US10615342B2 - Inverted organic solar microarray for applications in microelectromechanical systems - Google Patents

Inverted organic solar microarray for applications in microelectromechanical systems Download PDF

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US10615342B2
US10615342B2 US14/021,620 US201314021620A US10615342B2 US 10615342 B2 US10615342 B2 US 10615342B2 US 201314021620 A US201314021620 A US 201314021620A US 10615342 B2 US10615342 B2 US 10615342B2
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organic solar
solar photovoltaic
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Jason Lewis
Xiaomei Jiang
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University of South Florida St Petersburg
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K30/00—Organic devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation
    • H10K30/80—Constructional details
    • H10K30/81—Electrodes
    • H10K30/82—Transparent electrodes, e.g. indium tin oxide [ITO] electrodes
    • H01L51/0003—
    • H01L27/301—
    • H01L31/0256—
    • H01L31/048—
    • H01L51/0023—
    • H01L51/442—
    • H—ELECTRICITY
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    • H10F—INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES SENSITIVE TO INFRARED RADIATION, LIGHT, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OF SHORTER WAVELENGTH OR CORPUSCULAR RADIATION
    • H10F19/00—Integrated devices, or assemblies of multiple devices, comprising at least one photovoltaic cell covered by group H10F10/00, e.g. photovoltaic modules
    • H10F19/80—Encapsulations or containers for integrated devices, or assemblies of multiple devices, having photovoltaic cells
    • H—ELECTRICITY
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    • H10F—INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES SENSITIVE TO INFRARED RADIATION, LIGHT, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OF SHORTER WAVELENGTH OR CORPUSCULAR RADIATION
    • H10F77/00—Constructional details of devices covered by this subclass
    • H10F77/10—Semiconductor bodies
    • H10F77/12—Active materials
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K39/00—Integrated devices, or assemblies of multiple devices, comprising at least one organic radiation-sensitive element covered by group H10K30/00
    • H10K39/10—Organic photovoltaic [PV] modules; Arrays of single organic PV cells
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K39/00—Integrated devices, or assemblies of multiple devices, comprising at least one organic radiation-sensitive element covered by group H10K30/00
    • H10K39/10—Organic photovoltaic [PV] modules; Arrays of single organic PV cells
    • H10K39/12—Electrical configurations of PV cells, e.g. series connections or parallel connections
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K71/00—Manufacture or treatment specially adapted for the organic devices covered by this subclass
    • H10K71/10—Deposition of organic active material
    • H10K71/12—Deposition of organic active material using liquid deposition, e.g. spin coating
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K71/00—Manufacture or treatment specially adapted for the organic devices covered by this subclass
    • H10K71/621—Providing a shape to conductive layers, e.g. patterning or selective deposition
    • H01L2251/308—
    • H01L51/0036—
    • H01L51/0037—
    • H01L51/0047—
    • H01L51/4253—
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K2102/00—Constructional details relating to the organic devices covered by this subclass
    • H10K2102/10—Transparent electrodes, e.g. using graphene
    • H10K2102/101—Transparent electrodes, e.g. using graphene comprising transparent conductive oxides [TCO]
    • H10K2102/103—Transparent electrodes, e.g. using graphene comprising transparent conductive oxides [TCO] comprising indium oxides, e.g. ITO
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K30/00—Organic devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation
    • H10K30/30—Organic devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation comprising bulk heterojunctions, e.g. interpenetrating networks of donor and acceptor material domains
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K85/00—Organic materials used in the body or electrodes of devices covered by this subclass
    • H10K85/10—Organic polymers or oligomers
    • H10K85/111—Organic polymers or oligomers comprising aromatic, heteroaromatic, or aryl chains, e.g. polyaniline, polyphenylene or polyphenylene vinylene
    • H10K85/113—Heteroaromatic compounds comprising sulfur or selene, e.g. polythiophene
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K85/00—Organic materials used in the body or electrodes of devices covered by this subclass
    • H10K85/10—Organic polymers or oligomers
    • H10K85/111—Organic polymers or oligomers comprising aromatic, heteroaromatic, or aryl chains, e.g. polyaniline, polyphenylene or polyphenylene vinylene
    • H10K85/113—Heteroaromatic compounds comprising sulfur or selene, e.g. polythiophene
    • H10K85/1135—Polyethylene dioxythiophene [PEDOT]; Derivatives thereof
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K85/00—Organic materials used in the body or electrodes of devices covered by this subclass
    • H10K85/20—Carbon compounds, e.g. carbon nanotubes or fullerenes
    • H10K85/211—Fullerenes, e.g. C60
    • H10K85/215—Fullerenes, e.g. C60 comprising substituents, e.g. PCBM
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E10/00—Energy generation through renewable energy sources
    • Y02E10/50—Photovoltaic [PV] energy
    • Y02E10/549—Organic PV cells
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
    • Y02P70/00—Climate change mitigation technologies in the production process for final industrial or consumer products
    • Y02P70/50—Manufacturing or production processes characterised by the final manufactured product
    • Y02P70/521—

Definitions

  • This invention relates to spray-manufactured organic solar photovoltaic cell.
  • the invention provides a novel method of manufacturing organic solar photovoltaic cells using spray-deposition and the organic solar photovoltaic cell resulting therefrom.
  • Photovoltaic cells have been used since the 1970s as an alternative to traditional energy sources. Because photovoltaic cells use existing energy from sunlight, the environmental impact from photovoltaic energy generation is significantly less than traditional energy generation. Most of the commercialized photovoltaic cells are inorganic solar cells using single crystal silicon, polycrystal silicon or amorphous silicon. Traditionally, solar modules made from silicon are installed on rooftops of buildings. However, these inorganic silicon-based photovoltaic cells are produced in complicated processes and at high costs, limiting the use of photovoltaic cells. These silicon wafer-based cells are brittle, opaque substances that limit their use. To solve such drawbacks, photovoltaics cell using organic materials have been actively researched.
  • the photovoltaic process in OPV first starts from the absorption of light mainly by the polymer, followed by the formation of excitons. The exciton then migrates to and dissociates at the interface of donor (polymer)/acceptor (fullerene). Separated electrons and holes travel to opposite electrodes via hopping, and are collected at the electrodes, resulting in an open circuit voltage (Voc). Upon connection of electrodes, a photocurrent (short circuit current, Isc) is created.
  • Organic photovoltaic cells based on ⁇ -conjugated polymers have been intensively studied following the discovery of fast charge transfer between polymer and carbon C60.
  • Conventional organic photovoltaic devices use transparent substrates, such as an indium oxide like indium tin oxide (ITO) or like indium zinc oxide (IZO), as an anode and aluminum or other metal as a cathode.
  • ITO indium oxide like indium tin oxide
  • IZO indium zinc oxide
  • a photoactive material including an electron donor material and an electron acceptor material is sandwiched between the anode and the cathode.
  • the donor material in conventional devices is poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT), which is a conjugated polymer.
  • the conventional acceptor material is (6,6)-phenyl C61 butyric acid methylester (PCBM), which is a fullerene derivative.
  • PCBM (6,6)-phenyl C61 butyric acid methylester
  • Both the ITO and aluminum contacts use sputtering and thermal vapor deposition, both of which are expensive, high vacuum, technologies.
  • light is typically incident on a side of the substrate requiring a transparent substrate and a transparent electrode.
  • a minimum thickness of 30 to 500 nm is needed to increase conductivity.
  • the organic photoelectric conversion layer is sensitive to oxygen and moisture, which reduce the power conversion efficiency and the life cycle of the organic solar cell.
  • Development of organic photovoltaic cells has achieved a conversion efficiency of 5.2% (Martin A. Green et. al., Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2010; 18:346-352).
  • Polymeric OPV cells hold promise for potential cost-effective photovoltaics since they are solution processable.
  • Large area OPVs have been demonstrated using printing (Krebs and Norman, Using light-induced thermocleavage in a roll-to-roll process for polymer solar cells, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2 (2010) 877-887; Krebs, et al., A roll-to-roll process to flexible polymer solar cells: model studies, manufacture and operational stability studies, J. Mater. Chem. 19 (2009) 5442-5451; Krebs, et al., Large area plastic solar cell modules, Mater. Sci. Eng.
  • ITO a transparent conductor
  • anode a hole-collecting electrode
  • cathode a normal geometry OPV starts from ITO anode, with the electron accepting electrode (cathode) usually a low work function metal such as aluminum or calcium, being added via thermal evaporation process.
  • photoactive layers were developed using a low-molecular weight organic material, with the layers stacked and functions separated by layer.
  • the photoactive layers were stacked with a metal layer of about 0.5 to 5 nm interposed to double the open end voltage (Voc).
  • Voc open end voltage
  • stacking photoactive layers can cause layers to melt due to solvent formation from the different layers. Stacking also limits the transparency of the photovoltaic. Interposing a metal layer between the photoactive layers can prevent solvent from one photoactive layer from penetrating into another photoactive layer and preventing damage to the other photoactive layer. However, the metal layer also reduces light transmittance, affecting power conversion efficiency of the photovoltaic cell.
  • the present invention is a novel way to fabricate organic solar arrays for application in DC power supplies for electrostatic microelectromechanical systems devices and power sources for portable PDA devices.
  • the Photovoltaic cell comprises a substrate having a first face and a second face.
  • the substrate may be any material known in the art for use as a photovoltaic substrate. Exemplary materials include cloth, such as nylon cloth, cotton cloth, polyester cloth, hemp cloth, bamboo cloth, glass, such as a low alkaline earth boro-aluminosilicate glass, and plastic.
  • Useful glass is known in the art, and may include glass having a nominal sheet resistance of 4-10 Ohm/square.
  • the substrate may be glass dimensioned into 4′′ ⁇ 4′′ substrates.
  • Exemplary plastics include any polymer such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), acrylic (PMMA), cyclic olefin copolymer (COC), ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), fluoroplastics, such as PTFE, FEP, PFA, CTFE, ECTFE, and ETFE, Kydex (an acrylic/PVC alloy), liquid crystal polymer (LCP), polyoxymethylene (POM or Acetal), polyacrylates (acrylic), polyacrylonitrile (PAN or acrylonitrile), polyamide (PA or nylon), polyamide-imide (PAI), polyaryletherketone (PAEK or ketone), polybutadiene (PBD), polybutylene (PB), polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), polycyclohexylene dimethylene terephthalate (PCT), polycarbonate (PC), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polyketone (PK),
  • the Self-Assembled Monolayer such as N-propyl trimethoxysilane or aminopropyl triethoxysilane, are patterned onto the ITO as a layer having a monolayer of molecules of about 2 nm or less, such as 2 nm. However, it is important that the thickness of SAM layer not be more than 2-3 layers of single molecules, i.e. having a thickness of 10 nm or less.
  • the SAM layer is covered by an active layer of P3HT and PCBM.
  • the the active layer of has a layer thickness of about 130 nm to about 200 nm, such as about 130 nm or about 200 nm.
  • a layer comprising poly (3,4) ethylenedioxythiophene:poly-styrenesulfonate and 5 vol. % of dimethylsulfoxide is disposed on the active layer, providing the anode for the photovoltaic cell with inverted structure.
  • this anode layer has a thickness of about 100 nm to about 700 nm, and may be 600 nm in some variations. Exemplary thicknesses include 200 nm, 250 nm, 300 nm, 350 nm, 400 nm, 450 nm, 550 nm, 600 nm, 650 nm, and 700 nm.
  • the cell is sealed using a sealant such as a UV-cured epoxy encapsulant disposed on the edges of the substrate.
  • the photovoltaic cells may also be in electrical connection, thereby forming an array.
  • a series of organic solar photovoltaic cells disposed into an array of 50 individual cells having active area of 12 mm2.
  • the array comprises 10 cells disposed in series in one row, and 5 rows in parallel connection in some variations.
  • a spray technique was also demonstrated to fabricate the photovoltaic cells and arrays, in conjunction with a novel Self-Assembled Monolayer of N-propyl trimethoxysilane.
  • a novel Self-Assembled Monolayer of N-propyl trimethoxysilane Compared to conventional technology based on spin-coating and using metal as cathode contact, which greatly limits transparency of solar cells and posts difficulty for large scale manufacturing, the new spray technology solves these two problems simultaneously.
  • a thin film organic solar module is fabricated employing this layer-by-layer spray technique onto desired substrates (can be rigid as well as flexible). This technique has great potential in large-scale, low-cost manufacturing of commercial photovoltaic products based on solutions of organic semiconductors.
  • the method of manufacturing the organic solar photovoltaic cell comprises patterning ITO on the substrate discussed above.
  • the ITO patterns optionally includes obtaining an ITO substrate, and patterning the ITO using photolithography.
  • the ITO photolithography pattern is sprayed onto the substrate using a custom made spray mask. Some of the ITO was then etched away from the substrate.
  • HCl and HNO3 was used as an etchant, through any etchant known in the art appropriate for the ITO and substrate may be used.
  • the etched substrate was then cleaned.
  • Exemplary cleaning methods include sonification in trichloroethylene, acetone, and/or isopropanol.
  • the substrate is optionally cleaned at 50° C. for 20 min for each of three baths, trichloroethylene, acetone, and isopropanol, followed by drying with N2.
  • a Self Assembled Molecule layer such as a layer of N-propyl trimethoxysilane or other self assembled molecule material known in the art like aminopropyl triethoxysilane (NH2) (Jong Soo Kim et. al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 112111 (2007)), is applied onto the etched ITO glass.
  • the Self-Assembled monolayer is annealed inside a glovebox.
  • An active later of P3HT and PCBM was formed by means and concentrations known in the art.
  • An exemplary solution is prepared my mixing P3HT and PCBM with a weight ratio of 1:1 in dichlorobenzene. This solution is optionally stirred on a hotplate for 48h at 60° C. After preparation, the active layer was sprayed onto the Self Assembled Molecule layer.
  • the the partially-assembled device dried in an antechamber under vacuum for at least 12 hours.
  • a layer comprising poly (3,4) ethylenedioxythiophene:poly-styrenesulfonate mixed with 5 vol. % of dimethylsulfoxide is formed by any means known in the art.
  • the poly (3,4) ethylenedioxythiophene:poly-styrenesulfonate was diluted and filtered through a 0.45 ⁇ m filter followed by mixing the dimethylsulfoxide into the diluted poly (3,4) ethylenedioxythiophene:poly-styrenesulfonate.
  • the poly (3,4) ethylenedioxythiophene:poly-styrenesulfonate solution was sprayed onto the active layer and the device placed into into high vacuum, such as 10-6 Torr, for 1 h.
  • the solar photovoltaic cell was then annealed and encapsulated with a UV-cured epoxy, which was cured with UV.
  • the inventive device and method has solved the costly and complicated process currently used to make crystalline and thin film solar cells, namely, high-vacuum, high temperature, low rate and high-cost manufacturing. Furthermore, this technology could be used on other type of substrate such as plastic. This new technology enables all solution processable organic solar panel on with transparent contacts. This technique has great potential in large-scale, low-cost manufacturing of commercial photovoltaic products based on solutions of organic semiconductors.
  • SAM self-assembled monolayer
  • the present invention can be used to fabricate power source for small electronic devices. This technology also has potential to revolute current silicon-based photovoltaic technology by providing a complete solution processable manufacturing process.
  • the semi-transparent property of the solar module allows for applications on windows and windshields. Additionally, these modules can be integrated into soft fabric substances such as tents, military back-packs or combat uniforms, providing a highly portable renewable power supply for deployed military forces.
  • FIG. 1 is a diagram showing a perspective view of the novel inverted OPV cells containing sprayed-on layers.
  • FIG. 2 is a diagram showing the novel organic photovoltaic cell as it receives photons having energy hv.
  • FIG. 3 is a graph showing current-voltage (I-V) of an inverted array using SAM under continuous AM1.5 solar illumination measured at different time points.
  • FIG. 4 is a diagram showing the cross sectional view of the device architecture of an inverted solar array showing series connection.
  • FIG. 5 is a diagram of the device architecture showing a top view of the array having a 4′′ ⁇ 4′′ organic solar array architecture.
  • the array had an active area of 3000 mm2 using 50 cells, at 10 cells in series per row, and 5 rows connected in parallel.
  • FIG. 6 is a diagram of the device architecture showing a top view of the inverted array using 1′′ ⁇ 1′′ organic solar cell array architecture.
  • the array comprises 60-1 mm2 cells in series, forming a series microarray.
  • FIG. 7 is a diagram of the device architecture showing a top view of the inverted array using 1′′ ⁇ 1′′ organic solar cell array architecture.
  • the array comprises 6 rows of 10-1 mm2 cells in series, connected in parallel, forming a parallel microarray.
  • FIG. 8 is a graph showing the current-voltage characterization of organic solar microarray with Glass/ITO/SAM/Active/m-PEDOT architecture for the parallel versus series arrays.
  • the present invention for the fabricatation of a see-through organic solar array via layer-by-layer (LBL) spray which is designed for integration with microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).
  • MEMS-OPV microelectromechanical systems
  • substantially means largely if not wholly that which is specified but so close that the difference is insignificant.
  • ITO indium tin oxide
  • a positive photo resist such as Shipley 1813
  • the substrate is then exposed to a UV-lamp for 1.4 seconds in a constant intensity mode set to 25 watts.
  • the structure was developed for about 2.5 minutes using Shipley MF319 and rinsed with water.
  • the substrate was then hard-baked, at 145° C. for 4 minutes and any excess photoresist cleaned off with acetone and cotton.
  • the substrate was etched from about 5-11 minutes with a solution of 20% HCl-7% HNO3 on a hotplate at 100° C.
  • the etched substrate was then cleaned by hand using acetone followed by isopropanol and UV-ozone cleaned for at least 15 minutes.
  • the Self-Assembled Monolayer (SAM) layer was formed on top of the patterned ITO layer.
  • a solution of N-propyl trimethoxysilane (3 mM) in ethanol was prepared and stirred for 10 minutes at room temperature. Once the SAM solution was ready, the ITO substrate was placed in the prepared SAM solution and soaked for 36-48 hours inside an N2 glovebox at room temperature.
  • the SAM solution provides a single-layer thickness of about, or less than, 2 nm.
  • the substrate was then rinsed with ethanol, followed by a toluene wash and an isopropanol wash, each performed for 10 minutes.
  • the active layer solution was prepared by mixing separate solutions of P3HT (high molecular weight) and PCBM (C60) in dichlorobenzene at 20 mg/mL and stirred on a hotplate for 24 hours at 60° C. These two separate solutions were then mixed together at a 1:1 ratio and stirred for 24 hours at 60° C., producing a final solution of 10 mg/mL.
  • the active coating was then spray coated onto the SAM layer using an airbrush with N2 set to 30 psi. The airbrush was set at about 7-10 cm away from the substrate and multiple light layers of active layer were sprayed. For each spray, the solution used was about 600-9004.
  • a final thick continuous coat of active layer was applied onto the multiple thin layers to complete the active layer coating, forming a thickness of between about 130 nm to about 200 nm.
  • excess active layer solution was wiped off of the substrate using dichlorobenzene (DCB)-wetted cotton followed by isopropanol-wetted cotton.
  • DCB dichlorobenzene
  • a kovar shadow mask was aligned in position with the substrate and held in place by placing a magnet underneath the substrate.
  • the series connection locations were wiped using a wooden dowel to expose the cathode for later electrical connection.
  • the modified PEDOT (m-PED) layer was prepared by adding dimethylsulfoxide at a concentration of 5% by volume to a solution of filtered PEDOT:PSS. The solution was then stirred at room temperature followed by 1 h of sonification.
  • the m-PED coating was prepared by placing a substrate/mask on a hotplate (90° C.). The m-PED layer was spray coated using nitrogen (N2) as the carrier gas, set to 30 psi, with the airbrush positioned about 7-10 cm from the substrate. Multiple light layers were applied until the final thickness of about 500 nm to about 700 nm was reached. The substrate was then removed from the hotplate and the mask removed. Care was taken to avoid removing the mPED with the mask. The substrate was placed into high vacuum treatment (10-6 Torr) for 1 h, followed by a substrate annealing at 120-160° C. for 10 min.
  • the substrate was encapsulated using a silver paint applied to the device contacts, which were then allowed to dry.
  • the encapsulation glass was notched and cleaned by hand using acetone and isopropanol, followed by UV-ozone cleaning.
  • UV-cure epoxy encapsulant (EPO-TEK OG142-12; Epoxy Technology, Inc., Billerica, Mass.) was applied to the edge of the encapsulation glass, and the glass is placed into the glovebox for at least 15 min, with UV exposure.
  • the device was then flipped upside down, and the epoxy applied on top of the encapsulation glass.
  • the device was finally exposed to 15 min of UV to cure the encapsulant epoxy.
  • Inverted organic photovoltaic cell 1 seen dissected in FIG. 1 , was created using the method described in Example 1.
  • Inverted photovoltaic cell 1 was composed of different layers of active materials and terminals (anode and cathode) built onto substrate 5 .
  • Anode 10 comprised of ITO in the present example, was sprayed onto substrate 5 forming a ‘ ⁇ ’ pattern extending from a first set of edges of substrate 5 .
  • SAM layer 40 covers anode 10 , except for the outermost edges, as seen in FIG. 2 .
  • the components of the SAM layer were chosen to provide a gradient for charges crossing the interface, approximating a conventional p-n junction with organic semiconductors, thereby providing an increased efficiency of heterojunctions.
  • Active layer 30 is disposed directly on top of interfacial buffer layer 40 , and was prepared using poly(3-hexylthiophene) and 6,6-phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester.
  • Anode 20 was disposed on the active layer in a pattern, similar to the cathode, but perpendicular to the cathode.
  • Exemplary anode materials include PEDOT:PSS doped with dimethylsulfoxide. The fully encapsulated 4 ⁇ m ⁇ 4 ⁇ m array was found to possess over 30% transparency.
  • the device was analyzed by exposing the cell to continuous radiation, as seen in FIG. 2 .
  • a solar array was prepared by forming 50 individual inverted cells as described above, each with an active area of 3000 mm2.
  • the array was configured with 10 cells in series in one row to increase the voltage, and five rows in parallel connection to increase the current.
  • the neighboring cells were connected using the organic layer configuration, seen in cross section in FIG. 4 and top view in FIG. 5 .
  • the photovoltaic cells were then prepared in a 1′′ by 1′′ array comprises 60-1 mm2 cells in series, as seen in FIG. 6 , and a 1: by 1′′ array of 6 rows of 10-1 mm2 cells in series, connected in parallel, as seen in FIG. 7 .
  • the arrays were tested for current versus voltage, as seen in FIG. 8 , to determine how the array configuration affects the performance of the inverted cell. As seen in the graph, the series array showed better efficiency at 3V for the parallel array and around 10V for the series array.
  • the parallel and series arrays were integrated into MEMS devices, similarly to other power sources as is known in the art.

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