US20070105146A1

US20070105146A1 - Detection of susceptibility to autoimmune diseases

Info

Publication number: US20070105146A1
Application number: US11/637,847
Authority: US
Inventors: Daniel Mirel; Henry Erlich; Teodorica Bugawan; Janelle Noble; Ana Valdes
Original assignee: Roche Molecular Systems Inc
Current assignee: Roche Molecular Systems Inc
Priority date: 2001-07-20
Filing date: 2006-12-11
Publication date: 2007-05-10
Also published as: US7205106B1

Abstract

The present invention provides methods and reagents for determining sequence variants present at the IL4 receptor, IL-4 and IL-13 loci, which facilitate identifying individuals at risk for type 1 diabetes.

Description

The present patent application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/267,844 filed Oct. 8, 2002, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/264,965 filed Oct. 4, 2002, which is a continuation-in-art of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/189,956 filed Jul. 3, 2002, which claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/306,912 filed Jul. 20, 2001, all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties.

1. FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the fields of immunology and molecular biology. In particular, it relates to methods and reagents for detecting an individual's risk for autoimmune diseases. More specifically, it relates to methods and reagents for detecting an individual's increased or decreased risk for type 1 diabetes.

2. DESCRIPTION OF RELATED ART

The immunological response to an antigen is mediated through the selective differentiation of CD4+ T helper precursor cells (Th0) to T helper type 1 (Th1) or T helper type 2 (Th2) effector cells, with functionally distinct patterns of cytokine (also described as lymphokine) secretion. Th1 cells secrete interleukin 2 (IL-2), IL-12, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), lymphotoxin (LT), and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) upon activation, and are primarily responsible for cell-mediated immunity such as delayed-type hypersensitivity. Th2 cells secrete IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, and IL-1 3 upon activation, and are primarily responsible for extracellular defense mechanisms. The role of Th1 and Th2 cells is reviewed in Peltz, 1991, Immunological Reviews, 123: 23-35, incorporated herein by reference.
IL4 and IL13 play a central role in IgE-dependent inflammatory reactions. IL4 induces IgE antibody production by B Cells and further provides a regulatory function in the differentiation of Th0 to Th1 or Th2 effector cells by both promoting differentiation into Th2 cells and inhibiting differentiation into Th1 cells. IL13 also induces IgE antibody production by B Cells.
IL4 and IL13 operate through the IL4 receptor (“IL4R”), found on both B and T cells, and the IL13R, found on B cells, respectively. The human IL4 receptor (IL4R) is a heterodimer comprising the IL4R α chain and the IL2 receptor γ chain. The α-chain of the IL4 receptor also serves as the α-chain of the IL13 receptor. IL4 binds to both IL4R and IL13R through the IL4R α-chain and can activate both B and T cells, whereas IL13 binds only to IL13R through the IL13R α1 chain and activates only T cells.

3. SUMMARY OF INVENTION

The present invention provides methods for detecting an individual's increased or decreased risk for an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes, also known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (“IDDM”). The present invention also provides kits, reagents and arrays useful for detecting an individual's risk for autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes.
In one aspect, the present invention provides a method for detecting an individual's increased or decreased risk for an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes by detecting the presence of a type 1 diabetes-associated polymorphism in the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci in a nucleic acid sample of the individual, wherein the presence of said polymorphism indicates the individual's increased risk for type 1 diabetes.
In one aspect, the present invention provides a method for detecting an individual's increased or decreased risk for an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes by detecting the presence of a type 1 diabetes-associated polymorphism in the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci in a nucleic acid sample of the individual, wherein the presence of said polymorphism indicates the individual's increased risk for type 1 diabetes.
In one embodiment, the polymorphism is an IL4R polymorphism. In another embodiment, the polymorphism is an IL4 polymorphism. In another embodiment, the polymorphism is an IL13 polymorphism. In another embodiment, an IL4R polymorphism and an IL4 polymorphism are detected. In another embodiment, an IL4R polymorphism and an IL13 polymorphism are detected. In another embodiment, an IL4 polymorphism and an IL13 polymorphism are detected. In another embodiment, an IL4R polymorphism, an IL4 polymorphism and an IL13 polymorphism are detected.
In another embodiment, the IL4R polymorphism is selected from the IL4R polymorphisms listed in Table 21. In another embodiment, the IL4 polymorphism is the the IL4(−524) polymorphisms listed in Table 21. In another embodiment, the IL13 polymorphism is selected from the IL4R polymorphisms listed in Table 21. In another embodiment, 2 or more IL4R polymorphisms selected from the IL4R polymorphisms listed in Table 21 are detected. In another embodiment, 6 or more IL4R polymorphisms selected from the IL4R polymorphisms listed in Table 21 are detected. In another embodiment, 7 or more IL4R polymorphisms selected from the IL4R polymorphisms listed in Table 21 are detected. In another embodiment, 8 or more IL4R polymorphisms selected from the IL4R polymorphisms listed in Table 21 are detected. In another embodiment, all 10 IL4R polymorphisms listed in Table 21 are detected.
The individual can belong to any race or population. In one embodiment, the individual is an Asian, preferably a Filipino, or a Caucasian.
The nucleic acid sample can be obtained from any part of the individual's body, including, but not limited to hair, skin, nails, tissues or bodily fluids such as saliva, blood, etc. The nucleic acid sample can, but need not, be amplified by any amplification method including, but not limited to, polymerase chain reaction (“TCR”).
The polymorphism can be any predisposing or protective polymorphism in the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci. In one embodiment of the invention, the polymorphism can be any polymorphism identified as predisposing or protective by methods taught herein. In one embodiment, the polymorphism can be a single nucleotide polymorphism (“SNP”) in the IL-4 receptor (“IL4-R”), IL4 or IL13 loci. In another embodiment, specific haplotypes in the IL4R, IL4 and IL13 loci as well as specific combinations of, and interactions between, SNPs at these loci can be indicative of an increased or a decreased risk to an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes.
The polymorphism can be detected by any method known in the art for detecting the presence of a specific polymorphism in a nucleic acid sample. These methods include, but are not limited to, contacting the nucleic acid sample with one or more nucleic acid molecules that hybridize under stringent hybridization conditions to at least one type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism and detecting the hybridization, detection by amplification of the nucleic acid sample by, for example, PCR, and by direct sequencing of the nucleic acid sample.
Another aspect of the invention relates to a kit useful for detecting the presence of a predisposing or a protective polymorphism in the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci in a nucleic acid sample of an individual whose risk for type 1 diabetes is being assessed. The kit can comprise one or more oligonucleotides capable of detecting a predisposing or protective polymorphism in the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci as well as instructions for using the kit to detect susceptibility for an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes. In preferred embodiments, the oligonucleotide or oligonucleotides each individually comprise a sequence that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions to at least one type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism. In some embodiments, the oligonucleotide or oligonucleotides each individually comprise a sequence that is fully complementary to a nucleic acid sequence comprising a type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism.
In some embodiments, the oligonucleotide can be used to detect the presence of a type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism by hybridizing to the polymorphism under stringent hybridizing conditions. In some embodiments, the oligonucleotide can be used as an extension primer in either an amplification reaction such as PCR or a sequencing reaction, wherein the type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism is detected either by amplification or sequencing.
In certain embodiments, the kit can further comprise amplification or sequencing primers which can, but need not, be sequence-specific. The kit can also comprise reagents for labeling one or more of the oligonucleotides, or comprise labeled oligonucleotides. Optionally, the kit can comprise reagents to detect the label.
In some embodiments, the kit can comprise one or more oligonucleotides that can be used to detect the presence of two or more predisposing or protective IL4R, IL4 or IL 13 polymorphisms or combinations of predisposing polymorphisms, protective polymorphisms or both.
In another aspect, the invention provides an array useful for detecting the presence of a predisposing or a protective IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism in a nucleic acid sample of an individual whose risk for type 1 diabetes is being assessed. The array can comprise one or more oligonucleotides capable of detecting a predisposing or protective IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism. The oligonucleotides can be immobilized on a substrate, e.g., a membrane or glass. In preferred embodiments, the oligonucleotide or oligonucleotides each individually comprise a sequence that can hybridize under stringent hybridization conditions to a nucleic acid sequence comprising a type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism. In some embodiments, the oligonucleotide or oligonucleotides each individually comprise a sequence that is fully complementary to a nucleic acid sequence comprising a type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphism. The oligonucleotide or oligonucleotides can, but need not, be labeled. In some embodiments, the array can be a microarray.
In some embodiments, the array can comprise one or more oligonucleotides used to detect the presence of two or more predisposing or protective IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphisms or combinations of predisposing polymorphisms, protective polymorphisms or both.
In certain embodiments, an individual's risk for particular Th1-mediated diseases is diagnosed from the individual's IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genotype. In a preferred embodiment, the Th1-mediated disease is type 1 diabetes. An individual who has at least one polymorphism statistically associated with type 1 diabetes possesses a factor contributing to either an increased or a decreased risk of a type 1 diabetes as compared to an individual without the polymorphism. The statistical association of IL4R, IL4 or IL13 polymorphisms (sequence variants) is shown in the examples.
The genotype can be determined using any method capable of identifying nucleotide variation consisting of single nucleotide polymorphic sites. The particular method used is not a critical aspect of the invention. A number of suitable methods are described below.
In one embodiment of the invention, genotyping is carried out using oligonucleotide probes specific to variant IL4R, IL4 or IL13 sequences. Preferably, a region of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genes which encompasses one or several polymorphic sites of interest is amplified prior to, or concurrent with, the hybridization of probes directed to such sites. Probe-based assays for the detection of sequence variants are well known in the art.
Alternatively, genotyping is carried out using allele-specific amplification or extension reactions, wherein allele-specific primers are used which support primer extension only if the targeted allele is present. Typically, an allele-specific primer hybridizes to the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genes such that the 3′ terminal nucleotide aligns with a polymorphic position. Allele-specific amplification reactions and allele-specific extension reactions are well known in the art.

4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 provides a schematic of a molecular haplotyping method;
FIG. 2 provides an illustration of epistasis between the IL4R SNPs and IL4 and IL13 SNPs.

5. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES

Table 1 provides the nucleotide sequence of the coding region of an IL4R (SEQ ID NO: 2);
Table 2 provides IL4R, IL4 and IL13 SNPs useful in the methods of the invention;
Table 3 provides probes used to identify IL4R polymorphisms (SEQ ID NO: 3-19);
Table 4 provides computationally estimated haplotype frequencies compared between Filipino controls and diabetics (SEQ ID NO: 20-24);
Table 5 provides genotypes of affected and nonaffected individuals;
Table 6 provides single nucleotide polymorphisms detected;
Table 7 provides amplicon primers and lengths (SEQ ID NO: 25-36);
Table 8 provides hybridization probes and titers (SEQ ID NO: 37-53);
Table 9 provides allele frequency of wildtype allele in HBDI founders;
Table 10 provides D′ and A values for pairs of IL4R SNPs;
Table 11A provides results of single locus TDT analysis;
Table 11B provides results of single locus TDT analysis;
Table 12 provides allele-specific PCR primers (SEQ ID NO: 54-62);
Table 13 provides IBD distributions for IL4R haplotypes;
Table 14A provides haplotype transmissions;
Table 14B provides haplotype transmissions;
Table 14C provides haplotype transmissions;
Table 15A provides SNP by SNP allele transmissions;
Table 15B provides SNP by SNP allele transmissions;
Table 16A provides a TDT analysis;
Table 16B provides a TDT analysis;
Table 16C provides a TDT analysis;
Table 17A provides a TDT analysis;
Table 17B provides a TDT analysis;
Table 18 provides allele frequencies in Filipino controls and diabetics;
Table 19 provides estimated haplotype frequencies;
Table 20 provides observed haplotype frequencies;
Table 21 provides allele frequencies in diabetics and controls;
Table 22 provides pairwise linkage disequilibrium values for IL4R SNPs;
Table 23 provides pairwise linkage disequilibrium values for IL4 and IL13 SNPs;
Table 24 provides genotype frequencies in patients and controls;
Table 25A provides IL-4R 7-SNP Haplotypes in Filipino diabetics and controls;
Table 25B provides estimated IL4R 10-SNP haplotype frequencies in diabetics and controls;
Table 26 provides estimated IL4 and IL13 5-SNP haplotype frequencies in diabetics and controls;
Table 27 provides correlation between genotype frequencies at IL4R SNPs and five IL4 and IL13 SNPs;
Table 28 provides epistatic interaction between IL4R SNPs and five IL4 and IL13 SNPs;
Table 29 provides probes used to identify IL4 and IL13 polymorphisms (SEQ ID NO: 63-68);
Table 30 provides amplicon primers and lengths for an IL4 promoter and IL13 SNPs (SEQ ID NO: 69-74);
Table 31 provides amplicon primers and lengths for IL4R promoter SNPs (SEQ ID NO: 75-80);
Table 32 provides amplicon primers and lengths for IL13 promoter SNPs (SEQ ID NO: 81-86);

6. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides methods, reagents and kits for detecting an individual's increased or decreased risk for an autoimmune disease. Examples of autoimmune diseases include, but are not limited to, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, primary biliary cirrhosis, type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin dependent diabetes mellitus or IDDM), Grave's disease, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, pernicious anemia, autoimmune thrombocytopenia, vasculitides such as Wegener's granulomatosis, Behcet's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), scleroderma, systemic sclerosis, Guillain-Barre syndromes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis spondyloarthropathies such as ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis, dermatitis herpetiformis, inflammatory bowel diseases, pemphigus vulgaris and vitiligo. In certain preferred embodiments, the autoimmune disease is type 1 diabetes.
Abbreviations and Terminology:
The term “IL4R gene” or “IL4R locus” refers to the genomic nucleic acid sequence that encodes the alpha sub-unit of the interleukin 4 receptor protein. The nucleotide sequence of a gene, as used herein, encompasses coding regions, referred to as exons, intervening, non-coding regions, referred to as introns, and upstream or downstream regions. Upstream or downstream regions can include regions of the gene that are transcribed but not part of an intron or exon, or regions of the gene that comprise, for example, binding sites for factors that modulate gene transcription. The gene sequence of a Human mRNA for IL4R is provided at GenBank accession number X52425.1 (SEQ ID NO: 1). The coding region is provided as SEQ ID NO: 2. The genomic sequence for the IL4R gene is included in GenBank accession number AC004525.1 (SEQ ID NO: 88).
The term “IL4 gene” or “IL4 locus” refers to the genomic nucleic acid sequence that encodes the interleukin 4 protein. The nucleotide sequence of a gene, as used herein, encompasses coding regions, referred to as exons, intervening, non-coding regions, referred to as introns, and upstream or downstream regions. Upstream or downstream regions can include regions of the gene that are transcribed but not part of an intron or exon, or regions of the gene that comprise, for example, binding sites for factors that modulate gene transcription. The genomic sequence for the IL4 gene is provided at GenBank accession number M23442.1 (SEQ ID NO: 89).
The term “IL13 gene” or “IL13 locus” refers to the genomic nucleic acid sequence that encodes the interleukin 13 protein. The nucleotide sequence of a gene, as used herein, encompasses coding regions, referred to as exons, intervening, non-coding regions, referred to as introns, and upstream or downstream regions. Upstream or downstream regions can include regions of the gene that are transcribed but not part of an intron or exon, or regions of the gene that comprise, for example, binding sites for factors that modulate gene transcription. The genomic sequence for the IL13 gene is provided at GenBank accession number U10307.1 (SEQ ID NO: 90).
The term “allele”, as used herein, refers to a sequence variant of the gene. Alleles are identified with respect to one or more polymorphic positions, with the rest of the gene sequence unspecified. For example, an IL4R allele may be defined by the nucleotide present at a single SNP, or by the nucleotides present at a plurality of SNPs. In certain embodiments of the invention, an IL4R is defined by the genotypes of 6, 7, 8 or 10 IL4R SNPs. Examples of such IL4R SNPs are provided in Table 2, below.
For convenience, the allele present at the higher or highest frequency in the population will be referred to as the wild-type allele; less frequent allele(s) will be referred to as mutant-allele(s). This designation of an allele as a mutant is meant solely to distinguish the allele from the wild-type allele and is not meant to indicate a change or loss of function.
The term “predisposing polymorphism” refers to a polymorphism that is positively associated with an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes. The presence of a predisposing polymorphism in an individual could be indicative that the individual has an increased risk for the disease relative to an individual without the polymorphism.
The term “protective polymorphism” refers to a polymorphism that is negatively associated with an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes. The presence of a protective polymorphism in an individual could be indicative that the individual has a decreased risk for the disease relative to an individual without the polymorphism.
The terms “polymorphic” and “polymorphism”, as used herein, refer to the condition in which two or more variants of a specific genomic sequence, or the encoded amino acid sequence, can be found in a population. The terms refer either to the nucleic acid sequence or the encoded amino acid sequence; the use will be clear from the context. The polymorphic region or polymorphic site refers to a region of the nucleic acid where the nucleotide difference that distinguishes the variants occurs, or, for amino acid sequences, a region of the amino acid where the amino acid difference that distinguishes the protein variants occurs. As used herein, a “single nucleotide polymorphism”, or SNP, refers to a polymorphic site consisting of a single nucleotide position.
“Odds Ratio” (“OR”) refers to the ratio of the odds of the disease for individuals with the marker (allele or polymorphism) relative to the odds of the disease in individuals without the marker (allele or polymorphism).
“Linkage Disequilibrium” (“LD”) refers to alleles at different loci that are not associated at random, i.e., not associated in proportion to their frequencies. If the alleles are in positive linkage disequilibrium, then the alleles occur together more often than expected assuming statistical independence. Conversely, if the alleles are in negative linkage disequilibrium, then the alleles occur together less often than expected assuming statistical independence.
The term “genotype” refers to a description of the alleles of a gene or genes contained in an individual or a sample. As used herein, no distinction is made between the genotype of an individual and the genotype of a sample originating from the individual. Although, typically, a genotype is determined from samples of diploid cells, a genotype can be determined from a sample of haploid cells, such as a sperm cell.
The term “haplotype” refers to a description of the variants of a gene or genes contained on a single chromosome, i.e., the genotype of a single chromosome. A haplotype is a set of maternally inherited alleles, or a set of paternally inherited alleles, at any locus.
The term “target region” refers to a region of a nucleic acid which is to be analyzed and usually includes at least one polymorphic region.
Individual amino acids in a sequence are represented herein as AN or NA, wherein A is the amino acid in the sequence and N is the position in the sequence. In the case that position N is polymorphic, it is convenient to designate the more frequent variant as A₁N and the less frequent variant as NA₂. Alternatively, the polymorphic site, N, is represented as A₁NA₂, wherein A₁is the amino acid in the more common variant and A₂is the amino acid in the less common variant. Either the one-letter or three-letter codes are used for designating amino acids (see Lehninger, BioChemistry 2nd ed., 1975, Worth Publishers, Inc. New York, N.Y.: pages 73-75, incorporated herein by reference). For example, 150V represents a single-amino-acid polymorphism at amino acid position 50, wherein isoleucine is the present in the more frequent protein variant in the population and valine is present in the less frequent variant. The amino acid positions are numbered based on the sequence of the mature IL4R protein, as described below.
“Stringent” as used herein refers to hybridization and wash conditions at 50° C. or higher. Other stringent hybridization conditions may also be selected. Generally, stringent conditions are selected to be about 5° C. lower than the thermal melting point (Tm) for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength and pH. The Tm is the temperature (under defined ionic strength and pH) at which 50% of the target sequence hybridizes to a perfectly matched probe. Typically, stringent conditions will be those in which the salt concentration is at least about 0.02 molar at pH 7 and the temperature is at least about 50° C. As other factors may significantly affect the stringency of hybridization, including, among others, base composition, length of the nucleic acid strands, the presence of organic solvents, the extent of base mismatching, the combination of parameters is more important than the absolute measure of any one.
Representations of nucleotides and single nucleotide changes in DNA sequences are analogous. For example, A398G represents a single nucleotide polymorphism at nucleotide position 398, wherein adenine is the present in the more frequent (wild-type) allele in the population and guanine is present in the less frequent (mutant) allele. The nucleotide positions are numbered based on the IL4R coding region sequence provided as SEQ ID NO:2, shown below. It will be clear that in a double stranded form, the complementary strand of each allele will contain the complementary base at the polymorphic position.
Conventional techniques of molecular biology and nucleic acid chemistry, which are within the skill of the art, are fully explained in the literature. See, for example, Sambrook et al., 1989, Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; Oligonucleotide Synthesis (M. J. Gait, ed., 1984); Nucleic Acid Hybridization (B. D. Hames and S. J. Higgins. eds., 1984); the series, Methods in Enzymology (Academic Press, Inc.); and the series, Current Protocols in Human Genetics (Dracopoli et al., eds., 1984 with quarterly updates, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.); all of which are incorporated herein by reference. All patents, patent applications, and publications mentioned herein, both supra and infra, are incorporated herein by reference.
Association with Type 1 Diabetes
As IL4R, IL4 or IL13 are a small component of the complex system of genes involved in an immune response, the effect of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci is expected to be small. Other factors, such as an individual's HLA genotype, may exert dominating effects which, in some cases, may mask the effect of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genotypes. For example, particular HLA genotypes are known to have a major effect on the likelihood of type 1 diabetes (see Noble et al., 1996, Am. J. Hum. Genet, 59:1134-1148, incorporated herein by reference). The IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genotypes are likely to be more informative as an indicator of predisposition towards type 1 diabetes among individuals who have HLA genotypes that confer neither increased nor decreased risk. Furthermore, because allele frequencies at other loci relevant to immune system-related diseases differ between populations and, thus, populations exhibit different risks for immune system-related diseases, it is expected that the effect of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genotypes may be of different magnitude in some populations. Although the contribution of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genotypes may be relatively minor by itself, genotyping at the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci will contribute information that is, nevertheless, useful for a characterization of an individual's predisposition towards type 1 diabetes. The IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genotype information may be particularly useful when combined with genotype information from other loci.
Methods for Detecting Risk for Autoimmune Diseases
The present invention provides methods of determining an individual's risk for any autoimmune disease or condition or any Th-1 mediated disease. Such diseases or conditions include, but are not limited to, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, primary biliary cirrhosis, type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin dependent diabetes mellitus or IDDM), Grave's disease, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, pernicious anemia, autoimmune thrombocytopenia, vasculitides such as Wegener's granulomatosis, Behcet's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), scleroderma, systemic sclerosis, Gullian-Barre syndromes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis spondyloarthropathies such as ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis, dermatitis herpetiformis, inflammatory bowel diseases, pemphigus vulgaris and vitiligo. In certain embodiments of the invention, the methods are used to determine an individual's risk for type 1 diabetes. Preferably, the individual is a human.
Nucleic Acids
Accordingly, one embodiment of the invention is an isolated nucleic acid molecule comprising a portion of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genes, their complements, or variants thereof. Preferably said variant comprises at least one of the polymorphisms identified herein. Even more preferably, said variant comprises at least one of the polymorphisms identified herein to be associated with type 1 diabetes. Thus, in one embodiment, the nucleic acid molecule comprises at least one of the IL4R, IL4, and/or IL13 polymorphisms provided in Table 2. In a further embodiment, the nucleic acid molecule comprises or consists of primers and probes specific to polymorphisms identified in the IL4R, IL4, or IL13 gene, including but not limited to SEQ ID NOS: 3-19, 25-36, 37-53, 54-62, 69-74, 75-80, and 81-86.
The isolated nucleic acid molecules may be RNA, mRNA, DNA, cDNA, and may be double- or single-stranded. They may encode the sense strand, the non-coding regions, or the antisense strand. The nucleic acid molecule can include all or a portion of the coding sequence of the gene and can further comprise additional non-coding regions such as introns and non-coding 3′ and 5′ sequences (including regulatory sequences for example). Additionally, the nucleic acid molecule can be fused to a marker sequence, for example, a sequence that encodes a polypeptide to assist in isolation or purification of the polypeptide.
An “isolated” nucleic acid molecule, as used herein, is one that is separated from nucleotide sequences which normally flank the nucleic acid molecule and/or has been completely or partially purified from other biological material (e.g., protein) normally associated with the nucleic acid.
The nucleic acid molecule can be fused to other coding or regulatory sequences and still be considered isolated. Thus, recombinant DNA contained in a vector is included in the definition of “isolated” as used herein. Also, isolated nucleic acid molecules include recombinant DNA molecules in heterologous host cells, as well as partially or substantially purified DNA molecules in solution. “Isolated” nucleic acid molecules also encompass in vivo and in vitro RNA transcripts of the DNA molecules of the present invention. An isolated nucleic acid molecule or nucleotide sequence can include a nucleic acid molecule or nucleotide sequence that is synthesized chemically or by recombinant means. Also, isolated polynucleotides include recombinant DNA molecules in heterologous organisms, as well as partially or substantially purified DNA molecules in solution. In vivo and in vitro RNA transcripts of the DNA molecules of the present invention are also encompassed by “isolated” nucleotide sequences. Such polynucleotides are useful in the manufacture of the encoded polypeptide, as probes for isolating homologous sequences (e.g., from other mammalian species), for gene mapping (e.g., by in situ hybridization with chromosomes), or for detecting expression of the gene in tissue (e.g., human tissue), such as by Northern blot analysis.
The nucleic acid molecules of the invention can comprise one or more modified nucleotide residues. The modification may be at the base, sugar and/or phosphate moiety and include, for example, halogenation, hydroxylation, alkylation, an attached linker and/or label. The modifications can further comprise, for example, labeling, methylation, internucleotide modifications such as uncharged linkages (e.g., methyl phosphonates, phosphotriesters, phosphoamidates, carbamates), charged linkages (e.g., phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates), pendent moieties (e.g., polypeptides), intercalators (e.g., acridine, psoralen), chelators, alkylators, and modified linkages (e.g., alpha anomeric nucleic acids). Also included are synthetic molecules that mimic nucleic acid molecules in the ability to bind to a designated sequence via hydrogen bonding and other chemical interactions. Such molecules include, for example, those in which peptide linkages substitute for phosphate linkages in the backbone of the molecule.
In certain embodiments, nucleic acid molecules of the invention include, but are not limited to, IL4R, IL4 and/or IL13 mRNA, cDNA and/or genomic DNA molecules. The nucleotide sequence of the coding region of a IL4R mRNA is available from GenBank under accession number X52425.1, nucleotides 176-2653 are provided as SEQ ID NO: 2, shown in a 5′ to 3′ orientation in Table 1, below. The IL4R mRNA is provided as SEQ ID NO: 1. Although only one strand of the nucleic acid is shown in Table 1, those of skill in the art will recognize that SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO: 2 identify regions of double-stranded genomic nucleic acid, and that the sequences of both strands are fully specified by the sequence information provided. The genomic sequence for the IL4R gene is included in GenBank accession number AC004525.1 (SEQ ID NO: 88). The nucleotide sequence of the coding region of a IL4 mRNA is available from GenBank under accession number M23442.1 (SEQ ID NO: 89) and the nucleotide sequence of the coding region of a IL13 mRNA is available from GenBank under accession number U10307.1 (SEQ ID NO: 90).
Primers And Probes
By “oligonucleotide” is meant a single-stranded nucleotide polymer made of more than 2 nucleotide subunits covalently joined together. In one embodiment said oligonucleotides are between about 10 and 1000 nucleotide units, in a further embodiment, said oligonucleotides are between about 12 and 100 nucleotides units. The sugar groups of the nucleotide subunits may be ribose, deoxyribose or modified derivatives thereof such as o-methyl ribose. The nucleotide subunits of an oligonucleotide may be joined by phosphodiester linkages, phosphorothioate linkages, methyl phosphonate linkages or by other linkages, including but not limited to rare or non-naturally-occurring linkages, that do not prevent hybridization of the oligonucleotide. Furthermore, an oligonucleotide may have uncommon nucleotides or non-nucleotide moieties. An oligonucleotide as defined herein is a nucleic acid, preferably DNA, but may be RNA or have a combination of ribo- and deoxyribonucleotides covalently linked. Oligonucleotide probes and amplification oligonucleotides of a defined sequence may be produced by techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art, such as by chemical or biochemical synthesis, and by in vitro or in vivo expression from recombinant nucleic acid molecules, e.g., bacterial or retroviral vectors. As used herein, an oligonucleotide does not consist of wild-type chromosomal DNA or the in vivo transcription products thereof.
Primer and probe sequences may comprise DNA, RNA (oligonucleotides—see above) or nucleic acid analogs such as uncharged nucleic acid analogs including but not limited to peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) which are disclosed in International Patent Application WO 92/20702 or morpholino analogs which are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,185,444, 5,034,506, and 5,142,047 all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. Such sequences can routinely be synthesized using a variety of techniques currently available. For example, a sequence of DNA can be synthesized using conventional nucleotide phosphoramidite chemistry and the instruments available from Applied Biosystems, Inc, (Foster City, Calif.); DuPont, (Wilmington, Del.); or Milligen, (Bedford, Mass.). Similarly, and when desirable, the sequences can be labeled using methodologies well known in the art such as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,464,746; 5,424,414; and 4,948,882 all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. Primers and Probes may be used in a variety of ways and may be defined by the specific use. For example, a “capture probe” is immobilized or can be immobilized on a solid support by any appropriate means, including, but not limited to: by covalent bonding, by adsorption, by hydrophobic and/or electrostatic interaction, or by direct synthesis on a solid support (see in particular patent application WO 92 10092). A “detection probe” may be labeled by means of a marker chosen, for example, from radioactive isotopes, enzymes, in particular enzymes capable of acting on a chromogenic, fluorigenic or luminescent substrate (in particular a peroxidase or an alkaline phosphatase), chromophoric chemical compounds, chromogenic, fluorigenic or luminescent compounds, analogues of nucleotide bases, and ligands such as biotin. A “primer” is a probe comprising, for example, from 10 to 100 nucleotide units and having a hybridization specificity under determined conditions for the initiation of an enzymatic polymerization, for example in an amplification technique such as PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction), in a process of sequencing, in a method of reverse transcription and the like. One use of a probe is as a hybridization assay probe; probes may also be used as in vivo or in vitro therapeutic amplification oligomers or antisense agents to block or inhibit gene transcription, or translation in diseased, infected, or pathogenic cells.
All of the oligonucleotides, primers and probes of the present invention, whether hybridization assay probes, amplification oligonucleotides, or helper oligonucleotides, may be modified with chemical groups to enhance their performance or to facilitate the characterization of amplification products. For example, backbone-modified oligonucleotides such as those having phosphorothioate or methylphosphonate groups which render the oligonucleotides resistant to the nucleolytic activity of certain polymerases or to nuclease enzymes may allow the use of such enzymes in an amplification or other reaction. Another example of modification involves using non-nucleotide linkers (e.g., Arnold, et al., “Non-Nucleotide Linking Reagents for Nucleotide Probes”, EP 0 313 219 hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety) incorporated between nucleotides in the nucleic acid chain which do not interfere with hybridization or the elongation of the primer. Amplification oligonucleotides may also contain mixtures of the desired modified and natural nucleotides.
The 3′ end of an amplification oligonucleotide may be blocked to prevent initiation of DNA synthesis as described by McDonough, et al., entitled “Nucleic Acid Sequence Amplification”, WO94/03472 which enjoys common ownership with the present invention and is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. A mixture of different 3′ blocked amplification oligonucleotides, or of 3′ blocked and unblocked oligonucleotides may increase the efficiency of nucleic acid amplification, as described therein.
The 5′ end of the oligonucleotides may be modified to be resistant to the 5′-exonuclease activity present in some nucleic acid polymerases. Such modifications can be carried out by adding a non-nucleotide group to the terminal 5′ nucleotide of the primer using techniques such as those described by Arnold, et al., supra, entitled “Non-Nucleotide Linking Reagents for Nucleotide Probes”, incorporated by reference herein.
Once synthesized, selected oligonucleotide probes may be labeled by any of several well-known methods (e.g., J. Sambrook, supra). Useful labels include radioisotopes as well as non-radioactive reporting groups. Isotopic labels include ³H, ³⁵S, ³²P, ¹²⁵I, ⁵⁷Co and ¹⁴C. Isotopic labels can be introduced into the oligonucleotide by techniques known in the art such as nick translation, end labeling, second strand synthesis, the use of reverse transcription, and by chemical methods. When using radiolabeled probes hybridization can be detected by autoradiography, scintillation counting, or gamma counting. The detection method selected will depend upon the particular radioisotope used for labeling.
Non-isotopic materials can also be used for labeling and may be introduced internally into the nucleic acid sequence or at the end of the nucleic acid sequence. Modified nucleotides may be incorporated enzymatically or chemically. Chemical modifications of the probe may be performed during or after synthesis of the probe, for example, through the use of non-nucleotide linker groups as described by Arnold, et al., supra “Non-Nucleotide Linking Reagents for Nucleotide Probes,” incorporated by reference herein. Non-isotopic labels include fluorescent molecules, chemiluminescent molecules, enzymes, cofactors, enzyme substrates, haptens or other ligands.

In one embodiment, the probes are labeled with an acridinium ester. Acridinium ester labeling may be performed as described by Arnold et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,185,439, entitled “Acridinium Ester Labeling and Purification of Nucleotide Probes,” issued Feb. 9, 1993 and hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

TABLE 1


SEQ ID NO: 2

1 atggggtggc tttgctctgg gctcctgttc cctgtgagct gcctggtcct gctgcaggtg

61 gcaagctctg ggaacatgaa ggtcttgcag gagcccacct gcgtctccga ctacatgagc

121 atctctactt gcgagtggaa gatgaatggt cccaccaatt gcagcaccga gctccgcctg

181 ttgtaccagc tggtttttct gctctccgaa gcccacacgt gtatccctga gaacaacgga

241 ggcgcggggt gcgtgtgcca cctgctcatg gatgacgtgg tcagtgcgga taactataca

301 ctggacctgt gggctgggca gcagctgctg tggaagggct ccttcaagcc cagcgagcat

361 gtgaaaccca gggccccagg aaacctgaca gttcacacca atgtctccga cactctgctg

421 ctgacctgga gcaacccgta tccccctgac aattacctgt ataatcatct cacCtatgca

481 gtcaacattt ggagtgaaaa cgacccggca gatttcagaa tctataacgt gacctaccta

541 gaaccctccc tccgcatcgc agccagcacc ctgaagtctg ggatttccta cagggcacgg

601 gtgagggcct gggctcagtg ctataacacc acctggagtg agtggagccc cagcaccaag

661 tggcacaact cctacaggga gcccttcgag cagcacctcc tgctgggcgt cagcgtttcc

721 tgcattgtca tcctggccgt ctgcctgttg tgctatgtca gcatcaccaa gattaagaaa

781 gaatggtggg atcagattcc caacccagcc cgcagccgcc tcgtggctat aataatccag

841 gatgctcagg ggtcacagtg ggagaagcgg tcccgaggcc aggaaccagc caagtgccca

901 cactggaaga attgtcttac caagctcttg ccctgttttc tggagcacaa catgaaaagg

961 gatgaagatc ctcacaaggc tgccaaagag atgcctttcc agggctctgg aaaatcagca

1021 tggtgcccag tggagatcag caagacagtc ctctggccag agagcatcag cgtggtgcga

1081 tgtgtggagt tgtttgaggc cccggtggag tgtgaggagg aggaggaggt agaggaagaa

1141 aaagggagct tctgtgcatc gcctgagagc agcagggatg acttccagga gggaagggag

1201 ggcattgtgg cccggctaac agagagcctg ttcctggacc tgctcggaga ggagaatggg

1261 ggcttttgcc agcaggacat gggggagtca tgccttcttc caccttcggg aagtacgagt

1321 gctcacatgc cctgggatga gttcccaagt gcagggccca aggaggcacc tccctggggc

1381 aaggagcagc ctctccacct ggagccaagt cctcctgcca gcccgaccca gagtccagac

1441 aacctgactt gcacagagac gcccctcgtc atcgcaggca accctgctta ccgcagcttc

1501 agcaactccc tgagccagtc accgtgtccc agagagctgg gtccagaccc actgctggcc

1561 agacacctgg aggaagtaga acccgagatg ccctgtgtcc cccagctctc tgagccaacc

1621 actgtgcccc aacctgagcc agaaacctgg gagcagatcc tccgccgaaa tgtcctccag

1681 catggggcag ctgcagcccc cgtctcggcc cccaccagtg gctatcagga gtttgtacat

1741 gcggtggagc agggtggcac ccaggccagt gcggtggtgg gcttgggtcc cccaggagag

1801 gctggttaca aggccttctc aagcctgctt gccagcagtg ctgtgtcccc agagaaatgt

1861 gggtttgggg ctagcagtgg ggaagagggg tataagcctt tccaagacct cattcctggc

1921 tgccctgggg accctgcccc agtccctgtc cccttgttca cctttggact ggacagggag

1981 ccacctcgca gtccgcagag ctcacatctc ccaagcagct ccccagagca cctgggtctg

2041 gagccggggg aaaaggtaga ggacatgcca aagcccccac ttccccagga gcaggccaca

2101 gacccccttg tggacagcct gggcagtggc attgtctact cagcccttac ctgccacctg

2161 tgcggccacc tgaaacagtg tcatggccag gaggatggtg gccagacccc tgtcatggcc

2221 agtccttgct gtggctgctg ctgtggagac aggtcctcgc cccctacaac ccccctgagg

2281 gccccagacc cctctccagg tggggttcca ctggaggcca gtctgtgtcc ggcctccctg

2341 gcaccctcgg gcatctcaga gaagagtaaa tcctcatcat ccttccatcc tgcccctggc

2401 aatgctcaga gctcaagcca gacccccaaa atcgtgaact ttgtctccgt gggacccaca

2461 tacatgaggg tctcttag

SNPs
In one aspect, the present invention provides a method for detecting an individual's increased or decreased risk for an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes by detecting the presence of one or more IL4R, IL4 or IL13 SNPs in a nucleic acid sample of the individual, wherein the presence of said SNP(s) indicates the individual's increased or decreased risk for type 1 diabetes. The SNPs can be any SNPs in the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci including SNPs in exons, introns or upstream or downstream regions. Examples of such SNPs include, but are not limited to those provided in Table 2, below, and discussed in detail in the Examples. In one embodiment, the SNPs present in the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci are identified by genotyping the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 SNPs.

In certain embodiments, the genotype of one IL4R, IL4 or IL13 SNP can be used to determine an individual's risk for an autoimmune disease. In other embodiments, the genotypes of a plurality of IL4R, IL4 or IL13 SNPs can be used. For example, in certain embodiments, the genotypes of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 or 31 of the SNPs in Table 2 can be used to determine a individual's risk for an autoimmune disease. In other embodiments, certain combinations of SNPs at either the same or different loci can be used, as described in the Examples, below.

TABLE 2


IL4R, IL4 and IL13 SNPs

IL4R SNPs

					Acc
dbSNP			WT	Var	X52425.1	AC004525.1	Formal
ID rs#	Exon*	Variation	allele	allele	(cDNA)	(genomic)	SNP name

	P	C(−3223)T	G	A	NA	128387	G128387A
	P	T(−1914)C	A	G	NA	127078	A127078G
	3	I50V	A	G	398	94272	A398G
	4	N142N	C	T	676	92548	C676T
	4	C92516T	C	T	NA	92516	C92516T
	4	A92417T	A	T	NA	92417	A92417T
2234896	7	P249P	C	G	997	80189	C997G
2234897	9	F288F	T	C	1114	76868	T1114C
1805011	9	E375A	A	C	1374	76608	A1374C
	9	E375E	G	A	1375	76607	G1375A
2234898	9	L389L	G	T	1417	76565	G1417T
1805012	9	C406R	T	C	1466	76516	T1466C
2234899	9	C406C	C	T	1468	76514	C1468T
2234900	9	L408L	T	C	1474	76508	T1474C
1805013	9	S411L	C	T	1482	76500	C1482T
1805015	9	S478P	T	C	1682	76300	T1682C
1801275	9	Q551R	A	G	1902	76080	A1902G
	9	V554I	G	A	1910	76072	G1910A
	9	P650S	C	T	2198	75784	C2198T
1805016	9	S727A	T	G	2429	75553	T2429G
	9	G759G	C	T	2567	75455	C2567T
1805014	9	S761P	T	C	2531	75451	T2531C
	9	P774P	T	C	2572	75410	T2572C
1049631	9	3′UTR	G	A	3044	74938	G3044A
8832	9	3′UTR	A	G	3289	74693	A3289G
8674	9	3′UTR	C	T	3391	74581	C3391T

SNP			WT	Var	Genbank	Chromosomal	Formal
Description	Exon	Variation	allele	allele	Access #	Position	SNP name

IL4 SNPs

5′ (−524)

P

(−524)

C

T

M23442.1

5q31

C582T

IL13 SNPs

(−1512)	P	(−1512)	A	C	U10307.1	5q31	A(−1512)C
(−1112)	P	(−1112)	C	T	U10307.1	5q31	C(−1112)T
Intron 3	—	Intron 3	C	T	U10307.1	5q31	C4045T
R110Q	4	R110Q	G	A	U10307.1	5q31	G4166A

P: Promoter region
*The exon numbering is based on the scheme disclosed by Ober etal., 2000, Am J Hum Genet 66: 517-526. Other numbering schemes are available and one of skill in the art will be able to identify the SNP and the scheme is used.

Genotyping Methods
In the methods of the present invention, the alleles present in a sample are identified by identifying the nucleotide present at one or more of the polymorphic sites. Any type of tissue containing IL4R, IL4 or IL13 nucleic acid may be used for determining the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genotypes of an individual. A number of methods are known in the art for identifying the nucleotide present at polymorphic sites. The particular method used to identify the genotype is not a critical aspect of the invention. Although considerations of performance, cost, and convenience will make particular methods more desirable than others, it will be clear that any method that can identify the nucleotide present will provide the information needed to identify the genotype. Preferred genotyping methods involve DNA sequencing, allele-specific amplification, or probe-based detection of amplified nucleic acid.
IL4R, IL4 or IL13 alleles can be identified by DNA sequencing methods, such as the chain termination method (Sanger et al., 1977, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci,. 74:5463-5467, incorporated herein by reference), which are well known in the art. In one embodiment, a subsequence of the gene encompassing the polymorphic site is amplified and either cloned into a suitable plasmid and then sequenced, or sequenced directly. PCR-based sequencing is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,075,216; Brow, in PCR Protocols, 1990, (Innis et al., eds., Academic Press, San Diego), chapter 24; and Gyllensten, in PCR Technology, 1989 (Erlich, ed., Stockton Press, New York), chapter 5; each incorporated herein by reference. Typically, sequencing is carried out using one of the automated DNA sequencers which are commercially available from, for example, PE Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.), Pharmacia (Piscataway, N.J.), Genomyx Corp. (Foster City, Calif.), LI-COR Biotech (Lincloln, Neb.), GeneSys technologies (Sauk City, Wis.), and Visible Genetics, Inc. (Toronto, Canada).
IL4R, IL4 or IL13 alleles can also be identified using amplification-based genotyping methods. Various nucleic acid amplification methods known in the art can be used in to detect nucleotide changes in a target nucleic acid. A preferred method is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which is now well known in the art, and described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,195; 4,683,202; and 4,965,188; each incorporated herein by reference. Examples of the numerous articles published describing methods and applications of PCR are found in PCR Applications, 1999, (Innis et al., eds., Academic Press, San Diego), PCR Strategies, 1995, (Innis et al., eds., Academic Press, San Diego); PCR Protocols, 1990, (Innis et al., eds., Academic Press, San Diego); and PCR Technology, 1989, (Erlich, ed., Stockton Press, New York); each incorporated herein by reference. Commercial vendors, such as PE Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.) market PCR reagents and publish PCR protocols.
Other suitable amplification methods include the ligase chain reaction (Wu and Wallace, 1988, Genomics 4:560-569); the strand displacement assay (Walker et al., 1992, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:392-396, Walker et al. 1992, Nucleic Acids Res. 20:1691-1696, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,455,166); and several transcription-based amplification systems, including the methods described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,437,990; 5,409,818; and 5,399,491; the transcription amplification system (TAS) (Kwoh et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 86:1173-1177); and self-sustained sequence replication (3SR) (Guatelli et al., 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87:1874-1878 and WO 92/08800); each incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, methods that amplify the probe to detectable levels can be used, such as QB-replicase amplification (Kramer et al., 1989, Nature, 339:401-402, and Lomeli et al., 1989, Clin. Chem., 35:1826-1831, both of which are incorporated herein by reference). A review of known amplification methods is provided in Abramson et al., 1993, Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 4:41-47, incorporated herein by reference.
Genotyping also can also be carried out by detecting and analyzing IL4R, IL4 or IL13 mRNA under conditions when both, maternal and paternal, chromosomes are transcribed. Amplification of RNA can be carried out by first reverse-transcribing the target RNA using, for example, a viral reverse transcriptase, and then amplifying the resulting cDNA, or using a combined high-temperature reverse-transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,310,652; 5,322,770; 5,561,058; 5,641,864; and 5,693,517; each incorporated herein by reference (see also Myers and Sigua, 1995, in PCR Strategies, supra, chapter 5).
IL4R, IL4 or IL13 alleles can also be identified using allele-specific amplification or primer extension methods, which are based on the inhibitory effect of a terminal primer mismatch on the ability of a DNA polymerase to extend the primer. To detect an allele sequence using an allele-specific amplification or extension-based method, a primer complementary to the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genes is chosen such that the 3′ terminal nucleotide hybridizes at the polymorphic position. In the presence of the allele to be identified, the primer matches the target sequence at the 3′ terminus and primer is extended. In the presence of only the other allele, the primer has a 3′ mismatch relative to the target sequence and primer extension is either eliminated or significantly reduced. Allele-specific amplification- or extension-based methods are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,137,806; 5,595,890; 5,639,611; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,851,331, each incorporated herein by reference.
Using allele-specific amplification-based genotyping, identification of the alleles requires only detection of the presence or absence of amplified target sequences. Methods for the detection of amplified target sequences are well known in the art. For example, gel electrophoresis (see Sambrook et al., 1989, supra.) and the probe hybridization assays described above have been used widely to detect the presence of nucleic acids.
Allele-specific amplification-based methods of genotyping can facilitate the identification of haplotypes, as described in the examples. Essentially, the allele-specific amplification is used to amplify a region encompassing multiple polymorphic sites from only one of the two alleles in a heterozygous sample. The SNP variants present within the amplified sequence are then identified, such as by probe hybridization or sequencing.
An alternative probe-less method, referred to herein as a kinetic-PCR method, in which the generation of amplified nucleic acid is detected by monitoring the increase in the total amount of double-stranded DNA in the reaction mixture, is described in Higuchi et al., 1992, Bio/Technology, 10:413-417; Higuchi et al., 1993, Bio/Technology, 11:1026-1030; Higuchi and Watson, in PCR Applications, supra, Chapter 16; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,994,056 and 6,171,785; and European Patent Publication Nos. 487,218 and 512,334, each incorporated herein by reference. The detection of double-stranded target DNA relies on the increased fluorescence that DNA-binding dyes, such as ethidium bromide, exhibit when bound to double-stranded DNA. The increase of double-stranded DNA resulting from the synthesis of target sequences results in an increase in the amount of dye bound to double-stranded DNA and a concomitant detectable increase in fluorescence. For genotyping using the kinetic-PCR methods, amplification reactions are carried out using a pair of primers specific for one of the alleles, such that each amplification can indicate the presence of a particular allele. By carrying out two amplifications, one using primers specific for the wild-type allele and one using primers specific for the mutant allele, the genotype of the sample with respect to that SNP can be determined. Similarly, by carrying out four amplifications, each with one of the possible pairs possible using allele specific primers for both the upstream and downstream primers, the genotype of the sample with respect to two SNPs can be determined. This gives haplotype information for a pair of SNPs.
Alleles can be also identified using probe-based methods, which rely on the difference in stability of hybridization duplexes formed between a probe and its corresponding target sequence comprising an IL4R, IL4 or IL13 allele. Under sufficiently stringent hybridization conditions, stable duplexes are formed only between a probe and its target allele sequence and not other allele sequences. The presence of stable hybridization duplexes can be detected by any of a number of well known methods. In general, it is preferable to amplify a nucleic acid encompassing a polymorphic site of interest prior to hybridization in order to facilitate detection. However, this is not necessary if sufficient nucleic acid can be obtained without amplification.
A probe suitable for use in the probe-based methods of the present invention, which contains a hybridizing region either substantially complementary or exactly complementary to a target region of SEQ ID NOS: 2, 88, 89 or 90 or the complement of SEQ ID NOS: 2, 88, 89 or 90, wherein the target region encompasses the polymorphic site, and exactly complementary to one of the two allele sequences at the polymorphic site, can be selected using the guidance provided herein and well known in the art. Similarly, suitable hybridization conditions, which depend on the exact size and sequence of the probe, can be selected empirically using the guidance provided herein and well known in the art. The use of oligonucleotide probes to detect nucleotide variations including single base pair differences in sequence is described in, for example, Conner et al., 1983, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 80:278-282, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,468,613 and 5,604,099, each incorporated herein by reference.
In preferred embodiments of the probe-based methods for determining the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genotypes, multiple nucleic acid sequences from the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genes which encompass the polymorphic sites are amplified and hybridized to a set of probes under sufficiently stringent hybridization conditions. The alleles present are inferred from the pattern of binding of the probes to the amplified target sequences. In this embodiment, amplification is carried out in order to provide sufficient nucleic acid for analysis by probe hybridization. Thus, primers are designed such that regions of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genes encompassing the polymorphic sites are amplified regardless of the allele present in the sample. Allele-independent amplification is achieved using primers which hybridize to conserved regions of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genes. The IL4R, IL4 or IL13 genes contain many invariant or monomorphic regions and suitable allele-independent primers can be selected routinely from SEQ ID NOS: 1, 88, 89 or 90. One of skill will recognize that, typically, experimental optimization of an amplification system is helpful.
Suitable assay formats for detecting hybrids formed between probes and target nucleic acid sequences in a sample are known in the art and include the immobilized target (dot-blot) format and immobilized probe (reverse dot-blot or line-blot) assay formats. Dot blot and reverse dot blot assay formats are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,310,893; 5,451,512; 5,468,613; and 5,604,099; each incorporated herein by reference.
In a dot-blot format, amplified target DNA is immobilized on a solid support, such as a nylon membrane. The membrane-target complex is incubated with labeled probe under suitable hybridization conditions, unhybridized probe is removed by washing under suitably stringent conditions, and the membrane is monitored for the presence of bound probe. A preferred dot-blot detection assay is described in the examples.
In the reverse dot-blot (or line-blot) format, the probes are immobilized on a solid support, such as a nylon membrane or a microtiter plate. The target DNA is labeled, typically during amplification by the incorporation of labeled primers. One or both of the primers can be labeled. The membrane-probe complex is incubated with the labeled amplified target DNA under suitable hybridization conditions, unhybridized target DNA is removed by washing under suitably stringent conditions, and the membrane is monitored for the presence of bound target DNA. A preferred reverse line-blot detection assay is described in the examples.
Probe-based genotyping can be carried out using a “TaqMan” or “5′-nuclease assay,” as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,210,015; 5,487,972; and 5,804,375; and Holland et al., 1988, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:7276-7280, each incorporated herein by reference. In the TaqMan assay, labeled detection probes that hybridize within the amplified region are added during the amplification reaction mixture. The probes are modified so as to prevent the probes from acting as primers for DNA synthesis. The amplification is carried out using a DNA polymerase that possesses 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity, e.g., Tth DNA polymerase. During each synthesis step of the amplification, any probe which hybridizes to the target nucleic acid downstream from the primer being extended is degraded by the 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity of the DNA polymerase. Thus, the synthesis of a new target strand also results in the degradation of a probe, and the accumulation of degradation product provides a measure of the synthesis of target sequences.
Any method suitable for detecting degradation product can be used in the TaqMan assay. In a preferred method, the detection probes are labeled with two fluorescent dyes, one of which is capable of quenching the fluorescence of the other dye. The dyes are attached to the probe, preferably one attached to the 5′ terminus and the other is attached to an internal site, such that quenching occurs when the probe is in an unhybridized state and such that cleavage of the probe by the 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity of the DNA polymerase occurs in between the two dyes. Amplification results in cleavage of the probe between the dyes with a concomitant elimination of quenching and an increase in the fluorescence observable from the initially quenched dye. The accumulation of degradation product is monitored by measuring the increase in reaction fluorescence. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,491,063 and 5,571,673, both incorporated herein by reference, describe alternative methods for detecting the degradation of probe which occurs concomitant with amplification.
The TaqMan assay can be used with allele-specific amplification primers such that the probe is used only to detect the presence of amplified product. Such an assay is carried out as described for the kinetic-PCR-based methods described above. Alternatively, the TaqMan assay can be used with a target-specific probe.
Examples of other techniques that can be used for probe-based genotyping include, but are not limited to, Amplifluor™, Dye Binding-Intercalation, Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET), Hybridization Signal Amplification Method (HSAM), HYB Probes™, Invader/Cleavase Technology (Invader/CFLP™), Molecular Beacons™, Origen™, DNA-Based Ramification Amplification (RAM™), Rolling circle amplification (RCA™), Scorpions™, Strand displacement amplification (SDA).
The assay formats described above typically utilize labeled oligonucleotides to facilitate detection of the hybrid duplexes. Oligonucleotides can be labeled by incorporating a label detectable by spectroscopic, photochemical, biochemical, immunochemical, radiological, radiochemical or chemical means. Useful labels include ³²P, fluorescent dyes, electron-dense reagents, enzymes (as commonly used in ELISAs), biotin, or haptens and proteins for which antisera or monoclonal antibodies are available. Labeled oligonucleotides of the invention can be synthesized and labeled using the techniques described above for synthesizing oligonucleotides. For example, a dot-blot assay can be carried out using probes labeled with biotin, as described in Levenson et al., 1989, in PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications (Innis et al., eds., Academic Press. San Diego), pages 99-112, incorporated herein by reference. Following hybridization of the immobilized target DNA with the biotinylated probes under sequence-specific conditions, probes which remain bound are detected by first binding the biotin to avidin-horseradish peroxidase (A-HRP) or streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase (SA-HRP), which is then detected by carrying out a reaction in which the HRP catalyzes a color change of a chromogen.
Whatever the method for determining which oligonucleotides of the invention selectively hybridize to IL4R, IL4 or IL13 allelic sequences in a sample, the central feature of the typing method involves the identification of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 alleles present in the sample by detecting the variant sequences present.
The present invention also relates to a kit, a container unit comprising useful components for practicing the present method. A useful kit can contain oligonucleotide probes specific for IL4R, IL⁴or IL13 alleles as well as instructions for their use to determine risk for an autoimmune disease such as type 1 diabetes. In some cases, detection probes may be fixed to an appropriate support membrane. The kit can also contain amplification primers for amplifying regions of the IL4R, IL4 or IL13 loci encompassing the polymorphic sites, as such primers are useful in the preferred embodiment of the invention. Alternatively, useful kits can contain a set of primers comprising an allele-specific primer for the specific amplification of IL4R, IL4 or IL13 alleles. Other optional components of the kits include additional reagents used in the genotyping methods as described herein. For example, a kit additionally can contain an agent to catalyze the synthesis of primer extension products, substrate nucleoside triphosphates, reagents for labeling and/or detecting nucleic acid (for example, an avidin-enzyme conjugate and enzyme substrate and chromogen if the label is biotin) and appropriate buffers for amplification or hybridization reactions.
The present invention also relates to an array, a support with immobilized oligonucleotides useful for practicing the present method. A useful array can contain oligonucleotide probes specific for IL4R, IL4, IL13 alleles or certain combinations of IL4R, IL4 and/or IL13 alleles. The oligonucleotides can be immobilized on a substrate, e.g., a membrane or glass. The oligonucleotides can, but need not, be labeled. In some embodiments, the array can be a micro-array. In some embodiments, the array can comprise one or more oligonucleotides used to detect the presence of two or more IL4R, IL4, IL13 alleles or certain combinations of IL4R, IL4 and/or IL13 alleles.
The examples of the present invention presented below are provided only for illustrative purposes and not to limit the scope of the invention. Numerous embodiments of the invention within the scope of the claims that follow the examples will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art from reading the foregoing text and following examples.

7 EXAMPLE 1

Genotyping Protocol: Probe-Based Identification of IL4R, IL4 and IL13 Alleles

This example describes a method of genotyping SNPs in the IL4R, IL4 and IL13 loci that are associated with type 1 diabetes. Two different genotyping methods, line blot assays and kinetic thermocycling, were used, depending on the region and gene genotyped.
Line Blot Assay for Identifying 8 IL4R SNPs, 1 IL4 SNP and 2 IL13 SNPs
Eight exemplary SNPs in the human IL4R gene (listed in Table 6), one exemplary SNP in the human IL4 gene (Table 2) and two exemplary SNPs in the human IL4R gene (Table 2) were genotyped using this method. Each SNP is described by its position in the reference GenBank accession sequence. For example, SNP 1 of Table 6 is found at position 398 of X52425.1 (SEQ ID NO: 1), where an “A” nucleotide is present. The variant allele at this position has a “G” nucleotide. The SNPs will be referred to by the SNP # in the subsequent text.
The regions of the IL4R, IL4 and IL13 genes that encompass the SNPs were amplified and the nucleotide present identified by probe hybridization. The probe detection was carried out using an immobilized probe (line blot) format.
Amplicons and Primers
The pairs of primers used to amplify the regions encompassing the eight IL4R SNPs are listed in Table 7 (SEQ ID NO: 25-36) and those used to amplify the regions encompassing the IL4 SNP and two IL13 SNPs are listed in Table 30 (SEQ ID NO: 69-74). IL4R SNP numbers 3, 4, and 5 (Table 6) were co-amplified on the same 228 basepair fragment. The primers were modified at the 5′ phosphate by conjugation with biotin. Reagents for synthesizing oligonucleotides with a biotin label attached to the 5′ phosphate are commercially available from Clontech (Palo Alto, Calif.) and Glenn Research (Sterling, Va.). A preferred reagent is Biotin-ON from Clontech.
Amplification Primers
Amplification of six regions of the IL4R gene, which encompass eight polymorphic sites, the one region of the IL4 gene, which encompass one polymorphic site, and the two regions of the IL13 gene, which encompass two polymorphic sites, was carried out using the primer pairs shown below. All primers are shown in the 5′ to 3′ orientation.
The following primers amplify a 114 base-pair region encompassing nucleotide position 398 the IL4R gene.

RR192B

(SEQ ID NO: 25)

CAGCCCCTGTGTCTGCAGA

RR193B

(SEQ ID NO: 31)

GTCCAGTGTATAGTTATCCGCACTGA
The following primers amplify a 163 base-pair region encompassing nucleotide position 676.

DBM0177B

(SEQ ID NO: 26)

CTGACCTGGAGCAACCCGTA

DBM0178B

(SEQ ID NO: 32)

ACTGGGCCTCTGCTGGTCA
The following primers amplify a 228 base-pair region encompassing nucleotide positions 1374, 1417, and 1466 of the IL4R gene.

DBM0023B

(SEQ ID NO: 27)

ATTGTGTGAGGAGGAGGAGGAGGTA

DBM0022B

(SEQ ID NO: 33)

GTTGGGCATGTGAGCACTCGTA
The following primers amplify a 129 base-pair region encompassing nucleotide position 1682 of the IL4R gene.

DBM0097B

(SEQ ID NO: 28)

CTCGTCATCGCAGGCAA

DBM0098B

(SEQ ID NO: 34)

AGGGCATCTCGGGTTCTA
The following primers amplify a 198 base-pair region encompassing nucleotide position 1902 of the IL4R gene.

RR200B

(SEQ ID NO: 29)

GCCGAAATGTCCTCCAGCA

RR178B

(SEQ ID NO: 35)

CCACATTTCTCTGGGGACACA
The following primers amplify a 177 base-pair region encompassing nucleotide position 2531 of the IL4R gene.

DBM0112B

(SEQ ID NO: 30)

CCGGCCTCCCTGGCA

DBM0071B

(SEQ ID NO: 36)

GCAGACTCAGCAACAAGAGG
The following primers amplify a 107 base-pair region encompassing nucleotide position 582 in the promoter region of the IL4 gene.

RR169B

(SEQ ID NO: 69)

ACTAGGCCTCACCTGATACGA

RR170B

(SEQ ID NO: 72)

CATAGAGGCAGAATAACAGGCAGA
The following primers amplify a 118 base-pair region encompassing nucleotide position 4045 in intron 3 of the IL13 gene.

DBM0165B

(SEQ ID NO: 70)

CTCGGACATGCAAGCTGGAA

DBM0166B

(SEQ ID NO: 73)

ACTGAATGAGACAGTCCCTGGA
The following primers amplify a 187 base-pair region encompassing codon 4166 in exon 4 of the IL13 gene.

DBM0167B

(SEQ ID NO: 71)

AATCGAGGTGGCCCAGTTTGTA

DBM0168B

(SEQ ID NO: 74)

CCTAACCCTCCTTCCCGCCTA

Amplification
The PCR amplification was carried out in a total reaction volume of 25-100 μl containing the following reagents:
0.2 ng/μl purified human genomic DNA
0.2 mM each primer
800 mM total dNTP (200 mM each dATP, dTTP, dCTP, dGTP)
70 mM KCl
12 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.3
3 mM MgCl₂,
0.25 units/μl AmpliTaq Gold™ DNA polymerase*
* developed and manufactured by Hoffmann-La Roche and commercially available from Applera (Foster City, Calif.).
Amplification was carried out in a GeneAmp™ PCR System 9600 thermal cycler (Applera, Foster City, Calif.), using the specific temperature cycling profile shown below.

Pre-reaction incubation: 94° C. for 12.5 minutes

33 cycles: denature: 95° C. for 45 seconds

anneal: 61° C. for 30 seconds

extend: 72° C. for 45 seconds

Final extension: 72° C. for 7 minutes

Hold: 10° C.-15° C.

Detection Probes
Preferred probes used to identify the nucleotides present at the 8 SNPs present in the amplified IL4R nucleic acids are described in Table 3. Two probes are shown for the detection of T1466; a mixture of the two probes was used. Preferred probes used to identify the nucleotides present at the one SNP present in the amplified IL4 nucleic acids and the two SNPs present in the amplified IL13 nucleic acids are described in Table 29. All probes are shown in the 5′ to 3′ orientation.
Probe Hybridization Assay, Immobilized Probe Format
In the immobilized probe format, the probes were immobilized to a solid support prior to being used in the hybridization. The probe-support complex was immersed in a solution containing denatured amplified nucleic acid (biotin labeled) to allow hybridization to occur. Unbound nucleic acid was removed by washing under stringent hybridization conditions, and nucleic acid remaining bound to the immobilized probes was detected using a chromogenic reaction. The details of the assay are described below.
For use in the immobilized probe detection format, described below, a moiety was attached to the 5′ phosphate of the probe to facilitate immobilization on a solid support. See Cheng et al., 1999, Genome Res 9:936-949, incorporated herein by reference. Preferably, Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) is attached to the 5′ phosphate essentially as described by Tung et al., 1991, Bioconjugate Chem., 2:464-465, incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, a poly-T tail is added to the 5′ end as described in U.S. Pat. No 5,451,512, incorporated herein by reference.
The probes were applied in a linear format to sheets of nylon membrane (e.g., BioDyne™ B nylon filters, Pall Corp., Glen Cove, N.Y.) using a Linear Striper and Multispense2000™ controller (IVEK, N. Springfield, Vt.). The detection of the wildtype allele of SNP #5 (table 6) was carried out using a mixture of two probes as listed; this mixture enables the detection of SNP #5 indiscriminately of another nearby SNP. Probe titers were chosen to achieve signal balance between the allelic variants; the titers used are provided in the table of probes, above. Each sheet was cut to strips between 0.35 and 0.5 cm in width. To denature the amplification products, 20 μl of amplification product (based on a 50 μl reaction) were added to 20 μl of denaturation solution (1.6% NaOH) and incubated at room temperature to complete denaturation.
The denatured amplification product (40 μl) was added to the well of a typing tray containing 3 ml of hybridization buffer (4×SSPE, 0.5% SDS) and the membrane strip. Hybridizations were allowed to proceed for 15 minutes at 55° C. in a rotating water bath. Following hybridization, the hybridization solution was aspirated, the strip was rinsed in 3 ml warm wash buffer (2×SSPE, 0.5% SDS) by gently rocking strips back and forth, and the wash buffer was aspirated. Following rinsing, the strips were incubated in 3 ml enzyme conjugate solution (3.3 ml hybridization buffer and 12 μl of strepavidin-horseradish peroxidase (SA-HRP)) in the rotating water bath for 5 minutes at 55° C. Then the strips were rinsed with wash buffer, as above, incubated in wash buffer at 55° for 12 minutes (stringent wash), and finally rinsed with wash buffer again.
Target nucleic acid, now HRP-labeled, which remains bound to the immobilized amplification product was visualized as follows. A color development solution was prepared by mixing 100 ml of citrate buffer (0.1 M Sodium Citrate, pH 5.0), 5 ml 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) solution (2 mg/ml TMB powder from Fluka, Milwaukee, Wis., dissolved in 100% EtOH), and 100 μl of 3% hydrogen peroxide. The strips were first rinsed in 0.1 M sodium citrate (pH 5.0) for 5 minutes, then incubated in the color development solution with gentle agitation for 8 to 10 minutes at room temperature in the dark. The TMB, initially colorless, is converted by the target-bound HRP, in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, into a colored precipitate. The developed strips were rinsed in water for several minutes and immediately photographed.
Kinetic Thermocycling to Identify 2 IL4R Promoter and 2 IL13 Promoter SNPs
The two IL4R promoter and the two IL13 promoter SNPs were genotyped using allele-specific PCR on a PE9700 thermal cycler (ABI) measuring SyBr Green (Molecular Probes) fluorescence (Higuchi, Fockler, Dollinger, Watson. Biotechnology 11:1026-30 (1993)). For each DNA, two ampifications were set up in parallel. One contained the common primer and one allele-specific primer; the other contained the common primer and the other allele-specific primer. The primers used to genotype the two IL4R promoter SNPs are provided in Table 31 and the primers used to genotype the two IL13 promoter SNPs are provided in Table 32. The amplification of the DNA with a particular allele-specific primer indicated the presence of the corresponding allele. An increase in the fluorescence of SyBr Green was indicative of the accumulation of amplification product. One of skill in the art will be able to correlate the change in fluorescence with the presence or absence of amplification product, and thus, the presence or absence of the corresponding allele.

The PCR amplification was carried out in a total reaction volume of 100 μl containing the following reagents:



	Volume (μl)	Component

	1	1 M Tris pH 8.0
	12	25 mM MgCl2
	1	100X dNTPs (50 mM each dA, dC, dG;
		25 mM dT; 75 mM dU)
	1	20X SYBR Green
	1	200 μM ROX
	2	1 U/μl UNG
	2.5	80% Glycerol
	4	100% DMSO
	1	20 μM primer 1
	1	20 μM primer 2
	1	12 U/μl CEA2 Gold DNA Polymerase*
	2	10 ng/μl genomic DNA
	to 100 μl	sterile water

	*Developed and manufactured by Roche Molecular Systems. Alternatively, 1 μl of AmpliTaq Gold DNA Polymerase, also developed and manufactured by Roche Molecular Systems and sold commercially by Applied Biosystems, Inc, (Foster City, Calif.), can be used.

Amplification was carried out in a GeneAmp™ PCR System 9600 thermal cycler (Applera, Foster City, Calif.), using the specific temperature cycling profile shown below.

2 minutes at 50° C.

Pre-reaction incubation: 12 minutes at 94° C.

50 cycles: denature: 20 seconds at 95° C.

anneal: 20 seconds at 58° C.

Final extension: 5 minutes at 72° C.

8 EXAMPLE 2

Association of IL4R SNPs with Type 1 Diabetes in HBDI Families

This example demonstrates the association of IL4R SNPs with type 1 diabetes in HBDI families.
IL4R genotyping was carried out on individuals from 282 Caucasian families ascertained because they contained two offspring affected with type 1 diabetes. The IL4R genotypes of all individuals were determined. IL4R genotyping was carried out using a genotyping method essentially as described in Example 1. In addition to the 564 offspring (2 siblings in each of 282 families) in the affected sibling pairs on which ascertainment was based, there were 26 other affected children. There were 270 unaffected offspring among these families.
The family-based samples were provided as purified genomic DNA from the Human Biological Data Interchange (HBDI), which is a repository for cell lines from families affected with type 1 diabetes. All of the HBDI families used in this study are nuclear families with unaffected parents (genetically unrelated) and at least two affected siblings. These samples are described further in Noble et al., 1996, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 59:1134-1148, incorporated herein by reference.
It is known that the HLA genotype can have a significant effect, either increased or decreased depending on the genotype, on the risk for type 1 diabetes. In particular, individuals with the HLA DR genotype DR3-DQB1*0201/DR4-DQB1*0302 (referred to as DR3/DR4 below) appear to be at the highest risk for type 1 diabetes (see Noble et al., 1996, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 59:1134-1148, incorporated herein by reference). These high-risk individuals have about a 1 in 15 chance of being affected with type 1 diabetes. Because of the strong effect of this genotype on the likelihood of type 1 diabetes, the presence of the DR3-DQB1*0201/DR4-DQB1*0302 genotype could mask the contribution from the IL4R allelic variants.
Individuals within these families also were genotyped at the HLA DRB1 and DQB1 loci. Of the affected sibling pairs, both siblings have the DR3/DR4 genotype in 90 families. Neither affected sibling has the DR 3/4 genotype in 144 families. Exactly one of the affected pair has the DR 3/4 genotype in the remaining 48 families.
Statistical Analysis, Methods and Algorithms
Since the eight SNPs in IL4R are both physically and genetically very closely linked to each other, the presence of a particular allele at a particular SNP is correlated with the presence of another particular allele at a nearby SNP. This non-random association of two or more SNPs' alleles is known as linkage disequilibrium (LD).
Linkage disequilibrium among the eight IL4R SNPs was assessed using the genotypes of the 282 pairs of parents. These 564 individuals are not related to each other except by marriage. A summary of the calculated frequency of the WT allele for each SNP in this group of 564 individuals (the “HBDI founders”) is shown in Table 9.
The calculation of LD can be performed in several ways. Two complementary methods to assess LD between all pairs of IL4R SNP loci were used. In the first method, the values of two distinct but related metrics for LD, namely D and Δ (Devlin and Risch 1995, Genomics, 29(2): 311-22), using the Maximum Likelihood Estimation algorithm of Hill (Hill, 1974, Heredity, 33(2): 229-39) were calculated. The values for D and Δ for all pairs of IL4R SNPs are shown in Table 10, in the lower left triangular portion. Both D and Δ can have values that range between −1 and +1. Values near +1 or −1 suggest strong linkage disequilibrium; values near zero indicate the absence of LD.
A second measure of LD uses a permutation test method implemented in the Arlequin program (Excoffier et al., 1995, Mol Biol Evol, 12:921-7, University of Geneva, CH) (Slatkin et al., 1996, Heredity, 76:377-83). This method maximizes the likelihood ratio statistic (S=−2log (L_H*/L_H)) by permuting alleles and recalculating S over a large number of iterations until S is maximized. These iterations allow the determination of the null distribution of S, and thus the maximum S obtained can be converted into an exact P-value (significance level). These P-values are listed in the upper right triangular portion of Table 10.
Table 10 of pairwise LD shows that there is significant evidence for LD between SNPs 1 and 2, and among (all combinations of) SNPs 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. SNPs 3 through 8 are known to exist within 1200 basepairs of each other in a single exon (exon 9) of the IL4R gene, and the LD between these SNPs is evidence for very small genetic distances as well.
The Transmission Disequilibrium Test (TDT) of Spielman (Spielman and Ewens, 1996, Am J Hum Genet, 59(5): 983-9; Spielman and Ewens, 1998, Am J Hum Genet, 62(2): 450-8) was performed on the IL4R genotype data for the 282 affected sib pairs (namely, a family structure consisting of the two parents and the two affected children). The TDT was used to test for the association of the individual alleles of the eight IL4R SNPs to type 1 diabetes. The TDT assesses whether an allele is transmitted from heterozygous parents to their affected children at a frequency that is significantly different than expected by chance. Under the null hypothesis of no association of an allele with disease, a heterozygous parent will transmit or will not transmit an allele with equal frequency to an affected child. The significance of deviation from the null hypothesis can be assessed using the McNemar chi-squared test statistic (=(T−NT)ˆ2/(T+NT), where T is the observed number of transmissions and NT is the observed number of non-transmissions). The significance (P-value) of the McNemar chi-squared test statistic is equal to the Pearson chi-squared statistic with one degree of freedom (Glantz et al., Primer of biostatistics., New York, McGraw-Hill Health Professions Division, 1997).
The results of the single SNP locus TDT results are shown in tables 11A and 11B. The TDT/S-TDT program (version 1.1) of Spielman was used to perform the counting of transmitted and non-transmitted alleles (Spielman, McGinnis et al., 1993, Am J Hum Genet, 52(3): 506-16; Spielman and Ewens, 1998, supra). The table lists the observed transmissions of the wildtype allele at each SNP locus. Since these are biallelic polymorphisms, the transmission counts of the variant allele are equal to the non-transmissions of the wildtype allele.
The counts of transmissions and non-transmissions of alleles to the probands only shown in Table 11A do not quite reach statistical significance, at a=0.05. However, it is valid to count transmission events to all affected children. However, when the TDT is used in this way (or, for that matter, with more than one child per family), then a significant test statistic is evidence of linkage only, not of association and linkage. Table 11B shows the TDT analysis when 26 additional affected children are included. The results presented in Table 11B below show that there is a significant deviation from the expected transmission frequencies for alleles of SNPs 3, 4, 5 and 6. Inspection of the “% transmission” values for these SNPs indicates that the wildtype allele is transmitted to affected children at frequencies greater than the expectation of 50%.
The evidence for strong LD among the eight IL4R SNPs suggested that the transmission of the ordered set of alleles from each parent to each affected child in the HBDI cohort could be detected. This ordered set of alleles corresponds physically to one of the two parental chromosomes, and is called a haplotype. By inferring the parental haplotypes and their transmission or non-transmission to affected children, more statistical information is expected to be obtained than that from alleles alone.
Haplotypes were inferred using a combination of two methods. As the first step, the GeneHunter program (Falling Rain Genomics, Palo Alto, Calif.) (Kruglyak, et al., 1996, Am J Hum Genet, 58(6): 1347-63) was used as it very rapidly calculates haplotypes from genotype data from pedigrees. Each HBDI family pedigree was then inspected individually using the Cyrillic program (Cherwell Scientific Publishing, Palo Alto, Calif.), to resolve any ambiguous or unsupported haplotype assignments. Unambiguous and non-recombinant haplotypes could be confidently assigned in all but six of the 282 families. The haplotype data for these 276 families were used in subsequent data analysis.
The IL4R gene has the property that many of the SNPs reside within the 3′-most exon (exon 9), whose coding region is approximately 1.5 kb long. A method was developed for directly haplotyping up to five of these exon 9 alleles (namely, SNPs #3-7) without needing parental genotypes. As many of these SNPs direct changes to the amino acid sequence of the IL4R protein, different haplotypes encode different proteins with likely different functions.
Haplotypes, in an individual for which no parental genotypic information is known, can be inferred unambiguously only when at most one of the SNP sites of those is heterozygous. In other cases, the ambiguity must be resolved experimentally.
Two allele-specific primers with one common primer to perform PCR reactions (using Stoffel Gold™ polymerase) to separately amplify the DNA from each chromosome, as shown in FIG. 1 below were used. The alleles on each amplicon were then detected by the same strip hybridization procedure, and the linked alleles called directly. The choice of allele-specific (colored or shaded arrows) and common (black arrows) primers depends on which SNP loci are heterozygous. The primers were modified at the 5′ phosphate by conjugation with biotin, and are shown in Table 12 (SEQ ID NO: 54-62).
For each haplotyping assay, two PCR reactions were set up for each DNA to be tested. One reaction contained the common primer and the wildtype allele-specific primer, the other contained the common primer and the variant allele-specific primer. Each PCR reaction was made in a total reaction volume of 50-100 μl containing the following reagents:

0.2 ng/ml purified human genomic DNA
0.2 mM each primer
800 mM total dNTP (200 mM each dATP, dTTP, dCTP, dGTP)
10 mM KCl
10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0
2.5 mM MgCl₂
0.12 units/ml Stoffel Gold™ DNA polymerase*
*developed and manufactured by Roche Molecular Systems.

Amplification was carried out in a GeneAmp™ PCR System 9600 thermal cycler (PE Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.), using the specific temperature cycling profile shown below:

Pre-reaction incubation: 94° C. for 12.5 minutes

33 cycles: Denature: 95° C., 45 seconds

Anneal: 64° C., 30 seconds

Extend: 72° C., 45 seconds

Final Extension: 72° C., 7 minutes.

Hold: 10° C.-15° C.
Following amplification, each PCR product reaction was denatured and separately used for hybridization to the membrane-bound probes as described above.
Haplotype Sharing in Affected Sibs
Evidence for linkage of IL4R to type 1 diabetes (as opposed to association) can be assessed by the haplotype sharing method. This method assesses the distribution over all families of the number of chromosomes that are identical-by-descent (IBD) between the two affected siblings in each family. For example, if in a family, the father transmits the same one of his two IL4R haplotypes to both children, and the mother transmits the same one of her two IL4R haplotypes to both children, then the children are said to share two chromosomes IBD (or, to be IBD=2). If both parents transmit different IL4R haplotypes to their two children, the children are said to be IBD=0.
Under the null hypothesis of no linkage of IL4R to type 1 diabetes, the proportion of families IBD=0 is 25%, IBD=1 is 50% and IBD=2 is 25%, as expected by random assortment (see Table 13). Evidence for a statistically significant difference from this expectation can be assessed using the chi-square statistic.
Identity-by-descent (IBD) values of parental IL4R haplotypes in the affected sibs could be determined unambiguously in 256 families. In the rest of the families, one or both parents were homozygous and/or the parental source of the child's chromosomes could not be determined. The distribution of IBD is shown in Table 13.
It is known that the HLA genotype can have a significant effect, either increased or decreased depending on the genotype, on the risk for type 1 diabetes. In particular, individuals with the HLA DR genotype DR3-DQB1*0201/DR4-DQB1*0302 (referred to as DR3/4 below) appear to be at the highest risk for type 1 diabetes (see Noble, Valdes et al., 1996), incorporated herein by reference). These high-risk individuals have about a 1 in 15 chance of being affected with type 1 diabetes. Because of the strong effect of this genotype on the likelihood of type 1 diabetes, the presence of the DR3/4 genotype could mask the contribution of IL4R alleles or haplotypes.
The distribution of IBD in families was stratified into two groups based on the DR3/4 genotype of the children. The first group contains the families in which one or both of the sibs are DR3/4 (“Either/both sib DR3/4”, n=119). The second group contains the families where neither child is DR3/4 (“Neither sib DR3/4”, n=137). The IBD distribution in these subgroups is shown in Table 13. There was no statistically significant departure from the expected distribution of IBD sharing in the “either/both sib DR3/4” subgroup of families. There is a statistically significant departure from the expected distribution of IBD sharing in the “neither sib DR3/4” subgroup of families (Table 13). This indicates that there is evidence for linkage of the IL4R loci to IDDM in the “neither sib DR3/4” families.
Association by AFBAC
Association of IL4R haplotypes with type 1 diabetes was assessed using the AFBAC (Affected Family Based Control) method (Thomson, G., 1995, Am J Hum Genet 57:487-98). In essence, two groups of haplotypes, and the haplotype frequencies in the groups, are compared with each other as in a case/control scheme of sampling. These two groups are the case (transmitted) and the control (AFBAC) haplotypes.
The case haplotypes, namely those transmitted to the affected children, were collected and counted as follows. For every pair of siblings, regardless of the status of the parents (homozygote or heterozygote) all four transmitted chromosomes were counted. However, the haplotypes in the two siblings in a pair are not independent of each other. The way to make a statistically conservative and valid enumeration is to divide all counts by two.
The control (AFBAC) haplotypes are those that are never transmitted to the affected pair of children (Thomson, 1995). The AFBAC haplotypes permit an unbiased estimate of control haplotype frequencies. AFBACs can only be determined from heterozygous parents, and furthermore, only when the parent transmits one haplotype to both children; the other, never-transmitted haplotype is counted in the AFBAC population. The AFBAC population serves as a well-matched set of control haplotypes for the study.
Table 14A shows the comparison of transmitted and AFBAC frequencies for all HBDI haplotypes that were observed at least five times in the complete sample set. Each row represents data on an individual haplotype. However, in all 16 distinct haplotypes were observed in the HBDI data set, although some very rarely. The seven rarest haplotypes are grouped together in the “others” row. Each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles (namely, from SNPs 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8) present at each of the eight IL4R SNPs as described in Table 6. A “1” denotes the presence of the reference allele, a “2” the presence of the variant allele for each SNP. The “reference” allele for each SNP is that present in GenBank Accession X52425.1 as described in Table 6.
Tables 14B and 14C show the comparison of transmitted and AFBAC frequencies for all HBDI haplotypes seen in the “either/both sib DR3/4” and the “neither sib DR3/4” subgroups of families, respectively. These tables show that stratifying the families based on the DR3/4 genotype of the children permits the identification of haplotypes that are associated with IDDM. In particular, in the “neither sib DR3/4” subgroup one haplotype (labeled “2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1”) is significantly under represented in the pool of transmitted chromosomes (P<0.005).
From the transmitted and AFBAC haplotype frequency information in Tables 14B and 14C, one can derive by counting the frequencies of transmitted and AFBAC alleles. The locus-by-locus AFBAC analyses are shown in Tables 15A and 15B.
The data present in Tables 15A and 15B show that there statistically significant evidence, in the “neither sib DR3/4” subgroup of families, that alleles of SNPs numbers 3, 4 5, 6, and 7 are associated with IDDM. The evidence for association is especially strong for SNP #6. In the “either/both sib DR3/4” subgroup, there is the same trend of allelic association, although the trend does not quite reach statistical significance.
Association by Haplotype-Based TDT
The TDT analysis can be utilized for determining the transmission (or non-transmission) of 8-locus haplotypes from parents to affected children, once the haplotypes have been inferred or assigned by molecular means. Tables 16A, B, and C summarize the TDT results for the HBDI families. Each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles (namely, from SNPs 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8) present at each of the eight IL4R SNPs as described in Table 6. A “1” denotes the presence of the reference allele, a “2” the presence of the variant allele for each SNP. The “reference” allele for each SNP is that present in GenBank Accession X52425.1 as described in Table 6. Table 16A counts informative transmission events only to one child (the proband) per family, Table 16B counts informative transmissions to the two primary affected children per family, and Table 16C counts informative transmissions to all affected children. The 8-locus haplotype TDT results reach statistical significance when all affected children (2 or more per family) are included.
The TDT analyses can be performed on families after stratifying for the DR3/4 genotype of the children. The summary of counts of informative transmissions to the two primary affected children per family, in the “either/both sib DR3/4” and the “neither sib DR3/4” subgroups of families, are shown in tables 17A and 17B respectively. Each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles (namely, from SNPs 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8) present at each of the eight IL4R SNPs as described in Table 6. A “1 ” denotes the presence of the reference allele, a “2” the presence of the variant allele for each SNP. The “reference” allele for each SNP is that present in GenBank Accession X52425.1 as described in Table 6.
As presented above, there is significant evidence of linkage of IDDM to IL4R in the “neither sib DR3/4” subgroup. The data in Table 17B indicate that there is significant evidence of association of IL4R haplotypes to IDDM, in the presence of this linkage. In particular, in the “neither sib DR3/4” subgroup one haplotype (labeled “2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1”) is significantly under-transmitted to affected children.

9 EXAMPLE 3

Association of IL4R with Type 1 Diabetes in Filipino Samples

This example demonstrates the association of IL4R SNPs with type 1 diabetes in a Filipino population.
As used in this section, “patients” refers to individuals with the disease, namely individuals with type 1 diabetes and “controls” refers normal individuals, those without the disease.
Ninety patients (n=90) were selected for this study from amongst the Filipino population. The patients included in the study were affected by type 1 diabetes as defined by the recent ADA classification (the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus 1997). The patients were born in the Philippines and all had two Filipino parents. These patients had been characterized for C-peptide levels below 0.3mmol/l and for autoantibodies to islet cell autoantigens (Medici et al., 1999, Diabetes Care, 9:1458-62). Samples were also collected from ninety-four Filipino normal subjects without a family history for diabetes. This was the control group. All patients and controls were from the southern region of Luzon, Philippines. The study was approved by the local Ethics Committee and informed consent was given by patients. In addition, independent samples from a previous study of HLA class II loci in Filipinos (Bugawan et al., 1994, Genetics, 54:331-340) originating from the same region were used, following a statistical test of heterogeneity, to supplement the control samples. These comprised a total of 194 chromosomes taken from family and individual samples.
The individuals were genotyped as described above. The genotypes of the affected and unaffected individuals are shown in Table 4 (SEQ ID NO: 20-24). Both the actual numbers and the frequencies are provided for each genotype. The data (Table 5) confirm the presence of an association of IL4R SNP variants with type 1 diabetes.
Statistical Methods & Algorithms
Allele and haplotype frequencies between groups were compared using the z-test. Haplotype compositions and frequencies were estimated from the genotype data using the EM algorithm in the Arlequin program (L. Excoffier, University of Geneva, CH) (Excoffier et al., 1995, Mol Biol Evol, 12:921-7; Slatkin et al., 1996, Heredity, 76:377-83).
Results
The wildtype allele frequencies for each of the eight IL4R SNPs in the Filipino control and diabetic groups are shown in Table 18. Table 18 provides evidence that the allele frequencies for SNPs # 3 and 4 are significantly different between the two groups, and suggests an association to IDDM.
It is also possible to infer and construct the multi-locus IL4R haplotypes in the Filipino subjects, either computationally by Maximum-likelihood estimation (MLE), or by using molecular haplotyping methods described previously. Table 19 lists the five most frequent computationally estimated haplotypes and their frequencies in the Filipino diabetics and controls, and presents the significance of the differences in frequencies. Each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles (namely, from SNPs 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8) present at each of the eight IL4R SNPs as described in Table 6. A “1” denotes the presence of the reference allele, a “2” the presence of the variant allele for each SNP. The “reference” allele for each SNP is that present in GenBank Accession X52425.1 as described in Table 6.
Table 20 lists the observed haplotypes as derived and inferred by molecular haplotyping; the unambiguous seven-locus haplotypes (SNP#1 allele not shown, as indicated by the “x”) are compiled. Each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles (namely, from SNPs 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8) present at each of the eight IL4R SNPs as described in Table 6. A “1” denotes the presence of the reference allele, a “2” the presence of the variant allele for each SNP. The “reference” allele for each SNP is that present in GenBank Accession X52425.1 as described in Table 6. Tables 18 and 19 both provide evidence of a statistically significant difference in the frequency of one or more haplotypes between the Filipino control and diabetic populations, and support the presence of an association of IL4R to IDDM. In particular, the haplotype (labeled “x 1 2 2 2 2 2 1”) is significantly under represented in the Filipino diabetics group.

10. EXAMPLE 4

Association of IL4R, IL4 and IL13 SNPs with Type 1 Diabetes in Filipino Samples

This example demonstrates the association of IL4R, IL4 and IL13 SNPs with type 1 diabetes in the same Filipino population as described above, in Example 3.
As used in this section, “patients” refers to individuals with the disease, namely individuals with type 1 diabetes and “controls” refers normal individuals, those without the disease.
The individuals were genotyped as described above.
Individual SNPs
The distributions of alleles at the individual SNPs in the IL4R locus (n=10), the IL4 locus (n=1) and the IL13 locus (n=4) among patients and controls are shown in Table 21. Linkage disequilibrium patterns were estimated using maximum likelihood approaches from individual genotype data from unrelated individuals (Slatkin and Excoffier, 1996 Heredity 76:377:383). The patterns of pairwise linkage disequilibrium (LD) for these SNPs inferred among the control population are shown in Tables 22 and 23. Among the individual IL4R SNPs, three (E375A, L389L, and C406R) showed a nominally significant association with type 1 diabetes while the variant allele at two additional SNPs (I50V, p=0.062 and S478G, p=0.064) was decreased among patients (Table 21).
The two promoter SNPs were not significantly associated with type 1 diabetes, although the variant allele of the −3223 SNP was slightly increased among patients (OR=1.45, p=0.10). With the exception of this promoter SNP and the I50V SNP, with which it is in strong LD, the variant allele at each SNP was under represented among patients. Some of the polymorphic amino acid residues in this chain appear to be biologically important and affect IL-4 receptor signaling (Kruse et al., 1999, Immunology, 96:365-71).
Of the 10 IL4R SNPs typed, the L389L SNP showed the strongest association with type 1 diabetes in this population, with significantly lower frequencies among patients than controls (OR=0.34; p=0.001). Without being bound by theory, it is believed that because this is a silent (synonymous) polymorphism, it is unlikely that this SNP is responsible for the observed protective effect for type 1 diabetes. This SNP is in very strong LD (Table 22) with the nonsynonymous flanking SNPs (E375A, C406R, S478P and Q551R) and that these SNPs all show a trend toward protection (negative association). The L389L SNP is also in strong negative LD with the −3223 promoter SNP (Table 22).
In the comparison of genotypes at the individual IL4R SNPs (Table 24), the protective effect is dominant in that the heterozygote for IL4R 389 has an OR=0.29. Among the individual SNPs on chromosome 5q31, only the variant alleles at the two IL13 promoter SNPs were increased among patients (OR=1.58 and p =0.05 for −1512 and OR=1.49 and p=0.12 for −1112) (Table 21) When genotype frequencies are compared, however, the IL13 R 1000Q showed a nominally significant association in this population (p=0.03; Table 24). These data suggest that the variant homozygote, but not the heterozygote, may be at increased risk for type 1 diabetes. In Table 24, each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles (namely, from SNPs 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8) present at each of the eight IL4R SNPs as described in Table 6. The letters refer to the actual allele (nucleotide) present, as described in Table 6.
Haplotypes
IL4R
IL4R haplotypes were estimated based on an expectation-maximization (EM) method (Excoffier et al., 1995, Mol. Biol. Evol., 12:921-927.) and were directly determined by molecular haplotyping methods, described in Example 4. The molecular haplotyping method allowed the unambiguous assignment of phase for 7 IL4R SNPs (C676T, A1374C, G1417T, T1466C, T1682C, A1902G and T2531C). Using molecular haplotyping of these 7 SNPs, 7 different IL4R haplotypes were determined in this population and their frequencies among patients and controls compared (Table 25A). In Table 25A each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles (namely, from SNPs 2-3-4-5-6-7-8) present at seven of the eight IL4R SNPs as described in Table 6. The letters refer to the actual allele (nucleotide) present, as described in Table 6.
One specific haplotype (CCTCCGT)) was significantly under represented among patients (OR=0.4, p=0.013). This same haplotype was also found to be protective (significant negative association), by the TDT methods, in the HBDI families, as described in Example 2. This protective effect has thus been observed in two different populations and in two different study designs, namely case/control (Filipino) and TDT, in addition to the biological plausibility (i.e., functional consequences) of these SNPs. This strongly suggests that variants of the IL4R molecule influence the susceptibility to type 1 diabetes. In particular, this specific haplotype of IL4R appears to confer a dominant protective effect.
In the HBDI families, stratification based on the highest risk HLA genotype (HLA-DRB1*0301-DQB1*0201/HLA-DRB1 *04-DQB1*0302) was necessary to demonstrate the protective effect of the IL4R haplotype. A significant negative association was found only among those families in which neither affected sib was DR3/4, presumably because the effect of the IL4R polymorphism was relatively modest compared to the risk conferred by this high risk HLA genotype, which confers a disease risk higher than DR3/3 or DR4/4 homozygotes. Among Filipinos, a significant protective effect of a specific IL4R haplotype was observed without stratification (Table 25). Without being bound by theory, this may reflect the absence among Filipinos of a higher risk associated with DR3/4 than with DR3/3 or DR4/4 genotypes. The lack of the “DR3/4 effect,” well-established by many studies of Caucasian type 1 diabetes, can be attributed among Filipinos to the differing patterns of linkage disequilibrium of DQB1 alleles with DRB1*04 alleles between Asians and Caucasians.
The molecular haplotyping approach used in this example did not assign phase for the two promoter SNPs and the I50V SNP in the IL4R locus. Consequently, the EM approach was used to estimate frequencies for 10-SNP haplotypes for these 3 individual SNPs and the 7-SNP haplotype previously determined by molecular methods (Table 25B). In Table 25B, each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles (namely, from SNPs 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10) present at each of the ten IL4R SNPs described in Table 21 (SNPs in order: C(−3223)T-C(−1914)T-I50V-N142N-E375A-L389L-C406R-S478P-Q551R-S761P). The letters refer to the actual allele (nucleotide) present, as described in Table 21.
Of the 17 10-SNP haplotypes with an estimated frequency >1%, in either group, only one 10-SNP haplotype containing the protective 7-SNP haplotype (H5A or CCA-CCTCCGT) appeared strongly negatively associated (OR=0.0; 95%CI [0-0.5]; p=0.001) with disease. Interestingly, the other haplotype which contained the same 7-SNP haplotype (H5B or CTA-CCTCCGT) was not significantly associated with disease (OR=0.66 p=0.33). This suggests that a specific combination of IL4R promoter SNPs with a particular coding sequence variant contributes to the risk for type 1 diabetes.
IL4 and IL13
The IL4 and the IL13 SNPs are in strong LD (Table 23). The estimated frequencies for these 5-SNP haplotypes were compared among patients and controls (Table 26). In Table 26, each haplotype is listed by the ordered set of alleles present at the one IL4 SNP and the four IL13 SNPs as described in Table 21. The order is IL4 C(−524)T-IL13 A(−1512)C-IL13 C(−1112)T-IL13 intron3-IL13 R110Q. The letters refer to the actual allele (nucleotide) present, as described in Table 21.
The overall distributions were different (p=0.005) and one haplotype, TCTTA, was strongly associated with type 1 diabetes (OR=3.47, p=0.004). Two other haplotypes showed a nominally significant association (p=0.02 and 0.03). One surprising observation was that the IL13 haplotype CTTA appeared to be associated with disease only in combination with the T allele at the IL4 −524 promoter SNP because the CCTTA haplotype showed no disease association. These data could reflect LD between the associated 5-SNP haplotype with some nearby causal gene or suggest that a particular combination of a promoter variant at IL4 and promoter and coding variants at IL13 are responsible for an elevated type 1 diabetes risk (gene-gene interaction).

13. EXAMPLE 7

Dependence of Risk for Type 1 Diabetes Conferred by IL4R SNPs on Genotype at IL4 and IL13 in Filipino Samples: Evidence for Epistasis

This example demonstrates epistasis, the interaction between SNPs on the IL4R locus on chromosome 16 and those on the IL4 and IL13 loci on chromosome 5.
Because IL4 and IL13 both serve as ligands for a receptor composed, in part, of the IL4R alpha chain, there is a likelihood of gene-gene interactions between polymorphisms in the IL4R locus on chromosome 16p11 and the five SNPs in the IL4 and IL13 loci on chromosome 5q31. In one approach, the statistical independence for genotypes at the 10 IL4R SNPs and the genotypes at each of the IL4 and IL13 SNPs (Table 27) was examined. Gene by gene interactions at SNPs in different genes were evaluated by assessing whether the genotype frequencies at unlinked loci were independent (i.e., the IL13 and IL4 SNPs on chromosome 5 and the IL4R SNPs on chromosome 16) among patients. These analyses were done for each pair of unlinked SNPs carrying out a chi-square test in contingency tables with marginals defined by genotype counts either in patients or controls. The chi-square values and the corresponding degrees of freedom for each IL4R SNP comparisons were summed and p-value of the sum of chi-squares computed.
No deviation from independence was found for these SNPs among controls but a significant deviation was found for the IL4 −524 promoter SNP (p=0.001) and the IL13 intron 3 SNP (p=0.019) among patients.
To assess whether the effect on type 1 diabetes susceptibility due to IL4R SNPs was modified by the IL4 or the IL13 SNPs, epistasis was modeled using a logistic regression model (see below). For each of the five IL4 and IL13 SNPs, we tested whether the effect of the combined IL4R SNP genotypes on type 1 diabetes susceptibility differed depending on the IL4 and IL13 SNPs. The results (Table 28) indicate that there is indeed an epistatic interaction between the IL4R genotypes and IL4 and IL13 genotypes. To address the issue of multiple comparisons, we carried out permutation analysis on this test. In 22/200 permuations one or more of the 5-SNP tests showed a p<0.035, in 13/200 one or more of the SNP tests had p<0.035 and another one had p<0.075. In 9/200 one or more of the 5-SNP tests showed a p<0.035, another had a p<0.075 and another had a p<0.135. Thus, the pattern observed in Table 28 has a probability of p<0.045. The conclusion from this is that the epistatic interaction observed between the IL4 and IL13 SNPs and the IL4R genotypes is statistically significant indicating that, in this data set, the genotypes in the IL4, IL13 region affect the genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes conferred by IL4R.
To illustrate this interaction, the odds ratios for individual IL4R SNPs as a function of the IL4 and IL13 SNP genotype were also calculated. The differences among the Odds Ratios were greatest for the IL4R -3223 SNP and the four IL13 SNPs. The odds ratios with the 95% confidence intervals and the p values from the stratified contingency table analyses are shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 2 shows the Odds ratios, patient and control counts of specific IL4R and IL4, IL13 genotypes. FIG. 2A shows the interaction of IL4R Ala375Glu with and IL4 −524 (promoter). FIG. 2B shows the interaction of IL4R Gln551Arg with IL13 A-1512C. FIG. 2C shows the interaction between IL4R C-3223T and IL13 A-1512C and FIG. 2D shows the interaction between IL4R C-3223T and IL13 C-1112T. The p-value for the association of each genotype combination is shown above each odds ratios bar.
The most striking observation was that the IL4R −3223 SNP CT genotype had an OR of 8.55 (95% CI=1.05, 69.8) when present with the TT IL13 −1112 genotype and an OR=0.53 (95% CI=0.29, 0.98) when present with the CC genotype. Without being bound by theory, the observation of an interaction between polymorphisms in the IL13 and IL4 genes and polymorphism in the gene encoding the receptor for the products of these two genes represents an interesting and biologically plausible hypothesis that, given the multiple comparisons, requires further testing. A recently published study of asthma patients reported a gene-gene interaction between IL4R and IL13 in the determination of serum IgE levels (Howard et al., 2002, Am J Hum Genet, 70:230-6).
As described above, the IL4R association data obtained in this Filipino case control study indicate that the 7-SNP haplotype, composed primarily of variant alleles at these SNPs, confers dominant protection to type 1 diabetes (Table 25A), consistent with our recent observations, based on TDT and AFBAC analysis in a set of multiplex Caucasian families (the HBDI registry). The replication of this observation in two different populations and in two different study designs strengthens this inference. The analysis of 10-SNP IL4R haplotypes among Filipinos suggests that a specific promoter variant in combination with specific coding sequence variants may be responsible for the observed protection (Table 25B). Several recent studies have shown that the reference or wild-type allele at several of these IL4R SNPs is associated with atopic asthma and increased IgE levels (Howard et al., 2002, Am J Hum Genet, 70:230-6, Sandford et al., 2000, J Allergy Clin Immunol, 106:135-40). Thus, it appears that the same alleles at IL4R SNPs confer an increased risk to a canonical Th1 (type 1 diabetes) and a Th2 disease (atopic asthma). Without being bound by theory, these associations argue against an effect on Th1/Th2 balance mediated by polymorphism in the IL4R gene and suggest instead that this polymorphism may influence some aspect of immune regulation and homeostasis in Th1 and Th2 pathways and possibly, B cell activation. Conceivably, the observed patterns of disease association reflect the effect of IL4R polymorphisms on the balance between the activation of Th1 and Th2 cells and that of T regulatory cells. In conclusion, the extent of risk for type 1 diabetes may be determined by specific combinations of variants at the IL4R locus and at the genes encoding its two ligands, IL4 and IL13.

Calculations Performed to Achieve the Results of Table 28

For each IL4R SNP, the homozygote genotype with the highest odds ratio was given a value of 2, the heterozygote was given a value of 1, the other homozygote was 0. A logistic regression was carried out on nine IL4R polymorphisms (S761P did not show the variant) in this way and a new numerical variable “il4r” was derived given by:
il4r=a ₁ G ₋₃₂₂₃ +a ₂ G ₋₁₉₁₄ +a ₃ G ₅₀ +a ₄ G ₁₄₂ +a ₅ G ₃₇₅ +a ₆ G ₃₈₉ +a ₇ G ₄₀₆ +a ₈ G ₄₇₈ +a ₉ G ₅₅₁
where Gi denotes the genotype (0, 1 or 2) at the ith position and aj denotes the coefficient fitted by logistic regression. The coefficients fitted by the regression were a1=0.368; a2=0.053; a3=0.37; a4=0.061; a5=0.66; a6=1.08; a7=0.57; a8=0.54 and a9=0.22. Epistasis was then tested independently for each of the five chromosome 5 SNPs by fitting the following logistic regression model: P(T1DM)=exp(X)/(1+exp(X)) Where X=C+β₁il4r+β₂G_chr5i+β₃(il4r−G_chr5i) and G_chr5iis the genotype of one of the chromosome 5 SNPs ( values 0, 1 or 2).

Permutation Analysis

Because five different SNPs were compared, it was important to correct for multiple tests. However, a Bonferroni or a Dunn-Sidak correction was not appropriate since the IL4 and IL13 SNPs are not independent (see Table 23). Therefore permutation analysis was carried out, keeping constant the patient and control genotype frequencies, but permutating the IL4 and IL13 genotypes and the IL4R genotypes within the patient and within the control groups separately. In this way, only the epistatic interaction between the two genetic regions was tested and not the individual IL4 or IL13 and IL4R genetic associations. 200 permutations were carried testing for epistasis at all five chromosome 5 SNPs each time. Analyses were carried out using S-Plus version 6.0 Professional (Insightful Corporation).
Various embodiments of the invention have been described. The descriptions and examples are intended to be illustrative of the invention and not limiting. Indeed, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that modifications may be made to the various embodiments of the invention described without departing from the spirit of the invention or scope of the appended claims set forth below.

All references cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

TABLE 3


Variant	Probe	Probe Sequence	Seq ID No:	titer (μl)

A398	DBM0081P	CCACACGTGTATCCCTGAGAA		3	1.0

398G	DBM0082P	TCTCAGGGACACACGTGTG		4	4.0

C676	DBM0172P	TGGAGTGAAAACGACCCGGCAG		5	1.0

676T	DBM0073P	CTGCCGGGTCATTTTCGCTCC		6	1.0

A1374	DBM0043RC	GAGGGAAGGGAGGGCATTGTG	7	1.0

1374C	DBM0139P	AGGGAAGGGCGGGCATTGT	8	4.0

G1417	DBM0124P	CTCTCCGAGCAGGTCCAGG		9	1.0

1417T	DBM0046RC	TCCTGGACCTTCTCGGAGAGG	10	1.0

T1466	DBM0076P	AAGGTGGAAGAAGGCATGACTCC	11	1.0
	DBM0132P	AAGGTGGGAGAAGACATGACTCC		12	1.0

1466C	DBM0171P	GGAGTCACGTCTTCTCCTACCTT	13	2.0

T1682	DBM0157P	TGGCTCAGAGAGTTGCTGAAGC	14	2.0

1682C	DBM0094P	TTCAGCAACCCCCTGAGCC		15	2.0

A1902	KW86	AGTGGCTATCAGGAGTTTGT		16	1.6

1902G	KW85	AGTGGCTATCGGGAGTTTGT	17	0.8

T2531	DBM0080P	CTCTTCTCTGAGATGCCCGAG	18	0.5

2531C	DBM0048RC	CTCGGGCATCCCAGAGAAGAG	19	0.5

TABLE 4


Computationally estimated haplotype frequencies compared between Filipino controls and diabetics.

Seq

MLE

COUNT:

Total

exp

haplotype

ID No:

label

frequency

O.R.

control

diabetics

count

control

diabetic

chi-square

P-value

ACATTTAT	20	H-1	0.318	0.329	1.1	59.7	58.5	118.2	60.7	57.5	0.033	0.855
ACAGTTGT	21	H-6	0.074	0.074	1.0	14.0	13.2	27.2	14.0	13.2	0.000	0.987
	22	H-3	0.145	0.058	0.4	27.3	10.3	37.6	19.3	18.3	6.727	0.009
GCAGTTAT	23	H-2	0.390	0.441	1.2	73.3	78.5	151.8	78.0	73.8	0.582	0.445
GCCGCCGT	24	H-10	0.032	0.051	1.6	6.0	9.0	15.0	7.7	7.3	0.776	0.378
		n =	188	178				366
										overall	8.118	0.0987

TABLE 5


	Affected Genotypes	Control Genotypes
SNP	(n = 89)	(n = 94)

A398G	AA = 21	AG = 40	GG = 28	AA = 32	AG = 41	GG = 21
(50 I/V)	(0.236)	(0.449)	(0.315)	(0.340)	(0.436)	(0.223)
C676G	CC = 89			CC = 92	CG = 2
(142 N/N)	(1)			(0.979)	(0.021)
A1374C	AA = 70	AC = 17	CC = 2	AA = 55	AC = 30	CC = 3
(375 E/A)	(0.787)	(0.191)	(0.023)	(0.630)	(0.341)	(0.034)
G1417T	GG = 78	GT = 10	TT = 1	GG = 63	GT = 29	TT = 2
(389 L/L)	(0.876)	(0.112)	(0.011)	(0.670)	(0.309)	(0.022)
T1466C	TT = 70	TC = 17	CC = 2	TT = 60	TC = 32	CC = 2
(406 C/R)	(0.787)	(0.191)	(0.023)	(0.638)	(0.340)	(0.022)
T1682C	TT = 70	TC = 17	CC = 2	TT = 61	TC = 31	CC = 2
(478 S/P)	(0.787)	(0.191)	(0.023)	(0.649)	(0.330)	(0.022)
A1902G	AA = 50	AG = 35	GG = 3	AA = 50	AG = 36	GG = 8
(551 Q/R)	(0.562)	(0.393)	(0.034)	(0.532)	(0.383)	(0.085)
T2531C	TT = 89			TT = 94
(761 S/P)	(1)			(1)

TABLE 6


SNPs detected

				Genbank
SNP #	LOCUS	SNP	Variation	Access #

1	IL4R	A398G	I50V	X52425
2	IL4R	C676T	N142N	X52425
3	IL4R	A1374C	E375A	X52425
4	IL4R	G1417T	L389L	X52425
5	IL4R	T1466C	C406R	X52425
6	IL4R	T1682C	S478P	X52425
7	IL4R	A1902G	Q551R	X52425
8	IL4R	T2531C	S761P	X52425

TABLE 7


Amplicon primers and lengths

		Amplicon		Seq	Amplicon		Seq
	Amplicon	Left Primer		ID	Right Primer		ID
SNP #	size, bp	Name	Left primer sequence	No:	Name	Right primer sequence	No:

1	114	RR192B	CAGCCCCTGTGTCTGCAGA	25	RR193B	GTCCAGTGTATAGTTATCCGCACTGA		31

2	163	DBM0177B	CTGACCTGGAGCAACCCGTA	26	DBM0178B	ACTGGGCCTCTGCTGGTCA		32

3, 4, 5	228	DBM0023B	ATTGTGTGAGGAGGAGGAGGAGGTA		27	DBM0022B	GTTGGGCATGTGAGCACTCGTA	33

6	129	DBM0097B	CTCGTCATCGCAGGCAA	28	DBM0098B	AGGGCATCTCGGGTTCTA		34

7	198	RR200B	GCCGAAATGTCCTCCAGCA		29	RR178B	CCACATTTCTCTGGGGACACA		35

8	177	DBM0112B	CCGGCCTCCCTGGCA	30	DBM0071B	GCAGACTCAGCAACAAGAGG		36

TABLE 8


Hybridization probes and titers

								Variant
								allele
			Seq	WT allele	Variant		Seq	probe
SNP	WT allele	WT allele	ID	probe	allele	Varient allele probe	ID	titer
#	Probe name	probe sequence	No:	titer (μM)	probe name	sequence	No:	(μM)

1	DBM0081P	CCACACGTGTATCCCTGAGAA		37	1.0	DBM0082P	TCTCAGGGACACACGTGTG		46	4.0

2	DBM0172P	TGGAGTGAAAACGACCCGGCAG		38	1.0	DBM0073P	CTGCCGGGTCATTTTCGCTCC	47	1.0

3	DBM0043RC	GAGGGAAGGGAGGGCATTGTG		39	1.0	DBM0139P	AGGGAAGGGCGGGCATTGT	48	4.0

4	DBM0124P	CTCTCCGAGCAGGTCCAGG	40	1.0	DBM0046RC	TCCTGGACCTTCTCGGAGAGG	49	1.0

5	DBM0076P +	AAGGTGGAAGAAGGCATGACTCC	41	1.0	DBM0171P	GGAGTCACGTCTTCTCCTACCTT		50	2.0
	DBM0132P	AAGGTGGGAGAAGACATGACTCC		42	1.0

6	DBM0157P	TGGCTCAGAGAGTTGCTGAAGC	43	2.0	DBM0094P	TTCAGCAACCCCCTGAGCC	51	2.0

7	KW86	AGTGGCTATCAGGAGTTTGT	44	1.6	KW85	AGTGGCTATCGGGAGTTTGT	52	0.8

8	DBM0080P	CTCTTCTCTGAGATGCCCGAG		45	0.5	DBM0048RC	CTCGGGCATCCCAGAGAAGAG	53	0.5

TABLE 9


Allele Frequency Of
wildtype allele in HBDI founders

		WT Allele
	SNP #	Frequency

	1	0.53
	2	0.90
	3	0.89
	4	0.89
	5	0.89
	6	0.83
	7	0.79
	8	0.99

TABLE 10


Pairwise Linkage Disequilibrium Measures

TABLE 11A


Results of single locus TDT analysis, to the 282 probands only

	Transmissions of	Non-transmissions		McNemar chi-
	WT allele to	of WT allele to	Total observed	squared
SNP #	affected (T)	affected (NT)	Transmissions (T + NT)	statistic	Significance

1	144	138	282	0.128	N.S.
2	55	39	94	2.723	N.S.
3	62	46	108	2.370	N.S.
4	62	46	108	2.370	N.S.
5	61	46	107	2.103	N.S.
6	90	67	157	3.369	N.S.
7	103	81	184	2.630	N.S.
8	5	7	12	0.333	N.S.

TABLE 11B


Results of single locus TDT analysis, to 564 primary affected and 26 additional children

		Non-
	Transmissions of	transmissions of	Total observed	McNemar
	WT allele to	WT allele to	Transmissions	chi-squared	Transmission
SNP #	affected (T)	affected (NT)	(T + NT)	statistic	Significance	T/(T + NT)

1	311	280	591	1.626	N.S.
2	107	90	197	1.467	N.S.
3	130	98	228	4.491	P < 0.05	57.0%
4	130	98	228	4.491	P < 0.05	57.0%
5	128	98	226	3.982	P < 0.05	56.6%
6	189	149	338	4.734	P < 0.05	55.9%
7	212	180	392	2.612	N.S.
8	12	13	25	0.040	N.S.

TABLE 12


Allele specific PCR primers and amplicon lengths

SNP detected		Other SNPs				Wildtype Allele-
allele-	Amplicon	spanned by	Common			Specific Primer
specifically	Size. bp	amplicon	Primer Name	Common Primer Sequences	Seq ID No:	Sequence

3	678	4, 5, 6, 7	RR178B	CCACATTTCTCTGGGGACACA	54	DBM0149B
7	639	3, 4, 5, 6	DBM0023B	ATTGTGTGAGGAGGAGGAGGAGGTA	55	DBN9155B
6	413	3, 4, 5	DBM0023B	ATTGTGTGAGGAGGAGGAGGAGGTA	56	DBM0194B

SNP detected			Variant Allele-
allele-	Wildtype Allele-specific Primr		Specific Primer	Variant Allele-specific Primer
specifically	Sequence	Seq ID No:	Name	Sequences	Seq ID No:

3	TTCCAGGAGGGAAGGGA	57	DBM0150B	TTCCAGGAGGGAAGGGC	60
7	CACCGCATGTACAAACTCCT	58	DBM0156B	CACCGCATGTACAAACTCCC	61
6	GGTGACTGGCTCAGGGA	59	DBM0195B	GGTGACTGGCTCAGGGG	62

TABLE 13


IBD Distributions for IL4R haplotypes

Group (n)	IBD = 2	IBD = 1	IBD = 0	P-value

All families (256)	30.7%	47.9%	21.5%	N.S.
Either/both sib DR3/4 (119)	26.1%	50.4%	23.5%	N.S.
Neither sib DR3/4 (137)	34.7%	45.6%	19.7%	0.03
Expectation	25%	50%	25%

TABLE 14A


Haplotype transmissions by AFBAC method: all families

Counts

Observed Frequency

Chi-squared

IL4R 8-locus Haplotype	Transmitted	AFBAC	Total	Transmitted	AFBAC	Statistic	p-value

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	259.5	109.5	369	46.3%	41.8%	0.82	0.36
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	170.5	71.5	242	30.4%	27.3%	0.60	0.44
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1	29.5	23.5	53	5.3%	9.0%	3.79	0.05
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1	23.5	13	36.5	4.2%	5.0%	0.24	0.63
1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1	23	12.5	35.5	4.1%	4.8%	0.18	0.67
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1	20.5	14	34.5	3.7%	5.3%	1.20	0.27
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1	19	9	28	3.4%	3.4%	0.00	0.98
2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1	3.5	3	6.5	0.6%	1.1%	0.61	0.43
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2	4.5	2	6.5	0.8%	0.8%	0.00	0.95
Others	6.5	4	10.5	1.2%	1.5%	0.19	0.67
TOTAL	560	262	822			7.64	0.94

TABLE 14B


Haplotype transmissions by AFBAC method: “Either/both sib DR3/4” subgroup of familes

Counts

Observed Frequency

Chi-squared

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	254	50.5	304.5	46.7%	41.6%	0.57	0.45
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	156	30	186	28.7%	24.7%	0.56	0.45
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1	35	11	46	6.4%	9.1%	0.99	0.32
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1	24	7	31	4.4%	5.8%	0.39	0.53
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1	20	6	26	3.7%	4.9%	0.40	0.52
1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1	18	7	25	3.3%	5.8%	1.59	0.21
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1	18	4	22	3.3%	3.3%	0.00	0.99
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2	8	2	10	1.5%	1.6%	0.02	0.89
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2	8	1	9	1.5%	0.8%	0.31	0.58
2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1	1	2	3	0.2%	1.6%	4.71	0.03
2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1	2	1	3	0.4%	0.8%	0.46	0.50
TOTAL	544	121.5	665.5			10.00	0.44

TABLE 14C


Haplotype transmissions by AFBAC method: “neither sib DR3/4” subgroup of families

Counts

Observed Frequency

Chi-squared

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	267	62.5	329.5	45.7%	40.7%	0.68	0.409
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1	185	43	228	31.7%	28.0%	0.53	0.467
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1	24	15.5	39.5	4.1%	10.1%	8.14	0.004
1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1	30	6	36	5.1%	3.9%	0.38	0.540
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1	23	10	33	3.9%	6.5%	1.80	0.179
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1	23	7.5	30.5	3.9%	4.9%	0.26	0.607
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1	17	5	22	2.9%	3.3%	0.05	0.825
2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1	8	1	9	1.4%	0.7%	0.51	0.473
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2	3	1	4	0.5%	0.7%	0.04	0.837
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1	2	1	3	0.3%	0.7%	0.29	0.593
2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1	2	1	3	0.3%	0.7%	0.29	0.593
TOTAL	584	153.5	737.5			12.97	0.226

TABLE 15A


SNP by SNP allele transmissions by AFBAC method: “either/both sib DR3/4”
subgroup of familes

Transmitted (n = 540)

AFBAC (n = 121.5)

allele counts

variant allele

allele counts

variant allele

Chi-squared

p-value

SNP #	wt	variant	frequency	wt allele	variants	frequency	Statistic	(df = 1)

1	296	244	45.2%	64.5	57	46.9%	0.12	0.730
2	490	50	9.3%	107.5	14	11.5%	0.58	0.446
3	485	55	10.2%	103.5	18	14.8%	2.17	0.141
4	485	55	10.2%	103.5	18	14.8%	2.17	0.141
5	485	55	10.2%	103.5	18	14.8%	2.17	0.141
6	457	83	15.4%	96.5	25	20.6%	1.97	0.161
7	436	104	19.35	88.5	33	27.2%	3.77	0.052
8	532	8	1.5%	119.5	2	1.6%	0.02	0.893
TOTAL

TABLE 15B


SNP by SNP allele transmissions by AFBAC method: “neither sib DR3/4”
subgroup of familes

Transmitted (n = 588)

AFBAC (n = 158.5)

allele counts

variant allele

allele counts

variant allele

Chi-squared

p-value

SNP #	wt	variant	frequency	wt allele	variant	frequency	Statistic	(df = 1)

1	320	268	45.6%	77.5	81	51.1%	1.53	0.216
2	539	49	8.3%	139	19.5	12.3%	2.36	0.124
3	529	59	10.0%	132	26.5	16.7%	5.50	0.019
4	529	59	10.0%	132	26.5	16.7%	5.50	0.019
5	534	54	9.2%	136	22.5	14.2%	3.41	0.065
6	502	86	14.6%	121	37.5	23.7%	7.38	0.007
7	475	113	19.2%	115	43.5	27.4%	5.10	0.024
8	584	4	0.7%	157.5	1	0.6%	0.00	0.946

TABLE 16A


TDT analysis of 8-loocus haplotypes to probands only.

			TOTAL
	transmitted to	NOT transmitted	TRANSMISSIONS	McNemar chi-	P-value
haplotype	affected	to affected	OBSERVED	squared statistic	(1 df)	% TRANSMISSION

11111111	140	131	271	0.299	0.585	51.7%
21111111	130	105	235	2.660	0.103	55.3%
21222221	27	39	66	2.182	0.140	40.9%
22111111	19	28	47	1.723	0.189	40.4%
11222221	19	24	43	0.581	0.446	44.2%
22111221	17	23	40	0.900	0.343	42.5%
11111121	18	15	33	0.273	0.602	54.5%
22111222	6	5	11	0.091	0.763	54.5%
21111121	1	5	6	2.667	0.102	16.7%
11111221	1	3	4	1.000	0.317	25.0%
11221221	2	0	2	2.000	0.157	100.0%
21221121	1	1	2	0.000	1.000	50.0%
21221221	0	2	2	2.000	0.157	0.0%
11221111	0	1	1	1.000	0.317	0.0%
11111222	1	0	1	1.000	0.317	100.0%
total	382	382	764

TABLE 16B


TDT analysis of 8-loocus haplotypes to two primary affected children per family.

21222221	52	80	132	5.939	0.015	39.4%
21111111	245	225	470	0.851	0.356	52.1%
11111111	283	259	542	1.063	0.303	52.2%
22111111	43	51	94	0.681	0.409	45.7%
11221221	3	1	4	1.000	0.317	75.0%
11222221	44	42	86	0.047	0.829	51.2%
22111221	37	43	80	0.450	0.502	46.3%
11111121	36	30	66	0.545	0.460	54.5%
22111222	11	11	22	0.000	1.000	50.0%
21111121	3	9	12	3.000	0.083	25.0%
21221121	2	2	4	0.000	1.000	50.0%
21221221	0	4	4	4.000	0.046	0.0%
11111221	4	4	8	0.000	1.000	50.0%
11221111	0	2	2	2.000	0.157	0.0%
11111222	1	1	2	0.000	1.000	50.0%

TABLE 16c


TDT analysis of 8-loocus haplotypes to all affected children.

11111111	295	272	567	0.933	0.334	52.0%
21111111	259	236	495	1.069	0.301	52.3%
21222221	55	88	143	7.615	0.006	38.5%
22111111	45	53	98	0.653	0.419	45.9%
11222221	44	43	87	0.011	0.915	50.6%
22111221	40	46	86	0.419	0.518	46.5%
11111121	38	30	68	0.941	0.332	55.9%
22111222	12	11	23	0.043	0.835	52.2%
21111121	3	10	13	3.769	0.052	23.1%
11111221	6	4	10	0.400	0.527	60.0%
21221221	1	5	6	2.667	0.102	16.7%
11221221	3	2	5	0.200	0.655	60.0%
21221121	3	2	5	0.200	0.655	60.0%
11221111	0	2	2	2.000	0.157	0.0%
11111222	1	1	2	0.000	1.000	50.0%
TOTAL	805	805	1610

TABLE 17A


analysis of 8-loocus haplotypes to two primary affected children per family: “either/both sib DR3/4” subgroup.

11111111	133	121	254	0.567	0.451	52.45
21111111	105	101	206	0.078	0.780	51.0%
21222221	30	36	66	0.545	0.460	45.5%
22111111	22	26	48	0.333	0.564	45.8%
11222221	19	19	38	0.000	1.000	50.0%
22111221	16	22	38	0.947	0.330	42.1%
22111222	14	14	28	0.000	1.000	50.0%
22111222	8	6	14	0.286	0.593	57.1%
21111121	1	5	6	2.667	0.102	16.7%
11111221	2	0	2	2.000	0.157	100.0%
TOTAL	350	350	700

TABLE 17B


TDT analysis of 8-loocus haplotypes to two primary affected children per family: “neither sib DR3/4” subgroup..

11111111	138	126	264	0.545	0.460	52.3%
21111111	128	112	240	1.067	0.302	53.3%
21222221	22	44	66	7.333	0.007	33.3%
22111111	23	29	52	0.692	0.405	44.2%
11222221	28	20	48	1.333	0.248	58.3%
22111111	21	25	46	0.348	0.555	45.7%
11111121	17	11	28	1.286	0.257	60.7%
22111222	3	5	8	0.500	0.480	37.5%
11111221	2	4	6	0.667	0.414	33.3%
21111121	2	4	6	0.667	0.414	33.3%
11221221	3	1	4	1.000	0.317	75.0%
21221121	2	2	4	0.000	1.000	50.0%
21221221	0	4	4	4.000	0.046	0.0%
11221111	0	2	2	2.000	0.157	0.0%
11111222	1	1	2	0.000	1.000	50.0%
TOTAL	390	390	780

TABLE 18


Allele frequencies compared between Filipino controls and diabetics.

	WT Allele	WT allele
	Frequency	frquency in
SNP #	in controls	diabetics	P-value by z-test

1	0.559	0.461	0.077
2	0.989	1.000	0.480
3	0.793	0.882	0.031
4	0.824	0.933	0.003
5	0.809	0.882	0.075
6	0.814	0.882	0.097
7	0.723	0.770	0.362
8	1.000	1.000	1.000
n =	188	178	chromosomes

TABLE 19


Computationally estimated haplotype frequencies compared between Filipino controls and diabetics.

MLE	MLS
frequency:	frequency:		COUNT:	COUNT:		exp	exp	chi-
controls	Diabetics	O.R.	control	diabetics	Total count	control	diabetic	square	P-value

IL4R
11111111	0.318	0.329	1.1	59.7	58.5	118.2	60.7	57.5	0.033	0.855
11111121	0.074	0.074	1.0	14.0	13.2	27.2	14.0	13.2	0.000	0.987
11222221	0.145	0.058	0.4	27.3	10.3	37.6	19.3	18.3	6.727	0.009
21111111	0.390	0.441	1.2	73.3	78.5	151.8	78.0	73.8	0.582	0.445
21212221	0.032	0.051	1.6	6.0	9.0	15.0	7.7	7.3	0.776	0.378
n =	188	178				366

TABLE 20


Observed haplotypes and frequencies compared between Filipino controls and diabetics..

	calc.	calc.
	frequency:	frequency:		COUNT:	COUNT:		exp	exp	chi-
haplotype	controls	Diabetics	O.R.	control	diabetics	Total count	control	diabetic	square	P-value

IL4R
x1111111	0.707	0.770	1.4	133.0	137.0	270.0	138.7	131.3	0.480	0.489
x1111121	0.074	0.112	1.6	14.0	20.0	34.0	17.5	16.5	1.413	0.235
x1222221	0.154	0.067	0.4	29.0	12.0	41.0	21.1	19.9	6.155	0.013
x1212221	0.032	0.051	1.6	6.0	9.0	15.0	7.7	7.3	0.776	0.378
x1222111	0.005	0.000	0.0	1.0	0.0	1.0	0.5	0.5	0.947	0.331
x2111111	0.011	0.000	0.0	2.0	0.0	2.0	1.0	1.0	1.894	0.169
x1221121	0.016	0.000	0.0	3.0	0.0	3.0	1.5	1.5	2.840	0.092
			n =	188.0	178.0	366		overall	14.504	0.024

TABLE 21


Allele Frequencies in Patients and Controls

					Freq in
	SNP	Major	Minor	Freq in	T1D
Gene	Description	allele	allele	Controls	patients	p-value^a	O.R.^b	95% CI

IL4R

	5′ (−3223)^c	C	T	41.9%	51.1%	0.10	1.45	0.96, 2.19
	5′ (−1914)^c	C	T	44.1%	42.7%	0.86	1.06	0.70, 1.60
	I50V^d	A	G	44.1%	53.9%	0.06	1.48	0.98, 2.23
	N142N^d	C	G	1.1%	0.0%	0.17	0.00
	E375A^d	A	C	20.7%	11.7%	0.02	0.50	0.28, 0.90
	L389L^d	G	T	17.6%	6.7%	0.001	0.34	0.17, 0.67
	C406R^d	T	C	19.1%	11.7%	0.05	0.56	0.31, 0.99
	S478P^d	T	C	18.6%	11.7%	0.06	0.58	0.32, 1.04
	Q551R^d	A	G	27.7%	23.3%	0.34	0.80	0.50, 1.27
	S761P^d	T		100.0%	100.0%		n.a.	n.a.
IL4	5′ (−524)^e	C	T	30.9%	34.4%	0.46	1.18	0.76, 1.82
IL13	5′ (−1512)^f	A	C	30.6%	41.0%	0.05	1.58	1.03, 2.42
	5′ (−1112)^f	C	T	23.1%	30.9%	0.117	1.49	0.94, 2.37
	Intron 3^f	C	T	40.4%	45.6%	0.32	1.23	0.82, 1.86
	R110Q^f	G	A	39.9%	46.1%	0.23	1.29	0.85, 1.95

^aDifferences in allele frequencies between cases and controls were tested using a chi-square test.
^bOdds ratios refer to the minority allele.
^cAccession sequence AC004525.1;
^dAccession sequence X52425.1;
^eAccession sequence M23442.1;
^fAccession sequence U10307.1

TABLE 22


Pairwise Linkage Disequilibrium Between IL4R SNPs

	−3223 (T)	−1914 (T)	50 (G)	142 (G)	375 (C)	389 (T)	406 (C)	478 (C)	551 (G)

−3223 (T)	—	−0.183***	0.176***	0.004	−0.063***	−0.068***	−0.061***	−0.059***	−0.068***
−1914 (T)	−1.0	—	−0.068***	−0.005	0.105	0.029*	0.014	0.011	0.027
50 (G)	0.75	−0.81	—	0.006	−0.049**	−0.067***	−0.043**	−0.039**	−0.079***
142 (G)	1.0	−1.0	1.0	—	−0.002	−0.002	−0.002	−0.002	−0.003
375 (C)	−0.70	0.70	−0.53	−1.0	—	0.139***	0.152***	0.147***	0.145***
389 (T)	−0.93	0.29	−0.86	−1.0	1.0	—	0.126***	0.122***	0.122***
406 (C)	−0.74	0.13	−0.49	−1.0	1.0	0.89	—	0.150***	0.133***
478 (C)	−0.74	0.62	−0.48	−1.0	1.0	0.85	1.0	—	0.135***
551 (G)	−0.56	0.17	−0.65	−1.0	0.96	0.96	0.96	1.0	—

Top diagonal (D = P_ab− P_a· P_b).
Bottom diagonal D′ (normalized linkage disequilibrium, D′ = D/Dmax).
All values refer to the minority allele indicated in the table.
Statistically significant linkage disequilibrium values are indicated as follows:
* p < 0.05;
**p < 0.01;
***p < 0.0001

TABLE 23


Pairwise Linkage Disequilibrium Between IL4 and IL13 SNPs

		IL13-
IL4-524 (C)	IL13-1512 (C)	1112 (T)	IL13 intr (T)	IL13 110 (A)

IL4-524 (C)	—	0.062***	0.069***	0.024	0.063***
IL13-1512 (C)	0.29	—	0.163***	0.057***	0.058**
IL13-1112 (T)	0.41	1.0	—	0.077***	0.078***
IL13 intr (T)	0.13	0.31	0.54	—	0.201***
IL13 110 (A)	0.34	0.31	0.55	0.84	—

Top diagonal (D = P_ab− P_a· P_b).
Bottom diagonal D′ (normalized linkage disequilibrium, D′ = D/Dmax).
Statistically significant linkage disequilibrium values are indicated as follows:
* p < 0.05;
**p < 0.01;
***p < 0.0001

TABLE 24


Genotype Frequencies in Diabetics and Controls.

	genotype	controls	T1DM	Fisher's exact test	OR	95% CI

IL4R_3223	CC	29.0%	24.1%	0.1584	0.78	(0.40, 1.51)
	CT	58.1%	51.7%		0.77	(0.43, 1.38)
	TT	12.9%	24.1%		2.15	(0.99, 4.68)
IL4R_1914	CC	31.2%	36.0%	0.6636	1.24	(0.67, 2.29)
	TC	49.5%	42.7%		0.76	(0.43, 1.36)
	TT	19.4%	21.3%		1.13	(0.55, 2.33)
IL4R 50	AA	34.7%	23.6%	0.1846	0.58	(0.30, 1.11)
	AG	43.2%	44.9%		1.08	(0.60, 1.93)
	GG	22.1%	31.5%		1.62	(0.84, 3.13)
IL4R 142	CC	97.9%	100.0%	0.4978
	CG	2.1%	0.0%
IL4R 375	AA	62.1%	78.7%	0.038	2.25	(1.17, 4.33)
	AC	34.7%	19.1%		0.44	(0.23, 0.87)
	CC	3.2%	2.2%		0.70	(0.12, 4.32)
IL4R 389	GG	67.4%	87.6%	0.002	3.43	(1.60, 7.37)
	GT	30.5%	11.2%		0.29	(0.13, 0.63)
	TT	2.1%	1.1%		0.53	(0.05, 5.93)
IL4R 406	CC	2.1%	2.2%	0.0585	1.07	(0.15, 7.76)
	TC	33.7%	19.1%		0.46	(0.24, 0.92)
	TT	64.2%	78.7%		2.05	(1.06, 3.97)
IL4R 478	CC	2.1%	2.2%	0.0904	1.07	(0.15, 7.76)
	TC	32.6%	19.1%		0.49	(0.25, 0.96)
	TT	65.3%	78.7%		1.96	(1.01, 3.79)
IL4R 551	AA	52.6%	57.3%	0.5613	1.21	(0.68, 2.16)
	AG	38.9%	38.2%		0.97	(0.53, 1.76)
	GG	8.4%	4.5%		0.51	(0.15, 1.76)
IL4-590	CC	10.5%	12.4%	0.8143	1.20	(0.48, 2.98)
	CT	40.0%	42.7%		1.12	(0.62, 2.01)
	TT	49.5%	44.9%		0.83	(0.47, 1.49)
IL13INT3 C	CC	33.7%	31.5%	0.5413	0.90	(0.49, 1.68)
	CT	50.5%	46.1%		0.84	(0.47, 1.49)
	TT	15.8%	22.5%		1.55	(0.74, 3.25)
IL13 110	AA	12.6%	27.0%	0.0252	2.55	(1.19, 5.49)
	GA	54.7%	38.2%		0.51	(0.28, 0.92)
	GG	32.6%	34.8%		1.10	(0.60, 2.03)
IL13_1512	AA	48.4%	34.8%	0.1363	0.57	(0.31, 1.03)
	AC	41.9%	48.3%		1.29	(0.72, 2.32)
	CC	9.7%	16.9%		1.89	(0.78, 4.57)
IL13_1112	CC	60.2%	51.7%	0.2429	0.71	(0.39, 1.27)
	CT	33.3%	34.8%		1.07	(0.58, 1.97)
	TT	6.5%	13.5%		2.26	(0.81, 6.31)

TABLE 25A


Molecular IL-4 R Haplotypes in Filipino Diabetics and Controls

7 SNP	Frequency	Frequency	chi-square
Haplotype	in Controls	in Diabetics	p-value	O.R.	95% CI

CAGTTAT	70.7%	77.0%	0.49	1.38	(0.9, 2.2)
CCTCCGT	15.4%	6.7%	0.013	0.40	(0.2, 0.8)
GAGTTAT	1.1%	0.0%	0.50	0.0	(0.0, 5.8)
CAGTTGT	7.4%	11.2%	0.23	1.57	(0.8, 3.2)
CCGCCGT	3.2%	5.1%	0.38	1.62	(0.6, 4.6)
CCTTTGT	1.6%	0.0%	0.27	0.0	(0.0, 3.5)
CCTGTAT	0.5%	0.0%	0.98	0.0	(0.0, 15.8)
total (6 d.f.)			0.076
n =	188	178

TABLE 25B


Estimated IL4R 10-SNP Haplotype Frequencies in Diabetics and Controls

	IL4R 10 Locus	Controls^a		TIDM				P-
8 locus H-ID	Haplotype	N = 188	std dev	N = 180	std dev	O.R.	95% CI	value^b

H-5A	CCACGTCCGT	5.8%	(1.7%)	0.0%		0.00	(0.0, 0.8)	0.001

H-5B	CTACCTCCGT	8.5%	(2.3%)	5.8%	(2.2%)	0.66	(0.3, 1.6)	0.33

H-3A	CTGCCTCCGT	0.9%	(0.6%)	0.0%		0.00	(0.0, 6.0)	0.21

H-3B	TCGCCTCCGT	0.0%		0.9%	(1.1%)	n. a.		0.19

	Total (23 d. f.)							0.04

^aMaximum likelihood haplotype frequencies were computed using an Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm (see Excoffier and Slatkin 1995) as implemented by the Arlequin software program L. Excoffier, University of Geneva, CH). The standard deviation was computed carrying out 100 boostrap replicates. 24 of the possible 512 haplotypes were observed. The four shown here all include the disease associated seven SNP haplotype. The two 8 SNP haplotypes containing the seven SNP haplotype were
#designated H-3 and H-5 in reference Mirel et al, (in press) The standard deviation was computed carrying out 100 boostrap replicates.
^bDifferences in allele frequencies between cases and controls were tested using a chi-square test

TABLE 26


Estimated IL4 and IL13 5-SNP Haplotype
Frequencies Diabetics and Controls

5 locus	Controls		TIDM		Odds
haploytpe	N = 188	Sd	N = 176*	Sd	Ratio	P-value

CACCA	4.1%	(1.3%)	3.5%	(1.7%)	0.84

CACCG	8.9%	(2.2%)	10.6%	(2.9%)	1.21

CACTA	1.3%	(1.1%)	3.0%	(1.8%)	2.26

CATTA	0.0%		0.6%	(0.5%)	n. a.

CCCCG	1.5%	(1.0%)	0.9%	(0.9%)	0.61

CCTCG	1.1%	(0.9%)	5.5%	(2.3%)	5.19	0.02

CCTTA	12.6%	(2.4%)	9.3%	(2.0%)	0.71

CCTTG	0.0%		0.4%	(0.7%)	n. a.

TACCG	33.6%	(3.8%) 21.9%	(3.9%)	0.55	0.03

TACTA	16.4%	(3.3%) 16.3%	(3.0%)	0.99

TACTG	5.0%	(1.7%)	3.2%	(1.4%)	0.62

TCCCG	4.6%	(1.8%)	9.8%	(2.9%)	2.23	0.06

TCCTA	1.3%	(1.1%)	0.0%		0.00

TCCTG	0.2%	(0.5%)	0.0%		0.00

TCTCG	5.3%	(2.4%	1.7%	(1.2%)	0.31	0.07

TCTTA	4.1%	(2.1%)	12.8%	(2.2%)	3.47	0.004

TCTCA	0.0%		0.6%	(0.7%)	n. a.

Total (16 d. f.)						0.005

* due to missing genotypes.
(order of the SNPs: IL4-524, IL13-1512, IL13-1112, IL13INT3, IL13R110)

TABLE 27


Test For Independence Between Genotype Frequencies at IL4R SNPs
and Genotype Frequencies at Five IL4 and IL13 SNPs.

	Chromsome 5 SNP	controls	T1D

IL4-524	0.15	0.001
IL13-1512	0.77	0.78
IL13-1112	0.93	0.73
IL13 110	0.99	0.91
IL3 intron 3	0.99	0.019

TABLE 28


Epistasis Between IL4R and Five IL4 and IL13 SNPs

			Walds	Nominal
β₃.	Std. Error	Odds ratio	Chi-sq	p-value

IL4-524:il4r	−0.22	0.10	0.81	4.55	0.033
IL13-1512:il4r	0.04	0.15	1.04	0.06	0.811
IL13-1112:il4r	0.10	0.16	1.10	0.37	0.545
IL13 110:il4r	0.14	0.09	1.15	2.24	0.135
IL13INT3:il4r	0.17	0.09	1.18	3.19	0.074

The Overall p-Value For All Five Tests By Permutation Analysis Was p < 0.045 (see text).

TABLE 29


Probes For IL4 and IL13

				Seq ID	Conc.
SNP	Allele	Probe	Probe Sequence	No:	(μM)

IL4P C582T	C	KW66	AACATTGTCCCCCAGTGC	63	1.2

IL4P C582T	T	KW89	AGCACTGGGGAACAATGTTC	64	0.9

IL13 Int 3	C	DBM0161P	TTCTACTCACGTGCTGACCT	65	1.0

IL13 Int 3	T	DBM0164P	GGTCAGCACATGAGTAGAACG	66	0.3

IL13 Ex 4 R110Q		DBM0136P	TCAGTTGAACCGTCCCTCG	67	1.0

IL13 Ex 4 R110Q		DBM0181P	GAGGGACAGTTCAACTGAAAC	68	1.0

TABLE 30


Amplicon Primers and Lengths

	Amplicon	Forward	Seq ID			Seq ID
Exon	Size	Primer	No	Sequence	Reverse Primer	No	Sequence

IL4P	107	RR169B	69	ACTAGGCCTCACCTGATACGA	RR170B	72	CATAGAGGCAGAATAACAGGCAGA

IL 13 in 3	118	DBM0165B	70	CTCGGACATGCAAGCTGGAA	DBM0166B	73	ACTGAATGAGACAGTCCCTGGA

IL 13 ex 4	187	DBM0167B	71	AATCGAGGTGGCCCAGTTTGTA	DBM0168B	74	CCTAACCCTCCTTCCCGCCTA

TABLE 31


Amplicon Primers and Lengths for IL4R

	Amplicon			Seq ID
Exon	Size	Allele	Primer	No	Sequence

T(−1914)C	49	T	DBM0659	75	ACTGACTTATCTTTACTGTCACTTCT
			DBM0661	76	GCAAGACAGCCACCAACCC

T(−1914)C	49	C	DBM0660	77	TGACTTATCTTTACTGTCACTTCC
			DBM0661	76	GCAAGACAGCCACCAACCC

C(−3223)T	42	C	DBM0672	79	CCTGCTCCCAGGACTGAC
			DBM0667	80	CCCAGACTTTATCTGTGACTGCTC

C(−3223)T	42	T	DBMO671	81	CCTGCTCCCAGGACTGAT
			DBM0667	80	CCCAGACTTTATCTGTGACTGCTC

TABLE 32


Amplicon Primers and Lengths for IL13

	Amplicon			Seq ID
Exon	Size	Allele	Primer	No	Sequence

A(−1512)C	44	A	DBM0650	82	GGAAACAGGCCCGTAGA
			DBM0652	83	GAGTGCCGCTACTTGGCC

A(−1512)C	43	C	DBM0651	84	GAAACAGGCCCGTAGC
			DBM0652	83	GAGTGCCGCTACTTGGCC

C(−1112)T	55	C	DBM0656	85	TCTGGAGGACTTCTAGGAAAAC
			DBM0658	86	TGCAGCCATGTCGCCTTT

C(−1112)T	55	T	DBM0657	87	TCTGGAGGACTTCTAGGAAAAT
			DBM0658	86	TGCAGCCATGTCGCCTTT

Claims

1. A method for determining an individual's risk for type 1 diabetes comprising detecting the presence of at least one type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4, or IL13 polymorphism in a nucleic acid sample of the individual, wherein the presence of said polymorphism indicates the individual's risk for type 1 diabetes.

2. The method of claim 1, further comprising detecting at least one other polymorphism and wherein said polymorphisms comprise a haplotype.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the nucleic acid sample comprises DNA.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the nucleic acid sample comprises RNA.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one polymorphism is detected by amplification.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the at least one polymorphism is detected by a polymerase chain reaction.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one polymorphism is detected by sequencing.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one polymorphism is detected by amplifying a target region containing the at least one polymorphism; hybridization of at least one sequence-specific oligonucleotides that hybridizes under stringent conditions to the at least one polymorphism; and detecting the hybridization.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one polymorphism is selected from the list of polymorphisms listed in Table 2.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one polymorphism is selected from the list of polymorphisms listed in Table 21.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the at least one polymorphism is a combination of two or more polymorphisms selected from the polymorphisms listed in Table 21.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one polymorphism is an IL4R polymorphism.

13. The method of claim 12, further comprising detecting at least one IL13 polymorphism.

14. The method of claim 12, further comprising detecting at least one IL4 polymorphism.

15. A kit for determining an individual's risk for type 1 diabetes, where the kit comprises at least one sequence-specific oligonucleotide that comprises a sequence that hybridizes under stringent condition to at least one type 1 diabetes-associated IL4R, IL4, or IL13 polymorphism.

16. The kit of claim 15, further comprising reagents for the amplification of a target region, wherein said target region comprises the at least one polymorphism.

17. The kit of claim 16, wherein said reagents for amplification comprise at least one primer.

18. The kit of claim 15, wherein said at least one sequence-specific oligonucleotide is labeled.

19. The kit of claim 15, further comprising a reagent to detect the label.

20. The kit of claim 15, wherein the at least one polymorphism is selected from the list of polymorphisms set forth in Table 21.