US20170212529A1 - Multi-sensor fusion for robust autonomous flight in indoor and outdoor environments with a rotorcraft micro-aerial vehicle (mav) - Google Patents

Multi-sensor fusion for robust autonomous flight in indoor and outdoor environments with a rotorcraft micro-aerial vehicle (mav) Download PDF

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US20170212529A1
US20170212529A1 US15/165,846 US201615165846A US2017212529A1 US 20170212529 A1 US20170212529 A1 US 20170212529A1 US 201615165846 A US201615165846 A US 201615165846A US 2017212529 A1 US2017212529 A1 US 2017212529A1
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measurements
state
sensors
vehicle
gps
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R. Vijay Kumar
Shaojie Shen
Nathan Michael
Kartik Mohta
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University of Pennsylvania Penn
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    • G—PHYSICS
    • G05—CONTROLLING; REGULATING
    • G05D—SYSTEMS FOR CONTROLLING OR REGULATING NON-ELECTRIC VARIABLES
    • G05D1/00—Control of position, course, altitude or attitude of land, water, air or space vehicles, e.g. using automatic pilots
    • G05D1/10—Simultaneous control of position or course in three dimensions
    • G05D1/101—Simultaneous control of position or course in three dimensions specially adapted for aircraft
    • G05D1/102—Simultaneous control of position or course in three dimensions specially adapted for aircraft specially adapted for vertical take-off of aircraft
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B64—AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; COSMONAUTICS
    • B64C—AEROPLANES; HELICOPTERS
    • B64C39/00—Aircraft not otherwise provided for
    • B64C39/02—Aircraft not otherwise provided for characterised by special use
    • B64C39/024—Aircraft not otherwise provided for characterised by special use of the remote controlled vehicle type, i.e. RPV
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B64—AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; COSMONAUTICS
    • B64C—AEROPLANES; HELICOPTERS
    • B64C39/00—Aircraft not otherwise provided for
    • B64C39/02—Aircraft not otherwise provided for characterised by special use
    • B64C39/028—Micro-sized aircraft
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B64—AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; COSMONAUTICS
    • B64U—UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES [UAV]; EQUIPMENT THEREFOR
    • B64U10/00—Type of UAV
    • B64U10/80—UAVs characterised by their small size, e.g. micro air vehicles [MAV]
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B64—AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; COSMONAUTICS
    • B64U—UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES [UAV]; EQUIPMENT THEREFOR
    • B64U20/00—Constructional aspects of UAVs
    • B64U20/40—Modular UAVs
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01C—MEASURING DISTANCES, LEVELS OR BEARINGS; SURVEYING; NAVIGATION; GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS; PHOTOGRAMMETRY OR VIDEOGRAMMETRY
    • G01C21/00—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00
    • G01C21/10—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration
    • G01C21/12—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning
    • G01C21/16—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning by integrating acceleration or speed, i.e. inertial navigation
    • G01C21/165—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning by integrating acceleration or speed, i.e. inertial navigation combined with non-inertial navigation instruments
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01C—MEASURING DISTANCES, LEVELS OR BEARINGS; SURVEYING; NAVIGATION; GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS; PHOTOGRAMMETRY OR VIDEOGRAMMETRY
    • G01C21/00—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00
    • G01C21/10—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration
    • G01C21/12—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning
    • G01C21/16—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning by integrating acceleration or speed, i.e. inertial navigation
    • G01C21/165—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning by integrating acceleration or speed, i.e. inertial navigation combined with non-inertial navigation instruments
    • G01C21/1654—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning by integrating acceleration or speed, i.e. inertial navigation combined with non-inertial navigation instruments with electromagnetic compass
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01C—MEASURING DISTANCES, LEVELS OR BEARINGS; SURVEYING; NAVIGATION; GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS; PHOTOGRAMMETRY OR VIDEOGRAMMETRY
    • G01C21/00—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00
    • G01C21/10—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration
    • G01C21/12—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning
    • G01C21/16—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning by integrating acceleration or speed, i.e. inertial navigation
    • G01C21/165—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning by integrating acceleration or speed, i.e. inertial navigation combined with non-inertial navigation instruments
    • G01C21/1656—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00 by using measurements of speed or acceleration executed aboard the object being navigated; Dead reckoning by integrating acceleration or speed, i.e. inertial navigation combined with non-inertial navigation instruments with passive imaging devices, e.g. cameras
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01C—MEASURING DISTANCES, LEVELS OR BEARINGS; SURVEYING; NAVIGATION; GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS; PHOTOGRAMMETRY OR VIDEOGRAMMETRY
    • G01C21/00—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00
    • G01C21/20—Instruments for performing navigational calculations
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01C—MEASURING DISTANCES, LEVELS OR BEARINGS; SURVEYING; NAVIGATION; GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS; PHOTOGRAMMETRY OR VIDEOGRAMMETRY
    • G01C21/00—Navigation; Navigational instruments not provided for in groups G01C1/00 - G01C19/00
    • G01C21/20—Instruments for performing navigational calculations
    • G01C21/206—Instruments for performing navigational calculations specially adapted for indoor navigation
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01S—RADIO DIRECTION-FINDING; RADIO NAVIGATION; DETERMINING DISTANCE OR VELOCITY BY USE OF RADIO WAVES; LOCATING OR PRESENCE-DETECTING BY USE OF THE REFLECTION OR RERADIATION OF RADIO WAVES; ANALOGOUS ARRANGEMENTS USING OTHER WAVES
    • G01S19/00—Satellite radio beacon positioning systems; Determining position, velocity or attitude using signals transmitted by such systems
    • G01S19/38—Determining a navigation solution using signals transmitted by a satellite radio beacon positioning system
    • G01S19/39—Determining a navigation solution using signals transmitted by a satellite radio beacon positioning system the satellite radio beacon positioning system transmitting time-stamped messages, e.g. GPS [Global Positioning System], GLONASS [Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System] or GALILEO
    • G01S19/42—Determining position
    • G01S19/48—Determining position by combining or switching between position solutions derived from the satellite radio beacon positioning system and position solutions derived from a further system
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01S—RADIO DIRECTION-FINDING; RADIO NAVIGATION; DETERMINING DISTANCE OR VELOCITY BY USE OF RADIO WAVES; LOCATING OR PRESENCE-DETECTING BY USE OF THE REFLECTION OR RERADIATION OF RADIO WAVES; ANALOGOUS ARRANGEMENTS USING OTHER WAVES
    • G01S19/00—Satellite radio beacon positioning systems; Determining position, velocity or attitude using signals transmitted by such systems
    • G01S19/38—Determining a navigation solution using signals transmitted by a satellite radio beacon positioning system
    • G01S19/39—Determining a navigation solution using signals transmitted by a satellite radio beacon positioning system the satellite radio beacon positioning system transmitting time-stamped messages, e.g. GPS [Global Positioning System], GLONASS [Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System] or GALILEO
    • G01S19/42—Determining position
    • G01S19/48—Determining position by combining or switching between position solutions derived from the satellite radio beacon positioning system and position solutions derived from a further system
    • G01S19/485—Determining position by combining or switching between position solutions derived from the satellite radio beacon positioning system and position solutions derived from a further system whereby the further system is an optical system or imaging system
    • B64C2201/027—
    • B64C2201/108—
    • B64C2201/141—
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B64—AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; COSMONAUTICS
    • B64U—UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES [UAV]; EQUIPMENT THEREFOR
    • B64U10/00—Type of UAV
    • B64U10/10—Rotorcrafts
    • B64U10/13—Flying platforms
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B64—AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; COSMONAUTICS
    • B64U—UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES [UAV]; EQUIPMENT THEREFOR
    • B64U10/00—Type of UAV
    • B64U10/10—Rotorcrafts
    • B64U10/13—Flying platforms
    • B64U10/14—Flying platforms with four distinct rotor axes, e.g. quadcopters
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B64—AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; COSMONAUTICS
    • B64U—UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES [UAV]; EQUIPMENT THEREFOR
    • B64U2201/00—UAVs characterised by their flight controls
    • B64U2201/10—UAVs characterised by their flight controls autonomous, i.e. by navigating independently from ground or air stations, e.g. by using inertial navigation systems [INS]
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B64—AIRCRAFT; AVIATION; COSMONAUTICS
    • B64U—UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES [UAV]; EQUIPMENT THEREFOR
    • B64U30/00—Means for producing lift; Empennages; Arrangements thereof
    • B64U30/20—Rotors; Rotor supports

Definitions

  • the subject matter described herein relates to controlling autonomous flight in a micro-aerial vehicle. More particularly, the subject matter described herein relates to multi-sensor fusion for robust autonomous flight in indoor and outdoor environments with a rotorcraft micro-aerial vehicle (MAV).
  • MAV micro-aerial vehicle
  • Micro-aerial vehicles such as rotorcraft micro-aerial vehicles, are capable of flying autonomously. Accurate autonomous flight can be achieved provided that there is sufficient sensor data available to provide control input for the autonomous flight. For example, in some outdoor environments where a global positioning system (GPS) is available, autonomous flight can be achieved based on GPS signals. However, in environments where GPS is not available, such as indoor environments and even outdoor urban environments, autonomous flight based on GPS alone is not possible. In some indoor environments, magnetometer output may not be available or reliable due to magnetic interference caused by structures. Thus, reliance on a single modality of sensor to control flight of a rotorcraft MAV may not be desirable.
  • GPS global positioning system
  • Another goal of controlling autonomous flight of a rotorcraft MAV is smooth transition between states when a sensor modality that was not previously available becomes available. For example, when a rotorcraft MAV is flying indoors where GPS is not available and then transitions to an outdoor environment where GPS suddenly becomes available, the rotorcraft may determine that it is far off course and may attempt to correct the error by immediately moving to be on course. It is desirable that such transitions be smooth, rather than having the rotorcraft immediately make large changes in velocity and trajectory to get back on course.
  • sensor data are available to control autonomous flight in rotorcraft micro-aerial vehicles.
  • onboard cameras, laser scanners, GPS transceivers, and accelerometers can provide multiple inputs that are suitable as control inputs for controlling flight.
  • relying on any one of these sensors fails when the assumptions associated with the sensor fails. Because each type of sensor produces a unique kind of output with a unique level of uncertainty in its measurement, there exists a need for improved methods, systems, and computer readable media for multi-sensor fusion for robust autonomous flight in indoor and outdoor environments with a rotorcraft MAV.
  • the subject matter described herein includes a modular and extensible approach to integrate noisy measurements from multiple heterogeneous sensors that yield either absolute or relative observations at different and varying time intervals, and to provide smooth and globally consistent estimates of position in real time for autonomous flight.
  • IMU inertial measurement unit
  • laser scanner laser scanner
  • stereo cameras stereo cameras
  • pressure altimeter pressure altimeter
  • magnetometer magnetometer
  • GPS receiver GPS receiver
  • the subject matter described herein may be implemented in hardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof.
  • the terms “function”, “node” or “module” as used herein refer to hardware, which may also include software and/or firmware components, for implementing the feature being described.
  • the subject matter described herein may be implemented using a computer readable medium having stored thereon computer executable instructions that when executed by the processor of a computer control the computer to perform steps.
  • Exemplary computer readable media suitable for implementing the subject matter described herein include non-transitory computer-readable media, such as disk memory devices, chip memory devices, programmable logic devices, and application specific integrated circuits.
  • a computer readable medium that implements the subject matter described herein may be located on a single device or computing platform or may be distributed across multiple devices or computing platforms.
  • FIG. 1 depicts a 1.9 kg MAV platform equipped with an IMU, laser scanner, stereo cameras, pressure altimeter, magnetometer, and GPS receiver. All the computation is performed onboard on an Intel NUC computer with 3 rd generation i3 processor;
  • FIG. 2 depicts delayed, out-of-order measurement with a priority queue. While z 4 arrives before z 2 , z 2 is first applied to the filter. z 4 is temporary stored in the queue. z 1 is discarded since it is older than t d from the current state. The covariance is only propagated up to the time where the most recent measurement is applied to the filter. The state is propagated until the most recent IMU input;
  • Pose graph SLAM produces a globally consistent graph ( FIG. 3B );
  • FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate the alternative GPS fusion, the discrepancy between transformed GPS measurement z 5 and the non-optimized state s 5 is minimized. Fusion of such indirect GPS measurement will lead to a smooth state estimate (dashed line between s 6 and s 5 );
  • FIGS. 5A and 5B depict that the MAV maneuvers aggressively with a maximum speed of 3.5 m/s ( FIG. 5B ).
  • the horizontal position also compares well with the ground truth with slight drift ( FIG. 5A );
  • FIGS. 6A-6H depict images from the onboard camera ( FIGS. 6A-6D ) and an external camera ( FIGS. 6E-6H ). Note the vast variety of environments, including open space, trees, complex building structures, and indoor environments. We highlight the position of the MAV with a circle. Videos of the experiments are available in the video attachment and at http://mrsl.grasp.upenn.edu/shaojie/ICRA2014.mp4;
  • FIG. 8 illustrates sensor availability over time. Note that failures occurred to all sensors. This shows that multi-sensor fusion is a must for this kind of indoor-outdoor missions;
  • FIG. 9 illustrates covariance changes as the vehicle flies through a dense building area (between 200 s-300 s, top of FIG. 7 ,).
  • the GPS comes in and out due to building shadowing.
  • the covariance of x, y, and yaw increases as GPS fails and decreases as GPS resumes. Note that the body frame velocity are observable regardless of GPS measurements, and thus its covariance remains small
  • the spike in the velocity covariance is due to the vehicle directly facing the sun.
  • the X-Y covariance is calculated from the Frobenius norm of the covariance submatrix;
  • FIG. 10 depicts vehicle trajectory overlaid on a satellite map.
  • the vehicle operates in a tree-lined campus environment, where there is high risk of GPS failure during operation;
  • FIGS. 11A and 11B depict onboard ( FIG. 11A ) and external ( FIG. 11B ) camera images as the MAV autonomously flies through a tree-lined campus environment. Note the nontrivial light condition;
  • FIG. 12 is a block diagram of a rotorcraft MAV for performing multi-sensor fusion according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein;
  • FIG. 13 is a flow chart illustrating an exemplary process for multi-sensor fusion controlling autonomous of a rotorcraft MAV according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein;
  • FIG. 14 illustrates an experimental platform with limited onboard computation (Intel Atom 1.6 GHz processor) and sensing (two cameras with fisheye lenses and an off-the-shelf inexpensive IMU).
  • the platform mass is 740 g;
  • FIG. 15 illustrates a system architecture with update rates and information flow between modules marked
  • FIG. 16 illustrates the performance of body frame velocity estimation during autonomous tracking of the trajectory presented in Sect. VIII-A;
  • FIGS. 17A-17D illustrate the effects on feature tracking performance due to fast translation ( FIGS. 17A-17B ) and fast rotation ( FIGS. 17C-17D ).
  • the number of tracked features significantly decrease after rotation;
  • FIGS. 18A and 18B illustrate that a simulated quadrotor tracks a smooth trajectory generated from a sequence of waypoints. Trajectory regeneration takes place after a change of waypoints at 20 s;
  • FIG. 19 illustrates a finite state machine-based approach to MAV navigation that enables the operator to interact with the vehicle during experiments
  • FIGS. 20A and 20B illustrate desired, estimated and actual trajectories when the robot is commanded to follow a smooth trajectory generated from a rectangle pattern
  • FIG. 21A is a snapshot image of the indoor environment
  • FIG. 21B is the image captured by the onboard camera. Note that the floor is featureless, which can pose a challenge to approaches that rely on downward facing cameras;
  • FIGS. 22A-22C illustrate maps and estimated positions during the indoor navigation experiment. Note the nontrivial discontinuities in the pose estimates obtained via SLAM after the loop closure ( FIG. 22C );
  • FIG. 23 illustrates a final 3D map and trajectory of the outdoor experiment after closing the loop.
  • FIGS. 24A-24D contain images of autonomous navigation in a complex outdoor environment. Images from both the external video camera and the onboard camera are shown. Videos of the experiments are available at http://mrsl.grasp.upenn.edu/shaojie/IROS2013.mov.
  • Rotorcraft micro-aerial vehicles are ideal platforms for surveillance and search and rescue in confined indoor and outdoor environments due to their small size, superior mobility, and hover capability. In such missions, it is essential that the MAV is capable of autonomous flight to minimize operator workload. Robust state estimation is critical to autonomous flight especially because of the inherently fast dynamics of MAVs. Due to cost and payload constraints, most MAVs are equipped with low cost proprioceptive sensors (e.g. MEMS IMUs) that are incapable for long term state estimation. As such, exteroceptive sensors, such as GPS, cameras, and laser scanners, are usually fused with proprioceptive sensors to improve estimation accuracy. Besides the well-developed GPS-based navigation technology [1, 2].
  • MEMS IMUs low cost proprioceptive sensors
  • the main goal of this work is to develop a modular and extensible approach to integrate noisy measurements from multiple heterogeneous sensors that yield either absolute or relative observations at different and varying time intervals, and to provide smooth and globally consistent estimates of position in real time for autonomous flight.
  • the first key contribution that is central to our work, is a principled approach, building on [11], to fusing relative measurements by augmenting the vehicle state with copies of previous states to create an augmented state vector for which consistent estimates are obtained and maintained using a filtering framework.
  • a second significant contribution is our Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) formulation in which the propagation and update steps circumvent the difficulties that result from the semi-definiteness of the covariance matrix for the augmented state.
  • UPF Unscented Kalman Filter
  • Section III we outline the modeling framework before presenting the key contributions of UKF-based sensor fusion scheme in Section IV. We bring all the ideas together in our description of the experimental platform and the experimental results in Section VI.
  • p w [x w , y w , z w ] T is the 3D position in the world frame
  • ⁇ w [ ⁇ w , ⁇ w , ⁇ w ] T is the yaw, pitch, and roll Euler angles that represent the 3-D orientation of the body in the world frame, from which a matrix Rwb that represent the rotation of a vector from the body frame to the world frame can be obtained.
  • ⁇ dot over (p) ⁇ b is the 3D velocity in the body frame.
  • b a b and b ⁇ b are the bias of the accelerometer and gyroscope, both expressed in the body frame.
  • b z w models the bias of the laser and/or pressure altimeter in the world frame.
  • v t [v a ,v ⁇ ,v b a ,v b a ,v b z ] T
  • x t+1 ⁇ ( x t ,u t ,v t ) (1)
  • u is the measurement of the body frame linear accelerations and angular velocities from the IMU.
  • v t ⁇ N(0,D t ) ⁇ m is the process noise.
  • v a and v ⁇ represent additive noise associated with the gyroscope and the accelerometer.
  • v ba , v b ⁇ , v bz model the Gaussian random walk of the gyroscope, accelerometer and altimeter bias.
  • the function f(•) is a discretized version of the continuous time dynamical equation [6].
  • Exteroceptive sensors are usually used to correct the errors in the state propagation. Following [11], we consider measurements as either being absolute or relative, depending the nature of underlying sensor. We allow arbitrary number of either absolute or relative measurement models.
  • n t+m ⁇ N(0, Q t ) ⁇ p is the measurement noise that can be either additive or not.
  • h a (•) is in general a nonlinear function.
  • An absolute measurement connects the current state with the sensor output. Examples are shown in Sect. V-B.
  • a relative measurement connects the current and the past states with the sensor output, which can be written as:
  • ⁇ is a UKF parameter.
  • ( ⁇ square root over ((n+ ⁇ )P xx ) ⁇ ) i is the i th column of the square root covariance matrix; which is usually computed via Cholesky decomposition.
  • ⁇ are called the sigma points.
  • the mean, covariance of the random vector y, and the cross-covariance between x and y, can be approximated as:
  • a measurement may not affect all components in the state x.
  • a visual odometry only affects the 6-DOF (Degree of Freedom) pose, not the velocity or the bias terms.
  • x i is an arbitrary subset of x.
  • B i binary selection matrix
  • the linear regression matrix A in (9) serves as the linear approximation of the nonlinear function (4). It is similar to the Jacobian in the EKF formulation. As such, the propagation and update steps in UKF can be performed in a similar fashion as EKF.
  • x ⁇ t ⁇ t [ x ⁇ t ⁇ t x ⁇ I t ⁇ t ]
  • P ⁇ t ⁇ t [ P t ⁇ t xx P t ⁇ t xx i P t ⁇ t x I ⁇ x P t ⁇ t x I ⁇ x I ] .
  • t+m ⁇ hacek over (x) ⁇ t+m
  • the measurements arrive out-of-order to the filter, that is, a measurement that corresponds to an earlier state arrives after the measurement that corresponds to a later state. This violates the Markov assumption of the Kalman filter. Also, due to the sensor processing delay, measurements may run behind the state propagation.
  • the priority queue essentially serves as a measurement reordering mechanism ( FIG. 2 ) for all measurements that are not older than t d from the current state.
  • FIG. 2 we always utilize the most recent IMU measurement to propagate the state forward. We, however, only propagate the covariance on demand. As illustrated in FIG. 2 , the covariance is only propagated from the time of the last measurement to the current measurement.
  • GPS and magnetometer may be available. It is straightforward to fuse the GPS as a global pose measurement and generate the optimal state estimate. However, this may not be the best for real-world applications.
  • a vehicle that operates in a GPS-denied environment may suffer from accumulated drift.
  • the vehicle gains GPS signal as illustrated in FIG. 3A , there may be large discrepancies between the GPS measurement and the estimated state (z 5 -s 5 ). Directly applying GPS as global measurements will result in undesirable behaviors in both estimation (large linearization error) and control (sudden pose change).
  • the optimal pose graph configuration can be found with available solvers [18], as shown in FIG. 3B .
  • the pose graph is disconnected if there are no relative exteroceptive measurements between two nodes. Let two pose graphs be disconnected between k ⁇ 1 and k.
  • the pose graph SLAM provides the transformation between the non-optimized s k-1 and the SLAM-optimized s k-1 + state. This transform can be utilized to transform the global GPS measurement to be aligned with s k-1 :
  • ⁇ t ⁇ 1 s k-1 ⁇ s k-1 +
  • the experimental platform shown in FIG. 1 is based on the Pelican quadrotor from Ascending Technologies, GmbH (http://www.asctec.de/). This platform is natively equipped with an AutoPilot board consisting of an IMU and a user-programmable ARM7 microcontroller.
  • the main computation unit onboard is an Intel NUC with a 1.8 GHz Core i3 processor with 8 GB of RAM and a 120 GB SSD.
  • the sensor suite includes a ublox LEA-6T GPS module, a Hokuyo UTM-30LX LiDAR and two mvBlueFOX-1VILC200 w grayscale HDR cameras with fisheye lenses that capture 752 ⁇ 480 images at 25 Hz. We use hardware triggering for frame synchronization.
  • the onboard auto exposure controller is fine tuned to enable fast adaption during rapid light condition changes.
  • a 3-D printed laser housing redirects some of the laser beams for altitude measurement.
  • the total mass of the platform is 1.87 kg.
  • the entire algorithm is developed in C++ using robot operating system (ROS) (http://www.ros.org) as the interfacing robotics middleware.
  • ROS robot operating system
  • Some onboard sensors are capable of producing absolute measurements (Sect. 111-A), here are their details:
  • z t [ ( x t w y t w ) R b w ⁇ ( x . t b y . t b ) ⁇ t w ] + n t .
  • a position tracking controller with a nonlinear error metric [20].
  • the 100 Hz filter output (Sect. IV) is used directly as the feedback for the controller.
  • the attitude controller runs at 1 kHz on the ARM processor on the MAV's AutoPilot board, while the position tracking control operates at 100 Hz on the main computer.
  • FIGS. 6A-6H The testing site spans a variety of environments, including outdoor open space, densely filled trees, cluttered building area, and indoor environments ( FIGS. 6A-6H ).
  • the MAV is autonomously controlled using the onboard state estimates.
  • a human operator always has the option of sending high level waypoints or velocity commands to the vehicle.
  • the total flight time is approximately 8 minutes, and the vehicle travels 445 meters with an average speed of 1.5 m/s.
  • FIG. 9 shows the evolution of covariance as the vehicle flies through a GPS shadowing area.
  • the global x, y and yaw error is bounded by GPS measurement, without which the error will grow unbounded. This matches the observability analysis results. It should be noted that the error on body frame velocity does not grow, regardless of the availability of GPS. The spike in velocity covariance in FIG. 9 is due to the camera facing direct sunlight.
  • FIGS. 11A and 11B depict onboard ( FIG. 11A ) and external ( FIG. 11B ) camera images as the MAV autonomously flies through a tree-lined campus environment. Note the nontrivial light condition.
  • FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating an MAV for performing fusing measurements from sensors that produce both absolute and relative measurements according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein.
  • the MAV 100 includes one or more motors 102 for controlling motion of the MAV using one or more rotors 104 .
  • the Pelican Quadro Rotor available from Ascending Technologies was used. However, other rotorcraft can be substituted without departing from the scope of the subject matter described herein.
  • It also includes a controller 106 for controlling operation of the motors 102 based on sensor input.
  • a computation unit 108 includes a sensor fusion module 110 that fuses the measurements from multiple sensors and produces an output signal to controller 106 .
  • sensor fusion module 110 receives input from IMU 112 , pressure altimeter 114 , magnetometer 116 , laser scanner 118 , GPS receiver 120 , cameras 122 , and pressure altimeter 123 .
  • Sensor fusion module 110 converts relative measurements, such as those produced by laser scanner 118 and cameras 122 to measurements that depend on augmented states as described above.
  • the transformed measurements are combined using the Unscented Kalman Filter described above and output to controller 106 .
  • the signal provided as output to controller 106 serves as feedback to controller 106 for controlling position, velocity, and acceleration of MAV 100 .
  • Controller 106 also receives inputs from a trajectory estimator 124 , which estimates the trajectory of MAV 100 needed to arrive at user-specific waypoints.
  • FIG. 13 is a flow chart illustrating an exemplary process for controlling motion of a rotorcraft MAV using multi-sensor fusion according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein.
  • input is received from sensors of multiple different modalities.
  • computation unit 108 and sensor fusion module 110 may receive input from any one or more of the sensors illustrated in FIG. 12 from which output is available at a given time.
  • relative output measurements produced by some of the sensors that depend on previous states are converted into measurements that depend on augmented states. The process of performing such conversions is described above in Section IV(A).
  • step 204 measurements from the different sensors are combined and filtered. For example, the measurements may be combined using an Unscented Kalman Filter.
  • the combined measurements are output to a trajectory generator along with a waypoint input by a user.
  • the output of the trajectory generator is used to control motion of the rotorcraft MAV.
  • an autonomous rotorcraft MAV may include a trajectory generator or estimator 124 for generating a trajectory plan for controlling a trajectory of a rotorcraft MAV during flight based on an estimated current state of the rotorcraft MAV and a waypoint input by a user.
  • the following description illustrates trajectory planning that may be performed by trajectory generator or estimator 124 according to one embodiment of the subject matter described herein.
  • the subject matter described herein includes present a system design that enables a light-weight quadrotor equipped with only forward-facing cameras and an inexpensive IMU to autonomously navigate and efficiently map complex environments.
  • the performance of the proposed system is demonstrated via experiments in complex indoor and outdoor environments.
  • Quadrotor micro-aerial vehicles are ideal platforms for surveillance and search and rescue in confined indoor and outdoor environments due to their small size and superior mobility. In such missions, it is essential that the quadrotor be autonomous to minimize operator workload. In this work, we are interested in pursuing a light-weight, off-the-shelf quadrotor to autonomously navigate complex unknown indoor and outdoor environments using only onboard sensors with the critical control computations running in real-time onboard the robot.
  • the experimental platform ( FIG. 14 ) is based on the Hummingbird quadrotor from Ascending Technologies (see http:/www.asctec/de). This off-the-shelf platform comes with an AutoPilot board that is equipped with an inexpensive IMU and a user-programmable ARM7 microcontroller.
  • the high level computer onboard includes an Intel Atom 1.6 GHz processor and 1 GB RAM. Communication between the onboard computer and a ground station is via 802.11n wireless network.
  • the only new additions to the platform are two grayscale mvBlueFOX-MLC200 w cameras with hardware HDR. All cameras are equipped with fisheye lenses. The synchronization between cameras and IMU is ensured via hardware triggering.
  • the total weight of the platform is 740 g.
  • the software architecture is shown in FIG. 15 .
  • This architecture allows us to divide the computations between the onboard low and high level processors and the offboard ground station.
  • a vision-based estimator provides 6-DOF pose estimates at 20 Hz.
  • UDF unscented Kalman filter
  • a stereo-based visual SLAM module generates a 3D voxel grid map for the high level planner.
  • the SLAM module also provides global pose correction. However, we do not directly fuse this pose correction with the vision-based state estimate since it may cause significant pose discontinuities in the event of large scale loop closures.
  • VINS Visual-Inertial
  • u ij is the unit length feature observation vector
  • d i ⁇ r j-1 ⁇ p i ⁇ .
  • the location of the feature p i can be found by solving the following linear system:
  • the 20 Hz pose estimate from the vision system alone is not sufficient to control the robot.
  • An UKF with delayed measurement compensation is used to estimate the pose and velocity of the robot at 100 Hz [14].
  • the system state is defined as:
  • r is the 3D position of the robot
  • q is the quaternion representation the 3D orientation of the robot
  • a b is the bias of the accelerometer measurement in the body frame.
  • FIG. 16 shows the comparison of the performance of the VINS estimator against the ground truth from the Vicon motion capture system 2 during autonomous tracking of a predefined trajectory (Sect. VIII-A).
  • the lack of global bundle adjustment of the VINS estimator results in long term drift in the estimated pose due to recursive formulation. We therefore introduce an odometry frame, (r j O ,R j O ) to represent such drifting behavior.
  • Visual SLAM is a widely studied area. In small workspaces, approaches that use recursive filtering [15] or parallel tracking and mapping techniques [16] yield accurate results. Large scale mapping with monocular [17] or stereo [18] cameras are achieved using pose graph-based formulations. In our system, due to the limited onboard computation resources, limited wireless transmission bandwidth, and the accuracy of the onboard estimator, a high rate visual SLAM is both unnecessary and infeasible. Therefore, our visual SLAM module runs offboard with a maximum rate of 1 Hz.
  • the pose correction from the visual SLAM d j WO which serves as the transform between the odometry frame and the world frame, is formulated such that:
  • the robot flies through all transformed waypoints using the state estimate in the odometry frame for feedback control, it will also fly through the same sets of waypoints in the world frame. Moreover, it there are large scale loop closures (i.e. large changes in d j WO ), the set of waypoints that the robot is heading towards will change significantly. However, if we are able to regenerate smooth trajectories with initial conditions equal to the current state of the robot, the transition between trajectories will be smooth and no special handling is needed within the onboard state estimator and the controller.
  • y is a collection of desired derivative values at each waypoint, which can be either free or fixed.
  • y is a collection of desired derivative values at each waypoint, which can be either free or fixed.
  • the velocity and acceleration are set to be zero for the last waypoint. For all other waypoints, only position is fixed and the trajectory generator will provides the velocity and acceleration profile.
  • a limitation of the above trajectory generation approach is the necessity of predefining the travel time between waypoints. Due to computational constraints, we do not perform any iterative time optimization [27, 28] to find the optimal segment time, but rather use a heuristic that approximates the segment time as a linear trajectory that always accelerates from and decelerates to zero speed with a constant acceleration at the beginning and end of a segment, and maintains constant velocity in the middle of a segment. This simple heuristic can help avoid excessive accelerations during short segments, and is a reasonable time approximation for long segments.
  • FIGS. 18A and 18B show in simulation a quadrotor tracking a smooth trajectory generated from a sequence of waypoints.
  • a change of waypoints and trajectory regeneration take place at 20 s.
  • the regenerated trajectory smoothly connects to the initial trajectory and the quadrotor is able to smoothly switch waypoints.
  • a position tracking controller with a nonlinear error metric [29] due to its superior performance in highly dynamical motions that involve large angle changes and significant accelerations.
  • the 100 Hz state estimate from the VINS system (Sect. III) is used directly as the feedback for the controller.
  • the attitude controller runs at 1 kHz on the ARM processor on the robot's AutoPilot board, while the position tracking control operates at 100 Hz on the Atom processor.
  • the first experiment demonstrates the ability of the proposed system to maintain globally consistent tracking. We provide a comparison with ground truth to quantify the performance.
  • the robot navigates an indoor environment with a large loop (approximately 190 m) and completes the loop within one battery charge (less than 5 minutes of flight time).
  • we present an outdoor navigation experiment that emphasizes the robustness of the proposed system against environment changes and strong wind disturbance.
  • the robot autonomously follows a smooth trajectory generated from a rectangle pattern at approximately 1 m/s.
  • the ground truth from Vicon is used to quantify the global tracking performance.
  • FIG. 20A and FIG. 20B there is slow position drift in the VINS state estimate.
  • global corrections from the offboard visual SLAM results in a globally consistent operation.
  • the robot is controlled using the VINS state estimate, although global loop closure is clearly being merged into the system. Due to the correction from the visual SLAM, the desired smooth trajectory in the odometry frame regenerates and changes over time.
  • This experiment demonstrates the performance of the proposed system in outdoor environments.
  • the experiment is conducted in a typical winter day at Philadelphia, Pa., where the wind speed goes up to 20 km/hr.
  • the total travel distance is approximately 170 m with a total duration of 166 s ( FIG. 23 ).
  • Snapshots from the video camera and images captured by the onboard camera are shown in FIGS. 24A-24D .
  • the outdoor environment is largely unstructured, consisting of trees and vegetation, demonstrating the ability of the system to also operate in unstructured environments.
  • An integrated laser- and/or GPS-based state estimation approach may be incorporated into our current system to extend the operational environments and enhance the system robustness.

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