein is a method for inhibiting microbiological growth on, or in, a medium which comprises coating the medium with an antimicrobial composition as provided herein. The medium can be a medical device. Coating the medium with the antimicrobial composition can inhibit growth of one or more types of microorganisms.
  • In a further aspect, provided herein is a method of screening for synergistically effective metal-biocide combinations. The method can comprise or consist essentially of contacting microorganisms to test biocides deposited on a solid surface, wherein the microorganisms are in a culture medium comprising a soluble Group IB metal; culturing the contacted microorganisms in the culture medium for a predetermined length of time; and screening for synergistically effective combinations of a test biocide and the metal, wherein screening comprises measuring relative growth and determining a coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) for each metal-biocide combination, wherein a combination is synergistically effective against the microorganisms if CDI <0.5. The soluble Group IB metal can be silver, gold, or copper. The microorganisms can be bacteria. The contacted microorganisms can be cultured in the culture medium for about 12 to about 24 hours. The contacted microorganisms can be cultured in the culture medium for about 16 hours. The test biocides can comprise radioactive isotopes, toxic metal ions, nanomaterials, or plasmid curing agents.
  • The foregoing and other advantages of the invention will appear from the following description. In the description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof, and in which there is shown by way of illustration a preferred embodiment of the invention. Such embodiment does not necessarily represent the full scope of the invention, however, and reference is made therefore to the claims and herein for interpreting the scope of the invention.
    • BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
  • The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.
  • FIG. 1 presents drug-metal combinations that resulted in synergistic coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) values.
  • FIG. 2 demonstrates enhanced cell toxicity when grown on sulfonamide (sulfadiazine), amikacin (an aminoglycoside), and tetracycline with and without silver.
  • FIG. 3 presents growth curves demonstrating that certain antibiotic classes did not exhibit synergy when combined with, and instead are similar to, silver or the antibiotic alone.
  • FIG. 4 presents 24-hour growth curves demonstrating growth inhibition of certain silver-biocide combinations.
  • FIG. 5 presents copper-biocide interactions that resulted in synergistic CDI values.
  • FIG. 6 demonstrates synergistic toxic interactions between gold and phenothiazines, glycopeptides, macrolides, and polymyxins.
  • FIG. 7 presents data from checkerboard assays of four metal-antibiotic combinations.
    •  DETAILED DESCRIPTION
  • All publications, including but not limited to patents and patent applications, cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as though set forth in their entirety in the present application.
  • The methods and compositions provided herein are based at least in part on the inventors' development of a rapid, large-scale screening method for identifying metal-biocide combinations that are synergistically effective to kill and/or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
  • Compositions
  • Accordingly, in a first aspect, provided herein are antimicrobial compositions comprising (a) an antimicrobial agent; and (b) a Group D3 metal, the composition having a coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) less than 0.5 (CDI <0.5). The synergistic antimicrobial compositions presented herein have not been previously described. CDI is used to evaluate whether responses to drug combinations are additive, synergistic, or antagonistic. Using Equation 1, combinations are considered to be additive if CDI about 1, synergistic if CDI is less than (<) 1, and antagonistic if CDI is greater than (>) 1. A CDI of less than 0.5 is considered to have significantly synergistic effects on bacterial growth as demonstrated in the Examples. A metal-biocide combination is considered to be strongly synergistic against a microorganism if CDI <0.1. Relative growth, meaning growth normalized to that in LB media or chloride-free LB, was calculated for cultures grown in the antibiotic (A) alone, the metal ion alone (B), or the metal-antibiotic mixture (A+B).
  • CDI = A + B A × B ( Equation ⁢ 1 )
  • Agents that inhibit the growth of a microorganism or culture of microorganisms can be any agent that reduces growth, inhibits reproduction, and/or causes death upon contact or exposure to the microorganism or culture of microorganisms. As used herein, the terms “antimicrobial,” “microbicidal,” or “biocidal” refer to the ability to kill at least some types of microorganisms, or to inhibit the growth or reproduction of at least some types of microorganisms. The terms “antimicrobial agent” or “biocide” refer to any compound or substance that kills, inhibits, or slows the growth or propagation of at least some types of microorganisms which include, for example, bacteria, fungi (such as yeasts and mold), mycoplasma, viruses, parasites, and algae. Antimicrobial agents include, without limitation, bactericides, bacteristats, fungicides, fungistats, algaecides and algistats, depending on the dose level applied, system conditions, and the level of microbial control desired.
  • As used herein, the term “group IB metal” refers to elements of group D3 (also referred to as Group 11) of the Periodic Table of Elements. Exemplary group IB metals are copper, silver, and gold, also known as “coinage metals.” Group IB metals include metal oxides and metal salts. In some embodiments, the group IB metal is AgNO3, CuSO4, or HAuC14.
  • In some embodiments, the metal is gold and the biocide is selected from the group consisting of a glycopeptide, a macrolide, and a sodium channel inhibitor. Exemplary glycopeptides that act synergistically with gold include bleomycin, and vancomycin.
  • In some embodiments, the metal is silver and the biocide is selected from 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine, 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline, 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline, 9-aminoacridine, acriflavine, novobiocin, proflavine, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, dichlofluanid, tolylfluanid, lidocaine, procaine, D,L-serine hydroxamate, D,L-methionine hydroxamate, L-glutamic-γ-hydroxamate, erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, troleandomycin, tylosin, benserazide, chlorpromazine, promethazine, thioridazine, trifluoperazine, dodine, guanidine hydrochloride, atropine, orphenadrine, 2-nitroimidazole, ornidazole, methyl viologen, and iodoacetate.
  • In some embodiments, the metal is silver and the biocide is selected from doxycycline, rolitetracycline, penimepicycline, and tetracycline.
  • In some embodiments, the metal is copper and the biocide is selected from the group consisting of chlorodinitrobenzene, methyl viologen, thioctic acid, iodonitrotetrazolium violet, fusidic acid, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, a nitrofuran analog, a triazole, a phenicol, lauryl sulfobetaine, niaproof, menadione, and lidocaine. Exemplary nitrofuran analogs include, without limitation, 5-Nitro-2-furaldehyde semicarbazone, furaltadone, and nitrofurantoin. Exemplary triazoles include, without limitation, guanazole and 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole. Exemplary phenicols include, without limitation, chloramphenicol and thiamphenicol.
  • Screening Methods
  • In another aspect, provided herein is a method of screening for synergistically effective metal-biocide combinations. As demonstrated in this disclosure, the method can be used to screen a large number of test agents in a short amount of time with reproducible results. In some cases, the method comprises contacting microorganisms to test biocides deposited on a surface (e.g., a solid surface), where the microorganisms are provided in a culture medium comprising a soluble Group IB metal. As described herein, the soluble Group D3 metal is preferably silver, gold, or copper. In some cases, the soluble metal is silver nitrate, copper sulfate, and gold chloride.
  • In a next step, the method comprises culturing the contacted microorganisms in the culture medium for a predetermined length of time; and then screening the cultures for synergistically effective combinations of a test agent (e.g., candidate biocide) and the metal. In some cases, screening comprises measuring relative growth of the microorganism culture and determining a CDI for each metal-biocide combination, where a combination is synergistically effective against the microorganisms if CDI <0.5. A metal-biocide combination is considered to be strongly synergistic against a microorganism if CDI <0.1.
  • In some cases, the contacted microorganisms are cultured in the culture medium for about 12 to about 24 hours, and preferably 16 hours. As described in the Examples, absorbance after about 16 hours in culture can be measured and used to compare the growth of the bacteria in the presence of metal alone, biocide alone, and metal-biocide combinations. Relative growth can be converted to the combination drug index as described herein.
  • As used herein, the term “surface” refers to a material upon which a sample or specimen (e.g., a sample of microorganism) can be placed for the methods described herein. Surfaces may in principle be of any type. In some cases, the surface is a solid material or substantially solid (e.g., porous) material. Exemplary surfaces include, without limitation, a petri dish, a multiwell plate, a microscope slide, a microtiter plate, a cartridge, a test tube, a probe, a membrane, a film, and a filter.
  • Any microorganism that can be grown in liquid culture can be used for the screening methods. In some cases, the microorganisms comprise one or more species of bacteria, virus, fungus, mycoplasma, or parasite. Bacteria include, without limitation, clinically relevant species such as E. coli, M tuberculosis, Salmonella, Streptococci, Staphylococci, Enterobacteriaceae, Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Burkholderia cepacia, Alcaligenes xylosoxidans, Acinetobacter, Haemophilus, Neisseria species, Francisella tularensis, Yersinia pestis, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Burkholderia mallei, Rickettsia prowazekii, Coxiella burnetti, Campylobacter jejuni, Shigella, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Chlamydia trachomatis. Other microorganisms for use according to the screening methods include clinically relevant species of fungi (e.g., Candida species, Aspergillus species), viruses, mycoplasma, and parasites (e.g., protozoan and metazoan pathogens such as Plasmodia species, Leishmania species, Schistosoma species, Trypanosoma species).
  • In some cases, the test biocides include, without limitation, radioactive isotopes, metal ions (e.g., iron (Fe)), nanomaterials, or plasmid curing agents.
  • Methods of Use
  • According to another aspect, provided herein are methods of killing a microorganism or inhibiting its growth by the application of an effective amount of a synergistic antimicrobial composition. As used herein, the term “effective amount” refer to the quantity of active therapeutic agent sufficient to yield a desired response without undue adverse side effects such as toxicity, irritation, or allergic response. The specific “effective amount” will, obviously, vary with such factors as the particular microorganism, the duration of the treatment, and the specific formulations employed and the structure of the compounds or its derivatives. The optimum effective amounts can be readily determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using routine experimentation.
  • In another aspect, provided herein is a method for inhibiting microbiological growth on or in an object or medium where the method comprises coating the object or medium with an effective amount of a synergistic antimicrobial composition. In some cases, compositions of this disclosure are used as antimicrobial surface coatings for objects including, without limitation, healthcare-associated products, medical devices and components, medical electronics, products used in dental and veterinary fields, products used in food preparation or food storage, consumable products, products for cell culture (e.g., growth media), and other products for which the prevention of bacterial and/or fungal growth and spread is important.
  • Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methods and materials are now described. All publications mentioned herein are incorporated herein by reference for the purpose of describing and disclosing the chemicals, cell lines, vectors, animals, instruments, statistical analysis and methodologies which are reported in the publications which might be used in connection with the invention. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the invention is not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention.
  • As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural reference, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a cell” includes a plurality of such cells and equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. As well, the terms “a” (or “an”), “one or more” and “at least one” can be used interchangeably herein.
  • In the specification and in the claims, the terms “including” and “comprising” are open-ended terms and should be interpreted to mean “including, but not limited to.” These terms encompass the more restrictive terms “consisting essentially of” and “consisting of”
  • As used herein, the terms “approximately” or “about” in reference to a number are generally taken to include numbers that fall within a range of 5% in either direction (greater than or less than) the number unless otherwise stated or otherwise evident from the context (except where such number would exceed 100% of a possible value). Where ranges are stated, the endpoints are included within the range unless otherwise stated or otherwise evident from the context.
  • It should also be understood that, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, in any methods claimed herein that include more than one step or act, the order of the steps or acts of the method is not necessarily limited to the order in which the steps or acts of the method are recited.
  • Various embodiments and aspects of the present invention as delineated hereinabove and as claimed in the claims section below find experimental support in the following examples which, together with the above descriptions, illustrate some embodiments of the invention in a non-limiting fashion.
    • EXAMPLES Example 1: Rapid, Large-Scale Screening of Metal-Biocide Combinations to Inactivate Pathogens
  • E. coli is a gram-negative bacterium that expresses resistant genes in response to toxin exposure. Intrinsic mechanisms exist that allow E. coli to survive toxic environments, and it can acquire resistance operons through horizontal and vertical gene transfer. E. coli harbors multiple antibiotic and metal resistance efflux proteins, as well as enzymes, which export and or/destroy copper, silver, bile salts, hormones, antibiotics and biocides. Proteins such as exporter AcrAB-TolC are constitutively expressed, while others are epigenetically regulated by exposure to the biocide, resulting in overexpression of the designated protein. The combination of acquired and intrinsic resistance allows for the survival of E. coli in natural, engineered, and toxic environments.
  • Due to the high level of resistance conferred by E. coli and other pathogens, both traditional and novel methods of inactivation have been aggressively pursued. These include use of antibiotics, metals, enzymes, phages, peptides, efflux pump inhibitors, physical methods (thermo-spectral energy), electron ionization, and nanomaterials, among others. Synergistic combinations with Group D3 metals show promise as treatment options, and is the focus of this report. Silver ion is a biocide, and in combination with antibiotics, can work synergistically to inactivate E. coli. These include combinations with efflux pump inhibitors, aminoglycosides, glycopeptides, sulfa drugs, and fluoroquinolones, with varying mechanisms of action. Copper can also act synergistically with β-lactams, cationic detergents, aminoglycosides and macrolides. Gold ion interactions with antibiotics are limited to phenothiazines, salicylates, and polymyxins, likely due to lack of toxicity imparted by the gold ion.
  • Interactions with Silver—Silver is among the most lethal of metals to microorganisms. Silver ion has the ability to generate reactive oxygen species, induce DNA damage, and bind to sulfur-containing proteins. Adverse effects on microbes differ from eukaryotic cells in severity, making silver application an attractive option for pathogen elimination, while inducing little damage to the host organism. Combinations of silver with antimicrobials enhances the activity of both, a strategy employed when bacteria develop resistance mechanisms and survive pharmaceutical therapy. For example, E. coli have developed resistance mechanisms to silver, including the intrinsically expressed CusCFBA and loss of expression of outer membrane porins.
  • Antibiotics with silver: Herisse et al. (Molecular Microbiology. 2017; 105(1):115-26) reported that silver enhances the activity of aminoglycosides, and oxidative stress caused by silver ion was not necessary for elevated toxicity. Membrane permeability also increased with silver application, allowing vancomycin (a glycopeptide) inhibition to be enhanced. Sulfonamides interfere with folate synthesis, and interactions with silver enhance the antimicrobial effects. Silver sulfadiazine is inhibitory against E. coli and Staphylococcus, a combination that is available commercially and is typically used to treat Pseudomonas aeruginosa infected burn wounds. The combination is more effective with nanoparticle delivery. Silver and gold sulfamethoxazole were effective against E. coli greater than the sulfonamide alone, along with silver sulfathiazole and sulfamethoxazole. Trimethoprim and silver are synergistic towards a number of pathogens. Elevated activity with the fluoroquinolone ofloxacin has been reported. Diamide, an oxidizing agent, in combination with metals and ROS acted synergistically towards E. coli.
  • Metal chelators with silver: As a transition metal, silver can form complexes with heteroatoms, leading to a complicated mechanism of lethality. The complex could tie up silver internally, preventing efflux, or the complex itself is toxic. Previously, silver complexes of hydroxycoumarins and phenanthroline act synergistically on E. coli. Imidazole-derivatives with silver were inhibitory towards E. coli, where silver complexes with the nitrogen of imidazole heteroatoms. These studies did not report antimicrobial pathways.
  • Efflux pump inhibitors with silver: Silver mixed with ionophores such as Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) and Carbonyl cyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (FCCP) have been used to test the real-time efflux of silver by metal exporters. Efflux of the ion is halted by the ionophore, which then increased intracellular toxicity by silver ions. Phenothiazines are also efflux pump inhibitors, and may prevent the resistance nodulation cell division (RND) protein CusCFBA from exporting silver ions. Silver phenothiazine activity was measured using the zone of inhibition method and minimum inhibitory concentration in a separate study, but the complex was not effective compared to the control (as determined by the zone of inhibition).
  • Interactions with Copper—Like silver, copper is toxic to microorganisms due to the development of reactive oxygen species, or ROS. In order to combat intracellular toxicity, various redox and efflux mechanisms are induced in E. coli, including expression of CopA, a P-type ATP-ase that transports Cu+ from the cytoplasm to the periplasm, expression of CusCFBA, which exports Cu+ out of the periplasm, and CueO, which oxidizes Cu+ to Cu2+, thereby eliminating the monovalent copper's ability to generate hydroxyl radicals, the presumed ROS species.
  • Antibiotics with copper: Kanamycin-copper has been shown to degrade RNA, while gentamicin-copper degrades DNA and is involved in lipid peroxidation. Copper complexes to tetracycline act synergistically and damage DNA. Copper and cationic detergent synergism was observed in tests against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Reported combinations included copper with the detergent cetrimide, a quaternary ammonium salt (QAS) and cationic detergent. A formulation of biocidal paint containing copper and the antifungal tolylfluanid that supports chemical interactions between the two was reported; however, the analysis lacked microbial evidence. Other copper-biocide interactions include copper-salicylates, copper ketoprofen, which likely binds to DNA, copper imidazole complexes, which are bacteriostatic in gram-negative bacteria, DNA-damaging copper-rifamycin, and copper complexes of substituted guanidines.
  • Metal chelators with copper: Copper chelators may bind the metal and eliminate toxicity by preventing the Fenton-like ROS generation, thereby enhancing growth. Copper bound to phenanthroline is an oxidizing agent and mimics DNAse intracellularly, while copper complexes of 2,2′bipyridyl inhibit the electron transport chain in bacteria. The copper chelating classes imidazoles and pyrroles increase antimicrobial effectiveness in molds, yeast, and fungi, and was observed with ornidazole, a nitroimidazole antibiotic, on E. coli.
  • Oxidizing agents with copper: Oxidizing agents may play multiple roles in increasing toxicity when applied with copper, including maintaining copper as Cu′, preventing export of the monovalent ion by CusCFBA. Of the inhibitory combinations in this screen, mechanisms have been previously reported, including copper complexes to lawsone, where it binds to double stranded DNA. Copper complexes to plumbagin are cytotoxic to cancer cells, and those to plumbagin derivatives are antimicrobial through R-plasmid curing. Plumbagin is also involved in redox cycling of copper. Other oxidants have increased antimicrobial activity, including mixtures of Cu-iodoacetate and Cu-diamide derivatives.
  • Interactions with Au3+—Little is reported on gold toxicity, perhaps because as a rare earth metal, intracellular mechanisms are unknown, or it is not harmful to E. coli. However, Salmonella typhimurium expresses the gold efflux complex GesABC in response to Au3+ (and other antibiotics). A protein alignment of the inner-membrane protein GesB that is responsible for substrate specificity (accession #Q8ZRG9) showed that it shares homology with E. coli multi-drug RND transporter permease subunit OqxB (Accession #Q69HW2, 74% positives, 56% identity). E. coli likely has the machinery to respond to gold ion accumulation. While the application of gold in antibiotics could be costly, this is a largely unexplored area with potential to control pathogenic E. coli.
  • The reported number of biocides that synergistically interact with gold (III) was much lower than that for silver and copper. Gold polymyxin complexes have been used to identify the site location of the antibiotic in E. coli. Phenothiazines alone are inhibitory towards gram-negative bacteria, act by intercalating with DNA, and contribute to in vitro plasmid elimination. Gold-phenothiazines are not mutagenic (DNA) in the host, but are anti-plasmid to the vector. Guanidine is used to bind gold ions, and guanidine itself is antimicrobial. Gold thiosalicylate has been synthesized and can inhibit growth in bacteria.
  • While these studies cover numerous antibiotic classes, each report is limited in the number of analytes, synergistic combinations, and bacteria strains tested. Accordingly, as described in this disclosure, a high-throughput method has been developed that validates published reports discussed herein, and reveals the identification of new Group IB-antibiotic combinations. These data demonstrate that this high-throughput approach can be used to study biocide mixtures, and should be considered to combat pathogenic survival.
  • TABLE 1
    Biocides present in Biolog’s chemical sensitivity tests. Toxic cations and anions,
    also plated in the panels, were not evaluated for this study.
    Biocide Class: chemicals
    Chelator Carboxylic acid: EDTA, EGTA, fusaric acid
    Hydroxy quinoline: 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine, 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline,
    5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline
    N-heterocycle: 1,10-phenanthroline, 2,2′-dipyridyl
    Other: sodium pyrophosphate decahydrate
    DNA & DNA alkylation: chlorambucil, 5-Azacytidine
    RNA Fluoroquinolone: ciprofloxacin, enoxacin, lomefloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin
    Intercalator: 2-phenylphenol, 4-hydroxycoumarin, 9-aminoacridine, acriflavine,
    coumarin, novobiocin, proflavine, umbelliferone
    Nitrofuran analog: 5-nitro-2-furaldehyde semicarbazone, furaltadone, nitrofurantoin
    Purine analog: 6-mercaptopurine, azathioprine
    Pyrimidine analog: 5-fluoro-5′-deoxyuridine, 5-fluoroorotic acid, 5-fluorouracil, cytosine-
    1-beta-D-arabino-furanoside, trifluorothymidine
    Quinolone: cinoxacin, nalidixix acid, oxolinic acid, pipemidic acid
    Other: Disulfiram, myricetin, hydroxylamine, hexammine cobalt (III) chloride
    Folate Sulfonamide: sulfachloropyridazine, sulfadiazine, sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole,
    sulfamonomethoxine, sulfanilamide, sulfathiazole, sulfisoxazole
    Other: hydroxyurea, 2,4-diamino-6,7-diisopropyl-pteridine, trimethoprim
    Fungicide Phenylsulfamide: dichlofluanid, tolylfluanid
    Other: chloroxylenol, nordihydroguaiaretic acid
    Ion K+ inhibitor: 4-Aminopyridine
    channel Na+ inhibitor: lidocaine, procaine
    Membrane Anionic detergent: niaproof
    Cationic detergent: benzethonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride, dodecyltrimethyl
    ammonium bromide, domiphen bromide, methyltrioctylammonium chloride, poly-L-
    lysine, dequalinium chloride
    Electron transport: alexidine, chlorhexidine, hexachlorophene
    Guanidine (permeability): dodine, guanidine hydrochloride
    Phenothiazine: chlorpromazine, promethazine, thioridazine, trifluoperazine
    Other: 1-hydroxypyridine-2-thione, protamine sulfate, amitriptyline
    Zwitterionic detergent: lauryl sulfobetaine
    Other Acetylcholine antagonist: atropine, orphenadrine, pridinol
    biocides Anti-capsule: ketoprofen, sodium salicylate, thiosalicylic acid
    Fatty acid synthesis: triclosan
    Nitroimidazole: 2-nitroimidazole, ornidazole, tinidazole
    Rifamycin: rifampicin, rifamycin SV
    Triazole: guanazole, 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole
    Other: D,L-propranolol, ethionamide, tannic acid, sanguinarine, semicarbazide, caffeine,
    harmane, patulin, captan, Compound 48/80, chelerythrine, thioglycerol, phenylarsine
    oxide
    Oxidation Glutathione: 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, diamide
    Oxidizing agent: d,l-thioctic acid, lawsone, methyl viologen, plumbagin, 3,4-
    dimethoxybenzyl alcohol
    Sulfhydryl: Iodoacetate
    Protein Aminoglycoside: amikacin, apramycin, capreomycin, dihydrostreptomycin, geneticin
    (G418), gentamicin, hygromycin B, kanamycin, neomycin, paromomycin, sisomicin,
    spectinomycin, streptomycin, tobramycin
    Lincosamide: lincomycin
    Macrolide: erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, spiramycin, troleandomycin, tylosin
    Protein synthesis: blasticidin S, chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol, puromycin, fusidic acid
    Tetracycline: chlortetracycline, demeclocycline, doxycycline, minocycline,
    oxytetracycline, penimepicycline, rolitetracycline, tetracycline
    tRNA synthetase: D,L-serine hydroxamate, DL-methionine hydroxamate, glycine
    hydroxamate, L-Aspartic-β-hydroxamate, L-glutamic-g-hydroxamate
    Other: PMSF, β-chloro-L-alanine hydrochloride, benserazide
    Respiration Ca2+ transporter: ruthenium red
    Ionophore: 18-Crown-6 ether, 2,4-dintrophenol, 3,5-dinitrobenzene, CCCP, cinnamic
    acid, FCCP, gallic acid, pentachlorophenol, sodium caprylate, sorbic acid
    Uncoupler: crystal violet, menadione, sodium azide, tetrazolium violet
    Other: oxycarboxin, iodonitro tetrazolium violet
    Wall Cephalosporin: cefamandole nafate, cefazolin, cefmetazole, cefsulodin, cefuroxime,
    cephalothin, moxalactam, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefoxitin, ceftriaxone
    Glycopeptide: bleomycin, phleomycin, vancomycin
    Monobactam: aztreonam
    Penicillin: amoxicillin, Ampicillin, aziocillin, carbenicillin, cloxacillin, nafcillin,
    oxacillin, penicillin G, phenethicillin, piperacillin
    Peptidoglycan synthesis: D-cycloserine, D-serine, glycine
    Polymyxin: colistin, polymyxin B
    Other: phosphomycin
  • Materials and Methods for Data Analysis
  • Metal sensitivity tests. E. coli strain W3110 was pre-cultured in LB media or chloride-free LB (for silver ion studies) and seeded (5×105 cell/mL) in increasing amounts of silver nitrate (Sigma Aldrich, >99%), copper sulfate (Sigma Aldrich, >99%), and gold chloride (Sigma Aldrich). Cultures were grown for 16 hours, after which the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined.
  • Synergy assays. Four sub-lethal levels of AgNO3 (0, 1, and 5 μM), CuSO4 (0, 0.1, 0.5, and 1 mM), and HAuCl4 (0, 5, 25, and 50 μM) were selected from the 16-hour sensitivity test for use in metal-antibiotic combination growth tests. Sterile metal solutions were dispensed in Biolog chemical sensitivity panels (PM11-PM20, summarized in Table 1), E. coli (5×105 CFU/mL), Dye Mix A (1×, Biolog Catalog #74221), and LB media (final volume 100 μL, chloride-free for silver tests). The solution was dispensed in blank 96-well assay plates, which served as the metal control. A metal-free mixture (bacteria+media) was also dispensed into the Biolog panels, which served as the antibiotic control. Bacteria grown in LB or chloride-free LB served as the negative control. Growth curves were developed over a 24-hour period. Absorbance (λmax=590 nm) at 16 hours was used to compare the growth of the bacteria in metal alone, antibiotic alone, and metal/antibiotic combination.
  • Coefficient of Drug Interaction. The coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) was used to evaluate if responses to drug combinations were additive, synergistic, or antagonistic. Using Equation 1, combinations were labelled additive if CDI 1, synergistic if CDI <1, and antagonistic if CDI >1. An upper limit of 0.5 for a significantly synergistic effect (CDI <0.5), where relative growth (at 16 hours) was the test response. Relative growth, the growth normalized to that in LB media or chloride-free LB, was calculated for cultures grown in the antibiotic (A) alone, the metal ion alone (B), or the metal-antibiotic mixture (A+B). Data presented are the average of the two runs.
  • CDI = A + B A × B ( Equation ⁢ 1 )
  • Checkerboard analyses. Isobolograms were constructed from checkerboard assays to validate results generated from the high-throughput screen. Concentration combinations where toxicity was greater than 90% were extrapolated and plotted (chemical A. versus chemical B). A deflection of the curve towards the datum is indicative of synergism, while deflection away represents antagonism. A linear response connecting the MICs of two chemicals represents additivity.
  • Verification through isobolograms. Four metal-antibiotic combinations were subjected to checkerboard assays for validation of synergy (FIG. 7 ). Metal-antibiotic concentrations that inhibited growth were converted to fraction of inhibitory concentration (FIC) values according to:
  • F ⁢ I ⁢ C = C applied M ⁢ I ⁢ C , ( Equation ⁢ 2 )
  • where Capplied is the final in-well concentration of antibiotic or metal, and MIC is the minimum inhibitory concentration of the respective metal or antibiotic. The isobologram generated shows the lines deflect towards the origin, indicating synergism. Integration of growth curve analysis, CDI values at 16 hours of the Biolog panels, and additional testing of individual chemicals on the checkerboard provides substantial evidence for synergism.
  • Results & Discussion
  • The objective of using a high-throughput screen was to evaluate the applicability of coefficient of drug interaction analysis on a commercially available set of microbial toxins. Comparable results were observed between published results and synergistic chemical pairs with this assay (FIG. 1 , Tables 2-4), indicating that the biocide classes and plated concentrations are employable in combination tests. We also sought to use this as a preliminary screen to discover new Group IB/biocide pairs, laying the groundwork to pursue toxic mechanisms and optimal metal/biocide ratios.
  • Synergistic silver-biocide combinations. Silver with the metal chelating carboxylic acids and hydroxyquinolines, nucleic acid antibiotics (intercalators and nitrofurans), folate synthesis inhibitors (sulfonamides), membrane active biocides (guanidines, phenothiazines, a limited number of cationic detergents), protein antibiotics (aminoglycosides, macrolides, fenicols), respiration disruptors (ionophores and uncouplers) and biocides acting on the cell wall (polymyxins and glycopeptides) generated synergistic CDI values (FIG. 1 , Table 2). Individual chemicals are also listed. Many combinations are reported in literature and were discussed here, including the silver-sulfonamides, silver-aminoglycosides, and silver-efflux pump inhibitors. Unique combinations that worked synergistically with soluble silver are shown in Table 2 (italicized therein).
  • Synergistic copper-biocide combinations. Copper-biocide interactions that resulted in synergistic CDI values included mixtures with oxidizing agents and respiration disruptors (FIG. 1 , Table 3). Novel biocide-copper mixtures discovered with this screen (see italicized biocides in Table 3) include copper with chlorodinitrobenzene, thioctic acid, iodonitrotetrazolium violet, fusidic acid, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, triazole, thiamphenicol, zwitterionic (lauryl sulfobetaine) detergents, anionic detergents (niaproof), menadione, and lidocaine.
  • Synergistic Au-biocide combinations. In this screen, toxic interactions were observed between gold and macrolides, guanidines, glycopeptides, and polymyxins and other individual chemicals (FIG. 1 , Table 4). Combinations of gold ion with glycopeptides, polymyxins, macrolides, and the individual chemicals disulfiram (a purine analog), thiosalisylic acid, novobiocin, and chlorpromazine generated strongly synergistic (CDI <0.1) effects and should be pursued further. Unique combinations uncovered here included those with macrolides, glycopeptides, and sodium channel blockers (see italicized biocides in Table 4).
  • TABLE 2
    Synergistic silver-biocide combinations that inactivated E. coli W3110
    Biocide class Chemical
    Chelator Carboxylic acid: EDTA, EGTA
    Hydroxyquinoline: 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine, 5,7-dichloro-8-
    hydroxyquinoline, 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline
    N-heterocycle: 1,10-phenanthroline
    Other: sodium pyrophosphate decahydrate
    DNA & RNA Intercalator: 4-hydroxycoumarin, 9-aminoacridine, acriflavine, novobiocin, proflavine
    Nitrofuran analog: 5-Nitro-2-furaldehyde semicarbazone, furaltadone, nitrofurantoin
    Other: disulfiram, myricetin
    Purine analog: azathioprine
    Pyrimidine analog: 5-Fluorouracil
    Folate Other: 2,4-Diamino-6,7-diisopropylpteridine, hydroxyurea
    Sulfonamide: sulfachloropyridazine, sulfadiazine, sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole,
    sulfamonomethoxine, sulfathiazole
    Fungicide Lipoxygenase: nordihydroguaiaretic acid
    Phenylsulfamide: dichlofluanid, tolylfluanid
    Ion channel Na+ blocker: lidocaine, procaine
    Membrane Cationic detergent: benzethonium chloride, dequalinium chloride, dodecyltrimethyl
    ammonium bromide
    Electron transport: alexidine
    Guanidine: dodine, guanidine hydrochloride
    Other: 1-hydroxypyridine-2-thione, amitriptyline
    Phenothiazine: chlorpromazine, promethazine, thioridazine, trifluoperazine
    Other biocide Anti-capsule: ketoprofen
    Acetylcholine antagonist: atropine, orphenadrine
    Nitroimidazole: 2-nitroimidazole, ornidazole
    Other: chelerythrine, Compound 48/80, D,L-propranolol, ethionamide, patulin,
    sanguinarine, tannic acid
    Rifamycin: rifamycin SV
    Triazole: 3-Amino-1,2,4-triazole
    Oxidation Glutathione: 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, diamide
    Oxidizing agent: 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl alcohol, methyl viologen
    Sulfhydryl: iodoacetate
    Protein Aminoglycoside: amikacin, apramycin, capreomycin, geneticin (G418), gentamicin,
    hygromycin B, kanamycin, paromomycin, sisomicin, spectinomycin, streptomycin,
    tobramycin
    Lincosamide: lincomycin
    Macrolide: erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, troleandomycin, tylosin
    Other: benserazide, PMSF, 3-Chloro-L-alanine HCl
    Protein synthesis: chloramphenicol, fusidic acid, puromycin, thiamphenicol
    Tetracycline: penimepicy cline
    tRNA synthetase: D,L-serine hydroxamate, D,L-methionine hydroxamate, L-glutamic-
    γ-hydroxamate
    Respiration Ca2+ transporter: ruthenium red
    Ionophore: 18-crown-6 ether, CCCP, FCCP, pentachlorophenol, sorbic acid
    Other: Oxycarboxin
    Uncoupler: Tetrazolium violet
    Wall β-lactam: oxacillin
    Cephalosporin: cefotaxime, cephalothin
    Glycopeptide: bleomycin, phleomycin, vancomycin
    Other: phosphomycin
    Polymyxin: colistin, polymyxin B
    * Chemicals in italics are combinations with silver that have not been previously reported
  • TABLE 3
    Synergistic copper-biocide combinations that inactivated E. coli W3110.
    Biocide class Chemical
    Chelator Carboxylic acid: fusaric acid
    N-heterocycle: 1,10-phenanthroline
    DNA & RNA Intercalator: 2-phenylphenol, 4-hydroxycoumarin
    Other: disulfiram, myricetin
    Purine analog: azathioprine
    Fungicide Lipoxygenase: nordihydroguaiaretic acid
    Phenylsulfamide: dichlofluanid
    Ion channel Na + blocker: lidocaine
    Membrane Cationic detergent: benzethonium chloride, methyltrioctylammonium chloride
    Anionic detergent: Niaproof
    Guanidine: guanidine hydrochloride
    Phenothiazine: trifluoperazine
    Zwitterionic detergent: lauryl sulfobetaine
    Other biocide Anti-capsule: ketoprofen, sodium salicylate
    Acetylcholine antagonist: atropine, pridinol
    Nitroimidazole: ornidazole, tinidazole
    Other: captan, semicarbazide
    Rifamycin: rifampicin, rifamycin SV
    Triazole: 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole
    Oxidation Glutathione: 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene
    Oxidizing agent: D,L-thioctic acid, lawsone, plumbagin
    Sulfhydryl: iodoacetate
    Protein Aminoglycoside: capreomycin, dihydrostreptomycin, geneticin (G418), paromomycin
    Macrolide: oleandomycin
    Other: PMSF
    Protein synthesis: blasticidin S, fusidic acid, puromycin, thiamphenicol
    Tetracycline: demeclocycline
    tRNA synthetase: glycine hydroxamate
    Respiration Ca2+ transporter: Ruthenium red
    Ionophore: 2,4-dintrophenol, 3,5-dinitrobenzene, CCCP, FCCP, pentachlorophenol,
    sodium caprylate
    Other: iodonitro tetrazolium violet
    Uncoupler: menadione, tetrazolium violet
    Wall Cephalosporin: cefazolin, cefmetazole, cefoxitin, ceftriaxone
    Monobactam: aztreonam
    Polymyxin: colistin
    * Chemicals in italics are combinations with copper that have not been previously reported
  • TABLE 4
    Synergistic gold-biocide combinations that inactivated E. coli W3110.
    Biocide class Chemical
    Chelator Carboxylic acid: EDTA
    DNA & RNA Intercalator: novobiocin
    Other: disulphiram
    Ion channel Na+ channel blocker: lidocaine, procaine
    Membrane Cationic detergent: methyltrioctyl ammonium bromide, domiphen bromide
    Guanidine: dodine, guanidine hydrochloride
    Other: 1-hydroxypyridine-2-thione, protamine sulfate
    Phenothiazine: chlorpromazine
    Other biocide Anti-capsule: thiosalicylic acid
    Rifamycin: rifampicin
    Oxidation Oxidizing agent: methyl viologen
    Protein Macrolide: erythromycin, oleandomycin, spiramycin, troleandomycin, tylosin
    Protein synthesis: fusidic acid
    Respiration Ionophore: CCCP
    Uncoupler: tetrazolium violet
    Wall β-lactam: aziocillin, cloxacillin
    Cephalosporin: ceftriaxone, cefuroxime
    Glycopeptide: bleomycin, vancomycin, phleomycin
    Other: phosphomycin
    Polymyxin: colistin, polymyxin B
    * Chemicals in italics are combinations with gold that have not been previously reported.
  • Table 5 presents CDI data for silver, copper, and gold mixed with biocides. Values calculated as described above. “Tox” entries represent toxic biocides for which there was no growth, leading to errors in CDI calculation. Synergistic combinations (CDI <0.5) were determined from this CDI data of combinations of Ag/Cu/Au (3 concentrations each) with 240 biocides (four concentrations each), which was the average of two independent experiments.
  • The precise mechanism of lethality for all metal-biocide combinations will vary as biocides act on different bacteria structures, which may be distinct from a metal complex, if formed. Due to the large amount of biocides reviewed and screened, one can generally speculate on the mechanism of certain classes. Mechanistic studies will provide additional insight into antimicrobial modes of action.
  • Conclusions. In summary, this example describes development of a streamlined screening process to find synergistic combinations of soluble Group IB metals with biocides to inactivate E. coli. Results were reproducible when compared to conventional MIC, checkerboard, and time-kill tests reviewed in literature. Silver not only works synergistically with antimicrobials, but also with chelators and efflux pump inhibitors. Further convincing results validated copper synergism with ionophores and oxidizing agents. Finally, gold synergy with macrolides and glycopeptides reveals a new direction in antimicrobial therapy. Because our findings support previous studies, the high-throughput method can be used as a preliminary screen to evaluate other combinations of antimicrobials, including those with radiation, toxic ions, nanomaterials, and plasmid curing agents. This high-throughput screen lays the foundation to apply fundamental microbial toxicity tests and to further study mechanisms of inactivation.
  • The present disclosure has been described in terms of one or more preferred embodiments, and it should be appreciated that many equivalents, alternatives, variations, and modifications, aside from those expressly stated, are possible and within the scope of the disclosure.
  • TABLE 5
    CDI data for silver, copper, and gold mixed with biocides. Values calculated as described in manuscript. Tox = toxic biocide (no growth), leading to error in CDI calculation.
    Silver (μM)
    Drug Class Chemical 0.5 1.0 5.0
    Chelator Carboxylic acid EGTA 0.74 0.86 0.82 0.92 1.02 1.07 1.01 1.02 1.13 0.98 0.72 0.4
    Fusaric acid 1.12 Tox Tox Tox 0.91 Tox Tox Tox 0.6 Tox Tox Tox
    EDTA 1.05 0.97 0.85 Tox 0.84 0.86 0.89 Tox 0.61 0.38 0.23 Tox
    Hydroxyquinoline 5,7-Dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline 0.97 0.91 0.77 0.58 1.01 0.79 0.85 Tox 0.43 0.23 0.45 Tox
    8-Hydroxyquinoline 0.77 0.69 0.64 Tox 0.75 0.78 0.74 Tox 0.53 0.58 0.37 Tox
    5,7-Dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine 0.89 0.66 0.6 Tox 0.74 0.68 0.46 Tox 0.16 0.11 0.25 Tox
    5-Chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline 0.55 0.59 0.48 0.46 0.77 0.55 0.5 0.54 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.05
    Other 2,2′-Dipyridyl 1.55 Tox Tox Tox 1.07 Tox Tox Tox 1.21 Tox Tox Tox
    1,10-Phenanthroline 0.79 0.68 Tox Tox 0.90 0.70 Tox Tox 0.56 0.31 Tox Tox
    Sodium pyrophosphate decahydrate 0.98 0.96 0.84 0.69 0.82 0.83 0.74 0.63 1.13 0.88 0.70 0.13
    DNA & RNA DNA Alkylation 5-Azacytidine 1.05 0.97 0.99 0.87 0.98 0.97 1.00 0.95 1.06 0.94 0.99 0.87
    Chlorambucil 0.79 0.95 1.46 1.04 0.90 1.02 1.18 0.74 0.63 0.56 0.57 0.63
    Fluoroquinolone Enoxacin 0.99 2.65 Tox Tox 1.06 Tox Tox Tox 1.04 Tox Tox Tox
    Ciprofloxacin 0.98 1.05 Tox Tox 0.94 1.00 Tox Tox 1.08 0.90 Tox Tox
    Lomefloxacin 0.81 0.98 Tox Tox 1.05 1.08 Tox Tox 1.08 0.90 Tox Tox
    Norfloxacin 0.95 1.00 1.35 Tox 0.91 1.00 1.35 Tox 0.52 0.55 1.03 Tox
    Ofloxacin 0.78 0.82 1.01 Tox 0.89 0.93 0.98 Tox 1.03 1.01 0.61 Tox
    Intercalator 2-Phenylphenol 0.95 0.98 Tox Tox 1.01 1.14 Tox Tox 1.12 1.38 Tox Tox
    Umbelliferone 0.92 1.34 1.20 0.78 0.92 0.99 1.01 1.00 1.37 1.06 0.84 1.21
    Coumarin 0.81 0.88 0.73 Tox 0.82 0.80 0.81 Tox 1.31 1.41 1.21 Tox
    Proflavine 1.00 1.04 1.00 0.98 0.84 1.00 1.00 0.63 1.07 1.14 0.76 0.36
    4-Hydroxy-coumarin 1.18 1.07 0.99 Tox 1.05 0.88 0.74 Tox 0.95 0.57 0.33 Tox
    Novobiocin 0.84 0.62 1.05 1.04 0.82 0.46 1.08 0.93 0.70 0.06 1.33 1.43
    9-Aminoacridine 0.96 0.89 0.82 Tox 0.94 0.88 0.80 Tox 1.13 0.98 0.32 Tox
    Acriflavine 0.99 1.03 0.86 0.73 0.97 0.95 0.87 0.59 0.96 1.02 0.54 0.24
    Nitrofuran analog Furaltadone 1.01 0.69 Tox Tox 0.98 0.76 Tox Tox 0.96 0.13 Tox Tox
    Nitrofurantoin 0.88 0.86 0.56 Tox 0.90 0.91 0.56 Tox 0.93 0.52 0.03 Tox
    5-nitro-2-furaldehyde semicarbazone 1.00 0.88 Tox Tox 0.85 0.69 Tox Tox 0.43 0.23 Tox Tox
    Other Hydroxylamine 0.76 0.77 0.68 2.32 0.93 0.90 0.83 1.67 1.40 1.44 1.25 0.86
    Hexammine cobalt (III) chloride 0.98 1.05 0.97 0.82 0.98 1.03 1.04 0.39 1.26 1.43 1.00 1.17
    Disulphiram 0.87 0.52 0.36 Tox 1.10 1.04 1.07 Tox 1.40 1.37 1.05 Tox
    Myricetin 0.94 0.85 1.24 1.22 0.98 0.97 0.98 0.75 1.04 0.82 1.05 0.39
    Purine analog 6-Mercapto-purine 1.04 0.96 1.46 1.25 0.96 1.04 1.66 1.14 1.68 1.61 1.61 1.60
    Azathioprine 0.87 0.72 0.81 0.57 0.82 0.74 0.58 0.58 0.68 0.38 0.53 0.23
    Pyrimidine analog 5-fluoro-5′-deoxyuridine 0.82 0.86 0.88 0.95 0.96 1.05 1.07 1.09 1.08 1.18 1.25 1.43
    Trifluorothymidine 0.97 1.01 1.09 1.01 0.98 0.94 0.93 0.84 1.20 1.07 1.15 0.97
    Cytosine-1-β-D-arabinofuranoside 0.91 0.94 0.94 0.90 0.95 0.93 1.01 1.00 1.07 0.91 0.95 1.19
    5-Fluorouracil 1.16 0.94 Tox Tox 0.98 1.04 Tox Tox 1.00 0.46 Tox Tox
    5-Fluoroorotic acid 0.92 0.76 0.76 0.54 1.04 0.87 1.00 0.79 0.91 0.83 1.03 0.97
    Quinolone Cinoxacin 0.97 1.37 Tox Tox 1.06 1.21 Tox Tox 1.05 0.94 Tox Tox
    Pipemidic Acid 1.25 1.25 1.16 1.09 1.00 0.99 0.88 0.88 0.97 1.00 0.95 1.08
    Nalidixic Acid 0.71 0.93 Tox Tox 0.92 0.94 Tox Tox 1.00 0.98 Tox Tox
    Oxolinic acid 0.91 0.93 0.80 0.76 0.85 0.87 0.84 0.89 0.97 0.77 0.89 1.03
    Folate Other 2,4-Diamino-6,7-diisopropylpteridine 1.46 0.97 0.86 Tox 1.13 0.96 0.76 Tox 1.13 0.56 0.37 Tox
    Hydroxyurea 0.91 0.94 0.94 Tox 0.88 1.08 0.86 Tox 1.09 0.83 0.25 Tox
    Trimethoprim 0.90 Tox Tox Tox 0.87 Tox Tox Tox 0.55 Tox Tox Tox
    Sulfonamide Sulfanilamide 1.23 1.17 1.07 0.91 1.01 0.98 0.86 0.72 0.87 0.98 1.04 1.19
    Sulfamethoxazole 1.01 0.79 0.80 0.60 1.14 1.08 1.04 0.72 1.14 0.97 0.94 0.51
    Sulfamethazine 0.98 0.97 1.00 0.78 0.91 0.93 0.97 0.60 0.97 1.04 0.94 0.35
    Sulfathiazole 1.00 0.91 0.84 0.49 1.11 1.06 0.90 0.64 1.20 1.01 0.90 0.38
    Sulfadiazine 0.97 0.97 0.82 0.71 0.99 1.07 0.78 0.72 1.00 0.86 0.59 0.29
    Sulfachloro-pyridazine 1.02 0.95 0.83 0.88 0.91 0.89 0.73 0.58 0.78 0.76 0.62 0.30
    Sulfisoxazole 1.08 0.96 Tox Tox 0.77 0.68 Tox Tox 0.58 0.40 Tox Tox
    Sulfamono-methoxine 0.85 0.70 0.59 0.76 0.86 0.83 0.67 0.41 0.70 0.43 0.26 0.01
    Membrane Cationic detergent Methyltrioctyl NH4+ Br− 1.01 0.90 Tox Tox 1.04 1.09 Tox Tox 1.66 1.73 Tox Tox
    Poly-L-lysine 0.92 0.96 Tox Tox 0.88 0.88 Tox Tox 1.01 1.04 Tox Tox
    Domiphen bromide 0.98 1.14 Tox Tox 0.93 0.97 Tox Tox 0.72 0.62 Tox Tox
    Cetylpyridinium chloride 0.88 0.72 Tox Tox 1.00 0.95 Tox Tox 0.89 0.60 Tox Tox
    Dodecyltrimethyl NH4 + Br- 0.63 0.91 Tox Tox 1.00 1.04 Tox Tox 0.59 0.47 Tox Tox
    Benzethonium chloride 0.94 0.84 Tox Tox 0.90 0.61 Tox Tox 0.96 0.07 Tox Tox
    Electron transport Chlorhexidine 0.96 0.83 0.82 Tox 0.98 0.91 0.90 Tox 1.59 1.53 1.46 Tox
    Hexa-chlorophene 0.72 0.65 0.69 0.54 0.87 0.81 0.86 0.70 0.80 0.78 1.03 0.77
    Alexidine 0.89 0.81 Tox Tox 0.80 0.55 Tox Tox 0.91 0.17 Tox Tox
    Guanidine Dodine 0.85 0.77 Tox Tox 0.92 0.89 Tox Tox 0.94 0.31 Tox Tox
    Guanidine hydrochloride 1.11 0.95 0.95 Tox 0.85 0.61 0.41 Tox 0.33 0.36 0.00 Tox
    Other Protamine sulfate 1.10 1.15 Tox Tox 0.95 1.00 Tox Tox 0.84 0.90 Tox Tox
    1-Hydroxy-pyridine-2-thione 1.14 1.03 0.96 Tox 0.99 0.97 1.41 Tox 0.80 0.55 0.34 Tox
    Amitriptyline 0.84 1.11 Tox Tox 0.89 1.10 Tox Tox 0.91 0.43 Tox Tox
    Niaproof 1.07 1.17 1.04 1.74 1.04 1.17 0.99 1.45 0.89 0.99 0.78 0.55
    Lauryl sulfobetaine 0.83 0.56 Tox Tox 0.91 0.79 Tox Tox 1.42 1.41 Tox Tox
    Phenothiazine Promethazine 0.85 0.88 Tox Tox 0.99 1.05 Tox Tox 1.28 0.49 Tox Tox
    Chlorpromazine 0.83 1.10 Tox Tox 0.83 0.95 Tox Tox 0.72 0.39 Tox Tox
    Thioridazine 1.06 1.05 0.89 Tox 0.35 0.27 0.75 Tox 0.01 0.35 1.19 Tox
    Trifluoperazine 0.79 0.86 0.23 Tox 0.97 0.98 0.39 Tox 0.78 0.19 0.53 Tox
    Other biocide Anti-capsule Sodium salicylate 0.99 Tox Tox Tox 1.44 Tox Tox Tox 0.85 Tox Tox Tox
    Thiosalicylic acid 0.83 0.82 0.82 Tox 0.86 0.83 0.86 Tox 1.44 1.52 1.53 Tox
    Keto profen 0.88 0.90 0.82 Tox 0.81 0.82 0.87 Tox 0.83 0.58 0.18 Tox
    Acetylcholine Pridinol 0.76 Tox 1.22 Tox 0.84 Tox 1.06 Tox 0.61 Tox 1.29 Tox
    antagonist Atropine 1.02 1.01 Tox Tox 0.91 0.89 Tox Tox 0.97 0.36 Tox Tox
    Orphenadrine 1.01 Tox Tox Tox 0.83 Tox Tox Tox 0.44 Tox Tox Tox
    Glycopeptide Phleomycin 0.81 0.61 0.68 Tox 0.89 0.81 0.81 Tox 1.32 1.43 1.37 Tox
    Vancomycin 1.04 0.95 Tox Tox 0.80 0.76 Tox Tox 0.46 0.23 Tox Tox
    Bleomycin 0.75 1.32 Tox Tox 0.80 0.50 Tox Tox 0.27 0.18 Tox Tox
    Fungicide Nordihydroguaia retic acid 0.84 0.85 1.31 0.90 0.91 0.87 1.00 0.49 0.43 0.29 0.41 0.64
    Chloroxylenol 0.85 0.64 Tox Tox 0.89 Tox Tox Tox 1.06 Tox Tox Tox
    Phenylsulfamide Tolylfluanid 0.89 0.87 0.77 0.72 0.87 0.88 0.83 0.82 0.59 0.61 0.39 0.43
    Dichlofluanid 0.58 Tox 0.87 0.90 Tox Tox 0.90 0.54 Tox Tox 0.22 0.31
    Ion (K+) blocker 4-Aminopyridine 0.96 0.91 1.08 1.21 0.95 0.92 0.96 1.02 0.99 1.11 0.67 0.52
    Dequalinium chloride 1.01 1.04 0.82 0.81 0.82 0.85 0.81 0.88 0.79 0.81 0.56 0.41
    Ion (Na+) blocker Procaine 0.95 1.17 1.10 0.88 0.95 0.95 1.05 0.67 0.77 0.82 0.41 0.16
    Lidocaine 0.73 0.55 Tox Tox 0.79 0.77 Tox Tox 0.36 0.24 Tox Tox
    Nitroimidazole Tinidazole 1.03 1.17 0.74 Tox 1.01 1.03 0.95 Tox 1.06 0.89 0.52 Tox
    2-Nitroimidazole 0.99 0.98 Tox Tox 0.91 0.62 Tox Tox 0.35 0.34 Tox Tox
    Ornidazole 0.73 0.57 0.52 Tox 0.81 0.75 0.48 Tox 0.91 0.59 0.13 Tox
    Other Tannic acid 1.10 1.17 1.09 1.53 0.95 0.95 1.45 1.27 0.45 1.34 1.92 1.52
    Semicarbazide 0.87 1.27 Tox Tox 0.96 0.96 Tox Tox 1.17 0.98 Tox Tox
    Captan 1.08 0.79 0.90 Tox 0.79 1.16 1.02 Tox 1.03 1.87 0.57 Tox
    Ethionamide 0.87 1.00 0.46 0.40 0.85 0.82 0.86 0.58 1.40 1.48 0.94 1.14
    D,L-Propranolol 1.03 1.15 Tox Tox 0.82 0.87 Tox Tox 0.89 0.46 Tox Tox
    Compound 48/80 0.84 0.82 0.83 Tox 0.94 0.93 0.76 Tox 1.01 0.79 0.37 Tox
    Chelerythrine 0.76 0.77 0.45 0.51 1.03 0.99 0.76 0.74 0.99 0.96 0.60 0.52
    Sanguinarine 0.65 0.69 Tox Tox 0.76 0.64 Tox Tox 0.66 0.26 Tox Tox
    Patulin 0.68 Tox Tox Tox 0.38 Tox Tox Tox 0.12 Tox Tox Tox
    Rifamycin Rifampicin 0.73 0.72 Tox Tox 0.99 0.96 Tox Tox 1.06 1.07 Tox Tox
    Rifamycin SV 1.12 0.91 1.27 1.07 0.28 0.10 1.22 1.14 0.03 0.08 1.73 1.54
    Triazole Guanazole 0.95 1.12 Tox Tox 1.01 1.03 Tox Tox 0.97 0.73 Tox Tox
    3-Amino-1,2,4-triazole 1.22 1.18 1.17 Tox 1.05 1.10 0.89 Tox 0.74 0.48 0.31 Tox
    Oxidizing agent Diamide 1.19 1.07 Tox Tox 1.01 0.90 Tox Tox 0.97 0.40 Tox Tox
    1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.74 0.85 0.91 0.97 0.90 0.67 0.60 0.65 1.06
    D,L-Thioctic Acid 1.26 1.00 Tox Tox 1.07 0.97 Tox Tox 1.53 1.44 Tox Tox
    Lawsone 0.92 0.95 0.55 Tox 1.01 0.98 0.92 Tox 1.40 1.31 1.02 Tox
    Plumbagin 1.01 0.95 1.01 0.99 1.01 1.06 1.05 0.98 0.80 0.94 0.82 0.85
    3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl alcohol 0.98 1.17 1.20 Tox 0.88 1.16 0.87 Tox 0.97 0.87 0.46 Tox
    Methyl viologen 0.89 0.73 Tox Tox 0.48 0.20 Tox Tox 0.07 0.01 Tox Tox
    Iodoacetate 1.04 Tox Tox Tox 0.36 Tox Tox Tox 0.00 Tox Tox Tox
    Protein Aminoglycoside Dihydro-streptomycin 1.00 0.83 0.80 Tox 1.08 1.04 Tox Tox 1.58 1.56 Tox Tox
    Hygromycin B 1.26 2.06 Tox Tox 0.63 1.47 Tox Tox 0.03 0.37 Tox Tox
    Gentamicin 0.87 0.86 0.81 0.79 1.04 0.98 0.42 0.38 1.00 0.82 0.74 0.34
    Sisomicin 0.70 0.93 0.96 0.97 0.83 1.01 0.47 0.32 0.88 0.43 0.73 0.65
    Neomycin 0.80 0.73 0.59 0.51 0.97 0.83 0.50 Tox 0.88 0.76 0.59 Tox
    Spectinomycin 0.78 0.42 Tox Tox 0.95 0.81 Tox Tox 0.70 0.51 Tox Tox
    Geneticin (G418) 1.04 0.96 0.76 Tox 0.94 0.82 0.31 Tox 0.48 0.49 0.23 Tox
    Tobramycin 0.78 0.90 1.02 0.15 0.89 1.07 0.57 Tox 0.57 0.42 0.25 Tox
    Paromomycin 0.92 0.96 1.04 Tox 0.83 0.71 0.23 Tox 0.38 0.32 0.29 Tox
    Amikacin 0.97 0.93 0.71 Tox 0.93 0.56 0.20 Tox 0.85 0.37 0.13 Tox
    Kanamycin 0.87 0.79 0.69 Tox 0.99 0.76 0.32 Tox 0.83 0.36 0.00 Tox
    Apramycin 1.10 0.94 0.61 Tox 0.83 0.54 0.24 Tox 0.79 0.32 0.18 Tox
    Capreomycin 0.95 0.92 0.96 Tox 0.69 0.37 0.35 Tox 0.41 0.11 0.02 Tox
    Streptomycin 0.96 Tox Tox Tox 0.54 Tox Tox Tox 0.00 Tox Tox Tox
    Macrolide Josamycin 0.90 0.92 0.72 Tox 0.83 0.84 0.56 Tox 1.56 1.44 0.46 Tox
    Spiramycin 0.83 Tox Tox Tox 0.96 Tox Tox Tox 0.83 Tox Tox Tox
    Erythromycin 0.80 0.67 0.80 Tox 0.99 0.97 0.86 Tox 1.03 0.79 0.40 Tox
    Oleandomycin 0.97 1.03 0.97 Tox 0.88 0.93 0.74 Tox 0.75 0.48 0.38 Tox
    Tylosin 0.70 0.53 Tox Tox 0.92 0.86 Tox Tox 0.59 0.33 Tox Tox
    Troleandomycin 0.70 0.77 Tox Tox 0.81 0.40 Tox Tox 0.43 0.45 Tox Tox
    Other PMSF 0.91 0.92 1.10 0.35 1.03 1.10 1.06 0.55 1.17 1.15 1.25 0.60
    Benserazide 0.76 0.80 1.02 0.91 0.78 0.74 1.09 1.08 0.28 0.18 1.46 1.54
    β-Chloro-L-alanine HCl 0.81 0.51 Tox Tox 0.69 0.58 Tox Tox 0.36 0.04 Tox Tox
    Lincomycin 0.81 0.51 Tox Tox 0.84 0.78 Tox Tox 0.73 0.46 Tox Tox
    Protein synthesis Fusidic acid 1.24 Tox Tox 1.11 1.11 Tox Tox 1.61 0.23 Tox Tox 2.59
    Blasticidin S 1.04 0.90 0.92 Tox 1.01 1.02 Tox Tox 1.52 1.40 Tox Tox
    Chloramphenicol 0.86 Tox Tox Tox 0.86 Tox Tox Tox 0.46 Tox Tox Tox
    Puromycin 1.05 0.52 Tox Tox 1.05 0.83 Tox Tox 0.61 0.30 Tox Tox
    Chloramphenicol 0.67 0.69 Tox Tox 1.00 0.48 Tox Tox 0.73 0.37 Tox Tox
    Thiamphenicol 0.36 0.24 Tox Tox 0.62 0.63 Tox Tox 0.61 0.31 Tox Tox
    Tetracycline Doxycycline 1.10 Tox Tox Tox 1.16 Tox Tox Tox 0.65 Tox Tox Tox
    Chlortetracycline 0.97 1.16 Tox Tox 0.94 0.98 Tox Tox 0.81 0.78 Tox Tox
    Oxytetracycline 0.96 0.91 0.86 0.77 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.90 0.89 1.03 1.02 0.74
    Tetracycline 0.92 0.85 1.15 Tox 0.93 0.88 0.88 Tox 1.03 0.91 0.50 Tox
    Demeclocycline 0.95 0.87 Tox Tox 0.95 0.96 Tox Tox 0.72 0.88 Tox Tox
    Minocycline 0.82 0.77 Tox Tox 0.98 1.03 Tox Tox 0.66 1.04 Tox Tox
    Penimepicycline 1.04 1.10 Tox Tox 0.91 0.91 Tox Tox 0.49 0.34 Tox Tox
    Rolitetracycline 0.92 0.61 Tox Tox 0.92 0.83 Tox Tox 0.64 0.60 Tox Tox
    tRNA synthetase Glycine hydroxamate 0.74 0.72 0.79 0.76 0.95 0.99 0.95 1.07 1.00 0.95 1.09 0.88
    DL-Methionine hydroxamate 0.88 1.04 Tox Tox 1.04 0.99 Tox Tox 0.71 0.42 Tox Tox
    L-Aspartic-β-hydroxamate 0.79 0.70 0.68 0.58 1.06 1.08 0.91 0.81 0.86 0.88 0.83 0.64
    L-Glutamic-g-hydroxamate 0.93 0.75 0.61 0.49 1.12 0.97 0.93 0.71 1.00 0.85 0.71 0.34
    D,L-Serine hydroxamate 0.90 0.66 0.31 Tox 0.89 0.77 0.62 Tox 0.82 0.61 0.53 Tox
    Respiration Ionophore Gallic acid 0.96 0.96 0.87 Tox 0.90 2.15 1.00 Tox 1.04 1.17 0.72 Tox
    3,5-Dinitro-benzene 0.97 1.31 Tox Tox 0.98 1.07 Tox Tox 0.69 0.97 Tox Tox
    FCCP 0.80 0.43 0.52 1.09 0.89 0.75 0.83 1.07 1.69 1.45 1.07 0.98
    Sodium caprylate 0.81 0.78 Tox Tox 0.86 1.04 Tox Tox 1.38 0.85 Tox Tox
    Cinnamic acid 0.90 1.06 0.73 Tox 0.88 0.93 0.99 Tox 0.88 0.92 1.17 Tox
    2,4-Dintrophenol 0.72 0.80 0.86 Tox 0.91 0.83 1.02 Tox 1.10 1.04 1.04 Tox
    Sorbic acid 0.66 0.71 0.62 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.86 0.98 0.74 0.82 0.31 0.28
    Pentachloro-phenol 0.72 0.59 0.74 0.48 0.81 0.82 0.79 0.52 0.70 0.68 0.83 0.32
    18-Crown-6 ether 0.70 0.67 0.63 0.64 0.87 0.62 0.74 0.51 0.69 0.98 0.79 0.11
    CCCP 0.79 0.62 0.70 Tox 0.83 0.83 0.69 Tox 0.32 0.31 0.38 Tox
    Other Iodonitro Tetrazolium Violet 0.92 0.71 1.50 1.17 0.85 0.92 1.44 1.10 1.46 1.58 1.61 1.31
    Oxycarboxin 1.04 Tox Tox Tox 0.92 Tox Tox Tox 0.56 Tox Tox Tox
    Ruthenium red 0.78 0.79 0.75 0.69 0.87 0.89 0.83 0.34 0.68 0.34 0.38 0.19
    Uncoupler Crystal violet 0.98 1.13 1.10 1.18 1.03 1.11 1.08 1.23 1.19 1.17 1.41 1.62
    Menadione 1.10 0.98 0.82 0.68 1.07 1.00 1.03 0.84 1.31 1.30 1.50 0.83
    Sodium azide 0.97 Tox Tox Tox 1.01 Tox Tox Tox 0.93 Tox Tox Tox
    Tetrazolium violet 0.99 1.34 Tox Tox 0.83 0.53 Tox Tox 0.35 0.58 Tox Tox
    Wall β-lactam Phenethicillin 0.99 Tox Tox Tox 1.07 Tox Tox Tox 1.66 Tox Tox Tox
    Cioxacillin 1.03 1.45 Tox Tox 1.09 1.21 Tox Tox 0.98 1.03 Tox Tox
    Piperacillin 1.11 1.18 Tox Tox 0.91 1.08 Tox Tox 1.11 0.94 Tox Tox
    Nafcillin 0.88 1.30 Tox Tox 0.99 1.17 Tox Tox 0.80 1.06 Tox Tox
    Penicillin G 0.89 0.99 Tox Tox 0.95 0.88 Tox Tox 1.04 1.28 Tox Tox
    Aziocillin 0.90 1.07 1.12 Tox 0.97 0.90 1.14 Tox 1.03 1.08 0.70 Tox
    Ampicillin 0.91 1.03 1.09 1.03 0.92 0.89 0.91 0.91 1.14 0.94 0.98 1.13
    Amoxicillin 0.81 1.02 Tox Tox 0.88 0.98 Tox Tox 1.06 1.00 Tox Tox
    Carbenicillin 0.88 0.94 Tox Tox 0.98 1.01 Tox Tox 1.01 0.84 Tox Tox
    Carbenicillin 0.95 0.66 0.61 Tox 0.92 0.83 0.52 Tox 0.89 0.90 0.95 Tox
    Oxacillin 0.88 1.05 Tox Tox 0.89 0.56 Tox Tox 0.31 0.25 Tox Tox
    Cephalosporin Cefamandole nafate 0.87 0.92 1.00 1.66 0.99 1.14 0.96 1.64 1.25 1.20 1.10 1.53
    Cefsulodin 0.81 0.90 0.87 1.46 0.98 1.00 0.99 1.11 1.14 1.43 1.44 1.92
    Cefoxitin 0.94 0.98 0.93 1.06 0.99 0.98 1.03 1.13 1.04 1.07 1.33 1.36
    Cefuroxime 0.99 1.12 Tox Tox 0.97 0.87 Tox Tox 1.10 1.17 Tox Tox
    Cefoperazone 0.91 1.08 0.96 Tox 0.95 0.69 0.79 Tox 0.95 0.95 1.49 Tox
    Cephalothin 0.82 0.93 0.88 Tox 0.96 1.03 1.14 Tox 1.14 1.22 0.42 Tox
    Moxalactam 0.90 0.88 0.82 0.75 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.93 1.07 1.08 0.96 0.91
    Ceftriaxone 0.86 0.70 Tox Tox 0.99 0.84 Tox Tox 1.19 0.93 Tox Tox
    Cefazolin 0.84 0.97 Tox Tox 0.90 0.92 Tox Tox 0.61 1.05 Tox Tox
    Cefmetazole 0.84 0.74 Tox Tox 0.85 0.89 Tox Tox 0.73 0.80 Tox Tox
    Cefotaxime 1.07 Tox Tox Tox 0.91 Tox Tox Tox 0.18 Tox Tox Tox
    Other Aztreonam 0.87 1.19 2.90 Tox 0.87 1.15 1.93 Tox 1.00 1.27 2.26 Tox
    Phosphomycin 0.92 1.01 Tox Tox 0.86 0.37 Tox Tox 0.26 0.01 Tox Tox
    Peptidoglycan D-Serine 0.90 1.11 1.03 Tox 0.91 0.90 0.81 Tox 0.71 0.95 0.97 Tox
    synthesis D-Cycloserine 0.70 1.08 Tox Tox 0.99 0.81 Tox Tox 0.93 0.90 Tox Tox
    Glycine 0.98 0.95 1.08 0.96 0.98 0.92 0.88 0.77 1.03 0.79 0.65 0.65
    Polymyxin Polymyxin B 1.37 Tox Tox Tox 1.23 Tox Tox Tox 1.59 Tox Tox Tox
    Colistin 0.95 0.75 Tox Tox 0.97 0.24 Tox Tox 0.84 0.08 Tox Tox
    Polymyxin B 0.79 0.75 0.26 Tox 0.85 0.83 0.05 Tox 0.40 0.35 0.01 Tox
    Copper (mM)
    Drug Class Chemical 0.1 0.5 1.0
    Chelator Carboxylic acid EGTA 1.05 1.25 1.28 1.06 0.87 1.02 1.06 1.04 0.94 1.30 1.59 1.44
    Fusaric acid 0.73 1.37 Tox Tox 0.28 1.20 Tox Tox 0.38 2.34 Tox Tox
    EDTA 1.02 1.02 1.17 1.47 0.92 0.99 1.14 1.74 1.01 1.47 1.68 2.09
    Hydroxyquinoline 5,7-Dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline 1.15 1.14 1.43 Tox 0.91 0.74 1.17 Tox 0.93 0.66 0.73 Tox
    8-Hydroxyquinoline 0.90 0.95 1.40 Tox 0.74 0.69 0.98 Tox 0.66 0.70 1.08 Tox
    5,7-Dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine 0.90 1.03 1.48 2.10 0.66 0.87 1.53 2.83 0.62 0.70 1.00 1.73
    5-Chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline 1.47 1.60 1.56 1.35 1.30 1.79 1.57 1.57 0.91 1.10 1.22 1.80
    Other 2,2′-Dipyridyl 0.76 Tox Tox Tox 0.61 Tox Tox Tox 0.76 Tox Tox Tox
    1,10-Phenanthroline 0.82 1.13 Tox Tox 0.51 0.75 Tox Tox 0.49 0.73 Tox Tox
    Sodium pyrophosphate decahydrate 1.09 0.93 1.00 1.09 0.86 0.88 1.00 1.03 0.69 0.69 1.07 1.24
    DNA & RNA DNA Alkylation 5-Azacytidine 1.03 1.11 1.02 0.99 0.86 1.00 1.00 0.94 0.56 0.62 0.59 0.59
    Chlorambucil 1.65 1.28 1.50 1.02 1.01 0.94 1.45 1.09 1.15 0.98 1.02 0.73
    Fluoroquinolone Enoxacin 0.91 1.08 Tox Tox 0.84 Tox Tox Tox 0.59 0.86 Tox Tox
    Ciprofloxacin 1.03 1.02 1.25 Tox 0.91 0.99 Tox Tox 0.51 0.68 1.18 Tox
    Lomefloxacin 1.05 0.97 1.46 Tox 0.88 0.90 Tox Tox 0.70 0.64 2.08 Tox
    Norfloxacin 1.18 1.08 1.07 Tox 1.00 0.89 1.60 Tox 1.01 0.70 1.12 Tox
    Ofloxacin 0.89 0.90 0.88 Tox 0.86 0.84 1.18 Tox 0.77 0.80 0.89 Tox
    Intercalator 2-Phenylphenol 1.05 1.12 0.92 Tox 0.73 0.56 0.37 Tox 0.60 0.56 0.46 Tox
    Umbelliferone 1.04 0.94 0.73 1.26 0.74 0.82 0.82 1.28 0.65 0.75 1.22 1.72
    Coumarin 0.94 0.93 0.92 Tox 0.82 0.77 0.85 Tox 0.62 0.56 0.64 Tox
    Proflavine 0.96 1.04 1.03 1.21 0.88 0.92 0.92 1.33 0.91 0.80 0.76 0.95
    4-Hydroxy-coumarin 0.92 0.75 0.00 Tox 0.96 0.89 0.37 1.03 0.86 0.72 0.44 Tox
    Novobiocin 1.01 1.07 0.99 1.06 0.71 0.55 0.79 1.08 0.53 0.59 1.17 1.80
    9-Aminoacridine 1.10 1.22 1.08 1.04 0.93 0.95 1.00 Tox 0.99 0.94 0.80 0.78
    Acriflavine 1.00 1.03 0.95 1.04 0.88 0.91 0.95 1.04 0.89 0.82 0.81 0.78
    Nitrofuran analog Furaltadone 0.96 0.98 Tox Tox 0.88 0.86 Tox Tox 0.71 0.68 Tox Tox
    Nitrofurantoin 0.99 1.01 1.05 Tox 0.74 0.77 0.82 Tox 0.62 0.57 0.62 Tox
    5-nitro-2-furaldehyde semicarbazone 0.86 0.77 Tox Tox 0.83 0.71 Tox Tox 0.83 0.74 Tox Tox
    Other Hydroxylamine 0.98 0.99 0.94 1.40 0.80 0.79 0.68 0.90 0.74 0.70 0.75 1.22
    Hexammine cobalt (III) chloride 1.06 1.17 1.19 1.51 0.93 1.05 1.05 1.59 0.94 0.90 0.73 0.87
    Disulphiram 1.07 1.03 1.08 2.30 0.94 0.76 0.75 Tox 0.75 0.45 0.41 0.90
    Myricetin 1.04 0.88 0.95 0.90 0.41 0.42 0.76 0.77 0.45 0.47 0.61 0.76
    Purine analog 6-Mercapto-purine 1.00 1.00 0.71 1.65 1.27 0.98 0.79 1.86 1.41 1.53 1.65 3.52
    Azathioprine 0.96 0.96 1.15 1.26 0.85 1.00 1.22 1.50 0.45 0.82 1.07 1.79
    Pyrimidine analog 5-fluoro-5′-deoxyuridine 1.07 1.20 1.20 1.06 0.88 0.95 0.88 0.89 0.79 0.80 0.72 0.63
    Trifluorothymidine 1.14 1.18 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.02 0.99 0.98 0.90 0.76 0.61 0.62
    Cytosine-1-β-D-arabinofuranoside 1.04 1.10 1.11 1.19 0.99 0.95 0.96 0.89 1.02 0.94 0.98 1.03
    5-Fluorouracil 0.98 0.85 Tox Tox 0.65 0.71 Tox Tox 0.61 0.57 Tox Tox
    5-Fluoroorotic acid 0.91 0.97 0.97 0.99 0.73 0.77 0.81 0.85 0.56 0.61 0.66 0.81
    Quinolone Cinoxacin 1.02 1.06 Tox Tox 0.93 0.92 Tox Tox 0.64 0.68 Tox Tox
    Pipemidic Acid 1.03 1.03 Tox Tox 0.83 0.86 Tox Tox 0.55 0.55 Tox Tox
    Nalidixic Acid 0.86 0.83 Tox Tox 0.76 0.83 Tox Tox 0.59 0.59 Tox Tox
    Oxolinic acid 0.90 0.93 0.87 0.92 0.53 0.64 0.74 0.83 0.52 0.53 0.56 0.72
    Folate Other 2,4-Diamino-6,7-diisopropylpteridine 1.12 0.94 1.01 Tox 0.89 0.97 1.14 Tox 0.83 0.64 0.72 Tox
    Hydroxyurea 1.17 1.24 1.08 Tox 1.20 1.69 1.53 Tox 1.41 1.87 0.80 Tox
    Trimethoprim 0.95 1.51 Tox Tox 0.86 1.37 Tox Tox 0.63 1.03 Tox Tox
    Sulfonamide Sulfanilamide 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.94 1.00 0.90 0.84 1.30 0.61 0.61 0.58 0.59
    Sulfamethoxazole 0.95 1.22 0.95 0.96 0.77 0.84 0.84 1.00 0.58 0.74 0.60 0.70
    Sulfamethazine 0.94 1.08 0.92 0.94 0.77 0.86 0.79 0.95 0.54 0.59 0.56 0.58
    Sulfathiazole 0.98 1.08 0.88 0.93 0.80 0.80 0.82 1.35 0.61 0.65 0.57 0.67
    Sulfadiazine 0.92 1.09 0.89 0.98 0.78 0.80 0.88 1.70 0.56 0.66 0.56 0.74
    Sulfachloro-pyridazine 1.03 1.08 0.93 0.72 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.93 0.78 0.68 0.69 0.76
    Sulfisoxazole 0.98 0.95 0.85 0.87 0.85 1.44 2.60 Tox 0.49 0.48 0.86 1.71
    Sulfamono-methoxine 0.97 1.06 0.85 0.73 0.70 0.74 0.81 1.06 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.89
    Membrane Cationic detergent Methyltrioctyl NH4+ Br− 1.05 1.22 1.39 Tox 1.08 1.14 1.05 Tox 0.87 0.80 0.44 Tox
    Poly-L-lysine 1.15 0.95 Tox Tox 1.03 0.96 Tox Tox 1.01 0.59 Tox Tox
    Domiphen bromide 0.94 1.03 Tox Tox 0.75 0.77 Tox Tox 0.68 0.66 Tox Tox
    Cetylpyridinium chloride 1.02 0.99 1.17 Tox 0.84 0.97 Tox Tox 0.62 0.62 3.06 Tox
    Dodecyltrimethyl NH4 + Br- 1.20 1.17 1.51 Tox 1.02 1.04 Tox Tox 0.77 0.73 1.63 Tox
    Benzethonium chloride 0.94 0.99 Tox Tox 0.68 0.51 Tox Tox 0.45 0.31 Tox Tox
    Electron transport Chlorhexidine 1.06 1.14 1.20 Tox 1.05 0.86 0.90 Tox 0.98 0.71 0.69 Tox
    Hexa-chlorophene 0.95 0.99 1.05 1.03 0.83 0.82 0.80 0.90 0.59 0.60 0.63 0.97
    Alexidine 0.98 1.00 Tox Tox 0.86 0.69 Tox Tox 1.04 0.90 Tox Tox
    Guanidine Dodine 0.90 1.04 2.73 Tox 0.83 0.94 Tox Tox 0.58 0.50 1.33 Tox
    Guanidine hydrochloride 0.94 0.92 0.78 Tox 0.82 0.78 0.44 Tox 0.82 0.77 0.53 Tox
    Other Protamine sulfate 0.79 Tox Tox Tox 1.09 1.26 Tox Tox 0.56 Tox Tox Tox
    1-Hydroxy-pyridine-2-thione 1.03 1.06 Tox Tox 0.81 0.72 Tox Tox 0.56 0.50 Tox Tox
    Amitriptyline 1.06 1.20 0.72 Tox 0.85 1.10 Tox Tox 0.92 0.96 0.90 Tox
    Niaproof 1.26 1.45 0.74 0.91 1.09 1.20 0.43 0.46 1.19 1.00 0.73 1.32
    Lauryl sulfobetaine 0.96 1.18 0.80 0.21 0.60 1.39 0.72 0.48 0.48 0.80 0.34 0.07
    Phenothiazine Promethazine 1.10 1.21 1.04 Tox 1.07 1.27 Tox Tox 0.90 1.07 1.33 Tox
    Chlorpromazine 1.00 1.02 0.70 Tox 0.82 0.88 Tox Tox 0.71 0.64 0.64 Tox
    Thioridazine 1.02 0.68 1.42 Tox 0.78 0.81 0.77 Tox 0.62 0.70 1.07 Tox
    Trifluoperazine 1.07 1.08 0.61 0.81 0.85 0.69 0.55 0.51 0.65 0.50 0.45 0.41
    Other biocide Anti-capsule Sodium salicylate 0.85 Tox Tox Tox 1.11 Tox Tox Tox 0.43 Tox Tox Tox
    Thiosalicylic acid 0.96 1.07 0.71 1.07 0.90 0.82 0.72 0.77 0.83 0.75 0.52 0.67
    Keto profen 0.95 0.98 0.87 Tox 1.02 0.96 0.67 Tox 0.87 0.66 0.32 Tox
    Acetylcholine Pridinol 0.81 1.00 1.54 Tox 0.90 1.54 1.37 Tox 0.75 1.05 0.33 Tox
    antagonist Atropine 0.92 1.00 Tox Tox 0.81 0.96 Tox Tox 0.64 0.69 Tox Tox
    Orphenadrine 1.03 0.87 Tox Tox 0.87 1.47 Tox Tox 0.95 0.76 Tox Tox
    Glycopeptide Phleomycin 0.99 1.27 Tox Tox 1.09 1.19 Tox Tox 0.99 0.96 Tox Tox
    Vancomycin 0.96 1.18 1.21 Tox 0.76 0.94 Tox Tox 0.52 0.57 0.51 Tox
    Bleomycin 1.06 0.97 1.17 Tox 0.92 0.93 Tox Tox 0.89 0.62 0.70 Tox
    Fungicide Nordihydroguaia retic acid 0.90 0.99 1.60 0.84 0.64 0.66 0.83 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.90 0.69
    Chloroxylenol 1.16 1.30 1.11 0.76 0.98 Tox Tox Tox 0.84 0.99 0.82 0.76
    Phenylsulfamide Tolylfluanid 0.79 0.82 0.87 0.79 0.80 0.80 0.63 0.59 0.84 0.78 0.68 0.54
    Dichlofluanid 0.79 0.82 0.70 Tox Tox 0.50 0.46 Tox 0.32 0.27 0.27 Tox
    Ion (K+) blocker 4-Aminopyridine 1.16 1.14 0.95 0.97 0.86 0.87 0.81 1.01 1.10 0.88 0.81 0.72
    Dequalinium chloride 0.87 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.82 0.71 0.58 0.55 0.56 0.60 0.61 0.65
    Ion (Na+) blocker Procaine 1.03 1.07 1.06 0.96 0.87 0.95 1.06 0.91 0.96 0.94 0.97 1.04
    Lidocaine 0.42 0.52 1.25 Tox 0.38 0.42 Tox Tox 0.29 0.32 0.98 Tox
    Nitroimidazole Tinidazole 1.05 0.98 1.11 Tox 0.64 0.54 0.88 Tox 0.66 0.65 0.71 Tox
    2-Nitroimidazole 0.97 1.15 Tox Tox 0.79 0.76 Tox Tox 1.01 1.09 Tox Tox
    Ornidazole 0.94 0.83 0.82 Tox 0.79 0.56 0.43 Tox 0.64 0.44 0.42 Tox
    Other Tannic acid 0.93 0.91 1.12 1.07 0.88 1.39 0.73 1.17 1.08 1.69 1.68 2.14
    Semicarbazide 1.12 1.29 0.96 0.91 0.98 1.22 1.17 Tox 0.79 0.83 0.63 0.36
    Captan 0.88 0.79 0.77 0.93 0.61 0.52 0.47 1.14 0.55 0.53 0.46 0.62
    Ethionamide 1.04 1.28 0.90 0.59 1.03 0.89 1.14 1.12 0.93 1.09 1.61 1.03
    D,L-Propranolol 1.01 0.99 Tox Tox 0.82 0.91 Tox Tox 0.67 0.74 Tox Tox
    Compound 48/80 1.08 1.25 1.17 Tox 0.94 1.02 1.49 Tox 0.78 0.76 0.96 Tox
    Chelerythrine 1.27 1.15 1.07 1.29 1.01 1.02 1.29 1.89 1.00 0.81 1.06 1.71
    Sanguinarine 0.84 0.93 0.83 Tox 0.79 0.96 Tox Tox 0.66 0.88 1.36 Tox
    Patulin Tox Tox Tox Tox Tox Tox Tox Tox Tox Tox Tox Tox
    Rifamycin Rifampicin 1.10 1.33 0.97 Tox 0.97 0.99 1.42 Tox 0.82 0.96 0.46 Tox
    Rifamycin SV 1.05 1.07 1.88 1.24 0.74 0.73 0.67 1.02 0.29 0.26 0.28 1.22
    Triazole Guanazole 1.04 0.81 Tox Tox 0.60 0.50 Tox Tox 0.63 0.58 Tox Tox
    3-Amino-1,2,4-triazole 0.97 0.94 1.65 Tox 0.63 0.62 0.63 0.54 0.48 0.51 1.41 Tox
    Oxidizing agent Diamide 1.02 0.98 0.96 0.99 0.78 0.72 Tox Tox 0.52 0.51 0.52 0.56
    1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene 1.21 1.04 1.02 Tox 0.92 0.83 0.66 Tox 0.71 0.54 0.48 Tox
    D,L-Thioctic Acid 1.28 1.24 0.80 Tox 0.46 0.34 0.72 Tox 0.33 0.62 0.67 Tox
    Lawsone 0.38 0.45 0.44 0.87 0.18 0.12 0.14 0.93 0.13 0.13 0.31 1.23
    Plumbagin 0.83 0.80 0.67 0.66 0.36 0.38 0.32 0.25 0.37 0.35 0.30 0.26
    3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl alcohol 1.30 0.72 0.93 Tox 1.03 0.99 0.61 Tox 1.10 1.37 2.00 Tox
    Methyl viologen 0.85 0.99 Tox Tox 0.63 0.77 Tox Tox 0.61 0.64 Tox Tox
    Iodoacetate 0.62 Tox Tox Tox 0.51 Tox Tox Tox 0.07 Tox Tox Tox
    Protein Aminoglycoside Dihydro-streptomycin 1.10 0.98 0.97 0.53 0.92 0.89 Tox Tox 0.80 0.67 0.53 0.41
    Hygromycin B 1.19 1.12 0.89 0.61 0.80 0.81 1.02 Tox 0.91 0.79 0.77 0.94
    Gentamicin 0.89 0.87 0.79 0.86 0.78 0.80 0.74 1.54 0.61 0.59 0.58 0.61
    Sisomicin 0.88 1.02 0.97 0.99 0.98 0.87 0.82 0.81 0.86 0.62 0.59 0.53
    Neomycin 0.86 0.88 0.84 0.97 0.79 0.79 0.79 Tox 0.59 0.61 0.59 0.78
    Spectinomycin 0.97 1.01 0.99 1.04 0.94 0.96 0.92 Tox 0.84 0.71 0.66 0.81
    Geneticin (G418) 0.97 0.87 0.86 0.88 0.73 0.71 0.71 Tox 0.54 0.50 0.48 0.44
    Tobramycin 0.92 1.02 0.96 1.01 0.98 0.92 0.98 Tox 0.83 0.66 0.56 0.57
    Paromomycin 0.98 1.00 0.93 0.84 0.86 0.81 1.43 Tox 0.86 0.63 0.53 0.44
    Amikacin 1.01 0.96 1.04 0.89 0.94 0.85 1.51 Tox 0.95 0.80 0.80 0.52
    Kanamycin 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.85 0.90 0.91 1.13 Tox 0.76 0.77 0.77 0.67
    Apramycin 1.07 1.02 0.89 0.88 0.89 0.85 0.93 Tox 0.74 0.69 0.59 0.57
    Capreomycin 1.10 0.91 0.83 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.90 Tox 0.86 0.57 0.49 0.60
    Streptomycin 1.22 1.22 1.16 1.16 1.47 Tox Tox Tox 0.89 0.80 0.64 0.53
    Macrolide Josamycin 0.96 1.20 1.17 Tox 0.96 0.75 1.60 Tox 0.70 0.71 0.69 Tox
    Spiramycin 1.00 1.05 0.94 Tox 0.89 Tox Tox Tox 0.92 0.91 3.40 Tox
    Erythromycin 0.91 0.91 0.86 0.85 0.79 0.77 0.85 Tox 0.64 0.61 0.66 0.73
    Oleandomycin 1.01 0.89 0.97 Tox 0.78 0.73 0.91 Tox 0.86 0.64 0.44 Tox
    Tylosin 1.10 0.98 0.93 Tox 0.76 0.73 2.02 Tox 0.86 0.86 0.98 Tox
    Troleandomycin 0.90 1.13 2.39 Tox 0.89 1.29 Tox Tox 0.75 0.93 2.93 Tox
    Other PMSF 0.76 0.71 0.62 0.71 0.59 0.58 0.37 0.46 0.41 0.42 0.34 0.38
    Benserazide 1.03 1.08 2.60 1.48 0.88 0.99 4.18 2.77 0.66 0.92 3.79 4.01
    β-Chloro-L-alanine HCl 1.31 1.09 1.07 1.00 1.07 1.38 2.23 Tox 1.29 1.26 1.47 1.58
    Lincomycin 0.91 0.93 1.10 Tox 0.83 1.05 Tox Tox 0.73 0.72 0.92 Tox
    Protein synthesis Fusidic acid 0.71 0.77 Tox Tox 0.68 0.07 Tox 1.07 0.75 0.15 Tox Tox
    Blasticidin S 1.05 1.14 0.95 Tox 0.90 0.96 Tox Tox 0.71 0.65 0.49 Tox
    Chloramphenicol 1.05 0.73 Tox Tox 1.03 1.92 Tox Tox 0.74 0.56 Tox Tox
    Puromycin 0.88 0.90 2.22 Tox 0.52 0.52 2.57 Tox 0.47 0.56 1.79 Tox
    Chloramphenicol 1.06 0.86 0.64 Tox 0.89 1.16 Tox Tox 0.88 0.65 0.92 Tox
    Thiamphenicol 0.98 0.99 1.17 Tox 0.55 0.76 1.64 Tox 0.46 0.48 0.68 Tox
    Tetracycline Doxycycline 0.98 1.44 Tox Tox 0.96 1.26 Tox Tox 0.64 2.32 Tox Tox
    Chlortetracycline 1.01 2.82 Tox Tox 0.83 1.67 Tox Tox 0.76 3.28 Tox Tox
    Oxytetracycline 0.88 0.83 0.83 1.10 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.79 0.64 0.62 0.55 0.62
    Tetracycline 0.92 1.05 0.92 0.87 0.93 0.94 0.96 0.89 0.70 0.81 0.65 1.09
    Demeclocycline 0.95 0.91 Tox Tox 0.89 1.00 0.36 Tox 0.59 0.56 Tox Tox
    Minocycline 1.01 0.84 Tox Tox 0.89 1.10 Tox Tox 0.68 0.64 Tox Tox
    Penimepicycline 0.91 1.07 Tox Tox 0.70 0.87 Tox Tox 0.51 0.64 Tox Tox
    Rolitetracycline 0.98 0.95 Tox Tox 0.71 0.74 Tox Tox 0.54 0.91 Tox Tox
    tRNA synthetase Glycine hydroxamate 1.36 Tox Tox Tox 1.06 0.47 Tox Tox 1.73 Tox Tox Tox
    DL-Methionine hydroxamate 1.15 1.19 1.02 0.91 0.84 0.95 2.26 3.51 0.98 1.23 1.51 1.54
    L-Aspartic-β-hydroxamate 1.00 1.07 0.99 0.82 0.85 0.88 0.86 1.04 0.66 0.73 0.79 1.96
    L-Glutamic-g-hydroxamate 1.14 1.16 0.97 1.01 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.96 0.75 0.80 0.69 0.74
    D,L-Serine hydroxamate 0.98 0.94 1.13 Tox 0.77 0.78 1.03 3.47 0.62 0.66 1.18 Tox
    Respiration Ionophore Gallic acid 1.01 0.98 1.16 Tox 0.78 1.50 1.51 Tox 0.77 0.64 1.11 Tox
    3,5-Dinitro-benzene 0.97 0.98 Tox Tox 0.85 1.00 0.32 Tox 1.04 0.95 Tox Tox
    FCCP 0.96 0.78 0.77 1.00 0.53 0.43 0.67 0.60 0.64 0.48 0.48 1.04
    Sodium caprylate 0.70 0.66 0.48 Tox 0.41 0.43 0.42 Tox 0.34 0.38 0.57 Tox
    Cinnamic acid 0.85 0.74 0.87 Tox 0.70 0.79 1.11 Tox 0.53 0.54 1.11 Tox
    2,4-Dintrophenol 0.87 0.83 1.10 Tox 0.76 0.64 0.99 Tox 0.50 0.49 1.14 Tox
    Sorbic acid 1.01 1.11 1.10 1.02 0.94 1.05 1.03 0.91 0.79 0.97 1.12 1.02
    Pentachloro-phenol 1.01 0.95 0.95 0.70 0.44 0.36 0.29 0.57 0.36 0.34 0.34 0.68
    18-Crown-6 ether 0.94 0.85 0.78 0.80 0.81 0.80 0.71 0.93 0.61 0.62 0.68 0.79
    CCCP 0.76 0.53 1.01 Tox 0.44 0.34 0.39 Tox 0.75 0.76 1.35 Tox
    Other Iodonitro Tetrazolium Violet 1.02 #### 0.06 0.33 0.84 #### 0.09 0.17 0.74 #### 0.36 0.58
    Oxycarboxin 0.97 0.62 Tox Tox 1.04 0.83 Tox Tox 1.35 1.52 Tox Tox
    Ruthenium red 0.73 0.60 0.51 0.50 0.52 0.47 0.37 0.30 0.45 0.38 0.33 0.29
    Uncoupler Crystal violet 1.00 1.06 1.08 1.00 1.02 1.36 1.16 1.13 0.97 1.03 1.42 1.47
    Menadione 0.34 0.49 0.63 0.50 0.20 0.18 0.22 0.18 0.13 0.24 0.33 0.41
    Sodium azide 0.99 Tox Tox Tox 0.88 Tox Tox Tox 0.94 Tox Tox Tox
    Tetrazolium violet 0.91 0.77 Tox Tox 0.83 0.75 Tox Tox 0.46 0.78 Tox Tox
    Wall β-lactam Phenethicillin 1.33 1.26 Tox Tox 1.40 Tox Tox Tox 0.83 0.58 Tox Tox
    Cioxacillin 0.96 1.37 1.84 Tox 0.81 1.24 Tox Tox 0.61 0.83 0.70 Tox
    Piperacillin 1.10 1.07 1.02 1.03 0.77 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.68 0.61 0.60 0.57
    Nafcillin 0.94 1.08 0.57 Tox 0.81 1.15 Tox Tox 0.62 0.69 0.61 Tox
    Penicillin G 1.04 0.96 1.47 Tox 0.91 1.19 1.99 Tox 0.96 0.79 1.07 Tox
    Aziocillin 0.97 1.05 1.08 Tox 0.94 0.90 0.97 Tox 0.78 0.70 0.61 Tox
    Ampicillin 1.01 0.95 0.94 1.09 0.93 0.85 0.82 0.88 0.92 0.82 0.78 0.71
    Amoxicillin 1.04 0.93 0.86 Tox 0.91 0.89 1.13 Tox 0.84 0.61 0.53 Tox
    Carbenicillin 0.85 0.90 0.84 0.92 0.87 0.98 0.93 0.93 0.68 0.76 0.76 0.89
    Carbenicillin 1.04 1.12 1.83 0.62 0.88 0.84 Tox Tox 0.75 0.72 1.21 0.95
    Oxacillin 1.05 1.63 Tox Tox 1.00 1.23 Tox Tox 0.68 0.86 Tox Tox
    Cephalosporin Cefamandole nafate 1.15 1.28 1.30 1.68 0.95 0.98 0.88 1.64 0.91 0.90 0.92 1.14
    Cefsulodin 1.31 1.10 1.35 1.31 0.97 0.94 1.10 1.31 1.02 0.80 0.96 1.02
    Cefoxitin 1.11 1.09 1.07 1.15 0.99 0.90 0.87 1.08 0.88 0.69 0.62 0.66
    Cefuroxime 1.17 1.53 Tox Tox 0.91 1.29 Tox Tox 0.97 0.87 Tox Tox
    Cefoperazone 1.31 1.48 1.06 Tox 0.89 1.02 1.54 0.93 1.01 0.98 1.15 Tox
    Cephalothin 0.90 0.91 1.89 Tox 0.92 0.87 1.94 Tox 0.89 0.76 1.32 Tox
    Moxalactam 1.11 1.17 1.14 1.13 0.97 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.86 0.92 0.94 0.90
    Ceftriaxone 0.93 0.95 0.65 1.12 0.90 0.84 0.57 0.05 0.84 0.63 0.73 0.68
    Cefazolin 1.03 0.94 0.56 Tox 0.88 0.80 0.45 Tox 0.85 0.61 0.38 Tox
    Cefmetazole 1.06 1.12 Tox Tox 1.04 1.12 Tox Tox 0.73 0.70 Tox Tox
    Cefotaxime 1.12 1.28 Tox Tox 1.42 Tox Tox Tox 0.93 1.25 Tox Tox
    Other Aztreonam 0.94 0.97 1.21 1.03 0.38 0.43 0.49 0.54 0.44 0.41 0.53 0.56
    Phosphomycin 1.16 1.01 0.99 0.95 0.94 0.91 0.86 0.95 0.79 0.77 0.76 0.72
    Peptidoglycan D-Serine 1.75 1.58 1.41 Tox 0.99 1.29 1.01 Tox 1.15 1.24 1.52 Tox
    synthesis D-Cycloserine 1.13 2.02 Tox Tox 1.16 2.08 Tox Tox 1.14 1.58 Tox Tox
    Glycine 0.94 0.96 0.91 0.99 0.80 0.81 0.81 0.92 0.55 0.59 0.61 0.76
    Polymyxin Polymyxin B 1.13 Tox Tox Tox 0.97 Tox Tox Tox 0.82 Tox Tox Tox
    Colistin 0.95 0.98 Tox Tox 0.82 0.87 Tox Tox 0.63 0.45 Tox Tox
    Polymyxin B 0.90 0.91 Tox Tox 0.75 0.77 Tox Tox 0.56 0.61 Tox Tox
    Gold (μM)
    Drug Class Chemical 5 25 50
    Chelator Carboxylic acid EGTA 1.05 0.88 0.94 0.92 1.07 1.00 0.95 0.97 1.02 1.13 1.04 1.11
    Fusaric acid 1.07 1.01 Tox Tox 0.95 1.06 Tox Tox 0.79 0.81 Tox Tox
    EDTA 1.07 1.11 1.02 1.16 0.98 0.94 0.93 0.74 0.80 0.88 0.76 0.34
    Hydroxyquinoline 5,7-Dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline 1.04 1.08 1.28 1.14 1.04 1.01 0.89 0.91 0.98 0.93 0.99 0.78
    8-Hydroxyquinoline 1.02 1.07 1.26 Tox 1.03 0.99 1.11 Tox 0.75 0.73 1.06 Tox
    5,7-Dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine 1.07 1.24 1.02 1.10 1.02 1.05 0.84 0.83 0.84 0.76 0.71 0.86
    5-Chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline 0.90 0.86 0.93 1.18 0.99 0.90 0.89 0.84 0.72 0.76 0.71 0.89
    Other 2,2′-Dipyridyl 1.15 Tox Tox Tox 1.09 Tox Tox Tox 0.72 Tox Tox Tox
    1,10-Phenanthroline 1.01 0.95 1.05 Tox 1.05 0.88 1.15 Tox 0.90 0.72 0.80 Tox
    Sodium pyrophosphate decahydrate 1.05 1.02 1.04 1.28 1.06 0.95 0.96 0.95 0.87 0.81 0.83 0.59
    DNA & RNA DNA Alkylation 5-Azacytidine 1.02 1.04 0.85 0.96 0.97 1.03 1.02 1.01 0.92 0.90 0.79 0.82
    Chlorambucil 0.95 1.11 1.09 1.11 1.03 0.98 1.01 0.96 0.92 1.15 0.97 0.98
    Fluoroquinolone Enoxacin 1.04 0.92 Tox Tox 1.03 1.20 Tox Tox 1.07 1.21 Tox Tox
    Ciprofloxacin 1.01 1.07 1.04 Tox 1.09 1.13 1.26 Tox 0.99 1.10 2.09 Tox
    Lomefloxacin 1.03 1.07 0.91 Tox 1.03 1.04 1.36 Tox 1.04 1.06 0.64 Tox
    Norfloxacin 0.92 0.94 1.13 Tox 1.00 0.99 1.03 Tox 0.80 0.78 0.74 Tox
    Ofloxacin 1.01 0.98 0.95 Tox 1.01 0.99 0.96 Tox 1.05 1.04 1.13 Tox
    Intercalator 2-Phenylphenol 1.03 1.13 2.51 Tox 1.17 1.15 0.67 Tox 1.08 1.15 1.51 Tox
    Umbelliferone 1.02 0.85 1.44 1.15 0.95 0.96 1.41 1.09 0.90 0.90 1.46 1.26
    Coumarin 1.10 1.09 1.23 Tox 1.02 0.98 0.91 Tox 0.91 0.83 0.74 Tox
    Proflavine 0.97 1.02 1.04 1.11 1.09 1.10 1.05 0.90 0.95 1.03 0.97 0.71
    4-Hydroxy-coumarin 1.01 1.14 1.10 Tox 1.08 1.11 1.13 Tox 1.03 1.02 0.83 Tox
    Novobiocin 0.90 0.85 0.98 1.11 0.69 0.87 0.93 1.15 0.13 0.07 1.09 1.35
    9-Aminoacridine 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.05 1.00 1.03 0.98 0.83 0.96 0.83 0.97 0.87
    Acriflavine 0.92 0.94 0.94 1.02 0.96 1.04 0.96 0.87 0.86 1.00 0.96 0.84
    Nitrofuran analog Furaltadone 1.04 1.13 1.49 Tox 1.03 1.04 1.64 Tox 1.02 0.98 1.99 Tox
    Nitrofurantoin 1.02 1.07 1.13 Tox 1.07 1.06 1.05 Tox 0.98 1.03 1.04 Tox
    5-nitro-2-furaldehyde semicarbazone 1.01 1.04 Tox Tox 0.93 0.99 Tox Tox 0.87 0.98 Tox Tox
    Other Hydroxylamine 1.06 0.99 1.05 1.20 1.20 1.10 1.12 1.17 1.17 1.12 1.15 1.23
    Hexammine cobalt (III) chloride 1.09 1.23 1.12 1.10 1.09 1.15 1.08 1.25 1.15 1.23 1.25 1.62
    Disulphiram 0.01 0.01 Tox Tox 0.18 0.08 Tox Tox 0.27 0.02 Tox Tox
    Myricetin 1.11 0.96 1.46 1.09 1.02 1.00 1.30 1.36 1.02 1.05 1.46 1.32
    Purine analog 6-Mercapto-purine 1.05 1.13 1.07 1.15 0.85 1.03 1.17 1.27 0.19 0.88 1.52 1.33
    Azathioprine 1.03 0.99 1.37 1.23 0.94 0.96 1.07 1.08 0.87 0.85 0.97 1.10
    Pyrimidine analog 5-fluoro-5′-deoxyuridine 1.05 1.08 1.04 1.04 1.17 1.13 1.22 1.24 1.00 1.00 0.98 1.04
    Trifluorothymidine 1.00 0.99 1.00 1.01 0.97 1.05 1.06 1.07 0.82 0.92 0.88 0.92
    Cytosine-1-β-D-arabinofuranoside 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.18 1.01 1.04 0.95 0.88 1.00 1.07 0.97 0.98
    5-Fluorouracil 1.17 1.30 Tox Tox 0.97 1.13 Tox Tox 0.91 1.11 Tox Tox
    5-Fluoroorotic acid 1.09 1.04 0.97 0.97 1.06 1.02 0.99 0.98 1.08 0.99 0.91 0.96
    Quinolone Cinoxacin 0.95 0.89 Tox Tox 0.96 0.98 Tox Tox 0.95 0.93 Tox Tox
    Pipemidic Acid 0.96 1.04 0.96 0.98 0.97 1.04 1.09 1.01 0.87 0.92 0.90 0.93
    Nalidixic Acid 1.00 0.93 Tox Tox 1.02 0.98 Tox Tox 0.92 0.63 Tox Tox
    Oxolinic acid 1.07 1.05 1.15 1.04 1.05 1.13 1.10 0.99 0.93 0.97 1.01 0.82
    Folate Other 2,4-Diamino-6,7-diisopropylpteridine 1.02 1.05 1.23 Tox 1.04 0.91 1.00 Tox 0.95 0.90 1.20 Tox
    Hydroxyurea 1.51 1.23 0.79 Tox 1.19 1.04 0.79 Tox 1.19 1.24 1.21 Tox
    Trimethoprim 1.01 0.84 Tox Tox 0.98 0.94 Tox Tox 0.77 0.77 Tox Tox
    Sulfonamide Sulfanilamide 0.90 0.99 0.94 0.82 0.99 0.98 0.97 1.00 0.64 0.77 0.74 0.59
    Sulfamethoxazole 1.03 1.11 1.12 1.06 1.05 1.08 1.11 1.02 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.10
    Sulfamethazine 0.97 0.95 1.01 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.96 0.95 1.00 1.03 0.95 1.03
    Sulfathiazole 1.03 1.10 1.07 1.14 1.02 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.02 1.11 1.07 1.05
    Sulfadiazine 1.02 1.04 1.03 1.09 0.98 1.02 0.99 0.97 0.97 1.05 1.04 1.11
    Sulfachloro-pyridazine 1.03 1.04 1.53 1.02 0.90 1.02 1.14 0.93 0.82 0.91 1.04 0.77
    Sulfisoxazole 0.94 1.04 1.14 1.35 1.03 1.01 1.07 1.05 0.79 0.77 0.80 1.04
    Sulfamono-methoxine 1.02 1.00 1.09 1.56 0.87 0.84 0.91 1.12 0.83 0.78 0.85 1.01
    Membrane Cationic detergent Methyltrioctyl NH4+ Br− 1.06 1.05 1.00 Tox 1.14 0.98 0.37 Tox 0.96 1.01 0.91 Tox
    Poly-L-lysine 1.07 0.98 Tox Tox 1.08 1.06 Tox Tox 0.93 0.88 Tox Tox
    Domiphen bromide 0.98 0.98 0.96 Tox 0.96 0.91 0.71 Tox 0.87 0.93 0.39 Tox
    Cetylpyridinium chloride 1.11 1.06 0.61 Tox 1.03 0.98 0.58 Tox 0.99 0.86 0.58 Tox
    Dodecyltrimethyl NH4 + Br- 0.96 1.00 0.95 Tox 0.96 0.94 1.11 Tox 1.02 1.14 1.05 Tox
    Benzethonium chloride 0.98 1.02 Tox Tox 1.00 1.05 Tox Tox 1.02 0.93 Tox Tox
    Electron transport Chlorhexidine 1.02 1.03 0.98 0.19 1.02 1.04 0.99 0.78 0.94 0.96 0.93 1.02
    Hexa-chlorophene 1.09 1.05 1.06 1.01 1.04 1.05 1.12 1.09 1.00 1.07 1.06 1.06
    Alexidine 0.91 1.09 Tox Tox 1.01 0.96 Tox Tox 0.81 0.81 Tox Tox
    Guanidine Dodine 1.01 1.03 0.91 Tox 1.05 1.01 1.02 Tox 0.99 0.96 0.46 Tox
    Guanidine hydrochloride 0.98 1.01 1.03 Tox 0.98 0.96 1.04 Tox 0.72 0.65 0.33 Tox
    Other Protamine sulfate 1.01 0.96 0.49 Tox 0.99 0.94 2.22 Tox 0.92 1.09 1.56 Tox
    1-Hydroxy-pyridine-2-thione 0.99 1.03 1.33 Tox 1.04 1.06 0.66 Tox 0.92 0.89 0.23 Tox
    Amitriptyline 0.98 0.95 Tox Tox 1.18 1.12 Tox Tox 0.84 0.99 Tox Tox
    Niaproof 1.32 1.13 1.01 1.27 1.21 1.03 1.09 1.15 1.35 1.20 0.95 1.51
    Lauryl sulfobetaine 0.86 1.26 0.86 0.99 0.96 0.87 1.00 1.09 1.13 1.04 0.96 1.17
    Phenothiazine Promethazine 0.95 1.07 0.67 Tox 1.00 1.05 0.80 Tox 1.03 1.15 0.54 Tox
    Chlorpromazine 1.40 1.08 1.09 Tox 1.04 0.92 0.71 Tox 0.95 0.75 0.04 Tox
    Thioridazine 0.97 1.16 0.79 Tox 1.04 0.95 0.64 Tox 0.80 0.72 0.59 Tox
    Trifluoperazine 1.16 1.11 1.01 0.96 1.01 0.93 0.96 0.94 1.18 0.91 0.87 0.57
    Other biocide Anti-capsule Sodium salicylate 1.98 Tox Tox Tox 1.25 Tox Tox Tox 1.47 Tox Tox Tox
    Thiosalicylic acid 1.61 1.09 1.12 1.37 1.24 0.96 0.64 0.51 1.10 0.11 0.07 0.08
    Keto profen 1.06 1.16 1.04 Tox 1.18 1.05 0.89 Tox 0.97 0.76 0.78 Tox
    Acetylcholine Pridinol 1.08 1.15 0.83 Tox 0.99 0.96 Tox Tox 0.78 0.97 Tox Tox
    antagonist Atropine 1.02 1.06 Tox Tox 1.02 1.12 Tox Tox 0.91 0.83 Tox Tox
    Orphenadrine 1.01 1.08 Tox Tox 1.11 0.98 Tox Tox 0.92 0.82 Tox Tox
    Glycopeptide Phleomycin 0.98 1.06 1.05 1.33 1.01 1.03 0.88 0.87 0.99 0.96 0.92 1.29
    Vancomycin 0.94 1.03 1.14 Tox 0.96 0.94 0.48 Tox 0.91 0.73 0.06 Tox
    Bleomycin 1.08 1.08 1.09 0.95 1.00 0.96 0.91 Tox 0.87 0.83 0.02 Tox
    Fungicide Nordihydroguaia retic acid 0.96 0.95 1.01 0.94 0.93 0.83 0.90 0.75 0.92 0.92 0.94 0.70
    Chloroxylenol 0.95 0.34 Tox Tox 1.13 1.07 Tox Tox 0.97 0.35 Tox Tox
    Phenylsulfamide Tolylfluanid 1.00 1.01 1.00 0.95 1.05 1.04 1.07 1.19 0.80 0.74 0.76 0.94
    Dichlofluanid 1.02 Tox 0.95 0.65 0.91 Tox 1.01 0.85 0.88 Tox 0.83 0.60
    Ion (K+) blocker 4-Aminopyridine 1.62 1.41 1.09 1.03 1.18 1.10 0.94 1.00 1.20 0.96 0.93 0.78
    Dequalinium chloride 0.93 1.02 0.95 0.93 1.04 1.05 1.09 0.98 1.00 0.96 0.83 0.71
    Ion (Na+) blocker Procaine 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.16 1.01 0.98 1.01 0.95 0.72 0.68 0.78 0.28
    Lidocaine 1.10 0.92 0.91 Tox 1.02 0.91 0.91 Tox 0.88 0.80 0.32 Tox
    Nitroimidazole Tinidazole 1.11 1.11 1.38 Tox 1.04 1.07 0.97 Tox 0.95 0.99 1.04 Tox
    2-Nitroimidazole 1.01 0.87 Tox Tox 0.97 1.02 Tox Tox 0.87 0.86 Tox Tox
    Ornidazole 1.07 1.10 1.08 Tox 1.06 1.07 1.00 Tox 0.95 0.75 1.71 Tox
    Other Tannic acid 0.97 1.16 1.24 1.05 0.92 1.06 1.11 1.10 1.13 1.31 1.12 1.16
    Semicarbazide 1.13 1.06 1.14 1.23 1.09 1.19 1.29 1.13 0.97 1.12 1.18 1.14
    Captan 0.97 0.89 0.82 1.11 0.99 0.82 0.83 0.60 0.95 0.92 0.65 0.79
    Ethionamide 0.99 1.05 1.09 0.98 0.97 0.83 0.84 0.75 0.87 0.86 0.79 0.74
    D,L-Propranolol 1.04 1.09 Tox Tox 1.06 1.04 Tox Tox 0.77 0.69 Tox Tox
    Compound 48/80 1.49 0.98 0.97 Tox 1.12 0.99 0.96 Tox 1.03 0.88 0.85 Tox
    Chelerythrine 0.99 0.96 1.16 1.16 0.98 0.95 1.00 1.11 0.91 0.85 0.68 0.93
    Sanguinarine 0.91 1.21 Tox Tox 1.03 0.89 Tox Tox 0.87 0.79 Tox Tox
    Patulin 1.02 Tox Tox Tox 1.12 Tox Tox Tox 0.74 Tox Tox Tox
    Rifamycin Rifampicin 1.06 1.04 1.21 Tox 1.02 1.00 0.93 Tox 1.02 1.07 0.44 Tox
    Rifamycin SV 1.00 1.05 0.74 0.95 0.97 0.99 0.68 0.88 0.94 0.95 1.00 0.77
    Triazole Guanazole 1.02 1.04 Tox Tox 1.08 1.07 Tox Tox 0.84 0.93 Tox Tox
    3-Amino-1,2,4-triazole 1.21 1.12 1.22 Tox 1.06 0.93 1.25 Tox 0.88 0.68 0.59 Tox
    Oxidizing agent Diamide 0.99 0.86 Tox Tox 0.98 0.89 Tox Tox 0.98 0.93 Tox Tox
    1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene 1.16 1.03 0.98 0.60 1.09 0.98 1.00 1.12 0.98 0.95 0.86 0.85
    D,L-Thioctic Acid 1.13 1.13 1.08 Tox 1.03 1.05 1.03 Tox 1.36 1.55 1.06 Tox
    Lawsone 1.09 1.08 1.21 Tox 1.15 1.16 1.31 Tox 1.26 1.62 0.98 Tox
    Plumbagin 1.03 1.01 1.00 0.98 1.05 1.00 1.00 1.02 0.98 0.99 0.98 1.01
    3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl alcohol 1.05 1.07 0.94 Tox 1.04 1.03 0.89 Tox 0.86 0.87 1.03 Tox
    Methyl viologen 0.99 1.07 0.82 0.08 1.01 1.01 0.66 0.78 1.04 0.98 0.50 0.28
    Iodoacetate 0.77 Tox Tox Tox 1.00 Tox Tox Tox 0.88 Tox Tox Tox
    Protein Aminoglycoside Dihydro-streptomycin 1.07 1.14 1.07 0.93 1.18 1.22 1.18 1.30 1.17 1.29 1.19 1.26
    Hygromycin B 1.23 0.82 Tox Tox 0.96 1.13 Tox Tox 0.97 1.27 Tox Tox
    Gentamicin 0.97 1.00 0.99 1.04 0.97 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.04 0.97 1.00 1.01
    Sisomicin 1.01 0.99 0.98 0.90 0.99 0.98 0.98 1.00 0.97 0.94 0.97 1.03
    Neomycin 1.01 1.02 1.00 1.03 0.95 0.96 0.94 1.02 1.02 1.06 1.01 1.13
    Spectinomycin 0.98 1.02 Tox Tox 1.06 1.09 Tox Tox 0.98 1.20 Tox Tox
    Geneticin (G418) 1.08 1.00 1.01 0.95 1.05 1.03 1.00 1.02 1.05 1.04 1.05 1.11
    Tobramycin 1.07 1.05 0.99 0.96 1.01 1.10 1.01 1.01 1.00 1.04 1.07 0.97
    Paromomycin 1.02 1.02 0.99 1.01 0.98 1.02 1.02 1.06 0.87 0.92 1.00 1.03
    Amikacin 1.02 1.10 1.09 1.13 1.06 1.10 1.02 0.95 0.90 1.03 1.02 1.13
    Kanamycin 1.06 1.03 1.01 0.93 1.01 0.95 0.99 0.91 1.03 1.04 1.07 1.05
    Apramycin 1.03 1.06 1.04 1.04 1.13 1.09 1.18 1.17 0.91 0.90 0.97 0.98
    Capreomycin 1.05 1.05 1.02 1.03 1.03 1.01 0.97 1.06 1.00 0.98 1.01 1.14
    Streptomycin 0.94 0.88 Tox Tox 1.01 0.58 Tox Tox 0.87 1.10 Tox Tox
    Macrolide Josamycin 1.04 0.96 1.02 1.82 1.13 1.08 1.00 1.09 1.00 0.79 0.70 0.78
    Spiramycin 1.03 1.00 Tox Tox 1.02 0.67 Tox Tox 0.84 0.33 Tox Tox
    Erythromycin 0.98 1.06 0.99 0.82 0.98 0.97 0.88 0.51 0.99 0.91 0.80 0.22
    Oleandomycin 1.01 1.02 0.98 0.72 0.96 0.95 0.88 0.47 0.87 0.80 0.85 0.17
    Tylosin 1.00 0.97 0.86 0.73 0.99 0.95 0.35 0.30 0.91 0.74 0.08 0.04
    Troleandomycin 0.97 0.89 0.69 0.11 0.91 0.66 0.76 0.40 0.61 0.29 0.05 0.07
    Other PMSF 1.07 0.96 0.93 0.74 1.03 1.05 1.11 0.85 1.07 1.16 1.21 2.21
    Benserazide 1.07 1.13 1.18 1.13 1.03 1.18 1.15 1.22 0.89 0.98 0.61 0.78
    β-Chloro-L-alanine HCl 1.01 1.16 1.28 1.30 1.01 1.09 1.28 1.31 0.93 1.06 1.12 1.20
    Lincomycin 1.06 1.11 1.13 Tox 1.05 1.00 1.07 Tox 1.08 1.05 0.98 Tox
    Protein synthesis Fusidic acid 1.05 0.95 Tox 0.77 0.74 0.48 Tox 0.63 0.73 0.70 Tox 0.62
    Blasticidin S 1.05 0.95 0.97 Tox 1.06 1.08 1.11 Tox 1.09 1.06 1.11 Tox
    Chloramphenicol 0.97 0.71 Tox Tox 0.99 0.88 Tox Tox 0.88 0.74 Tox Tox
    Puromycin 1.04 1.08 1.01 Tox 0.96 0.95 0.73 Tox 0.99 0.95 0.59 Tox
    Chloramphenicol 0.97 0.91 Tox Tox 1.04 0.97 Tox Tox 0.84 0.74 Tox Tox
    Thiamphenicol 0.93 1.37 Tox Tox 0.92 0.65 Tox Tox 0.64 0.53 Tox Tox
    Tetracycline Doxycycline 1.09 1.28 Tox Tox 1.03 0.80 Tox Tox 0.94 0.64 Tox Tox
    Chlortetracycline 1.04 1.00 Tox Tox 0.83 0.82 Tox Tox 1.11 0.85 Tox Tox
    Oxytetracycline 1.08 1.05 1.12 1.13 1.04 1.03 1.04 1.08 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.91
    Tetracycline 1.04 1.03 1.13 Tox 1.03 1.07 1.17 Tox 0.95 0.98 0.96 Tox
    Demeclocycline 1.03 1.04 Tox Tox 0.98 0.98 Tox Tox 1.04 1.01 Tox Tox
    Minocycline 1.09 1.04 0.81 Tox 1.03 1.03 Tox Tox 1.04 0.93 Tox Tox
    Penimepicycline 1.07 1.12 Tox Tox 1.02 1.04 Tox Tox 0.90 0.80 Tox Tox
    Rolitetracycline 1.10 0.99 Tox Tox 0.99 0.89 Tox Tox 1.03 0.90 Tox Tox
    tRNA synthetase Glycine hydroxamate 1.08 0.95 1.13 1.01 1.07 1.11 1.19 1.12 1.00 1.07 1.39 1.22
    DL-Methionine hydroxamate 1.08 1.10 1.06 Tox 1.03 1.04 1.08 Tox 0.92 0.96 0.93 Tox
    L-Aspartic-β-hydroxamate 1.06 1.05 1.05 1.19 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.03 1.06 1.05 1.11 1.19
    L-Glutamic-g-hydroxamate 1.03 1.03 1.08 1.08 1.02 1.01 1.09 1.04 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.01
    D,L-Serine hydroxamate 1.04 0.95 1.45 0.71 1.02 1.00 1.22 Tox 0.96 0.94 1.00 Tox
    Respiration Ionophore Gallic acid 1.04 1.09 1.00 Tox 1.10 1.00 0.95 Tox 0.90 0.84 0.99 Tox
    3,5-Dinitro-benzene 0.98 1.10 Tox Tox 1.02 0.97 Tox Tox 0.94 0.87 Tox Tox
    FCCP 0.86 0.67 0.56 0.86 0.91 1.01 1.04 0.98 1.03 1.20 1.33 1.79
    Sodium caprylate 1.02 1.12 Tox Tox 1.13 0.98 Tox Tox 0.92 0.79 Tox Tox
    Cinnamic acid 1.12 1.09 1.19 Tox 0.99 1.11 0.95 Tox 0.98 0.85 0.96 Tox
    2,4-Dintrophenol 1.05 1.02 1.27 Tox 1.02 0.94 1.02 Tox 0.85 0.74 0.61 Tox
    Sorbic acid 0.92 0.91 1.01 0.89 1.06 1.08 0.92 0.92 0.98 1.02 0.97 0.89
    Pentachloro-phenol 0.98 0.93 1.22 1.11 0.97 0.95 0.91 0.70 0.84 0.84 1.05 1.21
    18-Crown-6 ether 1.05 1.05 0.99 1.40 0.99 1.01 0.99 1.08 0.92 0.72 0.70 0.66
    CCCP 0.97 1.30 1.55 0.33 1.05 1.14 1.63 0.60 0.80 0.83 1.22 0.39
    Other Iodonitro Tetrazolium Violet 0.96 0.96 0.90 0.87 0.91 0.99 0.81 0.78 1.12 1.03 0.60 0.61
    Oxycarboxin 2.58 Tox Tox Tox 1.29 Tox Tox Tox 1.67 Tox Tox Tox
    Ruthenium red 1.04 0.94 1.05 1.06 1.03 1.02 1.14 1.07 1.08 1.05 1.13 1.09
    Uncoupler Crystal violet 1.04 1.03 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.07 1.11 1.04 1.04 1.05 0.99 1.03
    Menadione 1.00 1.12 0.93 1.13 0.97 1.11 0.97 1.11 0.90 1.09 1.03 1.17
    Sodium azide 1.02 Tox Tox Tox 1.00 Tox Tox Tox 1.01 Tox Tox Tox
    Tetrazolium violet #### 1.41 Tox Tox 1.28 0.76 Tox Tox 0.76 0.47 Tox Tox
    Wall β-lactam Phenethicillin 0.95 0.91 Tox Tox 0.96 1.19 Tox Tox 1.06 1.24 Tox Tox
    Cioxacillin 1.02 1.13 1.29 Tox 0.99 1.01 0.93 Tox 1.03 1.09 0.04 Tox
    Piperacillin 0.98 1.01 0.78 Tox 1.02 1.10 1.36 Tox 0.81 0.91 2.22 Tox
    Nafcillin 1.03 0.99 0.83 0.62 1.01 1.01 0.97 Tox 1.04 1.06 1.41 Tox
    Penicillin G 0.96 1.13 1.31 Tox 1.04 1.10 0.84 Tox 0.88 1.06 1.01 Tox
    Aziocillin 0.92 1.01 0.94 0.64 1.05 1.09 0.89 0.64 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.47
    Ampicillin 0.97 0.95 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.03 1.02 1.01 0.97 0.92 0.95 0.97
    Amoxicillin 1.05 1.00 0.60 Tox 1.03 1.02 0.74 Tox 0.98 0.94 0.89 Tox
    Carbenicillin 0.95 0.67 0.86 Tox 1.07 1.04 0.74 Tox 0.95 0.85 1.08 Tox
    Carbenicillin 1.13 1.08 Tox Tox 1.05 1.02 Tox Tox 1.09 1.05 Tox Tox
    Oxacillin 0.95 1.03 1.22 Tox 0.88 0.85 1.19 Tox 0.87 0.94 0.72 Tox
    Cephalosporin Cefamandole nafate 1.05 1.02 0.97 0.90 1.12 1.10 0.96 0.91 1.02 1.12 1.00 0.91
    Cefsulodin 1.14 1.26 1.24 1.70 1.02 1.05 1.04 1.20 1.00 1.08 1.25 1.42
    Cefoxitin 1.00 1.06 1.04 0.98 0.95 1.05 1.05 0.92 0.88 1.00 1.03 1.03
    Cefuroxime 0.99 1.34 1.10 Tox 1.03 0.99 0.28 Tox 0.97 1.10 0.94 Tox
    Cefoperazone 0.95 0.91 0.74 0.64 1.03 0.89 0.83 0.94 1.07 1.06 0.89 0.79
    Cephalothin 0.96 0.98 1.01 Tox 1.02 1.01 0.86 Tox 0.94 1.01 1.01 Tox
    Moxalactam 1.05 0.99 1.02 0.98 1.01 0.91 0.97 0.95 1.06 1.00 1.03 1.13
    Ceftriaxone 1.02 1.51 1.27 Tox 1.06 0.96 0.97 Tox 0.98 1.30 0.49 Tox
    Cefazolin 1.07 1.09 0.61 Tox 1.05 1.01 1.12 Tox 1.00 1.00 1.21 Tox
    Cefmetazole 1.01 1.05 1.36 Tox 1.09 1.04 0.58 Tox 0.92 0.87 1.10 Tox
    Cefotaxime 0.63 Tox Tox Tox 0.89 Tox Tox Tox 0.68 Tox Tox Tox
    Other Aztreonam 1.00 0.92 0.82 Tox 1.01 0.90 1.02 Tox 0.93 1.02 1.11 Tox
    Phosphomycin 0.96 1.04 0.59 Tox 0.98 0.87 0.45 Tox 0.94 0.58 0.01 Tox
    Peptidoglycan D-Serine 1.08 2.68 1.49 Tox 0.81 1.75 1.13 Tox 0.99 1.74 0.97 Tox
    synthesis D-Cycloserine 0.89 1.16 0.95 Tox 1.02 1.07 1.13 Tox 0.93 1.08 1.43 Tox
    Glycine 1.01 1.04 0.97 0.91 0.99 1.00 0.96 0.95 1.03 1.05 1.00 1.05
    Polymyxin Polymyxin B 1.07 Tox Tox Tox 1.10 Tox Tox Tox 1.00 Tox Tox Tox
    Colistin 1.10 1.18 Tox Tox 1.05 0.95 Tox Tox 1.09 0.14 Tox Tox
    Polymyxin B 0.97 0.96 1.01 Tox 0.99 0.97 0.47 Tox 0.92 0.92 0.23 Tox

Claims (13)

1. An antimicrobial composition comprising: (a) a biocide; and (b) a Group IB metal; wherein the composition has a coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) less than or equal to 0.5, wherein the CDI is calculated as (A+B)/A×B, wherein A is growth in the presence of the culture medium comprising the soluble Group D3 metal but lacking the test biocide normalized to growth in LB medium, B is growth in a same culture medium comprising the test biocide but lacking the Group IB metal normalized to growth in LB medium, and A×B is growth in the culture medium comprising the soluble Group IB metal and the test biocide normalized to growth in LB medium.
2. The antimicrobial composition of claim 1, wherein the metal is gold and the biocide is disulfiram, thiosalisylic acid, novobiocin, chlorpromazine, or a biocide selected from the group consisting of a glycopeptide, a macrolide, and a sodium channel inhibitor.
3. The antimicrobial composition of claim 2, wherein the glycopeptide is selected from bleomycin and vancomycin.
4. The antimicrobial composition of claim 2, wherein the macrolide is selected from the group consisting of erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, spiramycin, troleandomycin, and tylosin.
5. The antimicrobial composition of claim 2, wherein the sodium channel inhibitor is lidocaine or procaine.
6. The antimicrobial composition of claim 1, wherein the metal is silver and the biocide is selected from the group consisting of 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinaldine, 5,7-dichloro-8-hydroxyquinoline, 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline, 9-aminoacridine, acriflavine, novobiocin, proflavine, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, dichlofluanid, tolylfluanid, lidocaine, procaine, D,L-serine hydroxamate, D,L-methionine hydroxamate, L-glutamic-γ-hydroxamate, erythromycin, josamycin, oleandomycin, troleandomycin, tylosin, benserazide, chlorpromazine, promethazine, thioridazine, trifluoperazine, dodine, guanidine hydrochloride, atropine, orphenadrine, 2-nitroimidazole, ornidazole, methyl viologen, D,L-propanolol, patulin, sanguinarine, and iodoacetate.
7. The antimicrobial composition of claim 1, wherein the metal is copper and the biocide is selected from the group consisting of chlorodinitrobenzene, methyl viologen, thioctic acid, iodonitrotetrazolium violet, fusidic acid, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, a nitrofuran, a triazole, a fenicol, lauryl sulfobetaine, niaproof, menadione, and lidocaine.
8. A method of killing a microorganism or inhibiting its growth by the application of an effective amount of an antimicrobial composition according to claim 1.
9. The method of claim 8, wherein the microorganism is a bacterium.
10. A method for inhibiting microbiological growth on or in an object which comprises contacting an antimicrobial composition according to claim 1 to the object.
11. The method of claim 10, wherein the object is a medical device.
12. The method of claim 10, whereby growth of one or more types of microorganisms on the contacted object is inhibited.
13-18. (canceled)
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