TW202146759A - Magnetohydrodynamic hydrogen electrical power generator - Google Patents

Abstract

A power generator is described that provides at least one of electrical and thermal power comprising (i) at least one reaction cell for reactions involving atomic hydrogen hydrogen products identifiable by unique analytical and spectroscopic signatures, (ii) a molten metal injection system comprising at least one pump such as an electromagnetic pump that provides a molten metal stream to the reaction cell and at least one reservoir that receives the molten metal stream, and (iii) an ignition system comprising an electrical power source that provides low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to the at least one steam of molten metal to ignite a plasma to initiate rapid kinetics of the reaction and an energy gain.

Description

magnetohydrodynamic hydrogen generator

The present invention relates to the field of power generation and, in particular, to systems, apparatus and methods for power generation. More specifically, embodiments of the present invention are directed to generating optical power, plasmonic power via magnetohydrodynamic power converters, opto-electrical power converters, plasmonic-electrical power converters, photonic-electrical power converters, or thermo-electrical power converters. And thermal power and power generation devices and systems and related methods. Additionally, embodiments of the present invention describe systems, devices and methods for generating optical, mechanical, electrical and/or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters using ignition of water or water-based fuel sources. These and other related embodiments are described in detail herein.

Electricity generation can take many forms, utilizing power from plasma. The successful commercialization of plasma may depend on a power generation system capable of efficiently forming the plasma and then capturing the power of the generated plasma.

Plasma can form during ignition of certain fuels. Such fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of atoms stripped of electrons is formed and high optical power can be released. The high optical power of the plasma can be utilized by the electrical converter of the present invention. Ions and excited atoms can recombine and undergo electronic relaxation to emit optical power. Optical power can be converted into electricity by photovoltaic devices.

The present invention is directed to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, comprising: at least one container capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure; reactants capable of undergoing a reaction that produces sufficient energy to form a plasma in the vessel, the reactants comprising: a) a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, and/or water vapor, and/or A mixture of hydrogen and water vapor; b) a molten metal; a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant into the vessel; a vacuum pump for maintaining the pressure in the vessel below atmospheric pressure as one or more reactants flow into the vessel; A molten metal injector system comprising at least one reservoir containing some of the molten metal, structured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir, and one of providing a stream of molten metal via an injector tube a molten metal pump system (eg, one or more electromagnetic pumps), and at least one non-ejector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply electrical power to the at least one molten metal stream to ignite the reaction when the hydrogen and/or oxygen and/or water vapor flows into the vessel; a reactant supply system for replenishing the reactants consumed in the reaction; A power converter or output system for converting a portion of the energy generated by the reaction (eg, light and/or heat output from the plasma) into electrical and/or thermal power.

The power system of the present invention (also referred to herein as "SunCell") may comprise: a.) at least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, which contains a reaction chamber; b) two electrodes, which are a structure designed to allow a molten metal to flow therebetween to complete an electrical circuit; c) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; d) a plasma generating unit (eg, glow discharge cells) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein the effluent of the plasma generating cell is directed to the circuit (eg, the molten metal, anode, cathode, immersed in a an electrode in the molten metal reservoir); wherein upon application of current across the circuit, the effluent of the plasma generating unit undergoes a reaction to produce a second plasma and reaction product; and e) a power adapter, It is structured to convert and/or transfer the energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy and/or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the plasma generating unit is a gas mixture of hydrogen (H ₂₎ and oxygen (O ₂₎ of the. For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is 0.01% to 50% (eg, 0.1% to 20%, 0.1% to 15%, etc.). In certain embodiments, the molten metal is gallium. In some embodiments, the reaction product has at least one spectral feature as described herein (eg, those spectral features described in Example 10). In various aspects, the second plasma is formed in the reaction cell, and the walls of the reaction cell include a liner having increased resistance to alloying with molten metal (eg, alloying with molten metal such as gallium), And the lining and the walls of the reaction unit are highly permeable to the reaction product (eg, stainless steel, such as 347 SS, such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo , niobium and Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%)). The liner may be made of crystalline materials (eg, SiC, BN, quartz) and/or refractory metals such as at least one of Nb, Ta, Mo, or W. In certain embodiments, the second plasma is formed in the reaction cell, wherein the walls of the reaction cell chamber comprise first and second sections, the first section being made of stainless steel, such as 347 SS, such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium and Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%); the second The section contains a refractory metal different from the metal in the first section; wherein the joint between the different metals is formed by a laminate (eg, a ceramic such as BN).

A power system of the present invention may include: a.) a vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, the vessel comprising a reaction chamber; b) a plurality of electrode pairs, each pair comprising electrodes structured to allow a molten metal to flow therebetween to complete an electrical circuit; c) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; d) a plasma generating unit (eg, glow discharge unit) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein the effluent of the plasma generating unit is directed to the circuit (eg, the molten metal, anode, cathode, one electrode immersed in a molten metal reservoir); wherein upon application of current across the circuit, the effluent of the plasma generating unit undergoes a reaction to generate a second plasma and reaction product; and e) a power adapter structured to convert and/or transfer the energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal and/or electrical energy; wherein at least one of the reaction products (eg, intermediates, final products) has at least one spectral feature as described herein (eg, as shown in Example 10).

The power system may include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen with oxygen and/or water molecules, and a hydrogen-oxygen recombiner and/or a hydrogen dissociator. In some embodiments, the oxyhydrogen recombiner includes a plasma cell. The plasma cell may include a central positive electrode and a grounded tube opposite electrode, with a voltage (eg, a voltage in the range of 50 V to 1000 V) applied across the electrodes to induce from hydrogen (H ₂ ) and oxygen (O ₂ ) gases The mixture forms a plasma. In some embodiments, the oxyhydrogen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material. In certain implementations, the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generation unit to generate the first plasma comprises a non-stoichiometric H ₂ /O ₂ mixture (eg, having less than 1/3 mol % on a molar % basis of the mixture the O ₂ or from 0.01 to 30% or 0.1% to 20%, 10% or less, or less than 5%, or less than 3% of O H _{2 2} / O ₂ mixture) which flows through the plasma unit (e.g. , glow discharge cells) to produce a reaction mixture capable of reacting with sufficient exotherm to produce a second plasma. Non-stoichiometric H ₂ / O ₂ mixtures can be obtained by glow discharge atomic hydrogen to produce H ₂ O and the primary effluent (e.g., water having a concentration of the mixture in the range sufficient to prevent the formation of hydrogen bond energy); glow discharge effluent The effluent is directed into a reaction chamber where an ignition current is supplied between the two electrodes (eg, with molten metal passing therethrough), and when the effluent interacts with a biased molten metal (eg, gallium), nascent water The reaction with atomic hydrogen is induced, for example, when the arc current is formed.

The power system may include at least one of a reaction chamber (eg, in which nascent water and atomic hydrogen undergo a plasma formation reaction) and/or a reservoir that includes at least one refractory material that is resistant to alloying with molten metal lining. The inner walls of the reaction chamber may comprise ceramic coatings, carbon linings lined with W, Nb or Mo, lined with W plates. In some embodiments, the reservoir includes a carbon liner and the carbon is covered by molten metal contained therein. In various implementations, the reaction chamber walls comprise materials that are highly permeable to reaction product gases. In various embodiments, the reaction chamber walls comprise at least one of stainless steel (eg, Mo-Cr stainless steel), niobium, molybdenum, or tungsten.

The power system may include a condenser to condense and return the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor to the reaction unit chamber. In some embodiments, the power system may further include a vacuum line, wherein the condenser includes a section of the vacuum line from the reaction unit chamber to the vacuum pump vertical relative to the reaction unit chamber and includes an inert high surface area filler material, the The filler material condenses the molten metal vapor as well as the metal oxide particles and vapor and transfers it back to the reaction unit chamber while allowing the vacuum pump to maintain vacuum pressure in the reaction unit chamber.

The power system may include a blackbody radiator and a window to output light from the blackbody radiator. Such embodiments may be used to generate light (eg, for illumination).

In some embodiments, the power system may further include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen and oxygen, and a hydrogen-oxygen recombiner and/or a hydrogen dissociator. For example, a power system may include a hydrogen-oxygen recombiner, wherein the hydrogen-oxygen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material.

The power system can be operated with parameters that maximize the reaction, and in particular, can output sufficient energy to sustain the reaction of plasma production and net energy output. For example, in some embodiments, the pressure of the vessel during operation is in the range of 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr. In certain implementations, the hydrogen mass flow rate is greater than the oxygen mass flow rate by a multiple in the range of 1.5 to 1000. In some embodiments, the pressure may exceed 50 Torr and may further include a gas recirculation system.

In some embodiments, an inert gas (eg, argon) is sparged into the container. Inert gases can be used to extend the life of certain in situ formed reactants, such as nascent water.

The power system may include micro-water sprayers structured to spray water into the vessel such that the plasma generated from the energy output from the reaction contains water vapor. In some embodiments, the micro-injector sprays water into the container. In some embodiments, H ₂ mole percentage of water vapor (e.g., by micro-injecting the steam injector of) the range of 1.5 to 1000-fold of the mole percentage.

The power system may further include a heater to form the molten metal with molten metal (eg, gallium or silver or copper or a combination thereof). The power system may further include a molten metal recovery system structured to recover molten metal after the reaction, the system including a molten metal overflow channel collecting overflow from the non-ejector molten metal reservoir.

The molten metal injection system may further include electrodes in the molten metal reservoir and the non-injected molten metal reservoir; and the ignition system includes electrical power or ignition current to supply relative voltages to the injector and non-injector reservoir electrodes source; wherein the electrical power source supplies current and power flow through the flow of molten metal to cause a reaction of the reactants to form a plasma inside the vessel.

The power source typically delivers high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma. In certain embodiments, the power source includes at least one ultracapacitor. In various implementations, the current from the molten metal ignition system power is in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A.

Typically, molten metal pump systems are structured to pump molten metal from a molten metal reservoir to a non-sparge reservoir, where a flow of molten metal is produced therebetween. In some embodiments, the molten metal pump system is one or more electromagnetic pumps and each electromagnetic pump includes one of the following: a) a DC or AC conductivity type comprising a source of DC or AC current supplied to the molten metal through electrodes and a source of constant or in-phase alternating vector crossed magnetic fields, or b) An inductive type comprising a source of alternating magnetic field through a short circuit loop of molten metal, which induces an alternating current in the metal; and a source of co-phase alternating vector crossed magnetic field.

In some embodiments, the circuits of the molten metal ignition system are closed by the flow of molten metal such that the ignition further causes ignition (eg, where the ignition frequency is less than 10,000 Hz). The injector reservoir may contain electrodes in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector reservoirs may contain electrodes in contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system.

In various implementations, the non-ejector reservoir is aligned above the eductor (eg, vertically aligned with the eductor), and the eductor is structured to produce melt flow directed toward the non-ejector reservoir such that Molten metal from the molten metal stream can be collected in the reservoir and the molten metal stream is in electrical contact with the non-injector reservoir electrode; and wherein the molten metal collects on the non-injector reservoir electrode. In certain embodiments, the firing current to the non-injector reservoir may include: a) Hermetically sealed high temperature feedthroughs capable of penetrating the vessel; b) electrode bus bars, and c) Electrodes.

The ignition current density may be related to the vessel geometry at least as the vessel geometry is related to the final plasma shape. In various implementations, the container may comprise an hourglass geometry (eg, wherein the cross-section of the middle portion of the interior surface area of the container is less than within 20% or 10% or 5% of the cross-section of each distal end along the major axis) geometry) and in a vertical orientation (eg, approximately parallel to the major axis of gravity) in cross-section, with the injector reservoir below the waist and structured such that the level of molten metal in the reservoir is Approx. the waist of the hourglass to increase the ignition current density. In some embodiments, the container is symmetrical about the longitudinal major axis. In some embodiments, the container may be an hourglass geometry and include a refractory metal lining. In some embodiments, the injector reservoir of the vessel having an hourglass geometry may contain a positive electrode for ignition current.

The molten metal may include at least one of silver, gallium, silver-copper alloys, copper, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the melting point of the molten metal is below 700°C. For example, the molten metal may comprise at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or alloys such as Ross Metal, Cerrosafe, Wood, Field Metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117 , Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl and gallium alloys. In certain aspects, at least one of the components of the power generation system (eg, reservoir, electrode) that contacts the molten metal comprises, is coated with, or is coated with resistance to alloying with the molten metal—or Various anti-alloy materials. Exemplary anti-alloying materials are W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347 SS, Cr-Mo SS , the silicide coating, carbon and ceramics such as BN, quartz, Si3N4, Shapal, AlN, Sialon , Al 2 O 3, ZrO 2 or HfO _2. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the container is constructed of ceramic and/or metal. The ceramic may comprise at least one of metal oxides, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnium oxide, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass ceramics. In some embodiments, the metal of the container includes at least one of stainless steel and refractory metal.

Molten metal can react with water to form atomic hydrogen in situ. In various implementations, the molten metal is gallium, and the power system further includes a gallium regeneration system to regenerate gallium from gallium oxide (eg, gallium oxide produced in the reaction). The gallium regeneration system can include a source of at least one of hydrogen and atomic hydrogen to reduce gallium oxide to gallium metal. In some embodiments, the hydrogen gas is delivered to the gallium regeneration system from a source external to the power generation system. In some embodiments, hydrogen and/or atomic hydrogen is generated in situ. The gallium regeneration system may include an ignition system that delivers power to the gallium (or gallium/gallium oxide combination) produced in the reaction. In some implementations, this power can electrolyze gallium oxide on the gallium surface to gallium metal. In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system may include an electrolyte (eg, an electrolyte including an alkali or alkaline earth halide). In some embodiments, a gallium regeneration system may include an alkaline pH aqueous electrolysis system, means for delivering gallium oxide into the system, and means for returning gallium to a vessel (eg, to a molten metal reservoir). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system includes an overflow and a bucket elevator to remove gallium oxide from the gallium surface. In various implementations, the power system can include an exhaust line to the vacuum pump to maintain the exhaust flow, and further include an electrostatic precipitation system in the exhaust line to collect gallium oxide particles in the exhaust flow.

In some embodiments, the power generation system produces a water/hydrogen mixture to be directed to the molten metal unit via the plasma generation unit. In these embodiments, a plasma generating unit, such as a glow discharge unit, induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas (eg, a gas comprising a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen); wherein the effluent of the plasma generating unit is directed to Any part of a molten metal circuit (eg, molten metal, anodes, cathodes, electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir). When the biased molten metal interacts with this effluent, a second plasma (higher energy than that produced by the plasma generating unit) can be formed. In such embodiments, the plasma generating unit may be fed with hydrogen (H ₂₎ and oxygen gas mixture (O ₂₎ having a molar excess of hydrogen such that the effluent contains hydrogen atoms (H) and water (H ₂ O) . The water in the effluent may be in the form of nascent water that is sufficiently energized and in a concentration such that it does not hydrogen bond to other components in the effluent. This effluent may proceed in a second higher energy reaction involving H and HOH that forms a plasma that intensifies upon interaction with the molten metal and an external current supplied through at least one of the molten metal and the plasma, thereby may produce additional hydrogen atom (derived from the effluent H ₂₎ further to a second high energy propagation reaction.

In some embodiments, the power system may further comprise at least one heat exchanger (eg, a heat exchanger coupled to the walls of the vessel walls, which may transfer heat to the molten metal or to a molten metal reservoir or from the molten metal or heat exchangers that transfer heat from a molten metal reservoir). In some embodiments, the heat exchanger comprises one of (i) plate, (ii) block-in-shell, (iii) SiC annular groove, (iv) SiC combination, and (v) shell-and-tube heat exchangers one. In certain embodiments, the shell and tube heat exchanger comprises: conduits, manifolds, distributors, heat exchanger inlet lines, heat exchanger outlet lines, shells, external coolant inlets, external coolant outlets, baffles, at least one pump to recirculate hot molten metal from the reservoir through the heat exchanger and return cold molten metal to the reservoir, and one or more water pumps and water coolant or one or more air blowers and air coolant, which is used to flow cold coolant through the external coolant inlet and housing, where the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduit and exits the external coolant outlet. In some embodiments, the shell and tube heat exchanger comprises a conduit, a manifold, a distributor, a heat exchanger inlet line, and a heat exchanger outlet line, the outlet line comprising lined carbon and independent of the conduit, manifold, and distributor , heat exchanger inlet line, heat exchanger outlet line, housing, external coolant inlet, external coolant outlet and baffle extensions comprising stainless steel. The external coolant of the heat exchanger contains air, and the air from the micro-turbo compressor or micro-turbo regenerator forces cool air through the external coolant inlet and housing, where the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exits An external coolant outlet, and the hot coolant output from the external coolant outlet flows into the micro-turbine to convert the thermal power into electricity.

In some embodiments, the power system includes at least one power converter or output system responsive to power output that includes at least one of the group of: a thermal photovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter , magnetohydrodynamic converters, plasma power converters, thermionic converters, thermoelectric converters, Stirling engines, supercritical CO ₂ cycle converters, Breedon cycle converters, external burner Breedon cycle Engines or converters, Rankine cycle engines or converters, organic Rankine cycle converters, internal combustion engines and heat engines, heaters and boilers. The container can include a light-transmitting photovoltaic (PV) window that transmits light from the interior of the container to the photovoltaic converter, and at least one of a container geometry and at least one baffle that includes a spin window. The spin window includes a system for reducing gallium oxide, the system including at least one of a hydrogen reduction system and an electrolysis system. In some embodiments, the spin window comprises or consists of quartz, sapphire, magnesium fluoride, or a combination thereof. In some implementations, the spin window is coated with a coating that inhibits the adhesion of at least one of gallium and gallium oxide. The spin window coating can include at least one of diamond-like carbon, carbon, boron nitride, and alkali metal hydroxide. In some embodiments, the positive firing electrode (eg, the top firing electrode, the electrode displaced above the other electrode) is closer to the window (eg, compared to the negative firing electrode), and the positive electrode is converted via photovoltaic to photovoltaic The device emits black body radiation.

The power converter or output system may include: a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a nozzle connected to the vessel, magnetohydrodynamic channels, electrodes, magnets, metal collection systems, metal recirculation systems, heat exchangers, and optional gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may contain silver. In an embodiment with a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the magnetohydrodynamic converter can deliver oxygen to form silver particles nanoparticles (eg, with a molecular weight such as less than about 10 in a molecular system) upon interaction with silver in the molten metal stream nm or less than about 1 nm in size) in which the silver nanoparticles are accelerated through a magnetohydrodynamic nozzle to impart a kinetic energy inventory of the power generated by the reaction. The reactant supply system can supply oxygen and control the delivery of oxygen to the converter. In various implementations, at least a portion of the kinetic energy inventory of silver nanoparticles is converted into electrical energy in a magnetohydrodynamic channel. This version of electrical energy can cause agglomeration of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles can coalesce into molten metal that at least partially absorbs oxygen in the condensation section (also referred to herein as the MHD condensation section) of the magnetohydrodynamic converter, and the molten metal comprising the absorbed oxygen is The metal recirculation system returns to the ejector reservoir. In some embodiments, oxygen may be released from the metal by the plasma in the container. In some embodiments, the plasma is held in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and metal collection system to enhance the absorption of oxygen by the molten metal.

The molten metal pump system may include a first stage electromagnetic pump and a second stage electromagnetic pump, where the first stage includes the pump for the metal recirculation system and the second stage includes the pump for the metal injector system.

為

； (ii) 具有經量化自旋軌道分裂能量

及電子自旋軌道耦合量子數

之高場峰值位置

為

，及/或 (iii) 對於電子磁通軌跡量子數

，在每一自旋軌道峰值位置處之整數系列個峰值的間隔

為

及

； d) 一氫陰離子H^- (例如，H^- (1/p))，其包含一共同原子軌道中之一配對及未配對電子，該電子藉由400至410 nm範圍內之高解析度可見光光譜分析以H^- (1/2)上觀測到的h/2e之量化單位展現磁鏈； e) 磁鏈，其以在H₂ (1/4)之旋轉能階藉由在拉曼光譜分析期間之雷射輻射且藉由來自電子束之高能量電子與H₂ (1/4)之碰撞而激發時所觀測到的h/2e之量化單位為單位； f) 分子低能量氫(例如，H₂ (1/p))，其具有該未配對電子之自旋磁矩與由於分子旋轉之軌道磁矩之間的該自旋軌道耦合之拉曼光譜躍遷，其中 (i) 旋轉躍遷之能量藉由此等自旋軌道耦合能量隨該等對應電子自旋軌道耦合量子數變化而位移； (ii) 藉由自旋軌道能量位移之分子旋轉峰值藉由磁通鏈能量進一步位移，其中每一能量對應於其電子磁通軌跡量子數，視該旋轉躍遷中所涉及之角動量分量的該數目而定，及/或 (iii) 所觀測到的拉曼光譜峰值之子分裂或位移係由於以自旋磁矩與分子旋轉磁矩之間的該自旋軌道耦合期間之磁通量量子h/2e為單位的磁鏈，同時發生該旋轉躍遷； g) 具有拉曼光譜躍遷之H₂ (1/4)，其包含 (i) 具有自旋軌道耦合及磁通軌跡耦合之純

至

旋轉躍遷：

， (ii) 包含

至

旋轉躍遷與

至

自旋旋轉躍遷之協同躍遷：

，或 (iii) 雙躍遷，最終旋轉量子數

且

：

，其中在純、協同及雙躍遷中亦觀測到了對應自旋軌道耦合及磁通軌跡耦合； h) H₂ (1/4) UV拉曼峰值(例如，如在複合GaOOH:H₂ (1/4):H₂ O及Ni箔上所記錄，其曝露於在12,250至15,000 cm^{- 1} 區中所觀測到之反應電漿，其中線匹配協同純旋轉躍遷

及

自旋躍遷與自旋軌道耦合及磁通鏈分裂：

)； i) HD(1/4)拉曼光譜之旋轉能量相對於H₂ (1/4)之旋轉能量位移¾倍； j) 該HD(1/4)拉曼光譜之該等旋轉能量匹配 (i) 具有純HD(1/4)

至

旋轉躍遷與自旋軌道耦合及磁通軌跡耦合：

， (ii) 包含

至

旋轉躍遷與

至

自旋旋轉躍遷之協同躍遷：

，或 (iii) 雙躍遷，最終旋轉量子數

；

：

其中在純及協同躍遷兩者中亦觀測到了自旋軌道耦合及磁通軌跡耦合； k) 用一電子束之高能量電子輻照之H₂ (1/4)-稀有氣體混合物在紫外(150至180 nm)區中展示相等的0.25 eV間隔的譜線發射，其具有在8.25 eV下之截止值，該截止值匹配H₂ (1/4)

至

振動躍遷，其中一系列旋轉躍遷對應於H₂ (1/4) P分支，其中 (i) 光譜擬合良好地匹配

；

。其中0.515 eV及0.01509 eV分別為普通分子氫之振動及旋轉能量， (ii)觀測到匹配亦藉由拉曼光譜分析觀測到之旋轉自旋軌道分裂能量的小型衛星線，且(iii)旋轉自旋軌道分裂能量間隔匹配

，其中1.5涉及

及

分裂； l) 藉由在一KCl結晶基質中捕集之H₂ (1/4)之電子束激發觀測到H₂ (1/4) P分支旋轉躍遷與

至

振動躍遷之光譜發射，其中 (i) 該等旋轉峰值匹配一自由轉子之峰值； (ii) 由於H₂ (1/4)之振動與該KCl基質之相互作用，振動能藉由有效質量之增大而位移； (iii) 該光譜擬合良好地匹配

；

，其包含以0.25 eV之間隔的峰值，且 (iv) H₂ (1/4)振動能移之相對量值匹配由KCl中捕集之普通H₂ 引起的對振轉光譜之相對效應； m) 具有一HeCd能量雷射之該拉曼光譜展示在8000 cm^{- 1} 至18,000 cm^{- 1} 區中間隔之一系列1000 cm^{- 1} (0.1234 eV)等能量，其中將拉曼光譜轉換成螢光或光致發光光譜將匹配揭露為在KCl基質中對應於H₂ (1/4)之電子束激發發射光譜的H₂ (1/4)之二階振轉光譜，其由

；

給出且包含0.25 eV能量間隔旋轉躍遷峰值下之基質位移

至

旋轉躍遷；； n) 在高於4400 cm^{- 1} 之能量範圍中觀測到H₂ (1/4)之紅外旋轉躍遷，其中除了固有磁場以外，強度隨施加磁場而增大，且亦觀測到旋轉躍遷與自旋軌道躍遷耦合； o) 藉由X射線光電子光譜分析(XPS)觀測到H₂ (1/4)藉由對應於496 eV之總能量之康普頓效應的所允許雙重電離； p) 藉由氣相層析法觀測到H₂ (1/4)，考慮到氫氣及氦氣具有最快的先前已知遷移速率及對應最短滯留時間，其展示比任何已知氣體之遷移速率更快的一遷移速率； q) 極紫外線(EUV)光譜分析記錄具有一10.1 nm截止值(例如，如對應於藉由初生HOH催化劑催化之低能量氫反應躍遷H至H(1/4))之極紫外線連續輻射； r) 質子魔角自旋核磁諧振光譜分析(¹ H MAS NMR)記錄-4 ppm至-5 ppm區中之一高場基質水峰； s) 當複數個氫產物分子之磁矩協作性地相互作用時，諸如順磁性、超順磁性及甚至鐵磁性之體磁性，其中超順磁性(例如，如使用一振動樣品磁力計量測包含反應產物之化合物之磁化率所觀測到)； t) 記錄於曝露於來自反應產物之分子氣體源的K₂ CO₃ 及KOH上之飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ToF-SIMS)及電噴灑飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ESI-ToF)，其藉由M+2多聚體單元之獨特觀測結果(例如，

及

，其中n為整數)及由於氫陰離子之穩定性的密集

峰值展示反應產物(例如，H₂ (1/4)氣體)至包含氧陰離子之無機化合物的複合，及 u) 由分子氫核組成之反應產物表現得如有機分子，如藉由將分段成無機離子之一有機分子基質柱上之一層析峰值所證明。在各種實施中，反應產生表徵為以下各者中的一或多者之高能特徵： (i) 在包含H原子及初生HOH或H基催化劑之電漿，諸如氬氣-H₂ 、H₂ 及H₂ O蒸汽電漿中具有超過100 eV之H巴耳麥a線的異常都卜勒譜線展寬， (ii) H激發態線反轉， (iii) 異常H電漿餘輝持續時間， (iv) 等效於大約10倍的火藥莫耳的衝擊波傳播速度及對應壓力，其中僅約1%之功率與該衝擊波耦合， (v) 來自一10 μl水合銀丸粒的高達20 MW之光功率，及 (vi) 在340,000 W之功率位準下驗證之SunCell電力系統的熱量測定。此等反應可產生表徵為以下各者中的一或多者之氫產物： a)  具有在1900至2200 cm^{- 1} 、5500至6400 cm^{- 1} 及7500至8500 cm^{- 1} 之一或多個範圍內或在1900至2200 cm^{- 1} 之範圍的整數倍內的拉曼峰值的氫產物； b)  具有以0.23至0.25 eV之一整數倍間隔開之複數個拉曼峰值的一氫產物； c)  具有在1900至2000cm^{- 1} 之整數倍的範圍內的紅外峰值的氫產物； d)  具有以0.23至0.25 eV之一整數倍間隔開之複數個紅外峰值的一氫產物； e)  具有介於200至300 nm之範圍內的具有為0.23至0.3 eV之一整數倍之一間隔的複數個UV螢光發射光譜峰值之一氫產物； f)  具有介於200至300 nm之範圍內的具有為0.2至0.3 eV之一整數倍之一間隔的複數個電子束發射光譜峰值之一氫產物； g)  具有介於5000至20,000 cm^{- 1} 之範圍內的具有1000 ±200 cm^{- 1} 之一整數倍之一間隔的複數個拉曼光譜峰值之一氫產物； h)  具有介於490至525 eV之範圍內的一能量處之一X射線光電子光譜峰值之一氫產物； i)   引起一高磁場MAS NMR基質位移的一氫產物； j)   相對於TMS具有大於-5 ppm之一高磁場MAS NMR或液體NMR位移之一氫產物； m) 包含金屬氫化物及金屬氧化物中之至少一者的氫產物，其進一步包含氫，其中金屬包含Zn、Fe、Mo、Cr、Cu及W中之至少一者； o)  包含一無機化合物M_x X_y 及H₂ 之一氫產物，其中M為一陽離子且X為具有M(M_x X_y H₂ )n之電噴灑游離飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ESI-ToF)及飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ToF-SIMS)峰值中之至少一者的一陰離子，其中n為一整數； p)  包含分別具有

及

之電噴灑游離飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ESI-ToF)及飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ToF-SIMS)峰值中之至少一者的K₂ CO₃ H₂ 及KOHH₂ 中之至少一者之一氫產物； q)  包含金屬氫化物及金屬氧化物中之至少一者的磁性氫產物，其進一步包含氫，其中金屬包含Zn、Fe、Mo、Cr、Cu、W及反磁金屬中之至少一者； r)  包含金屬氫化物及金屬氧化物中之至少一者的氫產物，其進一步包含氫，其中金屬包含Zn、Fe、Mo、Cr、Cu、W及反磁金屬中之至少一者，該產物藉由磁性磁化率量測術展現磁性； s)  包含在電子順磁共振(EPR)光譜分析中無活性之金屬的氫產物，其中EPR光譜包含約2.0046±20%之g因數中之至少一者，該EPR光譜分裂成間隔約1至10 G之一系列峰值，其中每一主峰值細分成間隔約0.1至1 G之一系列峰值； t)   包含在電子順磁共振(EPR)光譜分析中無活性之金屬的氫產物，其中EPR光譜至少包含約m₁ X 7.43X10^{- 27} J ±20%之電子自旋軌道耦合分裂能量及約m₂ X 5.78X10^{- 28} J ±20%之磁通軌跡分裂，及約1.58 X10^{- 23} J ±20%之二聚體磁矩相互作用分裂能量； v)  包含具有一負氣相層析法峰值之帶有氫或氦載體的一氣體之一氫產物； w) 具有

之一四極時刻/e的一氫產物，其中p為一整數； x)  包含具有介於(J+1)44.30 cm^{- 1} ±20 cm^{- 1} 之範圍內的整數J至J+1躍遷之一端對端旋轉能量之一分子二聚體的一質子氫產物，其中包含氘之該分子二聚體之該相對應的旋轉能量為包含質子之該二聚體的旋轉能量之½； y)  包含具有來自以下群組之至少一個參數的分子二聚體之一氫產物：(i)1.028 Å ±10%的一氫分子分離距離，(ii)在氫分子之間23 cm^{- 1} ±10%的一振動能，及(iii)在氫分子之間0.0011 eV ±10%的一凡得瓦能量(van der Waals energy)； z)  包含具有來自以下群組之至少一個參數之一固體的一氫產物：(i)1.028 Å ±10%之一氫分子分離距離，(ii)在氫分子之間23 cm^{- 1} ±10%的一振動能，及(iii)在氫分子之間0.019 eV ±10%的一凡得瓦能量； aa) 氫產物，其具有FTIR及拉曼光譜特徵，該等特徵具有(i)(J+1)44.30 cm^{- 1} ±20 cm^{- 1} ，(ii)(J+1)22.15 cm^{- 1} ±10 cm^{- 1} ，及(iii)23 cm^{- 1} ±10%；及/或具有展示1.028 Å ±10%之氫分子間隔之X射線或中子繞射圖案；及/或具有0.0011 eV ±10%/分子氫之氣化能量的量熱判定； bb) 固體氫產物，其具有FTIR及拉曼光譜特徵，該等特徵具有(i)(J+1)44.30 cm^{- 1} ±20 cm^{- 1} ，(ii) (J+1)22.15 cm^{- 1} ±10 cm^{- 1} 及(iii) 23 cm^{- 1} ±10%；及/或具有展示1.028 Å ±10%的氫分子間隔之X射線或中子繞射圖案；及/或具有0.019 eV ±10%/分子氫之汽化能量的量熱判定。 cc) 包含氫陰離子之氫產物，該氫陰離子具有磁性且具有在其自由結合結合能區中以磁性為單位之磁鏈，及 dd) 氫產物，其中高壓液相層析(HPLC)展示滯留時間比使用含有水之溶劑之有機柱之載體空隙體積時間長的層析峰值，其中藉由質譜分析(諸如ESI-ToF)偵測峰值展示至少一種無機化合物之片段。The reactant-induced reaction generates sufficient energy to initiate the formation of plasma in the vessel. The reaction may be characterized as generating one or more of the hydrogen product by the following: a) one molecule of hydrogen product H _{2 (e.g., H 2 (1 / p)} (p is greater than 1 and an integer less than or equal to one 137) , which contains unpaired electrons), which produces an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectral analysis signal; b) molecular hydrogen product H ₂ (eg, H ₂ (1/4)) with an EPR spectrum containing The main peak of the g-factor of 2.0046386, which is optionally split into a series of paired peaks whose members are separated by spin-orbit coupling energies that are a function of the corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers , wherein (i) the unpaired electron magnetic moment based on H ₂ (1/4) of the diamagnetic susceptibility to induce a magnetic moment in the unpaired electron anti H ₂ (1/4) of the molecular orbital; (ii) the inherent paired - the corresponding magnetic moments of unpaired current interactions and the spin-orbit coupling energies due to the magnetic moments due to relative rotational motion around the internuclear axis; (iii) further subdividing each spin-orbit splitting peak into matching integer flux trajectories A series of equally spaced peaks of energy that are a function of the quantum number of the electron flux trajectory corresponding to the number of angular momentum components involved in the transition, and (iv) in addition, due to the magnetic flux accumulated by the molecular orbital With increasing magnetic energy of the chain, the spin-orbit splitting increases with the number of spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers on the low field side of the series of paired peaks. c) For an EPR frequency of 9.820295 GHz, (i) the low-field peak position due to the combined displacement caused _{by the magnetic energy and the spin-orbit coupling energy of H 2 (1/4)}

for

; (ii) has a quantized spin-orbit splitting energy

and electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers

high field peak position

for

, and/or (iii) for the electron flux trajectory quantum number

, the interval of an integer series of peaks at each spin-orbit peak position

for

and

d) a hydride ion H ⁻ (eg, H ⁻ (1/p)), which contains a paired and unpaired electron in a common atomic orbital, which is transmitted by high-resolution visible light in the range of 400 to 410 nm Spectroscopic analysis reveals flux linkage in quantified units of h/2e observed ^{at H −} (1/2); e) flux linkage, which is analyzed by Raman spectroscopy at the rotational energy level _{at H 2 (1/4)} during the laser radiation and by the high energy electron beams from electron collisions with H ₂ (1/4) of the observed excitation quantization unit of h / 2e of the units; F) a low energy hydrogen molecules (e.g., H ₂ (1/p)), which has the Raman spectral transition of the spin-orbit coupling between the spin magnetic moment of the unpaired electron and the orbital magnetic moment due to molecular rotation, where (i) the energy of the spin transition By these spin-orbit coupling energies are displaced as a function of the corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers; (ii) the molecular rotation peaks displaced by the spin-orbit energy are further displaced by the flux linkage energy, where each The energy corresponds to its electron flux trajectory quantum number, depending on the number of angular momentum components involved in the rotational transition, and/or (iii) the observed sub-splitting or displacement of the Raman spectral peak due to The magnetic flux linkage in units of the magnetic flux quantum h/2e during the spin-orbit coupling between the gyromagnetic moment and the molecular rotational magnetic moment, while the rotational transition occurs; g) H ₂ (1/4) with a Raman spectral transition , which includes (i) a pure with spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling

to

Rotational transition:

, (ii) contains

to

rotational transition and

to

Synergistic transition of spin spin transition:

, or (iii) double transition, the final spin quantum number

and

:

, where the corresponding spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling are also observed in pure, cooperative, and double transitions; h) H ₂ (1/4) UV Raman peaks (eg, as in the composite GaOOH:H ₂ (1/ 4): H ₂ O and the Ni recording foil, which is exposed to the 12,250 to 15,000 cm ^- plasma reaction zone observed in the ^1, wherein the matching line synergistic purely rotational transitions

and

Spin transition and spin-orbit coupling and flux chain splitting:

); i) the rotational energy of _{the HD(1/4) Raman spectrum is shifted by a factor of ¾ relative to the rotational energy of H 2} (1/4); j) the rotational energies of the HD(1/4) Raman spectrum match (i) with pure HD (1/4)

to

Spin transition and spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling:

, (ii) contains

to

rotational transition and

to

Synergistic transition of spin spin transition:

, or (iii) double transition, the final spin quantum number

;

:

Among them, spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling were also observed in both pure and cooperative transitions; k) H ₂ (1/4)-noble gas mixtures irradiated with high-energy electrons of an electron beam in the ultraviolet (150 to 180 nm) in the region of 0.25 eV spectral line display interval equal emission having a cutoff value of 8.25 eV at the cutoff value matches H ₂ (1/4)

to

Vibrational transitions, where a series of rotational transitions correspond to the H ₂ (1/4) P branch, where (i) the spectral fit matches well

;

. where 0.515 eV and 0.01509 eV are the vibrational and rotational energies of ordinary molecular hydrogen, respectively, (ii) a small satellite line matching the spin-orbit splitting energy also observed by Raman spectroscopy was observed, and (iii) the spin Spin-orbit splitting energy interval matching

, of which 1.5 involves

and

_{split; l) The H 2} (1/4) P branch rotational transition was observed by electron beam excitation _{of H 2} (1/4) trapped in a KCl crystalline matrix with

to

The vibration spectral emission transition, wherein (i) those consisting of a peak matched the peak of rotation of the rotor; (ii) due to vibrations H ₂ (1/4) of the interaction matrix of KCl, the vibration can be effectively increased the mass of large and shifted; (iii) the spectral fit matches well

;

Comprising the peak of 0.25 eV intervals, Common H and (iv) H ₂ (1/4) to match the relative magnitude of vibration energy by the shift of the trap ₂ in KCl-induced relative rotation vibration spectrum of effects; m ) with a HeCd energy laser exhibiting the Raman spectrum at a series of 1000 cm ^{- 1 (0.1234 eV) isoenergies at intervals in the 8000 cm- 1} to 18,000 cm ^{- 1} region, where the Raman spectrum is converted to fluorescence or the photoluminescence spectrum matched as disclosed KCl matrix corresponding to H ₂ (1/4) of an electron beam excitation emission spectrum of H ₂ (1/4) rotation of the second order vibration spectrum, consisting of

;

gives and includes the matrix displacement at the peak of the rotational transition at 0.25 eV energy interval

to

Rotational transitions;; n) _{Infrared rotational transitions of H 2} (1/4) were observed in the energy range ^{above 4400 cm − 1} , where in addition to the intrinsic magnetic field, the intensity increased with applied magnetic field, and rotation was also observed The transition is coupled to the spin-orbit transition; o) _{The allowed double ionization of H 2} (1/4) by the Compton effect corresponding to a total energy of 496 eV was observed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS); p _{) H 2} (1/4) was observed by gas chromatography, which, considering that hydrogen and helium have the fastest previously known migration rates and corresponding shortest residence times, exhibit higher migration rates than any known gas A fast migration rate; q) Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopic analysis recorded with a 10.1 nm cutoff (eg, as corresponding to the transition H to H(1/4) in the low energy hydrogen reaction catalyzed by a nascent HOH catalyst) Extreme ultraviolet continuous radiation; r) Proton magic angle spin nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ( ¹ H MAS NMR) recording a high-field matrix water peak in the -4 ppm to -5 ppm region; s) When the magnetic properties of multiple hydrogen product molecules When the moments interact cooperatively, bulk magnetism such as paramagnetism, superparamagnetism, and even ferromagnetism, where superparamagnetism (e.g., as observed using a vibrating sample magnetometer to measure the magnetic susceptibility of compounds containing reaction products) ); t) Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) and electrospray time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF _{) recorded on K 2} CO ₃ and KOH exposed to molecular gas sources from the reaction products ) by unique observations of M+2 multimeric units (eg,

and

, where n is an integer) and the density due to the stability of hydride ions

The reaction product shows a peak (e.g., H ₂ (1/4) gas) to a composite comprising an inorganic oxygen compound anions, and u) the reaction product of hydrogen molecules behave as a core composition of organic molecules, such as segmented by Evidenced by a chromatographic peak on an organic molecular matrix column, an inorganic ion. In various embodiments, the reaction is characterized by one or more of the high-energy characterized by the following: (i) containing H atoms or H and plasma primary HOH group of catalysts, such as argon -H _2, H _2, and Anomalous Doppler line broadening with H Barmer a-lines over 100 eV in H ₂ O vapor plasma, (ii) H excited state line reversal, (iii) Anomalous H plasma afterglow duration, (iv ) the shock wave propagation velocity and corresponding pressure equivalent to about 10 times the molar of gunpowder, with only about 1% of the power coupled to the shock wave, (v) up to 20 MW of optical power from a 10 μl hydrated silver pellet, and (vi) calorimetry of the SunCell power system validated at a power level of 340,000 W. Such reactions can produce hydrogen products characterized by one or more of the following: a) having one or more ranges of ^{1900 to 2200 cm- 1} , 5500 to 6400 cm ^{- 1,} and 7500 to 8500 cm ^{- 1} or 1900 to the 2200 cm ^- hydrogen product Raman peak within the range of an integer multiple of ^1; b) has a 0.25 eV 0.23 to one integral multiple of a plurality of spaced apart Raman peak of a hydrogen product; c) 1900 has to 2000cm ^- hydrogen product IR peaks within ^a range of an integer multiple; D) having the opening to 0.25 eV 0.23 to one integral multiple of a plurality of spaced infrared hydrogen product peak; E) having between 200 A hydrogen product having a plurality of UV fluorescence emission spectral peaks separated by an integer multiple of 0.23 to 0.3 eV in the range to 300 nm; f) having a range of 0.2 to 300 nm A hydrogen product of a plurality of electron beam emission spectral peaks spaced to an integer multiple of 0.3 eV; g) having a range between 5000 and 20,000 cm ^{- 1} with an integer multiple of 1000 ± 200 cm ^{- 1} a hydrogen product of a spaced Raman spectral peak; h) a hydrogen product with an X-ray photoelectron spectral peak at an energy in the range of 490 to 525 eV; i) induced an upfield MAS NMR a matrix-shifted monohydrogen product; j) a hydrogen product with an upfield MAS NMR or liquid NMR shift of greater than -5 ppm relative to TMS; m) a hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu and W and at least one of; O) comprising an inorganic compound M _{x X y 2} hydrogen product and one H, wherein M is a cation and X is one of at least one of electrospray free time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peaks with M(M _x X _y H _{2 )n} anion, where n is an integer; p) includes, respectively,

and

_{At least one of K 2} CO ₃ H ₂ and KOHH ₂ of at least one of the electrospray free time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peaks a hydrogen product; q) a magnetic hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide, further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and diamagnetic metals at least one; r) a hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide, further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal or, the product exhibits magnetic properties by magnetic susceptibility measurements; s) hydrogen products containing metals that are inactive in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopic analysis, wherein the EPR spectrum contains in a g-factor of about 2.0046 ± 20% At least one of, the EPR spectrum is split into a series of peaks spaced about 1 to 10 G, wherein each main peak is subdivided into a series of peaks spaced about 0.1 to 1 G; t) Included in Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) The hydrogen product of a metal inactive in spectroscopic analysis, wherein the EPR spectrum contains at least an _{electron spin-orbit coupling splitting energy of about m 1} X 7.43X10 ^{- 27} J ± 20% and an electron spin-orbit coupling splitting energy of about m ₂ X 5.78X10 ^{- 28} J ± 20% Magnetic flux trajectory splitting, and about 1.58 X10 ^{- 23} J ±20% of the dimer magnetic moment interaction splitting energy; v) containing a gas with a hydrogen or helium carrier with a negative gas chromatography peak - a hydrogen product; w) having

a hydrogen product at a quadrupole instant/e, where p is an integer; x) includes a transition from an integer J to J+1 in the range of ^{(J+1) 44.30 cm − 1} ± 20 cm ^{− 1} A proton hydrogen product of a molecular dimer of end-to-end rotational energy, wherein the corresponding rotational energy of the molecular dimer containing deuterium is ½ the rotational energy of the dimer containing protons; y) contains A hydrogen product of a molecular dimer having at least one parameter from the group of: (i) a separation distance of a hydrogen molecule of 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) a separation distance of 23 cm ^{− 1} ± 10% between hydrogen molecules a vibrational energy, and (iii) a van der Waals energy of 0.0011 eV ± 10% between hydrogen molecules; z) a hydrogen product comprising a solid having one of at least one parameter from the group : (i) 1.028 Å ±10% of the separation distance of a hydrogen molecule, (ii) ^{a vibrational energy of 23 cm - 1} ±10% between hydrogen molecules, and (iii) 0.019 eV ±10% between hydrogen molecules One Van der Waals energy of ; aa) hydrogen product with FTIR and Raman spectral features with (i)(J+1) 44.30 cm ^{- 1} ±20 cm ^{- 1} , (ii)(J+1 ) 22.15 cm ^{- 1} ±10 cm ^{- 1} , and (iii) 23 cm ^{- 1} ±10%; and/or have an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern exhibiting a hydrogen molecular spacing of 1.028 Å ±10%; and/or Calorimetric determination with gasification energy of 0.0011 eV ±10%/molecular hydrogen; bb) solid hydrogen product with FTIR and Raman spectroscopic features having (i)(J+1)44.30 cm ^{- 1} ± 20 cm ^{- 1} , (ii) (J+1) 22.15 cm ^{- 1} ±10 cm ^{- 1} and (iii) 23 cm ^{- 1} ±10%; and/or with an X exhibiting a hydrogen molecular spacing of 1.028 Å ±10% Ray or neutron diffraction pattern; and/or calorimetric determination with a vaporization energy of 0.019 eV ±10%/molecular hydrogen. cc) a hydrogen product comprising a hydride ion that is magnetic and has a magnetic linkage in units of magnetism in its free binding binding energy region, and dd) a hydrogen product in which high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) shows a retention time Chromatographic peaks longer than the carrier void volume using an organic column containing water in a solvent, wherein the peaks detected by mass spectrometry (such as ESI-ToF) show fragments of at least one inorganic compound.

In various implementations, the hydrogen products can be similarly characterized as those formed by various low energy hydrogen reactors, such as those formed by wire detonation in an atmosphere containing water vapor. Such products may: a) comprise at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide, further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W and the hydrogen comprises H; b) Comprising inorganic compounds M _x X _y and H ₂ , wherein M is a metal cation and X is an anion, and electrospray free time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) at least one of which comprises a _{peak of M(M x} X _y H(1/4) ₂ )n, where n is an integer; c) is magnetic and comprises at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide, which further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W and a diamagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1/4), and d) comprising a metal hydride and a metal oxide At least one, which further comprises hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal and H is H(1/4), wherein the product is determined by magnetic susceptibility Geometry shows magnetism.

中之至少一者的普通氫物種；有機分子物種；及(iv)無機物種。在一些實施例中，氫產物包含氧陰離子化合物。在各種實施中，氫產物(或來自包含集氣劑之實施例的經回收氫產物)可包含至少一種具有選自以下之群組的式之化合物： a)  MH、MH₂ 或M₂ H₂ ，其中M為一鹼性陽離子且H或H₂ 為氫產物； b)  MHn，其中n為1或2，M為一鹼土陽離子，且H為氫產物； c)  MHX，其中M為一鹼性陽離子，X為諸如鹵素原子之一中性原子、一分子或諸如鹵素陰離子的一單獨帶負電陰離子中之一者，且H為氫產物； d)  MHX，其中M為一鹼土陽離子，X為一單獨帶負電陰離子，且H為氫產物； e)  MHX，其中M為一鹼土陽離子，X為一雙帶負電陰離子，且H為氫產物； f)  M₂ HX，其中M為一鹼性陽離子，X為一單獨帶負電陰離子，且H為氫產物； g)  MH_n ，其中n為一整數，M為一鹼性陽離子，且該化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； h)  M₂ H_n ，其中n為一整數，M為一鹼土陽離子，且該化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； i)   M₂ XH_n ，其中n為一整數，M為一鹼土陽離子，X為一單獨帶負電陰離子，且該化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； j)   M₂ X₂ H_n ，其中n為1或2，M為一鹼土陽離子，X為一單獨帶負電陰離子，且該化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； k)  M₂ X₃ H，其中M為一鹼土陽離子，X為一單獨帶負電陰離子，且H為氫產物； l)   M₂ XH_n ，其中n為1或2，M為鹼土陽離子，X為雙帶負電陰離子，且化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； m) M₂ XX'H，其中M為一鹼土陽離子，X為一單獨帶負電陰離子，X'為一雙帶負電陰離子，且H為氫產物； n)  MM'H_n 其中n為自1至3之整數，M為鹼土陽離子，M'為鹼金屬陽離子且化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； o)  MM'XH_n ，其中n為1或2，M為一鹼土陽離子，M'為鹼金屬陽離子，X為單獨帶負電陰離子且該化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； p)  MM'XH，其中M為一鹼土陽離子，M'為一鹼金屬陽離子，X為一雙帶負電陰離子，且H為氫產物； q)  MM'XX'H，其中M為一鹼土陽離子，M'為一鹼金屬陽離子，X及X'為單獨帶負電陰離子，且H為氫產物； r)  MXX'H_n ，其中n為1至5之一整數，M為一鹼性或鹼土陽離子，X為一單獨或雙帶負電陰離子，X'為一金屬或類金屬、一過渡元素、一內部過渡元素或一稀土元素，且該化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； s)  MH_n ，其中n為一整數，M為一陽離子，諸如一過渡元素、一內部過渡元素或一稀土元素，且該化合物之氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； t)   MXH_n ，其中n為一整數，M為一陽離子，諸如一鹼性陽離子、鹼土陽離子，X為另一陽離子，諸如一過渡元素、內部過渡元素或一稀土元素陽離子，且該化合物之該氫內容物H_n 包含至少一種氫產物； u)

，其中M為鹼性陽離子或其他+1陽離子，m及n各自為整數，且化合物之氫內容物H_m 包含至少一種氫產物； v)

，其中M為一鹼性陽離子或其他+1陽離子，m及n各自為一整數，X為一單獨帶負電陰離子，且該化合物之氫內容物H_m 包含至少一種氫產物； w)

，其中M為一鹼性陽離子或其他+1陽離子，n為一整數，且該化合物之氫內容物H包含至少一種氫產物； x)

，其中M為一鹼性陽離子或其他+1陽離子，n為一整數，且該化合物之該氫內容物H包含至少一種氫產物； y)

，其中m及n各自為一整數，M及M'各自為一鹼性或鹼土陽離子，X為一單獨或雙帶負電陰離子，且該化合物之該氫內容物H_m 包含至少一種氫產物，及 z)

，其中m及n各自為一整數，M及M'各自為一鹼性或鹼土陽離子，X及X'為一單獨或雙帶負電陰離子，且該化合物之該氫內容物H_m 包含至少一種氫產物。In some embodiments, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction comprises a hydrogen product complexed with at least one of: (i) an element other than hydrogen; (ii) comprising H ⁺ , ordinary H ₂ , ordinary H ^- and ordinary

Ordinary hydrogen species of at least one of; organic molecular species; and (iv) inorganic species. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product comprises an oxyanion compound. In various embodiments, the hydrogen product (from Example or aerosol comprising a set of warp recovered hydrogen product) may comprise at least one compound of formula selected from the group having: a) MH, MH _2, or M ₂ H ₂ wherein M is an alkali cation or H ₂ and H is hydrogen product; b) MHn, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline cation, and H is a hydrogen product; c) MHX, where M is an alkali cation, X is one of a neutral atom such as a halogen atom, a molecule or a single negatively charged anion such as a halogen anion, and H is a hydrogen product; d) MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation and X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; e) MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is one pair of negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; f) M ₂ HX, where M is an alkali cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; g) MH _n , where n is an integer, M is a basic cation, and the hydrogen content H _{n of} the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; h) M ₂ H _n , where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, and the hydrogen content H _{n of} the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; i) M ₂ XH _n , where n is an integer and M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _{n of} the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; j) M ₂ X ₂ H _n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and X is a single band negatively charged anion and hydrogen the compound of content H _n contains at least one hydrogen _{product; k) M 2 X 3 H} , wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; L) M ₂ XH _n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _{n of the} compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; m) M ₂ XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, X' is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; n) MM'H _n where n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, and M' is a base metal cation and a hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; o) MM'XH _n, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M 'is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion. The hydrogen content _{Hn of} the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; p) MM'XH, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; q ) MM'XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M 'is an alkali metal cation, X and X' is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; r) MXX'H _n, where n is 1 to An integer of 5, M is an alkaline or alkaline earth cation, X is a single or double negatively charged anion ion, X' is a metal or metalloid, a transition element, an internal transition element or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H _{n of} the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; s) MH _n , where n is an integer, M is a cation, such as a transition element, an internal transition element or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H _{n of} the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; t) MXH _n , where n is an integer and M is a cation, such as a basic cation, alkaline earth cation, X is another cation, such as a transition element, internal transition element or a rare earth cation, and the hydrogen content H _{n of} the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; u)

Wherein M is a alkali cation or other cation + 1, m and n are each an integer, and the hydrogen content H _m of a compound containing at least one hydrogen product; V)

, wherein M is a basic cation or other +1 cation, m and n are each an integer, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _{m of} the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; w)

, wherein M is a basic cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; x)

, wherein M is a basic cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrogen product; y)

, Wherein m and n each are independently an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a single or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _m of the compound to include at least one of the hydrogen product is an integer, M and M ', and z)

, wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each a basic or alkaline earth cation, X and X' are a single or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _{m of} the compound contains at least one hydrogen product.

The anion of the hydrogen product formed by the reaction can be one or more individually negatively charged anions, including halides, hydroxide ions, bicarbonate ions, nitrate ions, double negatively charged anions, carbonate ions, oxides, and sulfates ion. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product is embedded in the lattice (e.g., in a container or located, for example using a case where the gas collecting agent such as K ₂ CO ₃ in the exhaust gas line). For example, the hydrogen product can be embedded in the salt lattice. In various implementations, the salt lattice can comprise alkali metal salts, alkali halides, alkali metal hydroxides, alkaline earth salts, alkaline earth halides, alkaline earth hydroxides, or combinations thereof.

Electrode systems are also available which include: a) a first electrode and a second electrode; b) a stream of molten metal (eg, molten silver, molten gallium) in electrical contact with the first electrode and the second electrode; c) a circulation system comprising a pump to draw the molten metal from a reservoir and deliver it through a conduit (eg, a pipe) to generate the stream of molten metal exiting the conduit; d) a power source structured to provide a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode; wherein the molten metal stream contacts the first electrode and the second electrode simultaneously to generate an electrical current between the electrodes. In some embodiments, the power is sufficient to generate more than 100 A of current.

Circuits are also provided, which may include: a) a heating element for producing molten metal; b) a pumping member for conveying the molten metal from a reservoir through a conduit to produce a flow of the molten metal exiting the conduit; c) a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with a power supply member for generating a potential difference across the first electrode and the second electrode; Wherein the molten metal stream is in contact with the first electrode and the second electrode at the same time to create an electrical circuit between the first electrode and the second electrode. For example, in a circuit comprising first and second electrodes, the modification may include flowing molten metal through the electrodes to allow an electrical current to flow therebetween.

Additionally, systems for generating plasma that can be used in the power generation systems described herein are provided. Such systems may include: a) a molten metal injector system structured to produce a stream of molten metal from a metal reservoir; b) an electrode system for inducing a current to flow through the molten metal flow; c) (i) a water spray system constructed to contact a metered volume of water with the molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form oxides of the metal and hydrogen gas, (ii) at least one of a mixture of excess hydrogen and oxygen, and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen and water vapor, and d) a power supply configured to supply the current; wherein the plasma is generated when current is supplied via the metal flow. In some embodiments, the system may further comprise: A pumping system structured to deliver metal collected after the generation of the plasma to the metal reservoir. In some embodiments, the system may include: a metal regeneration system structured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide to the metal; wherein the metal regeneration system comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte; wherein an electrical bias is supplied to the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide to the metal. In some implementations, the system can include: a) a pumping system structured to deliver metal collected after the generation of the plasma to the metal reservoir; and b) a metal regeneration system structured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide to the metal; wherein the metal regeneration system comprises an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte; wherein an electrical bias is supplied at between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide to the metal; Wherein the metal regenerated in the metal regeneration system is passed to the pumping system. In certain implementations, the metal is gallium, silver, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is an alkali metal hydroxide (eg, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide).

The system for generating plasma of the present invention may include: a) a molten metal injector system structured to produce a stream of molten metal from a metal reservoir; b) an electrode system for inducing a current to flow through the molten metal flow; c) (i) a water spray system constructed to contact a metered volume of water with molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form oxides of the metal and hydrogen, (ii) excess at least one of a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, and (iii) an excess of a mixture of hydrogen and water vapor, and d) a power supply configured to supply the current; wherein the plasma is generated when current is supplied via the metal flow. In some embodiments, the system may further comprise: a) a pumping system structured to deliver metal collected after the generation of the plasma to the metal reservoir; and b) a metal regeneration system structured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide to the metal; wherein the metal regeneration system comprises an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte; wherein an electrical bias is supplied at between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide to the metal; Wherein the metal regenerated in the metal regeneration system is passed to the pumping system.

Systems for generating plasma may include: a) two electrodes constructed to allow a molten metal to flow therebetween to complete an electrical circuit; b) a power supply connected to the two electrodes to apply current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; c) a recombiner unit (eg, glow discharge unit) for inducing formation of nascent water and atomic hydrogen from a gas; wherein the effluent of the recombiner is directed to the circuit (eg, the molten metal, anode, cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir); Wherein when a current is applied across the circuit, the effluent of the recombiner unit undergoes a reaction to generate a plasma. In some embodiments, the system is used to generate heat from the plasma. In various implementations, the system is used to generate light from the plasma.

The system of the present invention may comprise a mesh network (or be part of a mesh network) comprising a plurality of power system transmitter-receiver nodes transmitting and receiving electromagnetic signals in at least one frequency band, the The frequencies of the frequency bands can be high frequencies due to the ability to locally locate nodes with short separation distances, with frequencies ranging from approximately 0.1 GHz to 500 GHz, 1 GHz to 250 GHz, 1 GHz to 100 GHz, 1 GHz to 50 GHz and In at least one range from 1 GHz to 25 GHz.

The unique spectral signature measured in the reaction product produces a hydrogen product with unique properties. These hydrogen reaction products can be used in various apparatuses, in various parts of the present invention.

及

(或具有匹配此等物種之光譜特徵的物種)，及輸入電流及輸入電壓電路以及輸出電流及輸出電壓電路中之至少一者，以進行以下操作中之至少一者：感測及改變低能量氫陰離子及分子低能量氫中之至少一者的磁鏈狀態。在一些實施例中，電路包含AC諧振電路，AC諧振電路包含射頻RLC電路。在各種實施中，SQUID或SQUID型電子元件進一步包含至少一個電磁輻射源(例如，微波、紅外、可見光或紫外輻射中之至少一者的一源)，以例如在一樣品中誘發一磁場。在一些實施例中，輻射源包含雷射或微波產生器。雷射輻射可藉由透鏡或光纖以聚焦方式施加(例如，至所關注樣品)。在一些實施例中，SQUID或SQUID型電子元件進一步包含施加至低能量氫陰離子及分子低能量氫中之至少一者的磁場源。該磁場可為可調諧的。輻射源及磁場中之至少一者之此可調諧性可使得能夠選擇性且受控地達成電磁輻射源與磁場之間的諧振。SQUID或SQUID型電子元件可包含在高溫下操作之電腦邏輯閘、記憶體元件及其他電子量測或致動器裝置，諸如磁力計、感測器及開關。The present invention also encompasses superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) or SQUID-type electronic components, which may comprise at least one low-energy hydrogen species

and

(or species having spectral signatures matching those species), and at least one of an input current and input voltage circuit and an output current and output voltage circuit to perform at least one of the following operations: sensing and altering low energy The magnetic linkage state of at least one of a hydride ion and molecular low energy hydrogen. In some embodiments, the circuit includes an AC resonant circuit that includes a radio frequency RLC circuit. In various implementations, the SQUID or SQUID-type electronics further comprises at least one source of electromagnetic radiation (eg, a source of at least one of microwave, infrared, visible, or ultraviolet radiation) to induce a magnetic field, eg, in a sample. In some embodiments, the radiation source comprises a laser or microwave generator. Laser radiation can be applied in a focused manner (eg, to the sample of interest) through lenses or optical fibers. In some embodiments, the SQUID or SQUID-type electronic component further comprises a magnetic field source applied to at least one of low energy hydride ions and molecular low energy hydrogen. The magnetic field may be tunable. This tunability of at least one of the radiation source and the magnetic field can enable selective and controlled achievement of resonance between the electromagnetic radiation source and the magnetic field. SQUID or SQUID-type electronic components may include computer logic gates, memory elements, and other electronic measurement or actuator devices, such as magnetometers, sensors, and switches, that operate at high temperatures.

SQUID according to the present invention may comprise: at least two electrically connected to the loop of superconducting Josephson junctions, wherein the Josephson junction comprising EPR having one active hydrogen species H _2. In certain embodiments, the hydrogen species is MOOH: H _2, where M is a metal (e.g., Ag, Ga).

For example, the reaction products of the present invention resulting from operation of the power generation systems of the present invention may be used as or in refrigerants, gaseous heat transfer agents, and/or buoyants comprising molecular low energy hydrogen (eg, with matching molecular low energy hydrogen) species with spectral characteristics).

Also provided are MRI gas contrast agents comprising molecular low energy hydrogen (eg, species having spectral signatures that match molecular low energy hydrogen).

The reaction product can also be used as the excitation medium in the laser. The present invention encompasses low energy hydrogen molecular gas lasers, which may include molecular low energy hydrogen gas (H ₂ (1/p) p = 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , 137 ) (eg, with matching molecular low energy hydrogen Spectral characteristic species), a laser cavity comprising the molecular low-energy hydrogen gas, an excitation source for the rotational energy level of the molecular low-energy hydrogen gas, and laser optics. In some embodiments, the laser optics include mirrors at the ends of a cavity containing molecular low-energy hydrogen gas in an excited rotational state, and one of the mirrors is translucent to The laser light is allowed to emit from the cavity. In various implementations, the excitation source includes at least one of a laser, a flash lamp, a gas discharge system (eg, glow, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively coupled RF, capacitively coupled RF, or other plasma discharge systems). In some aspects, the laser can further include an external or internal field source (eg, a source of electric or magnetic fields) such that at least one desired molecular low energy hydrogen spin level is filled, wherein the level includes the desired spin orbit and The magnetic flux linkage can move at least one of them. Laser transitions can occur between inversion populations of selected spin states and lower-energy populations of less filling. In some embodiments, the laser cavity, optics, excitation source, and external field source are selected to achieve the desired inversion population and stimulated emission of the desired less populated lower energy states. The laser may contain a solid laser medium. For example, a solid laser medium contains molecular low energy hydrogen trapped in a solid matrix, where the low energy hydrogen molecules may be free rotors and the solid medium replaces the gas cavity of a molecular low energy hydrogen gas laser. In certain embodiments, the solid laser medium comprises the following who is at least one _{of: GaOOH: H 2 (1/4)} , KCl: H 2 (1/4) and silicon having a low energy by the hydrogen trapping molecule ( For example, Si _{(crystalline): H 2 (1/4))} ( or species which have the spectral characteristics).

Methods are also provided. The method may, for example, generate electricity or generate light, or generate plasma. In some embodiments, the method includes: a) electrically biasing a molten metal; b) directing effluent of a plasma generating cell (eg, a glow discharge cell) to interact with the biased molten metal and induce formation of a plasma. In certain embodiments, the plasma generating unit of the effluent passing through the plasma generated by one unit during the operation of the hydrogen (H ₂₎ and oxygen (O ₂₎ gas mixture generator.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims US Application Serial No. 62/971,938, filed February 8, 2020, US Application Serial No. 62/980,959, filed February 24, 2020, March 20, 2020 US Application No. 62/992,783, filed March 30, 2020, US Application No. 63/012,243, filed April 19, 2020, May 2020 US Application No. 63/024,487, filed on 13, US Application No. 63/031,557, filed May 28, 2020, US Application No. 63/043,763, filed June 24, 2020, July 2020 US Application No. 63/056,270, filed on Aug. 24, US Application No. 63/072,076, filed Aug. 28, 2020, U.S. Application No. 63/086,520, filed Oct. 1, 2020, 2020 Priority of US Application Serial Nos. 63/111,556, filed on Nov. 9, 2020, and 63/134,537, filed on Dec. 18, 2020, and 63/134,537, filed on Jan. 6, 2021 rights, each of these applications is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Disclosed herein are power generation systems and power generation methods that convert energy output from reactions involving atomic hydrogen into electrical and/or thermal energy. Such reactions may involve the release of energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy state catalyst systems in which the electron shells are in closer proximity to the core. The power released is used to generate electricity, and in addition, novel hydrogen species and compounds are the desired products. These energy states are predicted by the classical laws of physics and require catalysts to accept energy from hydrogen in order to undergo the corresponding energy releasing transitions.

。除了原子H之外，自原子H接受

之分子亦可充當催化劑，其中該分子之位能之量值減少相同能量。H₂ O之位能為81.6 eV。接著，藉由相同機制，預測藉由金屬氧化物之熱力學有利的還原形成之初生H₂ O分子(並非以固態、液態或氣態鍵合之氫)充當催化劑，以形成釋放204 eV能量(包含81.6 eV傳遞至HOH)及釋放在10.1 nm處具有截止之連續輻射(122.4 eV)的

。The theory that can explain the exothermic reaction produced by the power generation system of the present invention involves the nonradiative transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen to certain catalysts (eg, nascent water). Classical physics gives closed-form solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules, and predicts corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen can undergo catalytic reactions with certain species, including itself, that can accept an energy m·27.2 eV, where m is an integer, that is an integer multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen. The predicted reaction involves the transfer of resonant nonradiative energy from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1/p), the fractional Radberg state of atomic hydrogen, called "low energy hydrogen atom", where n = 1/2, 1/3 in the Radberg equation for hydrogen excited states , 1/4...1/p (p≤137, an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n=integer. Each low energy hydrogen state also contains electrons, protons, and photons, but the field share from photons increases the binding energy rather than decreases it, which corresponds to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since atomic hydrogen has a potential energy of 27.2 eV, m H atoms act as catalysts with m • 27.2 eV for an additional (m + 1)th H atom [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics ; September 2016 version, published at https://brilliantlightpower.com/book-download-and-streaming/ ("Mills GUTCP")]. For example, an H atom can act as its catalyst by accepting 27.2 eV from another H via energy transfer across space, such as by magnetism or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling, resulting in an emission decay with a continuum of bands intermediate, which has a short wavelength cut-off and energy

. In addition to atomic H, accept from atomic H

The molecule can also act as a catalyst, in which the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule is reduced by the same amount of energy. The potential energy of H ₂ O is 81.6 eV. Subsequently, by the same mechanism, the predicted primary H ₂ O molecules (not in solid, liquid or gaseous bonding of hydrogen) by formation of the thermodynamically favorable reduction of the metal oxide acts as a catalyst, to form the release of energy 204 eV (comprising 81.6 eV transfer to HOH) and release of continuous radiation (122.4 eV) with cutoff at 10.1 nm

.

態之H 原子催化劑反應中，m 個H 原子充當另外第(m +1)個H 原子之具有m · 27.2eV 之催化劑。則，m 個原子藉以自第(m +1)個氫原子以諧振及非輻射方式接受m · 27.2eV ，使得m 個H 充當催化劑之m +1個氫原子之間的反應藉由以下給出：

in relation to the jump to

In the H atom catalyst reaction in the state of 1, m H atoms act as a catalyst with m · 27.2 eV for the other (m + 1)th H atom. Then, m atoms receive m · 27.2 eV resonantly and nonradiatively from the ( m + 1)th hydrogen atom, so that the reaction between m + 1 hydrogen atoms with m H acting as catalyst is given by :

And, the overall reaction is

[R. Mills，The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics ；2016年9月版，在https://brilliantlightpower.com/book-download-and-streaming/發佈]為

Catalytic Reaction of Potential Energy of Primary H _{2 O}

[R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics ; September 2016 edition, published at https://brilliantlightpower.com/book-download-and-streaming/] is

And, the overall reaction is

。預測半徑隨著電子經歷徑向加速度而減小，直至半徑為未催化氫原子之半徑的1/(m + 1)的穩定狀態，且釋放出

能量。預測由於

中間物(例如，方程式(2)及方程式(6))之遠紫外連續輻射譜帶具有短波長截止及藉由以下給出之能量

：

且延伸至比對應截止長之波長。此處，由於H*[a_H /4]中間物之衰減而引起之遠紫外連續輻射譜帶經預測為在 E = m² ·13.6 = 9·13.6 = 122.4 eV (10.1 nm)處具有短波長截止[其中在方程式(9)中， p = m + 1 = 4且m = 3]並延伸至較長波長。觀測到10.1 nm處之連續輻射譜帶，且對於理論上預測之H至較低能量(所謂的「低能量氫」狀態H(1/4))之躍遷到達較長波長，其僅由包含一些氫之脈衝捏縮氣體放電引起。藉由方程式(1)及(5)預測之另一觀測結果為自快H⁺ 之再結合形成快速激發態H原子。該等快原子產生展寬之巴耳麥

發射。揭露了在某些混合氫電漿中具有異常高的動能能量氫原子之居量的大於50 eV之巴耳麥

線展寬係一種熟知現象，其中其原因係由於在低能量氫之形成中所釋放的能量。先前在連續發射氫捏縮電漿中觀測到快H。After energy transfer to the catalyst (equations (1) and (5)), an intermediate with H atomic radius and a central field m + 1 times the proton central field is formed

. The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration, until a steady state with a radius of 1/(m + 1) of the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, and releases

energy. forecast due to

The far ultraviolet continuum bands of intermediates (eg, equations (2) and (6)) have short wavelength cutoffs and energies given by

:

and extends to a wavelength longer than the corresponding cutoff. Here, the EUV continuum band due to attenuation of the _H*[aH ^{/4] intermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength at E = m 2} ·13.6 = 9 ·13.6 = 122.4 eV (10.1 nm) Cutoff [where in equation (9), p = m + 1 = 4 and m = 3] and extends to longer wavelengths. A continuous emission band at 10.1 nm was observed, and for the theoretically predicted transition of H to lower energy (the so-called "low-energy hydrogen" state H(1/4)) to longer wavelengths, it is only determined by including some Hydrogen pulses are caused by pinching gas discharges. Another observation predicted by equations (1) and (5) is the formation of fast excited H atoms ^{from the recombination of fast H+.} These fast atoms produce a broadened barmy

emission. Balmers greater than 50 eV with unusually high kinetic energy hydrogen atomic populations in certain mixed hydrogen plasmas are disclosed

Line broadening is a well known phenomenon, the cause of which is due to the energy released in the formation of low energy hydrogen. Fast H was previously observed in continuous emitting hydrogen pinch plasmas.

連續發射或

傳遞至H以形成極熱的激發態H及氫原子，其能量低於對應於分數主量子數的未反應原子氫。亦即，在氫原子之主能級之式中：

其中

為氫原子之波爾半徑(52.947 pm)，

為電子電荷之量值，且

為真空電容率，分數量子數：

；其中

為整數                             (12) 替換氫激發態之芮得伯方程式中之熟知參數n=整數且表示稱為「低能量氫」之較低能態氫原子。氫之

狀態及氫之

狀態為非輻射的，但兩種非輻射狀態之間的躍遷，比如

至

，係可能經由非輻射能量傳遞發生的。氫為由方程式(10)及(12)給出之穩定狀態的特例，其中氫或低能量氫原子之對應半徑係由以下給出：

，                                                                 (13) 其中

。為使能量守恆，能量必須以處於正常

狀態之氫原子的位能之整數為單位自氫原子傳遞至催化劑，且半徑躍遷至

。藉由使普通氫原子與具有以下之反應淨焓之合適的催化劑反應而形成低能量氫：

(14) 其中m 為整數。據信，隨著反應淨焓更緊密地匹配

，催化之速率增大。已發現，反應淨焓在

之±10%，較佳為±5%內之催化劑適於大多數應用。Additional catalysts and reactions to form low energy hydrogen are possible. Specific species identifiable based on known electron energy levels (eg, He ⁺ , Ar ⁺ , Sr ⁺ , K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H ₂ O, nH (n=integer)) require Present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves nonradiative energy transfer, followed by

continuous firing or

Transfer to H to form extremely hot excited state H and hydrogen atoms with lower energies than unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to fractional principal quantum numbers. That is, in the formula for the principal energy level of the hydrogen atom:

in

is the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm),

is the magnitude of the electron charge, and

is the vacuum permittivity, fractional quantum number:

;in

Substitute the integer (12) for the well-known parameter n=integer in the Radberg equation for the excited state of hydrogen and represents a lower energy state hydrogen atom called "low energy hydrogen". of hydrogen

state and hydrogen

states are nonradiative, but transitions between two nonradiative states, such as

to

, which may occur via nonradiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable state given by equations (10) and (12), where the corresponding radii of hydrogen or low-energy hydrogen atoms are given by:

, (13) where

. For energy to be conserved, energy must be in normal

The integer of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom in the state is transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst, and the radius transitions to

. Low energy hydrogen is formed by reacting ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst having the following net enthalpy of reaction:

(14) where m is an integer. It is believed that as the net enthalpy of the reaction is more closely matched

, the rate of catalysis increases. It has been found that the net enthalpy of the reaction is

Catalysts within ±10%, preferably within ±5%, are suitable for most applications.

總反應為

q 、r 、m 及p 為整數。

具有氫原子之半徑(對應於分母中之1)及等於質子之中心場的

倍的中心場，且

係半徑為H 之

的對應穩態。The catalyst reaction involves two steps of energy release: non-radiative energy transfer to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases, until the corresponding stable final state. Therefore, the overall response is given by:

The overall response is

q , r , m and p are integers.

has the radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and is equal to the central field of the proton

times the center field, and

The radius of the system is H

the corresponding steady state.

亦可與電子反應，以形成低能量氫氫陰離子

，或兩個

可發生反應，以形成對應分子低能量氫

。具體而言，催化劑產物

亦可與電子反應，以形成具有結合能

之新穎氫陰離子

：

其中p = 整數 ＞ 1，

，

為普朗克常量項(Planck's constant bar)，

為真空之磁導率，

為電子之質量，

為由

給出之約化之電子質量，其中

為質子之質量，

為波爾半徑，且離子半徑為

。根據方程式(19)，經計算之氫陰離子之電離能量為

，且實驗值為

(0.75418 eV)。低能量氫氫陰離子之結合能可藉由X射線光電子光譜分析(XPS)量測。catalyst product

Can also react with electrons to form low-energy hydrino hydride ions

, or both

Can react to form the corresponding molecular low energy hydrogen

. Specifically, the catalyst product

can also react with electrons to form binding energy

novel hydride ion

:

where p = integer > 1,

,

is Planck's constant bar,

is the magnetic permeability of vacuum,

is the mass of electrons,

reason

is given by the reduced electron mass, where

is the mass of the proton,

is the Bohr radius, and the ionic radius is

. According to equation (19), the calculated ionization energy of the hydride ion is

, and the experimental value is

(0.75418 eV). The binding energy of low energy hydrino hydride ions can be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

其中第一項適用於

，其中對於

，

且p =整數 ＞1，且

為精細結構常量。所預測之低能量氫氫陰離子峰相對於普通氫陰離子異常地往高磁場位移。在實施例中，峰為TMS的高磁場。相對於TMS之NMR位移可大於對於單獨或包含化合物之普通H^- 、H、H₂ 或H⁺ 中之至少一者已知的NMR位移。該位移可大於以下中之至少一者：0、-1、-2、-3、-4、-5、-6、-7、-8、-9、-10、-11、-12、-13、-14、-15、-16、-17、-18、-19、-20、-21、-22、-23、-24、-25、-26、-27、-28、-29、-30、-31、-32、-33、-34、-35、-36、-37、-38、-39及-40 ppm。相對於裸質子之絕對位移之範圍(其中TMS之位移相對於裸質子為約-31.5)可為-(p29.9 + p² 2.74) ppm (方程式(20))，其約在以下中之至少一者中的範圍內：±5 ppm、±10 ppm、±20 ppm、±30 ppm、±40 ppm、±50 ppm、±60 ppm、±70 ppm、±80 ppm、±90 ppm及±100 ppm。相對於裸質子之絕對位移之範圍可為-(p29.9 + p² 1.59 × 10^{- 3} ) ppm (方程式(20))，其約在以下中之至少一者中的範圍內：約0.1%至99%、1%至50%及1%至10%。在另一實施例中，低能量氫物種(諸如，低能量氫原子、氫陰離子或分子)在固體基質(諸如，如NaOH或KOH之氫氧化物基質)中之存在引起基質質子往高磁場位移。基質質子(諸如NaOH或KOH之基質質子)可交換。在實施例中，位移可引起基質峰在相對於TMS的約-0.1 ppm至-5 ppm之範圍內。NMR測定可包含魔角自旋

核磁共振光譜分析(MAS

NMR)。The NMR peaks shifted upfield are direct evidence for the presence of lower energy hydrogen states with reduced radius relative to ordinary hydride ions and increased diamagnetic shielding of protons. The displacement is given by the sum of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the action of a photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)):

The first of which applies to

, where for

,

and p = integer > 1, and

is a fine-structure constant. The predicted low-energy hydrino hydride peaks are unusually shifted upfield relative to ordinary hydride ions. In an embodiment, the peak is the upfield of TMS. The NMR shifts relative to TMS can be greater than known NMR shifts for at least one ^{of ordinary H −} , H, H ₂ or H ^{+ , alone or comprising a compound.} The displacement may be greater than at least one of: 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, - 13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39 and -40 ppm. Range with respect to the absolute displacement of the bare proton (TMS wherein the relative displacement is about -31.5 bare proton) may be a ^{- (p29.9 + p 2 2.74)} ppm ( equation (20)), in which at least about or less in the Within a range of: ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm . The absolute displacement relative to a bare proton may be in the range of -(p29.9 + p ² 1.59 × 10 ^{- 3} ) ppm (equation (20)), which is approximately in the range of at least one of: approximately 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50% and 1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the presence of a low energy hydrogen species (such as a low energy hydrogen atom, hydride ion or molecule) in a solid matrix (such as a hydroxide matrix such as NaOH or KOH) causes the matrix protons to be displaced upfield . Matrix protons, such as those of NaOH or KOH, are exchangeable. In embodiments, the shift may result in matrix peaks in the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm relative to TMS. NMR measurements can include magic angle spins

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MAS)

NMR).

可與質子反應且兩個

可發生反應以分別形成

及

。在非輻射之約束下，根據橢圓座標中之拉普拉斯算子(Laplacian)來求解氫分子離子及分子電荷與電流密度函數、鍵距離以及能量。

reacts with protons and two

can react to form

and

. Under the constraint of non-radiation, hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distance and energy are solved according to Laplacian in elliptic coordinates.

之中心場的氫分子離子之總能量

為：

其中p 為整數，c 為真空中之光速，且

為經約化之核質量。在長球體分子軌道之每一焦點處具有

之中心場的氫分子之總能量為：

At each foci of the prolate molecular orbitals have

The total energy of hydrogen molecular ions in the central field of

for:

where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and

is the reduced nuclear mass. At each foci of the prolate molecular orbitals have

The total energy of hydrogen molecules in the central field is:

之鍵解離能量

係對應氫原子之總能量與

之間的差：

其中

由方程式(23-25)給出：

hydrogen molecule

bond dissociation energy

is the total energy corresponding to the hydrogen atom and

difference between:

in

is given by equations (23-25):

可由X射線光電子光譜分析(XPS)識別，其中除了經電離電子之外的電離產物可為諸如包含兩個質子及電子(氫(H)原子、低能量氫原子、分子離子、氫分子離子及

)之可能物中的至少一者，其中能量可因基質而位移。

It can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), where ionization products other than ionized electrons can be, for example, containing two protons and electrons (hydrogen (H) atoms, low energy hydrogen atoms, molecular ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and

), where the energy can be displaced by the matrix.

之理論上預測的化學位移的決定性測試。大體而言，由於橢圓座標中之分數半徑，

之

NMR諧振經預測為自

的

NMR諧振朝向高磁場，其中電子明顯較接近原子核。藉由兩個電子之反磁性及量值為p之光子場的作用之總和給出

之經預測位移

(Mills GUTCP方程式(11.415-11.416))：

其中第一項適用於H ₂ ，其中對於

，p = 1且p = 整數 ＞1。實驗絕對

氣相諧振位移-28.0 ppm與經預測之絕對氣相位移-28.01 ppm相符(方程式(28))。所預測之分子低能量氫的峰相對於普通H₂ 異常地往高磁場位移。在實施例中，峰為TMS的高磁場。相對於TMS之NMR位移可大於對於單獨或包含化合物之普通H^- 、H、H₂ 或H⁺ 中之至少一者已知的NMR位移。該位移可大於以下中之至少一者：0、-1、-2、-3、-4、-5、-6、-7、-8、-9、-10、-11、-12、-13、-14、-15、-16、-17、-18、-19、-20、-21、-22、-23、-24、-25、-26、-27、-28、-29、-30、-31、-32、-33、-34、-35、-36、-37、-38、-39及-40 ppm。相對於裸質子之絕對位移之範圍(其中TMS之位移相對於裸質子為約-31.5 ppm)可為-(p28.01 + p² 2.56) ppm (方程式(28))，其約在以下中之至少一者中的範圍內：±5 ppm、±10 ppm、±20 ppm、±30 ppm、±40 ppm、±50 ppm、±60 ppm、±70 ppm、±80 ppm、±90 ppm及±100 ppm。相對於裸質子之絕對位移之範圍可為-(p28.01 + p² 1.49 × 10^{- 3} ) ppm (方程(28))，其約在以下中之至少一者中的範圍內：約0.1%至99%、1%至50%及1%至10%。NMR of catalytic product gas provided

A definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift. In general, due to fractional radii in elliptical coordinates,

Of

NMR resonances are predicted to be self-

of

The NMR resonances are towards the high magnetic field, where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus. is given by the sum of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the action of a photon field of magnitude p

The predicted displacement

(Mills GUTCP equation (11.415-11.416)):

where the first term applies to H ₂ , where for

, p = 1 and p = integer>1. Experiment absolutely

The gas phase resonance shift of -28.0 ppm matches the predicted absolute gas phase shift of -28.01 ppm (equation (28)). The predicted molecular hydrogen with a low energy peak of ₂ to abnormally high for the average displacement field H. In an embodiment, the peak is the upfield of TMS. The NMR shifts relative to TMS can be greater than known NMR shifts for at least one ^{of ordinary H −} , H, H ₂ or H ^{+ , alone or comprising a compound.} The displacement may be greater than at least one of: 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, - 13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39 and -40 ppm. Range with respect to the absolute displacement of the bare proton (where the displacement relative to TMS bare proton about -31.5 ppm) may be ^{- (p28.01 + p 2 2.56)} ppm ( equation (28)), which are of approximately the following Within at least one of: ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm. Range with respect to the absolute displacement of the bare proton may be ^{- (p28.01 + p 2 1.49 ×} 10 - 3) ppm ( Equation (28)), which is approximately within the at least one of the following range of: about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50% and 1% to 10%.

自

躍遷至

的振動能

為：

其中p 為整數。Hydrogen donating molecule

since

jump to

vibration energy

for:

where p is an integer.

自

躍遷至

的旋轉能量

為：

其中p 為整數且I 為慣性力矩。對氣體中及捕集於固體基質中之電子束激發分子觀測到

之振轉發射。Hydrogen donating molecule

since

jump to

the rotational energy of

for:

where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. Observed for electron beam excited molecules in gases and trapped in solid matrices

Vibration launch.

之經預測核間隔離2c '為

The inter-core isolation from the inverse correlation p and the corresponding effect on the moment of inertia I ² to obtain the correlation energy of rotation p.

The predicted internuclear segregation 2c ' is

H ₂ (1 / p) and the rotational energy of the vibration may be at least one excitation by an electron beam emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic analysis of at least one of a measurement. H ₂ (1/p) can be trapped in a matrix such as _{at least one of MOH, MX and M 2} CO ₃ (M = alkali metal; X = halide) matrix for measurement.

In an embodiment, as observed from about 1950 cm ^- low energy molecular hydrogen product of the inverse Raman ¹ (IRE) peak. The peaks are enhanced to display the IRE peaks by using a conductive material that contains a roughness feature or particle size comparable to the wavelength of the Raman laser supporting surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS).

I. Catalysts In the present invention, terms such as low energy hydrogen reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, hydrogen reaction to form low energy hydrogen, and low energy hydrogen forming reaction all refer to such as the following Reaction of: Equations (15) to (18) of the catalyst defined by equation (14) react with atomic H to form a hydrogen state having the energy levels given by equations (10) and (12). When referring to a reaction mixture that performs catalysis of H to the H state or low energy hydrogen state having the energy levels given by equations (10) and (12), such as low energy hydrogen reactant, low energy hydrogen reaction mixture, catalyst The corresponding terms for mixture, reactant for low energy hydrogen formation, reactant producing or forming low energy state hydrogen or low energy hydrogen are also used interchangeably.

的整數m 倍的吸熱化學反應的形式。吸熱催化劑反應可為自諸如原子或離子之物種電離一或多個電子(例如，對於

，

)，且可進一步包含鍵斷裂與自一或多種初始鍵搭配物電離一或多個電子的協同反應(例如，對於

，

)。

因為以

(為

)電離，所以其滿足催化劑準則--焓變等於

之整數倍的化學或物理過程。整數數目個氫原子亦可充當

焓之整數倍的催化劑。催化劑能夠自原子氫接受呈約27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV及

± 0.5 eV中之一者的整數單位的能量。The catalytic lower energy hydrogen transition of the present invention requires a catalyst that accepts energy from atomic H to cause the transition, which catalyst may be in the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen

Integer m times the form of an endothermic chemical reaction. An endothermic catalyst reaction may ionize one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (eg, for

,

), and may further comprise a coordinated reaction of bond cleavage and ionization of one or more electrons from one or more initial bond partners (e.g., for

,

) .

because with

(for

) ionizes, so it satisfies the catalyst criterion—the enthalpy change is equal to

A chemical or physical process that is an integer multiple. An integer number of hydrogen atoms can also act as

Catalysts with integer multiples of enthalpy. The catalyst is capable of accepting from atomic hydrogen at about 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV and

Energy in integer units of one of ± 0.5 eV.

個電子自原子或離子M各自電離至連續能級，使得t 個電子之電離能量的總和大約為m • 27.2eV 及m •

中之一者，其中m 為整數。In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises an atom or ion M, wherein

electrons are each ionized from the atom or ion M to successive energy levels such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m • 27.2 eV and m •

One of them, where m is an integer.

個電子自原子M各自電離至連續能級使得

個電子之鍵能及電離能量的總和大約為m • 27.2eV 及m •

中之一者，其中m 為整數。In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH, wherein cleavage of the MH bond plus

electrons are each ionized from the atom M to a continuous energy level such that

The sum of the bond energy and ionization energy of an electron is approximately m • 27.2 eV and m •

One of them, where m is an integer.

、

、

、

、

及

之分子，及以下之原子或離子：Li、Be、K、Ca、Ti、V、Cr、Mn、Fe、Co、Ni、Cu、Zn、As、Se、Kr、Rb、Sr、Nb、Mo、Pd、Sn、Te、Cs、Ce、Pr、Sm、Gd、Dy、Pb、Pt、Kr、

、

、

、

、

、

、

、

、

、

、

、

、

、

及

，以及

及

。In embodiments, the catalyst comprises atoms, ions and/or is selected from the group consisting of AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH, SH, SbH, SeH, SiH , SnH, SrH, TlH,

,

,

,

,

and

molecules, and the following atoms or ions: Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

and

,as well as

and

.

^{In other embodiments, an MH-} type hydrogen catalyst for the production of low energy hydrogen is provided by electron transfer to acceptor A, MH bond breakage plus t electrons each ionized from atom M to a continuous energy level such that The sum of the electron transfer energy, the MH bond energy, and the ionization energy for ionization of t electrons from M, including the difference in electron affinity (EA) of MH and A, is approximately m • 27.2 eV , where m is an integer. ^{MH -} type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of about m• 27.2 eV ^{are OH -} , SiH ^- , CoH ^- , NiH ^- and SeH ^- .

個電子自原子M各自電離至連續能級，使得包含MH與A之電離能量之差異的電子傳遞能量、M-H鍵能及

個電子自M電離的電離能量之總和為大約m• 27.2eV ，其中m 為整數。 ^{In other embodiments, an MH+} type hydrogen catalyst for low energy hydrogen production is provided by: electron transfer from a negatively chargeable donor A, MH bond cleavage, and

The electrons are each ionized from the atom M to a continuous energy level such that the electron transfer energy, the MH bond energy, and

The sum of the ionization energies of the electrons ionized from M is approximately m• 27.2 eV , where m is an integer.

In an embodiment, the molecule or at least one of the positively or negatively charged molecular ion acts as a catalyst accepting about m • 27.2 eV from atomic H, where the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion is Decrease about m • 27.2 eV . Exemplary catalyst is H ₂ O, OH, NH ₂ acyl group and H ₂ S.

、

及

。反應

、

及

分別提供為

約2倍、4倍及1倍之淨焓，且包含藉由自H接受此等能量以使低能量氫形成的用以形成低能量氫的催化劑反應。O ₂ can act as a catalyst or catalyst source. The bond energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second and third ionization energies of the oxygen atom are respectively

,

and

. reaction

,

and

provided separately as

About 2 times, 4 times and 1 times the net enthalpy, and includes catalyst reactions to form low energy hydrogen by accepting such energy from H to form low energy hydrogen.

給出之結合能之氫原子(其中

為大於1，較佳為2至137之整數)係本發明之H催化反應的產物。原子、離子或分子之結合能(亦被稱作電離能量)係自原子、離子或分子移除一個電子所需的能量。具有方程式(10)及(12)中給出之結合能的氫原子在下文被稱作「低能量氫原子」或「低能量氫」。具有半徑

之低能量氫的標識為

，其中

為普通氫原子之半徑且

為整數。具有半徑

之氫原子在下文中被稱作「普通氫原子」或「正常氫原子」。普通原子氫之特徵在於其結合能為13.6 eV。 II. Low energy hydrogen has a

The hydrogen atom of the given binding energy (where

is greater than 1, preferably an integer from 2 to 137) is the product of the H-catalyzed reaction of the present invention. The binding energy (also known as ionization energy) of an atom, ion or molecule is the energy required to remove an electron from the atom, ion or molecule. Hydrogen atoms having the binding energies given in equations (10) and (12) are hereinafter referred to as "low energy hydrogen atoms" or "low energy hydrogen". has a radius

The low-energy hydrogen is identified as

,in

is the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and

is an integer. has a radius

These hydrogen atoms are hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen atoms" or "normal hydrogen atoms". Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by a binding energy of 13.6 eV.

直至23大於且對於

(H^- )小於普通氫陰離子之結合(約0.75 eV)。對於方程式(19)之

至

，氫陰離子結合能分別為3、6.6、11.2、16.7、22.8、29.3、36.1、42.8、49.4、55.5、61.0、65.6、69.2、71.6、72.4、71.6、68.8、64.0、56.8、47.1、34.7、19.3及0.69 eV。本文亦提供包含新穎氫陰離子之例示性組合物。According to the present invention there is provided a low energy hydrino hydride ion (H ⁻ ) having a binding energy according to equation (19), the binding energy for

until 23 is greater than and for

(H ⁻ ) is less than the binding of ordinary hydride ions (about 0.75 eV). For equation (19)

to

, the hydride binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3 and 0.69 eV. Exemplary compositions comprising novel hydride ions are also provided herein.

Exemplary compounds comprising one or more low energy hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements are also provided. Such compounds are called "low-energy hydrogen hydrides".

，22.6 eV (「普通三氫分子離子」)。本文中，關於氫之形式，「正常」與「普通」同義。Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) a hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride"); (b) a hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen"), 13.6 eV; (c) a diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary molecular hydrogen"); (d) molecular hydrogen ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary molecular hydrogen ion"); and (e)

, 22.6 eV ("ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion"). Herein, with respect to the form of hydrogen, "normal" and "ordinary" are synonymous.

(諸如，在

之約0.9倍至1.1倍的範圍內)之結合能，其中p為自2至137之整數；(b)氫陰離子(

)，其具有約結合能

(諸如，在結合能

之約0.9倍至1.1倍的範圍內)之結合能，其中p為自2至24之整數；(c)

；(d)三低能量氫分子離子

，其具有約

(諸如，在

之約0.9倍至1.1倍的範圍內)之結合能，其中p為自2至137之整數；(e)二低能量氫，其具有約

(諸如，在

的約0.9倍至1.1倍的範圍內)之結合能，其中p為自2至137之整數；(f)二低能量氫分子離子，其具有約

(諸如在

之約0.9倍至1.1倍的範圍內)之結合能，其中p為整數，較佳為自2至137之整數。According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, such as: (a) a hydrogen atom having about

(such as in

(b) hydride ions (

), which has a binding energy of approx.

(such as in the binding energy

in the range of about 0.9 times to 1.1 times the binding energy), where p is an integer from 2 to 24; (c)

; (d) three low-energy hydrogen molecular ions

, which has about

(such as in

in the range of about 0.9 times to 1.1 times the binding energy, where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) two low-energy hydrogens having about

(such as in

(f) two low-energy hydrogen molecular ions, which have a

(such as in

in the range of about 0.9 times to 1.1 times the binding energy), wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137.

， 諸如在

之約0.9倍至1.1倍的範圍內之總能量，其中p 為整數，

為普朗克常量項，

為電子之質量，

為真空中之光速，且

為經約化之核質量，及(b)二低能量氫分子，其具有約

， 諸如在

之約0.9倍至1.1倍的範圍內之總能量，其中p 為整數且

為波爾半徑。According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, such as: (a) two low energy hydrogen molecular ions having about

, such as in

total energy in the range from about 0.9 times to 1.1 times, where p is an integer,

is the Planck constant term,

is the mass of electrons,

is the speed of light in vacuum, and

is the reduced nuclear mass, and (b) two low-energy hydrogen molecules with approximately

, such as in

total energy in the range of about 0.9 times to 1.1 times, where p is an integer and

is the Bohr radius.

或普通

。According to one embodiment of the invention wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as protons, ordinary

or ordinary

.

之催化劑反應，其中m為大於1之整數，較佳為小於400之整數，從而產生結合能為約

之結合能增大的氫原子，其中p 為整數，較佳為自2至137的整數。另一催化產物為能量。結合能增大之氫原子可與電子源反應以產生結合能增大之氫陰離子。結合能增大之氫陰離子可與一或多種陽離子反應以產生包含至少一種結合能增大之氫陰離子的化合物。Provided herein is a method for preparing a compound comprising at least one low energy hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "low energy hydrogen hydrides". The method involves making atomic hydrogen and the net enthalpy of the reaction about

where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400, resulting in a binding energy of about

The hydrogen atom with increased binding energy, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137. Another catalytic product is energy. An increased binding energy hydrogen atom can react with an electron source to produce an increased binding energy hydride ion. The increased binding energy hydride ion can react with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

可經歷由方程式(10)及(12)所給出之至較低能態的進一步躍遷，其中一個原子之躍遷係藉由以諧振及非輻射方式接受

且伴隨有其位能之相反變化的另一個原子來催化。由方程式(32)給定之

諧振傳遞至

誘發的

至

之躍遷的總體通用方程式藉由以下表示：

In an embodiment, at least one of extremely high power and energy may be achieved by hydrogen undergoing a transition to low energy hydrogen having a high p value in equation (18) in a process referred to herein as disproportionation, As given in Mills GUT Chp. 5, which is incorporated by reference. A hydrogen atom

can undergo further transitions to lower energy states given by equations (10) and (12), where one atom's transition is obtained by accepting in a resonant and nonradiative manner

And accompanied by another atom with the opposite change of its potential energy to catalyze. is given by equation (32)

The resonance is transmitted to

induced

to

The overall general equation for the transition of is expressed by:

。考慮在包含H₂ O氣體之氫雲中很可能有躍遷反應，其中第一氫型原子

為H原子，且充當催化劑之第二受體氫型原子

為

。因為

之位能為

，所以躍遷反應藉由以下表示：

EUV light from the low energy hydrogen process can dissociate two low energy hydrogen molecules and the resulting low energy hydrogen atoms can act as catalysts to transition to lower energy states. Exemplary reactions include the catalysis of H by H(1/4) to H(1/17), where H(1/4) can be the reaction product of another H catalyzed by HOH. Disproportionation of low energy hydrogen is predicted to produce features in the X-ray region. As shown by equations (5) to (8), the reaction product of the HOH catalyst is

. Consider that a transition reaction is likely to occur in a hydrogen cloud containing H _{2 O gas, where atoms of the first hydrogen type}

It is H atom and acts as the second acceptor hydrogen atom of the catalyst

for

. because

The potential energy is

, so the transition reaction is represented by:

And, the total reaction is

中間物(例如，方程式(16)及方程式(34))之遠紫外連續輻射譜帶具有短波長截止及藉由以下給出之能量

：

且延伸至比對應截止長之波長。此處，預測由於

中間物之衰減的遠紫外連續輻射譜帶在

；

處具有短波長截止並延伸至較長波長。NASA之錢德拉X射線天文台(Chandra X-ray Observatory)及XMM-Newton [E. Bulbul、M. Markevitch、A. Foster、R. K. Smith、M. Loewenstein、S. W. Randall, 「Detection of an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-Ray spectrum of galaxy clusters」, The Astrophysical Journal, 第789卷, 第1期, (2014)；A. Boyarsky、O. Ruchayskiy、D. Iakubovskyi、J. Franse, 「An unidentified line in X-ray spectra of the Andromeda galaxy and Perseus galaxy cluster」, (2014),arXiv: 1402.4119 [astro-ph.CO]]在英仙座星團中觀測到具有3.48 keV截止之寬X射線峰，其不匹配任何已知原子躍遷。BulBul等人之分配給具有未知身分之黑暗物質的3.48 keV特徵匹配

躍遷且進一步證實低能量氫為黑暗物質之身分。forecast due to

The far ultraviolet continuum bands of intermediates (eg, Eq. (16) and Eq. (34)) have short wavelength cutoffs and energies given by

:

and extends to a wavelength longer than the corresponding cutoff. Here, the prediction is due to

The attenuated far-ultraviolet continuum band of the intermediate is at

;

has a short wavelength cutoff and extends to longer wavelengths. NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton [E. Bulbul, M. Markevitch, A. Foster, RK Smith, M. Loewenstein, SW Randall, "Detection of an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-Ray spectrum of galaxy clusters”, The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 789, No. 1, (2014); A. Boyarsky, O. Ruchayskiy, D. Iakubovskyi, J. Franse, “An unidentified line in X- ray spectra of the Andromeda galaxy and Perseus galaxy cluster”, (2014), arXiv: 1402.4119 [astro-ph.CO]] A broad X-ray peak with a 3.48 keV cutoff was observed in the Perseus cluster, which did not match any known Know the atomic transition. The 3.48 keV signature match assigned to dark matter of unknown identity by BulBul et al.

The transition and further confirmation of low energy hydrogen as the identity of dark matter.

Novel hydrogen constituents may include: (a) at least one hydrogen species having the following binding energy neutral, positive or negative (hereinafter "enhanced binding energy hydrogen species") (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species when the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or unobservable because the binding energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP) or is negative; and (b) at least one other element. Typically, the hydrogen products described herein are increased binding energy hydrogen species.

In this context, "other elements" means elements other than hydrogen species with increased binding energy. Thus, the other elements can be ordinary hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In a group of compounds, other elements and hydrogen species with increased binding energy are neutral. In another group of compounds, other elements and increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged such that the other elements provide a balancing charge to form neutral compounds. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising (a) at least one hydrogen species having the following total energy neutral, positive or negative (hereinafter "enhanced binding energy hydrogen species") (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species when the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or unobservable because the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy under ambient conditions or is negative; and (b) at least one other element.

之方程式(19)之氫陰離子的第一結合能小於普通氫陰離子之第一結合能，而

之方程式(19)之氫陰離子的總能量遠遠大於對應普通氫陰離子之總能量。The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energies of all electrons removed from the hydrogen species. The total energy of the hydrogen species according to the present invention is greater than that of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. Increased total energy hydrogen species in accordance with the present invention are also referred to as "enhanced binding energy hydrogen species" even though some embodiments of increased total energy hydrogen species may have a first electron binding energy higher than the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species Small first electron binding energy. For example,

The first binding energy of the hydride ion in equation (19) is smaller than the first binding energy of ordinary hydride ions, and

The total energy of the hydride ion in equation (19) is much larger than that of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion.

Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising (a) a plurality of hydrogen species having the following neutral, positive or negative binding energies (hereinafter "enhanced binding energy hydrogen species") (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or unobservable because the binding energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions or is negative; and (b) one of the other elements as the case may be. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "enhanced binding energy hydrogen compounds".

can be obtained by combining one or more low-energy hydrogen atoms with electrons, low-energy hydrogen atoms, including at least one of these increased binding energy hydrogen species and at least one other atom other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species, One or more of the molecular or ionic compounds react to form increased binding energy hydrogen species.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising (a) a plurality of hydrogen species having the following total energy neutral, positive or negative (hereinafter "enhanced binding energy hydrogen species" (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species when the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or unobservable because the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy under ambient conditions or is negative; and (b) one of the other elements as the case may be. The compounds of the present invention are hereinafter referred to as "enhanced binding energy hydrogen compounds".

直至23大於且對於

小於普通氫陰離子之結合(約0.8 eV)的氫陰離子(「結合能增大之氫陰離子」或「低能量氫氫陰離子」)；(b)結合能大於普通氫原子之結合能(約13.6 eV)的氫原子(「結合能增大之氫原子」或「低能量氫」)；(c)具有大於約15.3 eV之第一結合能的氫分子(「結合能增大之氫分子」或「二低能量氫」) ；或(d)具有大於約16.3 eV之結合能的分子氫離子(「結合能增大之分子氫離子」或「二低能量氫分子離子」)。在本發明中，結合能增大之氫物種及化合物亦被稱作低能氫物種及化合物。低能量氫包含結合能增大之氫物種或等同地較低能量之氫物種。In an embodiment, there is provided a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species selected from: (a) the binding energy according to equation (19) for

until 23 is greater than and for

Hydride ions ("increased binding energy hydride" or "low energy hydrino hydride") that are smaller than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen ions (about 0.8 eV); (b) the binding energy is greater than that of ordinary hydrogen atoms (about 13.6 eV) ) hydrogen atoms ("enhanced binding energy hydrogen atoms" or "low energy hydrogen"); (c) hydrogen molecules with a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV ("enhanced binding energy hydrogen molecules" or "enhanced binding energy hydrogen molecules"); or (d) molecular hydrogen ions with binding energies greater than about 16.3 eV ("increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ions" or "two low energy hydrogen molecular ions"). In the present invention, hydrogen species and compounds with increased binding energy are also referred to as low-energy hydrogen species and compounds. Low energy hydrogen includes increased binding energy hydrogen species or equivalently lower energy hydrogen species.

III. Chemical Reactors The present invention is also directed to other reactors for producing the increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present invention, such as two low energy hydrogen molecules and low energy hydrogen hydrides. Depending on the cell type, other catalytic products are power and (optionally) plasma and light. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells". Hydrogen reactors contain batteries for making low-energy hydrogen. Cells for making low energy hydrogen may take the form of chemical reactors or gas fuel cells (such as gas discharge cells), plasma torch cells or microwave power cells, and electrochemical cells. In an embodiment, the catalyst is HOH and the source of at least one of HOH and H is ice. The ice may have a high surface area to increase at least one of the rate of HOH catalyst and H formation from the ice and the rate of the low energy hydrogen reaction. The ice can be in the form of fine fragments to increase the surface area. In an embodiment, the battery comprises an arc discharge battery and comprises ice at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice.

In an embodiment, the arc discharge battery comprises a container, two electrodes, a high voltage power supply (such as a power supply capable of having a voltage in the range of about 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of about 1 A to 100 kA), and a water source (such as a reservoir and a supply of H ₂ O and form a droplet of the member). Droplets can be transported between electrodes. In an embodiment, the droplet initiates the ignition of the arc plasma. In an embodiment, the water arc plasma includes H and HOH that can react to form low energy hydrogen. The firing rate and corresponding power ratio can be controlled by controlling the droplet size and the rate at which the droplets are supplied to the electrodes. The high voltage source may include at least one high voltage capacitor chargeable by the high voltage source. In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell further includes components such as a power converter, such as the power converter of the present invention, such as a PV converter, and a power converter to convert power (such as light and heat) from a low energy hydrogen process into electricity at least one of the heat engines.

)，而且包括氘(

)及氚(

)。例示性化學反應混合物及反應器可包含本發明之SF-CIHT、CIHT或熱電池實施例。在此化學反應器區段中給出額外例示性實施例。在本發明中給出在混合物反應期間形成之用H₂ O作為催化劑的反應混合物的實例。其他催化劑可用於形成結合能增大之氫物種及化合物。可在諸如反應物、反應物之wt%、H₂ 壓力及反應溫度之參數方面根據此等例示性情況調整反應及條件。合適的反應物、條件及參數範圍係本發明之反應物、條件及參數範圍。藉由經預測之13.6 eV之整數倍的連續輻射譜帶、由H線之多普勒線展寬所量測之在其他方面無法解釋的超高H動能、H線反轉、在無擊穿電場之情況下形成電漿及如在Mills先前公開案中所報導的不規則電漿餘暉持續時間顯示低能量氫及分子低能量氫係本發明之反應器的產物。資料(諸如關於CIHT電池及固體燃料的資料)已由其他研究人員在場外獨立驗證。由本發明之電池形成低能量氫亦藉由在較長持續時間內連續輸出之電能所證實，該等電能係電輸入之多倍，其在大多數情況下超過在無替代源情況下的輸入的10倍以上。經預測之分子低能量氫H₂ (1/4)藉由以下各者而識別為CIHT電池與固體燃料之產物：MAS H NMR，其展示經預測之約-4.4 ppm之往高磁場位移之基質峰；ToF-SIMS及ESI-ToFMS，其展示H₂ (1/4)與集氣劑基質複合成為m/e=M+n2峰，其中M為母離子之質量且n為整數；電子束激發發射光譜分析及光致發光發射光譜分析，其展示經預測之具有H₂ 能量之16倍或量子數p=4的平方倍數的H₂ (1/4)的旋轉及振動光譜；拉曼及FTIR光譜分析，其展示1950 cm^{- 1} 之H₂ (1/4)的旋轉能量，其為H₂ 之旋轉能量之16倍或量子數p=4的平方倍數；XPS，其展示經預測之500 eV的H₂ (1/4)之總結合能；及到達時間在m/e=1峰之前的ToF-SIMS峰，該m/e=1峰對應於動能約204 eV之H，其將經預測之H至H(1/4)之能量釋放與傳遞至第三體H之能量相匹配，如以下中所報導：Mills先前公開案及R. Mills X Yu、Y. Lu、G Chu、J. He、J. Lotoski的「Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell」，International Journal of Energy Research, (2013)以及R. Mills、J. Lotoski、J. Kong、G Chu、J. He、J. Trevey的「High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell」(2014)，其以全文引用之方式併入本文中。Exemplary embodiments of cells for making low energy hydrogen may take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT or SunCell® cells. Each of these cells comprises: (i) reactants including a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst for making low energy hydrogen selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst or a mixture thereof; and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen with a catalyst for making low energy hydrogen. As used herein and as contemplated by the present invention, unless otherwise specified, the term "hydrogen" includes not only protium (

), but also includes deuterium (

) and tritium (

). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments of the present invention. Additional illustrative examples are given in this chemical reactor section. In the present invention, are given by H ₂ O formed in the examples of the reaction mixture during the catalyst reaction mixture. Other catalysts can be used to form increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds. Such as the reaction product may be, wt% of the reactants, the reaction pressure and the H ₂ parameters of temperature and adjusting the reaction conditions in accordance with aspects of these exemplary cases. Suitable reactants, conditions and parameter ranges are those of the present invention. The otherwise unexplainable H kinetic energy measured by the Doppler line broadening of the H-line, the H-line inversion, in the non-breakdown field The formation of plasma under these conditions and the irregular plasma afterglow duration as reported in Mills' previous publications indicate that low energy hydrogen and molecular low energy hydrogen are the products of the reactor of the present invention. Data, such as those on CIHT cells and solid fuels, have been independently verified off-site by other researchers. The formation of low-energy hydrogen by the cells of the present invention is also demonstrated by the continuous output of electrical energy over a longer duration, which is a multiple of the electrical input, which in most cases exceeds that of the input without an alternative source. 10 times or more. Low energy predicted by molecular hydrogen H ₂ (1/4) were identified by the following product as a solid fuel cell and the CIHT: MAS H NMR, showing -4.4 ppm to the matrix of the predicted displacement of the high magnetic field of approximately Peaks; ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS, which show H ₂ (1/4) complexed with the gas getter matrix to form a m/e=M+n2 peak, where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer; electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, which shows the predicted energies of H ₂ with H ₂ (1/4) of the rotational vibration spectrum and the square or 16 times a multiple quantum number p = 4; and Raman and FTIR spectroscopy, showing 1950 cm ^{- 1} of H ₂ (1/4) of the rotational energy, which is a multiple of the square of the energy of the H ₂ rotates 16 times or the quantum number p = 4; the XPS, which shows the predicted 500 eV The total binding energy of H ₂ (1/4) of The energy release of H to H(1/4) matches the energy transfer to the third body H, as reported in: Mills previous publications and R. Mills X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey "High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell" (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC), it was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from solid fuels forming low energy hydrogen in excess of 60 times the maximum theoretical energy. Low energy hydrogen, such as cells containing solid fuel to generate thermal power, forms. MAS H NMR show predicted H ₂ (1/4) upfield shift of approximately -4.4 ppm of the matrix. Starts 1950 cm ^-1 Raman peak matching of H ₂ (1/4) of the rotational energy of the free space (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in previous publications by Mills and in "Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst" by R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He (2014), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

IV. A SunCell and Power Converter A power system that produces at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy (also referred to herein as a "SunCell") may include: a vessel capable of maintaining sub-atmospheric pressure; a reactant capable of undergoes reactions that generate sufficient energy to form a plasma in a vessel, such reactants comprising: a) a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, and/or water vapor, and/or a mixture of hydrogen and water vapor; b) molten metal; mass a flow controller to control the flow rate of at least one reactant into the vessel; a vacuum pump to maintain the pressure in the vessel below atmospheric pressure as the one or more reactants flow into the vessel; a molten metal injector A system comprising at least one reservoir containing some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more an electromagnetic pump), and at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving a molten metal stream; at least one ignition system including a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply electrical power to the at least one molten metal stream for use in hydrogen and The reaction is ignited by the flow of oxygen and/or water vapor into the vessel; a reactant supply system to replenish the reactants consumed in the reaction; and a power converter or output system to convert a portion of the energy produced by the reaction (eg, light and/or heat output from the plasma) is converted into electrical and/or thermal power. In some embodiments, the effluent comprises (or consists of) nascent water and atomic hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent comprises (or consists of) nascent water and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent comprises (or consists of) nascent water, atomic hydrogen, and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent further comprises noble gases.

直接轉換器、磁流體動力功率轉換器、磁鏡磁流體動力功率轉換器、電荷漂移轉換器、桿式或百葉窗式功率轉換器、磁旋管、光子聚束微波功率轉換器及光電轉換器。在另一實施例中，至少一個熱-電力轉換器可包含以下之群組中的至少一者：熱機、蒸汽機、蒸汽渦輪機及發電機、燃氣渦輪機及發電機、朗肯循環引擎、布累登循環引擎、史特林引擎、熱離子功率轉換器及熱電功率轉換器。可包含將熱量排至環境氣氛之閉合冷卻劑系統或開放系統的例示性熱-電系統為超臨界CO₂ 、有機朗肯或外部燃燒器燃氣渦輪機系統。In some embodiments, the power system may include an optical rectenna, such as "A carbon nanotube optical rectenna" by A. Sharma, V. Singh, TL Bougher, BA Cola (Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, (2015), p. pp. 1027-1032, Digital Object Identification Number: 10.1038/nnano.2015.220, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), as reported in an optical rectenna, and at least one thermal-to-electrical power converter. In another embodiment, the container can have a pressure of at least one of atmospheric pressure, superatmospheric pressure, and subatmospheric pressure. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma-to-electricity converter may comprise at least one of the group consisting of: a plasma-powered power converter,

Direct converters, magnetohydrodynamic power converters, magneto-mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converters, charge-drift converters, rod or louver power converters, magnetic coils, photonic beamforming microwave power converters, and photoelectric converters. In another embodiment, the at least one heat-to-electricity converter may include at least one of the group of: heat engine, steam engine, steam turbine and generator, gas turbine and generator, Rankine cycle engine, Bray Deng cycle engines, Stirling engines, thermionic power converters and thermoelectric power converters. Exemplary may comprise heat rejecting heat to an ambient atmosphere of the closed coolant system or open system - electric systems supercritical CO _2, or an organic Rankine external combustor of a gas turbine system.

In addition to the UV photovoltaics and thermophotovoltaics of the present invention, SunCell® may include other electrical conversion components known in the art, such as thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, turbines, microturbines, Rankine or Breedon cycle turbines , chemical and electrochemical power conversion systems. Rankine cycle turbines may contain supercritical CO ₂ , organics such as hydrofluorocarbons or fluorocarbons, or steam working fluids. In a Rankine or Braden cycle turbine, SunCell® can provide thermal power to at least one of the preheater, reheater, boiler and external burner type heat exchanger stages of the turbine system. In an embodiment, the Braden cycle turbine includes a SunCell® turbine heater integrated in the combustion section of the turbine. The SunCell® turbine heater may include a conduit that receives a flow of air from at least one of a compressor and a recuperator, wherein the air is heated and the conduit directs the heated compressed flow to the inlet of the turbine to perform pressure volume work. SunCell® Turbine Heaters replace or supplement the combustion chamber of a gas turbine. The Rankine or Brayden cycle may be closed, wherein the power converter further includes at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

The converters may be those presented in the Mills prior publication and Mills prior application. Low energy hydrogen reactants such as H sources and HOH sources and the SunCell® system may include the reactants and systems of the present invention or previous US patent applications incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, such as the Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor , PCT/US08/61455, PCT filed on April 24, 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US09/052072, filed on July 29, 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828, PCT 2010 Filed March 18, 2011; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US11/28889, PCT Filed March 17, 2011; H ₂ O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369, March 2012 30th application; CIHT Power System, PCT/US13/041938, May 21st, 2013; Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT/IB2014/058177, PCT January 10th, 2014; Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT/US14/32584, filed on April 1, 2014; Electrical Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT/US2015/033165, filed on May 29, 2015; Ultraviolet Electrical Generation System Methods Regarding Same , PCT/US2015/065826, PCT filed on December 15, 2015; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT/US16/12620, PCT filed on January 8, 2016; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator Ne twork, PCT/US2017/035025, PCT filed on Dec. 7, 2017; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT/US2017/013972, filed on Jan. 18, 2017; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Photovoltaic Cell, PCT/US2018/012635, PCT application on January 5, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT/US18/17765, PCT application on February 12, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT/US2018/034842, PCT application on May 29, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT/IB2018/059646, filed under PCT Dec. 5, 2018; and Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT/IB2020/050360, filed under PCT Jan. 16, 2020 ("Mills Prior Application").

In an embodiment, the ignition H ₂ O to form a low energy hydrogen having a high energy release of this energy in the form of heat, plasma and electromagnetic (light) in the power at least one of. (In the present invention, the "firing" means an extremely high reaction rate of the hydrogen H to low energy, which can be displayed as a peak release, pulse, or other forms of high power.) H ₂ O can be used may comprise a high current is applied (such as, Fuels that ignite at high currents in the range of about 10 A to 100,000 A). This can be achieved by applying a high voltage such as about 5,000 to 100,000 V to first form a highly conductive plasma, such as an arc. Alternatively, the high current may pass through the electrically conductive substrate, such as a molten metal, such as silver, which further comprises a low energy such as the H and HOH hydrogen reactant comprising H ₂ O or a compound or mixture, wherein the resulting solid fuels such as fuel conductive Sex is higher. (In the present invention, solid fuel is used to denote a mixture of reactants that form catalysts such as HOH and H that further react to form low energy hydrogen. Plasma voltages may be lower, such as in the range of about 1 V to 100 V. However, the reaction mixture may comprise other physical states than solids. In embodiments, the reaction mixture may be in at least one of the following states: gaseous, liquid, molten matrix (such as molten conductive matrix, such as molten metal, such as molten silver, at least one of silver copper alloys and copper), solids, slurries, sol-gels, solutions, mixtures, gaseous suspensions, pneumatic flow, and other states known to those skilled in the art). In an embodiment, the solid fuel having an extremely low resistance of a reaction mixture containing the reaction mixture comprising H ₂ O. The low resistance may be due to the conductor component of the reaction mixture. In an embodiment, the resistance of the solid fuel is at least one of the following ranges: about ^10-9 ohms to 100 ohms, ^10-8 ohms to 10 ohms, ^10-3 ohms to 1 ohm, ^10-4 ohms to 10 ^-1 ohm and 10 ^-4 ohm to 10 ^-2 ohm. In another embodiment, the fuel having a high resistance to include H containing a trace or micro molar percentages of compounds or materials added over ₂ O. In the latter case, a high current can be passed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing breakdown, thereby creating a highly conductive state (such as an arc or arc plasma).

In an embodiment, the reactant can comprise H ₂ O source and the conductive substrate, to form a catalyst source, catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen and the hydrogen atoms of at least one. In another embodiment, the reactants comprise H ₂ O may comprise the source of the at least one of the following: H ₂ O phase, phase state other than the H ₂ O, H ₂ O and subjected to release the formed binding one or more compounds of H ₂ O in the reaction of at least one of. Further, the binding compound may comprise a H ₂ O H ₂ O with the interaction, wherein H ₂ O is absorbed by H2O, dried over H ₂ O bound state, physical adsorption of at least one of H ₂ O and the water of hydration. In an embodiment, the reactant can include a conductor and one or more compounds or materials, the one or more compounds or material undergoes phase H ₂ O, was absorbed H ₂ O, by binding H ₂ O, physical adsorption of H ₂ O and the release of water of hydration of at least one, and in which the reaction product is H ₂ O. In other embodiments, _{at least one of the nascent H 2} O catalyst source and the atomic hydrogen source may comprise at least one of: (a) at least one _{source of H 2} O; (b) at least one source of oxygen; and ( c) at least one source of hydrogen.

In embodiments, the low energy hydrogen reaction rate depends on the application or generation of high current. In an embodiment of SunCell®, the reactants that form low energy hydrogen are subjected to low voltage, high current, high power pulses that cause extremely fast reaction rates and energy release. In the exemplary embodiment, 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 V peak current in the range between ^the peak 100 A / cm ² and 50,000 A / cm, and the power is 1000 W / cm ² and 750,000 W / cm ² of within the range. Other frequencies, voltages, currents and powers in the range of about 1/100 times to 100 times these parameters are suitable. In embodiments, the low energy hydrogen reaction rate depends on the application or generation of high current. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected to induce a high AC, DC or AC-DC mix with current in at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density may be in the range of at least one of: 100 A/cm ² to 1,000,000 A/cm ² , 1000 A/cm ² to 100,000 A/cm ² and 2000 A/cm ² to 50,000 A /cm ² . The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. AC frequencies can be in the following ranges: approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be in at least one range selected from about ^10-6 s to 10 s, ^10-5 s to 1 s, ^10-4 s to 0.1 s, and ^10-3 s to 0.01 s.

In embodiments comprising an AC or time-varying firing current and further comprising at least one DC EM pump comprising a permanent magnet, the magnets may be shielded from the AC magnetic field of the AC firing current. The shield may comprise Permeability Alloy, Amumetal, Amunickel, Cryoperm 10, and other magnetic shielding materials known in the art. Magnetic shielding prevents permanent magnets from demagnetizing. In an exemplary embodiment, each shield may include a heavy iron bar positioned on top of and longitudinally covering the corresponding EM pump permanent magnet, such as a heavy iron bar having a thickness in the range of about 5 mm to 50 mm. Such power generation systems are illustrated in Figures 2-3, 23, and 29A-29C.

In embodiments, at least one conductive SunCell® component, such as reaction cell chamber 5b31 or EM pump tube 5k6, may contain, be lined, or coated with an electrical insulator, such as ceramic, to avoid eddy currents that cause demagnetization of the EM pump magnet. In an exemplary embodiment, a SunCell® comprising a stainless steel reaction cell chamber comprises a BN, SiC or quartz liner or ceramic coating, such as one of the present invention.

In embodiments where the firing power is time dependent (such as AC power, such as 60 Hz power), each EM magnet of the DC EM pump may include a relative EM pump magnet and a magnetic shield (such as a permeable alloy shield) at least one of the magnetic yokes in between to prevent demagnetization of the EM pump magnet by time-varying ignition power.

In an embodiment, the EM pump magnet 5k4 is oriented along the same axis as the axis of the jet of molten metal connecting the two electrodes, which may be opposed along the same axis as shown in Figures 23-29E. The magnets may be located on opposite sides of the EM pump tube 5k6, one of which is located in the opposite direction to the other along the jet axis. The EM pump bus bars 5k2 may each be oriented perpendicular to the jet axis and in a direction away from the side closest to the magnet. The EM pump magnets may each further comprise an L-shaped yoke for a self-corresponding vertical orientation in a lateral direction relative to the EM pump tube 5k6, perpendicular to both the direction of molten metal flow in the tube and the direction on the EM pump current. The magnet guides the magnetic flux. The ignition system may include an ignition system having a time-varying waveform including voltage and current, such as an AC waveform, such as a 60 Hz waveform. The vertical orientation of the magnets protects them from demagnetization by the time-varying ignition current.

(n為整數)及HOH中之至少一者)的源。

及HOH中之至少一者可藉由至少一種物相之水(諸如，固體、液體及氣態水中之至少一者)的熱解或熱分解形成。熱解可在高溫(諸如，在約500K至10,000K、1000K至7000K及1000K至5000K之至少一個範圍內的溫度)下發生。在例示性實施例中，反應溫度為約3500至4000K，使得原子H之莫耳分數較高，如由J. Lede、F. Lapicque及J Villermaux所展示：[J. Lede、F. Lapicque、J. Villermaux，「Production of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition of water」， International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983,V8 , 1983，第675-679頁；H. H. G. Jellinek、H. Kachi，「The catalytic thermal decomposition of water and the production of hydrogen」， International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984,V9 ，第 677-688頁；S. Z. Baykara，「Hydrogen production by direct solar thermal decomposition of water, possibilities for improvement of process efficiency」,，International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004,V29 ，第1451-1458頁；S. Z. Baykara,，「Experimental solar water thermolysis」，International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004,V29 ，第1459-1469 頁，其以引用之方式併入本文中]。熱解可由固體表面(諸如電池組分中之一者)輔助。可藉由輸入功率及藉由低能量氫反應所保持之電漿將固體表面加熱至高溫。熱解氣體(諸如點火區之彼等向下的氣體流)可經冷卻以防止再結合或產物至初始水含量之逆反應。反應混合物可包含處於比產物氣體之溫度低的溫度下的冷卻劑，諸如固相、液相或氣相中之至少一者。熱解反應產物氣體之冷卻可藉由使產物與冷卻劑接觸而達成。冷卻劑可包含低溫蒸汽、水及冰中之至少一者。In an embodiment, the transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen catalyzed to a low energy hydrogen state results in ionization of the catalyst. Electrons ionized from the catalyst can accumulate in the reaction mixture and vessel and cause space charge build-up. Space charges can alter the energy levels used for subsequent energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to the catalyst, while reducing the reaction rate. In an embodiment, applying a high current removes the space charge to cause an increase in the reaction rate of low energy hydrogen. In another embodiment, a high current, such as an arc current, increases the temperature of a reactant (such as water) that can act as an H source and HOH catalyst very rapidly. High temperatures can cause hydrolysis to at least one of H and HOH catalysts. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture of SunCell® comprises a source of H and a catalyst such as

(n is an integer) and at least one of HOH).

and at least one of HOH may be formed by pyrolysis or thermal decomposition of at least one phase of water, such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water. Pyrolysis can occur at elevated temperatures, such as at temperatures in the range of at least one of about 500K to 10,000K, 1000K to 7000K, and 1000K to 5000K. In exemplary embodiments, the reaction temperature is about 3500 to 4000 K, resulting in a high molar fraction of atomic H, as shown by J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J Villermaux: [J. Lede, F. Lapicque, J. . Villermaux, "Production of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition of water", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8 , 1983, pp. 675-679; HHG Jellinek, H. Kachi, "The catalytic thermal decomposition of water and the production of hydrogen”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9 , pp. 677-688; SZ Baykara, “Hydrogen production by direct solar thermal decomposition of water, possibilities for improvement of process efficiency”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004 , V29 , pp. 1451-1458; SZ Baykara, "Experimental solar water thermolysis", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29 , pp. 1459-1469, which is incorporated herein by reference]. Pyrolysis can be assisted by a solid surface, such as one of the battery components. The solid surface can be heated to high temperature by the input power and the plasma maintained by the low energy hydrogen reaction. The pyrolysis gases, such as their downward gas flow from the ignition zone, can be cooled to prevent recombination or reverse reaction of the product to the initial water content. The reaction mixture may include a coolant, such as at least one of a solid phase, a liquid phase, or a gas phase, at a temperature lower than the temperature of the product gas. Cooling of the pyrolysis reaction product gas can be accomplished by contacting the product with a coolant. The coolant may include at least one of low temperature steam, water, and ice.

In an embodiment, the fuel or the reactants may comprise a source H, H _2, catalyst source, H ₂ O and H ₂ O in the source of at least one. Suitable reactants may include conductive metal substrates and hydrates, such as at least one of alkaline hydrates, alkaline earth hydrates, and transition metal hydrates. Hydrate may comprise _{MgCl 2 · 6H 2 O, BaI} 2 · 2H 2 O and ZnCl ₂ · 4H ₂ O in the at least one. Alternatively, the reactants may include at least one of silver, copper, hydrogen, oxygen, and water.

In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 where the reactants can undergo plasma forming reactions can be operated at low pressure to achieve high gas temperatures. Then the reaction mixture by gas pressure may be a source, and a controller to increase the rate of reaction is increased, wherein the high temperature water by-dimer of H ₂ and H bond covalent bond heat of solution of at least one of the primary holding HOH atoms and H. An exemplary threshold gas temperature to achieve pyrolysis is about 3300°C. Plasma having a temperature of greater than about 3300 deg.] C can damage H ₂ O bond to form a dimer to serve as low-energy primary HOH hydrogenation catalyst. At least one of the reaction unit chamber H ₂ O vapor pressure, H ₂ pressure, and O ₂ pressure may be in a range of at least one of about 0.01 Torr to 100 atm, 0.1 Torr to 10 atm, and 0.5 Torr to 1 atm. The EM pumping rate can be in a range of at least one of about 0.01 ml/s to 10,000 ml/s, 0.1 ml/s to 1000 ml/s, and 0.1 ml/s to 100 ml/s. In an embodiment, at least one of high ignition power and low pressure may be initially maintained to heat the plasma and cells to achieve pyrolysis. The initial power may comprise at least one of high frequency pulses, pulses with high duty cycle, higher voltage and higher current, and continuous current. In an embodiment, at least one of the firing power can be reduced and the pressure can be increased after heating the plasma and cell to achieve pyrolysis. In another embodiment, SunCell® may include additional plasma sources, such as plasma torches, glow discharge, microwave or RF plasma sources, for heating the low energy hydrogen reactive plasma and cells to achieve pyrolysis.

In an embodiment, the firing power can be at the initial power level and waveform of the present invention, and can be switched to a second power level and waveform when the reaction cell chamber reaches the desired temperature. In an embodiment, the second power level may be less than the initial power level. The second power level may be about zero. The condition for switching at least one of the power level and the waveform is that the reaction unit chamber temperature reaches above a threshold value, wherein the low energy hydrogen reaction kinetics can be maintained at 20% of the initial rate when operating at the second power level to within 100%. In embodiments, the temperature threshold may be in at least one of a range of about 800°C to 3000°C, 900°C to 2500°C, and 1000°C to 2000°C.

In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber is heated to a temperature that will maintain the low energy hydrogen reaction in the absence of ignition power. In embodiments, EM pumping may or may not be maintained after ignition power is terminated, wherein a low energy hydrogen reactant such as at least one of _{H 2} , O ₂ and H _{2 O is maintained during SunCell® ignition off operation.} supply. In an exemplary embodiment, SunCell® shown in FIG. 23 with the silicon dioxide - alumina fiber insulation is well insulated, 2500 sccm H ₂ and 250 sccm O ₂ gas flow through the Pt / Al ₂ O ₃ beads, and Heat SunCell® to a temperature in the range of 900°C to 1400°C. And continued to maintain the H ₂ O ₂ and flow pumping EM case, low energy hydrogen reaction in the absence of power from the ignition duration, such as by increasing the temperature with time when the input of the ignition power is not confirmed by the presence of .

Ignition System In an embodiment, an ignition system includes a switch for at least one of: initiating current flow and interrupting current flow after ignition is achieved. Current flow can be initiated by contacting the flow of molten metal. Switching can be performed electronically by means of components such as at least one of: insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs), and at least one metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) ). Alternatively, the ignition may be switched mechanically. The current flow can be interrupted after ignition to optimize the output low energy hydrogen production energy relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may include a switch that allows a controllable amount of energy to flow into the fuel to cause knock and turn off the power during the phase in which the plasma is generated. In an embodiment, the power source used to deliver short pulse high current electrical energy comprises at least one of: selected to cause at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA High AC, DC or AC-DC mixed voltage for currents within the range of either; DC or peak AC current density within the range of at least one of the following: 1 A/cm ² to 1,000,000 A/cm ² , 1000 A/cm ² to 100,000 A/cm ² and 2000 A/cm ² to 50,000 A/cm ² ; wherein the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, wherein the voltage is obtained by multiplying the required current by the resistance of the solid fuel sample; DC or peak AC voltage in the range of at least one of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and AC frequency in the range of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to within the range of at least one of 100 kHz and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

The system further includes a starting power/energy source such as a battery, such as a lithium ion battery. Alternatively, an external power source, such as a grid power source, for starting may be provided via a connection from the external power source to the generator. Connections may include power output bus bars. Activating the power source may be at least one of: supplying power to a heater to maintain the molten metal conductive substrate, powering an injection system, and powering an ignition system.

SunCell® may include a high pressure water electrolyte with water at high pressure to provide high pressure hydrogen, such as one comprising a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyte. And each of H ₂ O ₂ in the chamber, respectively, to eliminate contaminants may include O ₂ and H ₂ The recombination. The PEM can act as at least one of a separator and a salt bridge for the anode and cathode chambers to allow the production of hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen at the anode as separation gases. The cathode may include a dichalcogenide hydrogen evolution catalyst, such as one that includes at least one of niobium and tantalum, which may further include sulfur. The cathode may comprise one known in the art, such as Pt or Ni. Hydrogen can be generated under high pressure and can be supplied to the reaction unit chamber 5b31 directly or by permeation through a hydrogen permeable membrane. The SunCell® may contain an oxygen line from the anode chamber to the point of delivering the oxygen to a storage vessel or vent. In an embodiment, the SunCell® includes a sensor, a processor, and an electrolytic current controller.

In another embodiment, the hydrogen fuel may be from electrolysis of water, the reforming of natural gas, by the reaction of at least one of the carbon is reacted with steam to form CO and H ₂ and CO ₂ of the syngas reactor and the water-gas shift, and Obtained by other hydrogen production methods known to those skilled in the art.

In another embodiment, hydrogen can be generated by pyrolysis using the supplied water and the heat generated by the SunCell®. The pyrolysis cycle may comprise one of the present invention or one known in the art, such as one based on metals and their oxides, such as at least one of SnO/Sn and ZnO/Zn. In embodiments where the inductively coupled heater, EM pump and ignition system consume power only during start-up, hydrogen can be produced by pyrolysis, making additional electrical power requirements extremely low. SunCell® may include batteries, such as lithium-ion batteries, to provide power to operate systems such as gas sensors and control systems, such as those used to react plasma gases.

Charge magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) converter based on the mass of the ion or a cross magnetic field formed by the conductive medium to flow separation known magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) power conversion technology. Positive and negative ions experience the lorinzi direction in opposite directions and are received at the corresponding MHD electrodes to affect the voltage therebetween. A typical MHD method of forming a mass flow of ions is to expand a high pressure gas seeded with ions through a nozzle to create a high velocity flow through a crossed magnetic field where a set of MHD electrodes cross against a deflection field to receive deflected ions. In embodiments, the pressure is typically greater than atmospheric pressure, and directional mass flow can be achieved by low energy hydrogen reactions to form plasma and a highly conductive high pressure and high temperature molten metal vapor that expands to generate a crossed magnetic field across the MHD converter high-speed flow of the segment. The flow that can flow through the MHD converter can be axial or radial. Flow in other directions can be achieved by confinement magnets such as Helmholtz coils or magnetic bottles.

Specifically, the MHD power system shown in Figures 1-22 may comprise a low energy hydrogen reactive plasma source of the present invention, such as a plasma source comprising an EM pump 5ka, at least one reservoir 5c, at least two electrodes (such as electrodes including dual molten metal injectors 5k61), sources of low energy hydrogen reactants (such as HOH catalysts and H sources), ignition systems including to apply voltage and current to the electrodes to form from the low energy hydrogen reactants Plasma power source 2, and MHD power converter. In an embodiment, the ignition system may include a voltage and current source, such as a DC power supply, and a set of capacitors for delivering pulsed ignition with high current pulse capacity. In a dual molten metal injector embodiment, current flows through the injected molten metal stream to ignite the plasma when the streams are connected. The components of the MHD power system including the low energy hydrogen reactive plasma source and the MHD converter may include at least one of an anti-oxidation material (such as an anti-oxidation metal), a metal including an anti-oxidation coating, and a ceramic, so that the system can be operated in air in operation.

The power converter or output system may include: a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a nozzle connected to the vessel, magnetohydrodynamic channels, electrodes, magnets, metal collection systems, metal recirculation systems, heat exchangers, and optional gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may contain silver. In an embodiment with a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the magnetohydrodynamic converter can deliver oxygen to form silver particles nanoparticles (eg, with a molecular weight such as less than about 10 in a molecular system) upon interaction with silver in the molten metal stream nm or less than about 1 nm in size) in which the silver nanoparticles are accelerated through a magnetohydrodynamic nozzle to impart a kinetic energy inventory of the power generated by the reaction. The reactant supply system can supply oxygen and control the delivery of oxygen to the converter. In various implementations, at least a portion of the kinetic energy inventory of silver nanoparticles is converted into electrical energy in a magnetohydrodynamic channel. This version of electrical energy can cause agglomeration of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles can coalesce into molten metal that at least partially absorbs oxygen in the condensation section (also referred to herein as the MHD condensation section) of the magnetohydrodynamic converter, and the molten metal comprising the absorbed oxygen is The metal recirculation system returns to the ejector reservoir. In some embodiments, oxygen may be released from the metal by the plasma in the container. In some embodiments, the plasma is held in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and metal collection system to enhance the absorption of oxygen by the molten metal.

To avoid electrical shorting of the MHD electrodes by molten metal vapor, electrodes 304 (FIG. 1) may include conductors, each mounted on an electrical insulator covered conductive post 305, which acts as a support for lead 305a and may further act as an electrode and Spacers for the walls of generator channel 308. Electrode 304 can be segmented and can include cathode 302 and anode 303 . With the exception of the support 305, the electrodes are freely suspended in the generator channel 308. Electrodes spaced along the vertical axis may be sufficient to prevent shorting of the molten metal. The electrodes may comprise refractory conductors such as W, Ta, Re or Mo. Lead 305a can be connected to a wire that can be insulated by a refractory insulator such as BN. Wires can be joined in a wire harness that penetrates the channel at the MHD bus bar feedthrough flange 301, which may contain metal. Outside the MHD converter, wiring harnesses can be connected to power combiners and inverters. In an embodiment, the MHD electrodes 304 comprise liquid electrodes such as liquid silver electrodes. In an embodiment, the ignition system may include a liquid electrode. The ignition system can be DC or AC. The reactor may contain ceramics such as quartz, alumina, zirconia, hafnium oxide, or Pyrex glass. The liquid electrode may comprise a ceramic frit, which may further comprise micropores loaded with molten metal such as silver.

The flow of molten metal is produced in embodiments such as those shown in Figures 2 and 3, the SunCell® comprises two reservoirs 5c, each comprising an electromagnetic (EM) pump (such as the DC of the present invention) , AC or another EM pump) and an injector that also acts as an ignition electrode; and a reservoir inlet riser for leveling the molten metal level in the reservoir. The molten metal may comprise silver, silver copper alloys, gallium, gallium alloys, or another metal in the present invention. SunCell® may further comprise a reaction cell chamber 5b31, an electrically isolating flange (such as an electrically isolating Conflat flange) between the reservoir and the reaction cell chamber, and a drip edge at the top of each reservoir to The reservoir and EM pump are electrically isolated from each other, with ignition current flowing in contact with the intersecting molten metal streams of the two EM pump injectors. In an embodiment, at least one of the interior of each reservoir 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31 and EM pump tube 5k6 is coated with a ceramic or includes a ceramic lining, such as one of the following: BN, quartz, titanium dioxide , alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, or a mixture such as TiO _{2 -Yr 2 O 3 -Al 2 O} 3 or the other of the present invention. In one embodiment, the SunCell® further comprises an external resistive heater, such as a heating coil, such as Kanthal wire wrapped on the outer surface of at least one SunCell® component. In an embodiment, at least one of the SunCell's outer surfaces, such as reaction unit 5b3, reservoir 5c, and EM pump tubing 5k6, is coated with ceramic to electrically isolate resistive heater coils, such as Kanthal wires wrapped on the surface. In one embodiment, the SunCell® can further comprise at least one of a heat exchanger and an insulator that can be wrapped on the surface of the at least one SunCell® component. At least one of the heat exchanger and the heater may be encased in the thermal insulator.

In an embodiment, the resistive heater may include a support for a heating element such as a heating wire. The support may comprise hermetically sealed carbon. The encapsulant may contain a ceramic such as SiC. SiC can be formed by the reaction of Si and carbon at high temperature in a vacuum furnace.

The SunCell® heater 415 can be a resistive heater or an inductively coupled heater. Exemplary SunCell® heater 415 includes Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferromagnetic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C with high resistivity and good oxidation resistance . Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D and Alkrothal. Heating elements, such as resistive wire elements, may comprise NiCr alloys, such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40, operable in the range of 1100°C to 1200°C. Alternatively, the heater 415 may comprise two molybdenum silicide (MoSi ₂₎ capable of operating in the range of 1500 to 1800 ℃ deg.] C in an oxidizing atmosphere, such as a Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super At least one of ER, Kanthal Super HT and Kanthal Super NC. The heating element may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) aluminum oxide. The heating element may have an anti-oxidative coating such as an alumina coating. The heating elements of resistive heater 415 may comprise SiC that may be capable of operating at temperatures up to 1625°C.

In an embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise a molten metal overflow system, such as a molten metal overflow system comprising an overflow tank, at least one pump, a unit molten metal inventory sensor, a molten metal inventory controller, A heater, a temperature control system, and a molten metal inventory for storing and supplying molten metal to SunCell® according to needs as determined by at least one sensor and controller. The molten metal inventory controller of the overflow system may include the molten metal level controller of the present invention, such as the inlet riser and the EM pump. The overflow system may include at least one of MHD return line 310 , return reservoir 311 , return EM pump 312 , and return EM pump line 313 .

The electromagnetic pumps may each comprise one of the two main types of electromagnetic pumps for liquid metals: AC or DC conduction pumps, in which an AC or DC magnetic field is established across a tube containing the liquid metal, and an AC or DC current is connected via, respectively, to Electrodes on the wall of the tube feed the liquid; and an induction pump, where the traveling wave field induces the desired current as in an induction motor, where the current can intersect the applied AC electromagnetic field. Induction pumps can come in three main forms: annular linear, flat linear, and helical. Pumps may include other pumps known in the art, such as mechanical and thermoelectric pumps. Mechanical pumps may include centrifugal pumps with motor-driven impellers. The power to the electromagnetic pump may be constant or pulsed to cause a corresponding constant or pulsed injection of molten metal, respectively. Pulse jets can be driven by program or function generators. The pulsed jet maintains the pulsed plasma in the reaction cell chamber.

In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 contains a flow interrupter that causes intermittent or pulsed molten metal injection. The interrupter may include a valve, such as an electronically controlled valve, which further includes a controller. The valve may comprise a solenoid valve. Alternatively, the interrupter may comprise a rotating disk having at least one channel that rotates periodically to intersect the flow of molten metal to allow molten metal to flow through the channel, wherein the flow is blocked by the region of the rotating disk that does not contain the channel segment block.

The molten metal pump may comprise a moving magnet pump (MMP). An exemplary commercial AC EM pump is the CMI Novacast CA15, where the heating and cooling system can be modified to support pumping molten silver.

In one embodiment (FIGS. 4-22), the EM pump 400 may comprise an AC inductive type, where the Lorentz force on silver is generated by a time-varying current through the silver and a cross-synchronized time-varying magnetic field. The time-varying current through the silver can be generated by Faraday induction of the first time-varying magnetic field generated by the EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a. The source of the first time-varying magnetic field may include a primary transformer winding 401, and silver may serve as a secondary transformer winding, such as a single-turn short-circuit winding, which includes the EM pump tube section 405 of the current loop and the EM pump current loop return section 406. The primary winding 401 may comprise an AC electromagnet with a first time-varying magnetic field conducted through silver circumferential loops 405 and 406 , an induced current loop through a magnetic circuit or an EM pump transformer yoke 402 . Silver may be contained in containers such as ceramic containers 405 and 406, such as containers comprising ceramics of the present invention, such as silicon nitride (MP 1900°C), quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, or hafnium oxide. SiO ₂ protective layer may be controlled by passivating oxide formed on the silicon nitrite. The container may include channels 405 and 406 that enclose the magnetic circuit or EM pump transformer yoke 402 . The vessel may include flat sections 405 such that the induced current has components that flow in the vertical direction to a synchronous time-varying magnetic field and the desired direction of pump flow according to the corresponding Lorentz force. The cross-synchronized time-varying magnetic field can be generated by an EM pump electromagnetic circuit or assembly 403c including an AC electromagnet 403 and an EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404. The magnetic yoke 404 may have a gap at the flat section of the vessel 405 containing silver. The electromagnet 401 of the EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a and the electromagnet 403 of the EM pump solenoid assembly 403c may be powered by a single phase AC power source or other suitable power source known in the art. The magnets can be positioned close to the loop bends so that the desired current vector components are present. The phases of the AC currents of the supply transformer winding 401 and the electromagnet winding 403 can be synchronized to maintain the desired direction of the Lorentz pumping force. The power supplies for the transformer windings 401 and the electromagnet windings 403 can be the same or separate power supplies. Synchronization of induced currents and B-fields can be done via analog means, such as delay line elements, or by digital means, both of which are known in the art. In one embodiment, the EM pump may include a single transformer with multiple yokes to provide induction of current in both closed current loops 405 and 406 and act as electromagnet 403 and yoke 404 . Since a single transformer is used, the corresponding induced current and AC magnetic field can be in phase.

In an embodiment (FIGS. 2-22), the induced current loop may comprise an inlet EM pump tube 5k6, an EM pump tube section 405 of the current loop, an outlet EM pump tube 5k6, and a path through the silver in the reservoir 5c, which The reservoir may include the walls of the inlet riser 5qa and the eductor 561 in embodiments containing these components. The EM pump may include monitoring and control systems, such as monitoring and control systems for primary winding current and voltage and controlling SunCell power generation using pumping parameter feedback. Exemplary measured feedback parameters may be the temperature at the reaction unit chamber 5b31 and the power at the MHD converter. The monitoring and control system may include corresponding sensors, controllers and computers. In one embodiment, the SunCell® can be at least one of monitored and controlled by a wireless device such as a cellular phone. SunCell® may contain antennas to send and receive data and control signals.

In embodiments where the molten metal injector includes at least one EM pump that includes a current source and a magnet to generate the Lorentz pumping force, the EM pump magnet 5k4 may include a permanent or electromagnet, such as a DC or AC electromagnet. Where the magnets are permanent magnets or DC electromagnets, the EM pump current source includes a DC power source. Where the magnet 5k4 comprises an AC electromagnet, the EM pump current source for the EM bus bar 5k2 comprises an AC power supply that provides and applies the AC EM pump solenoid that is applied to the EM pump tube 5k6 to generate the Lorentz pumping force Currents in the body field in phase. In embodiments in which a magnet such as an electromagnet is immersed in a corrosive coolant such as a water bath, the magnet such as an electromagnet may be hermetically sealed in a sealant such as a thermoplastic, a coating, or a housing that may be non-magnetic, such as stainless steel housings.

The EM pump may comprise a multi-stage pump (FIGS. 6-21). The multi-stage EM pump may receive input metal streams, such as the input metal stream from the MHD return line 310 and the input metal stream from the MHD return line 310, at different pump stages each corresponding to a pressure that substantially only allows forward molten metal flow to exit the EM pump outlet and injector 5k61. Input metal flow to the base of reservoir 5c. In an embodiment, the multi-stage EM pump assembly 400a (FIG. 6) includes at least one EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a and further includes at least one AC EM pump electromagnetic circuit 403c, the EM pump transformer winding circuit including through the induced current loop 405 and 406 of the transformer winding 401 and the transformer yoke 402, the AC EM pump electromagnetic circuit includes an AC electromagnet 403 and an EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404. The induced current loop may include the EM pump tube section 405 and the EM pump current loop return section 406 . The electromagnetic yoke 404 may have a gap at the flat section of the vessel or EM pump tube section containing the current loop 405 that pumps molten metal such as silver. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 7, the induced current loop including the EM pump tube section 405 may have an inlet and outlet positioned offset from the bend for return flow in section 406 so that the induced current may be more transverse to the The magnetic flux of the electromagnets 403a and 403b to optimize the Lorentz pumping force transverse to both the current and the magnetic flux. The pumped metal may be molten in section 405 and solid in the EM pump current loop return section 406 .

In an embodiment, a multi-stage EM pump may include a plurality of AC EM pump electromagnetic circuits 403c that supply magnetic flux perpendicular to both current and metal flow. The multi-stage EM pump may receive an inlet along the EM pump tube section of the current loop 405 at a location where the inlet pressure is suitable for local pumping to achieve forward pump flow, with pressure increasing at the next AC EM pump solenoid circuit 403c stage. In an exemplary embodiment, the MHD return line 310 enters a current loop, such as the EM pump tube section of the current loop 405, at the entrance before the first AC electromagnet circuit 403c including the AC electromagnet 403a and the EM pump solenoid yoke 404a. Inlet flow from reservoir 5c may enter before the first AC electromagnet circuit 403c and after the second AC electromagnet circuit including the AC electromagnet 403b and the EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404b, where the pump The molten metal pressure in the current loop 405 is maintained which maintains the desired flow from each inlet to the next pump stage or to the pump outlet and injector 5k61. The pressure of each pump stage can be controlled by controlling the current to the corresponding AC electromagnet of the AC electromagnet circuit. The exemplary transformer includes a silicon steel laminated transformer core 402, and the exemplary EM pump electromagnetic yokes 404a and 404b each include a laminated silicon steel (grain oriented steel) sheet stack.

In an embodiment, the EM pump current loop return section 406, such as a ceramic channel, may include a molten metal flow restrictor or may be filled with a solid electrical conductor to complete the current flow of the current loop while preventing molten metal from flowing back to the EM from higher pressures The lower pressure section of the pump tubing. The solid may comprise a metal such as the stainless steel of the present invention, such as Haynes 230, Pyromet® alloy 625, Carpenter L-605 alloy, BioDur® Carpenter CCM® alloy, Haynes 230, 310 SS or 625 SS. The solids may contain refractory metals. The solids may contain antioxidant metals. The solid may contain a metal such as iridium or a conductive capping layer or coating to avoid oxidation of the solid conductor.

In one embodiment, the solid conductor in conduit 406 that provides a return current path but prevents the flow of silver black comprises solid molten metal, such as solid silver. Solid silver may be prevented by maintaining the temperature below the melting point of silver at one or more locations along the path of the conduit 406 such that it remains solid in at least a portion of the conduit 406 to prevent the flow of silver in the conduit 406 Keep. Conduit 406 may include at least one of a heat exchanger lacking trace heating or insulation, such as a coolant loop, and a section remote from hot section 405 so that the temperature of at least a portion of conduit 406 may be maintained below melting The melting point of the metal.

At least one line (FIGS. 9-21) such as at least one of MHD return line 310, EM pump reservoir line 416, and EM pump injection line 417 may be provided by heaters such as resistive or inductively coupled heaters. heating. SunCell may further include: Structural supports 418 that hold components such as MHD magnet housing 306a, MHD nozzles 307, and MHD channels 308, electrical outputs, sensors, and may be mounted on structural supports 418 and reservoirs such as EM pumps Control line 419 on heat shield 420 around line 416 and EM pump injection line 417.

In another embodiment, the ignition system includes an induction system (FIGS. 8-21) in which a power source is applied to the conductive molten metal such that ignition of the low energy hydrogen reaction provides induced current, voltage and power. The ignition system may include an electrodeless system in which the ignition current is applied by induction through the induction ignition transformer assembly 410 . Induced current may flow through intersecting streams of molten metal from a plurality of injectors held by pumps such as EM pump 400 . In an embodiment, the reservoir 5c may further comprise a ceramic interface channel 414, such as a channel between the bases of the reservoir 5c. The inductive ignition transformer assembly 410 may include an inductive ignition transformer winding 411 and an inductive ignition transformer yoke 412 that may extend through the reservoir 5c, the intersecting streams of molten metal from a plurality of molten metal injectors, and The induced current loop formed by the crossover channel 414 . The inductive ignition transformer assembly 410 may be similar to the inductive ignition transformer assembly of the EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a.

In an embodiment, the ignition current source may comprise an AC inductive type in which the current in a molten metal such as silver is generated by Faraday induction through a time-varying magnetic field of silver. The source of the time-varying magnetic field may include the primary transformer winding, the inductive ignition transformer winding 411, and the silver may serve at least in part as a secondary transformer winding, such as a single-turn short-circuit winding. The primary winding 411 may comprise an AC electromagnet, with the induction ignition transformer yoke 412 conducting the time-varying magnetic field through a circumferential conducting loop comprising molten silver. In one embodiment, the inductive ignition system may include a plurality of closed magnetic loop yokes 412 that maintain a time-varying flux through secondary windings including molten silver circuits. At least one yoke and corresponding magnetic circuit can include windings 411, wherein the additive flux of the plurality of yokes 412, each having a winding 411, can induce current and voltage simultaneously. The number of primary winding turns of each yoke 412 and winding 411 can be selected to obtain the desired secondary voltage from the number of turns applied to each winding, and the desired secondary current can be obtained by selecting the closed loop yoke 412 and the corresponding winding 411. number is obtained, where the voltage is independent of the number of yokes and windings, and a parallel current is added.

In one embodiment, heater 415 may comprise a resistive heater, such as a resistive heater comprising wires such as Kanthal or another of the present invention. Resistive heaters may include refractory resistive filaments or wires that may be wrapped around the elements to be heated. Exemplary resistive heater elements and assemblies may include high temperature conductors such as carbon, nichrome, 300 series stainless steel, Inconel 800 and Inconel 600, 601, 718, 625, Haynes 230, 188, 214, nickel, Hearst Alloy C, Titanium, Tantalum, Molybdenum, TZM, Rhenium, Niobium and Tungsten. Filament or wire can be potted in potting compound to protect it from oxidation. Heating elements such as filaments, wires or mesh can be operated in a vacuum to protect them from oxidation. Exemplary heaters include Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferromagnetic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Another exemplary filament is Kanthal APM that forms a non-scaled oxide coating that is resistant to oxidizing and carbonizing environments and operable to 1475°C. The heat loss rate at 1375 K and 1 emissivity is 200 kW/m ² or 0.2 W/m ² . 1475 K to commercial operation of the resistive heater having 4.6 W / m ² of power. Heat generation can be increased by using an insulator on the outside of the heating element.

Exemplary heater 415 includes Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferromagnetic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating at temperatures up to 1400°C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D and Alkrothal. Heating elements, such as resistive wire elements, may comprise NiCr alloys, such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40, operable in the range of 1100°C to 1200°C. Alternatively, the heater 415 may comprise two molybdenum silicide (MoSi ₂₎ capable of operating in the range of 1500 to 1800 ℃ deg.] C in an oxidizing atmosphere, such as a Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super At least one of ER, Kanthal Super HT and Kanthal Super NC. The heating element may include use of aluminum oxide of molybdenum silicide (MoSi _2). The heating element may have an anti-oxidative coating such as an alumina coating. The heating elements of resistive heater 415 may comprise SiC that may be capable of operating at temperatures up to 1625°C. The heater may include an insulator to increase at least one of its efficiency and effectiveness. Insulators may comprise ceramics such as those known to those skilled in the art, such as insulators comprising alumina-silicates. The insulator can be at least one of removable or reversible. The insulator can be removed after start-up to more efficiently transfer heat to the desired receiver, such as the surrounding environment or a heat exchanger. The insulator can be removed mechanically. The insulator may include a chamber and a pump, possibly evacuated, where the insulator is applied by evacuation and reversed by the addition of a heat transfer gas such as a noble gas such as helium. A vacuum chamber with a heat transfer gas such as helium that can be added or pumped out can act as an adjustable insulator.

The ignition current may be time-varying, such as about 60 Hz AC, but may have other characteristics and waveforms, such as having at least a Waveforms of frequencies in a range, peak current in at least one of about 1 A to 100 MA, 10 A to 10 MA, 100 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 100 kA, and Peak voltage in at least one of about 1 V to 1 MV, 2 V to 100 kV, 3 V to 10 kV, 3 V to 1 kV, 2 V to 100 V, and 3 V to 30 V, where the waveform may include sinusoidal wave, square wave, triangle, or other desired waveform that may include a duty cycle such as a duty cycle in at least one of a range of 1% to 99%, 5% to 75%, and 10% to 50%. To minimize skin effect at high frequencies, the windings of the ignition system, such as 411 , may include at least one of braided wire, twisted wire, and Litz wire.

In an exemplary MHD thermodynamic cycle: (i) silver nanoparticles are formed in the reaction unit chamber, where the nanoparticles can be transported by selecting at least one of thermophoresis and thermal gradient for them in the molecular system (ii) low energy hydrogen plasma reaction in the presence of released O to form a high temperature and high pressure 25 mol % O and 70 mol % silver nanoparticle gas that flows into the nozzle inlet; (iii) 25 mol % silver nanoparticle gas % O and 75 mol% silver nanoparticle gas undergoes nozzle expansion, (iv) the resulting kinetic energy of the jet is converted to electricity in the MHD channel; (v) the nanoparticle size increases in the MHD channel and at the end of the MHD channel Coalesced into a silver liquid, (vi) the liquid silver absorbs 25 mol% O, and (vii) the EM pump pumps the liquid mixture back into the reaction cell chamber.

及密度

由下式給出：

For gaseous mixture of oxygen and the silver nanoparticles, consisting of the same temperature of oxygen molecules in the system and of the silver nanoparticles, the ideal gas equation so that the gas mixture adapted to estimate the acceleration of the expansion in the nozzle, wherein the nanoparticles with O ₂ The mixture has a common kinetic energy at a common temperature. The acceleration of a gas mixture containing molten metal nanoparticles, such as silver nanoparticles, in a polymerization-bifurcation nozzle can be treated as an isentropic expansion of an ideal gas/vapor in the polymerization-bifurcation nozzle. The thermodynamic parameters can be calculated using the equations of Liepmann and Roshko [Liepmann, HW and A. Roshko Elements of Gas Dynamics, Wiley (1957)], given the stagnation temperature T ₀ ; the stagnation pressure p ₀ ; the gas constant R _{v ; and the specific heat ratio k} . stagnant speed of sound

and density

is given by:

其中u為速度，m為質量流，且A為噴嘴橫截面積。噴嘴出口條件(出口馬赫數= Ma)由下式給出：

The nozzle introduction condition (Mach number Ma ^* = 1) is given by:

where u is the velocity, m is the mass flow, and A is the nozzle cross-sectional area. The nozzle outlet condition (outlet Mach number = Ma) is given by:

Due to the high molecular weight of the nanoparticles, the MHD transition parameters are similar to those of LMMHD, where the MHD working medium is dense and travels at a lower velocity relative to gaseous expansion.

Power System and Configuration In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® with the base electrode shown in Figure 23 comprises: (i) an injector reservoir 5c, EM pump tubing 5k6 and nozzles 5q, a reservoir base plate 409a and Spherical reaction unit chamber 5b31 dome; (ii) a non-injector reservoir comprising a casing reservoir 409d, which may include a SS of lower hemisphere 5b41 of collector flange 409e; (iii) Electrical insulator plug-in reservoir 409f comprising base 5c1 at top and plug-in reservoir at bottom which mates with casing reservoir flange 409e Reservoir flange 409g, wherein plug-in reservoir 409f, base 5c which may further comprise drip edge 5c1a, and plug-in reservoir flange 409g may comprise a ceramic such as boron nitride, such as BN-CaO or BN-ZrO stability of BN _2, silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, hafnium oxide, or quartz, or a refractory metal such as carbon or a ceramic such as SiC or a refractory material having a ZrB ₂ of protective coating, such as SiC or containing ZrB ₂ carbons Refractory material; and (iv) a reservoir floor 409a, such as a reservoir floor comprising SS with penetrations for ignition bus bar 10a1 and ignition bus bar 10, wherein the floor is bolted to the sleeve The tube reservoir flange 409e sandwiches the plug-in reservoir flange 409g. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include a vacuum enclosure that encloses and hermetically seals the junction of the sleeve reservoir flange 409e, the plug-in reservoir flange 409g, and the reservoir floor 409a, wherein The housing is electrically isolated at the electrode bus bars 10 . In one embodiment, the nozzle 5q can be screwed onto the nozzle section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61. The nozzle may contain a refractory metal such as W, Ta, Re or Mo. The nozzles may be submerged.

In the embodiment shown in Figure 23, the inverted mount 5c2 and firing busbars and electrodes 10 are at least one of oriented around the center of the cell 5b3 and aligned on the negative z-axis, at least one of which is opposite the injector electrode 5k61 ejects molten metal from its reservoir 5c in the positive z-direction relative to gravity where applicable. The sprayed molten stream may hold the coating or pool of liquid metal in the base 5c2 against gravity where applicable. A cell or coating may at least partially cover electrode 10 . The pool or coating protects the electrodes from damage such as corrosion or melting. In the latter case, the EM pumping rate can be increased by flow spraying the molten metal to increase electrode cooling. The electrode area and thickness can also be increased to dissipate localized hot spots to prevent melting. The base may be positively biased and the injector electrode may be negatively biased. In another embodiment, the base may be negatively biased and the injector electrode may be positively biased, wherein the injector electrode may be submerged in molten metal. Molten metal such as gallium may fill a portion of the lower portion of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In addition to spraying a coating or pool of molten metal, electrodes 10, such as W electrodes, can also be stabilized from corrosion by applying a negative bias. In one embodiment, electrode 10 may include a coating such as an inert conductive coating, such as a rhenium coating, to protect the electrode from corrosion. In one embodiment, the electrodes may be cooled. Cooling of the electrode can reduce at least one of the rate of electrode corrosion and the rate of alloy formation with molten metal (eg, compared to operation without electrode cooling). Cooling can be accomplished by means such as centerline water cooling. In one embodiment, the surface area of the inverted electrode is increased by increasing the size of the surface in contact with at least one of the plasma and molten metal flow from the injector electrode. In an exemplary embodiment, a larger plate or cup is attached to the end of electrode 10 . In another embodiment, the injector electrode may be submerged to increase the area of the opposing electrode. 23 shows an exemplary spherical reaction cell chamber. Other geometric shapes such as rectangular, cubic, cylindrical and conical are within the scope of the present invention. In one embodiment, the base of the reaction unit chamber connected to the top of the reservoir may be sloped, such as conical. Such a configuration promotes mixing of the molten metal as it enters the inlet of the EM pump. In an embodiment, at least a portion of the exterior surface of the reaction unit chamber may be clad in a material with a high heat transfer coefficient, such as copper, to avoid hot spots on the reaction unit chamber walls. In an embodiment, the SunCell® includes a plurality of pumps, such as EM pumps, to spray molten metal on the reaction unit chamber walls to hold the molten metal walls to prevent the plasma from melting the walls in the reaction unit chamber. In another embodiment, the reaction unit chamber wall includes a liner 5b31a, such as a BN, fused silica or quartz liner to avoid hot spots. An exemplary reaction cell chamber includes a cubic upper section lined with a quartz plate and a lower spherical section that includes an EM pump at the bottom, where the spherical section facilitates molten metal mixing.

In one embodiment, the sleeve reservoir 409d may include the ignition bus bar and the close-fitting electrical insulator of the electrode 10, such that the molten metal is contained approximately only in the cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted base 5c2. A plug-in reservoir 409f with a plug-in reservoir flange 409g can be mounted to the cell chamber 5b3 by means of the reservoir base plate 409a, casing reservoir 409d, and casing reservoir flange 409e. The electrodes can penetrate the reservoir bottom plate 409a via the electrode penetrations 10a1. The electrodes can penetrate the reservoir bottom plate 409a via the electrode penetrations 10a1. In one embodiment, the plug-in reservoir 409f may include a coating on the electrode bus bar 10 . In one embodiment, at least one SunCell® component such as the plug-in reservoir 409f, the reaction cell chamber lining or coating, and the bus bar lining or coating may comprise ceramics such as BN, quartz, titania, alumina, oxide yttrium, hafnium oxide, zirconium oxide, silicon carbide, mullite or as _{ZrO 2 -TiO 2 -Y 2 O 3} , TiO 2 -Yr mixture ₂ O ₃ -Al ₂ O _3, the present invention of another, or or SiO ₂ , Al ₂ O ₃ , ZrO ₂ , HfO ₂ , TiO ₂ , MgO, BN, BN-ZrO ₂ , BN-B ₂ O ₃ and metals used to bond to components and then bonded to BN or A mixture of at least one of the other ceramics. Exemplary composite coatings comprising BN produced by Oerlikon are Ni 13Cr 8Fe 3.5Al 6.5BN, ZrO ₂ 9.5Dy ₂ O ₃ 0.7BN, ZrO ₂ 7.5Y ₂ O ₃ 0.7BN, and Co 25Cr 5Al 0.27Y 1.75Si 15hBN. In one embodiment, a suitable metal, ceramic or carbon coated with BN may serve as a liner or coating. A suitable metal or ceramic can operate at the temperature of SunCell® and the adhesion of the BN coating. In one embodiment, adhesives in SunCell® components such as casing reservoir 409d, reaction cell chamber linings or coatings, or bus bar linings or coatings can be produced by at least one of heating and operating under vacuum. to dry. Alternatively, a passivation coating may be formed or applied to the ceramic. In an exemplary embodiment, BN oxidized to form a B ₂ O ₃ passivation coating.

The EM pump tube 5k6 may contain materials, linings or coatings resistant to alloying with gallium, such as W, Ta, Re, Mo, BN, alumina, mullite, silica, quartz, zirconia, At least one of hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, or another of the present invention. In one embodiment, the pump tube, liner or coating comprises carbon. The carbon can be applied by suspension means, such as a cured and degassed spray or liquid coating. In an exemplary embodiment, the carbon suspension is poured into a pump tube for filling, the carbon suspension is allowed to solidify, and then channels are machined through the tube to form a carbon lining on the wall. In one embodiment, carbon-coated metals such as Ni are resistant to carbide formation at high temperatures. In one embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a metal tube filled with a lining or coating material (such as BN) that is perforated to form the pump tube. The EM pump tubing may contain an assembly that contains multiple parts. These portions may include materials or liners or coatings that are resistant to alloying with gallium. In one embodiment, the parts may be individually coated and assembled. The assembly may include at least one of: a housing comprising two opposing bus bars 5k2, a liquid metal inlet and a liquid metal outlet; and means to seal the housing, such as a joint sleeve. In one embodiment, the EM pump bus bar 5k2 may include a conductive portion in contact with gallium inside the EM pump tube, the conductive portion being resistant to alloying with gallium. The conductive portion may comprise an alloy resistant material such as Ta, W, Re, Ir or Mo; or an alloy resistant cladding or coating on another metal such as SS, such as a cladding comprising Ta, W, Re, Ir or Mo layer or coating.

In an embodiment, SunCell® includes an inlet riser 5qa to prevent the flow of hot gallium to the reservoir substrate 5kk1 and suppress gallium alloy formation. The reservoir substrate 5kk1 may contain a liner, cladding or coating to inhibit gallium alloy formation.

In embodiments that allow good electrical contact between the EM pump bus bar 5k2 and the molten metal in the EM pump tube 5k6, the coating is applied before the EM pump bus bar is attached by means such as welding. Alternatively, any coating may be removed from the bus bars penetrating into the molten metal by means known in the art, such as abrasion, ablation or etching, prior to operation.

In another embodiment, the plug-in reservoir flange 409g may be replaced by a feedthrough installed in the reservoir bottom plate 409a that allows the busbar 10 of the feedthrough and the base 5c1 or the plug-in reservoir The reservoir 409f is electrically isolated from the reservoir bottom plate 409a. The feedthrough can be welded to the reservoir floor. An exemplary feedthrough including bus bar 10 is Solid Sealing Technology, Inc. #FA10775. The bus bar 10 may be bonded to the electrode 8 or the bus bar 10 and the electrode 8 may comprise a single piece. The reservoir floor can be directly joined to the casing reservoir flange. The joint may include Conflat flanges bolted together by intervening spacers. The flange may contain a knife edge for sealing a soft metal gasket such as a copper gasket. The ceramic base 5c1 containing the plug-in reservoir 409f can be embedded in the opposite open-hole reservoir floor 409a, wherein the joint between the base and the sealed with the gasket of the user. Electrodes 8 and bus bars 10 may include end plates at the ends where the plasma discharge occurs. Pressure can be applied to the gasket by pushing on the disc, which in turn applies pressure to the gasket, to seal the joint between the base and the reservoir floor. The disc can be screwed onto the end of the electrode 8 so that turning the disc applies pressure to the spacer. The feedthrough may include annular collars connected to the bus bars and connected to the electrodes. The annular collar may contain a threaded set screw that locks the electrode in place when tightened. This position can be locked by a spacer under the tension applied when the end disc pulls the base upward. The base 5c1 may include a shaft for access to the set screw. The shaft can be threaded so that it can be sealed against the outer surface of the base, which can contain BN, such as BN-ZrO ₂ , by means of non-conductive set screws such as ceramic, such as BN screws. In another embodiment, the bus bars 10 and electrodes 8 may comprise butt-connectable rods. In one embodiment, the base 5c1 may comprise two or more threaded metal shafts, each having a set screw that is fastened against the bus bar 10 or electrode 8 to lock it in place under tension . The tension can provide at least one of the connection of the bus bar 10 to the electrodes 8 and the pressure on the pads. Alternatively, the opposing electrode includes a shortened insulating base 5c1, wherein at least one of the electrode 8 and the bus bar 10 includes a male thread, a washer and a matching female nut such that the nut and washer are fastened against the shortened insulating base 5c1. Alternatively, the electrode 8 may include male threads on the ends that are screwed into matching female threads at the ends of the bus bars 10, and the electrode 8 further includes a retaining washer that abuts the embeddable base washer and the reservoir floor 409a fastens the shortened insulating base 5c1. The opposing electrode may include other means of securing the base, bus bars, and electrodes known to those skilled in the art.

In another embodiment, at least one seal, such as (i) the seal between the plug-in reservoir flange 409g and the casing reservoir flange 409e, and (ii) the reservoir floor 409a and the sleeve The seal between the tube reservoir flanges 409e may comprise a wet seal (FIG. 23). In the latter case, the plug-in reservoir flange 409g may be replaced by a feedthrough installed in the reservoir floor 409a that connects the feedthrough's bus bar 10 and base 5c1 with the reservoir floor 409a Electrical isolation, and the wet seal may include a seal between the reservoir floor 409a and the feedthrough. Because gallium forms an oxide with a melting point of 1900°C, the wet seal may contain solid gallium oxide.

In one embodiment, hydrogen may be supplied to the cell via a hydrogen permeable membrane such as a structurally strengthened Pd-Ag or niobium membrane. The hydrogen permeation rate through the hydrogen permeable membrane can be increased by maintaining the plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane. SunCell® can include a semipermeable membrane that can include electrodes of a plasmonic cell such as the cathode of a plasmonic cell (eg, a glow discharge cell). A SunCell® such as the SunCell® shown in Figure 23 may further comprise an outer sealed plasma chamber comprising a portion of the outer wall surrounding the walls of cell 5b3, wherein a portion of the metal walls of cell 5b3 comprise electrodes of the plasma cell . A sealed plasma chamber may include a chamber surrounding cell 5b3, such as a housing, where the walls of cell 5b3 may contain plasma cell electrodes, and separate electrodes in the housing or chamber may contain opposing electrodes. SunCell® may further include plasma power sources and plasma control systems, gas sources such as hydrogen supply tanks, hydrogen supply monitors and rules, and vacuum pumps.

The system can operate by generating two plasmas. Such as a non-stoichiometric H ₂ / O ₂ mixtures (e.g., in mole percentage of a mixture, having less than 20% O 10% or less, or less than 5%, or less than 3% of H _{2 2} / O ₂₎ in the initial reaction The mixture can be passed through a plasma cell, such as a glow discharge, to produce a reaction mixture capable of catalyzing the reaction with sufficient exotherm to produce a plasma as described herein. For example, non-stoichiometric H ₂ / O ₂ mixtures can be obtained by glow discharge atomic hydrogen to produce H ₂ O and the primary effluent (e.g., water having a concentration within the range of the mixture of hydrogen can be sufficient to prevent formation). The glow discharge effluent can be directed into a reaction chamber with current supplied between the two electrodes (eg, with molten metal passing therethrough). When the effluent interacts with the biased molten metal (eg, gallium), a catalytic reaction between the nascent water and atomic hydrogen is induced, eg, when an arc current is formed. The power system may include: a) a plasma cell (eg, a glow discharge cell); b) a set of electrodes in electrical contact with each other via molten metal flowing therebetween so that an electrical bias can be applied to the molten metal; c) the molten metal A spray system that flows molten metal between electrodes; wherein the effluent of the plasma cell is directed toward the biased molten metal (eg, positive electrode or anode).

In an embodiment, SunCell® includes at least one ceramic reservoir 5c and a reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as a quartz-containing cell chamber. The SunCell® may contain two cylindrical reaction unit chambers 5b31, each containing a reservoir at the bottom section, where the reaction unit chambers are fused at the top along the seam where the two chambers meet, as shown in Figures 30A-30A- shown in 30B. In one embodiment, the apex formed by the intersection of the reaction cell chambers 5b31 may include gasketed seals, such as two flanges, bolted together with intervening gaskets such as graphite gaskets to absorb thermal expansion and other stress. Each reservoir may include components such as inlet risers 5qa to maintain a time-averaged level of molten metal in the reservoir. The bottoms of the reservoirs may each include a reservoir flange 5k17, which may be sealed to a base plate 5kk1, which includes an EM pump assembly 5kk, which includes an EM pump 5ka with inlet and injection tube 5k61 penetrations And further includes an EM magnet 5k4 and an EM pump tube 5k6 under each base plate. In one embodiment, the permanent EM pump magnet 5k4 (FIGS. 30A-30B) can be replaced with an electromagnet such as a DC or AC electromagnet. Where the magnet 5k4 comprises an AC electromagnet, the EM pump current source for the EM bus bar 5k2 comprises an AC power supply that provides and applies the AC EM pump solenoid that is applied to the EM pump tube 5k6 to generate the Lorentz pumping force Currents in the body field in phase. Each EM pump assembly 5kk can be attached to the reservoir flange at the same angle as the corresponding reservoir 5c, so that the reservoir flange can be perpendicular to the inclined reservoir. The EM pump assembly 5kk can be mounted to the slide table 409c (FIG. 30B) with supports to mount and align the corresponding inclined EM pump assembly 5kk and reservoir 5c. The bottom plate can be sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal. The bottom plate may further comprise penetrations, each having a tube for exhausting or supplying gas to the reaction unit chamber 5b31, which chamber contains a region in which the reservoir is fused. The reservoir may further include at least one of a gas injection tube 710 and a reservoir vacuum tube 711, at least one of which may extend above the molten metal level. At least one of gas injection line 710 and vacuum line 711 may include a cap such as a carbon cap or a cap such as a carbon cap having side openings to allow gas flow while at least partially blocking molten metal from entering the tube. In another design, the fusion reservoir section can be cut horizontally, and a vertical cylinder can be attached at the cut section. The cylinder may further comprise a sealed top plate such as a quartz plate or a polymeric bifurcation nozzle that may be joined to the MHD converter. The top plate may contain at least one penetration for lines such as vacuum and gas supply lines. In one embodiment, the quartz may be housed in a tightly fitted housing that provides support to prevent outward deformation of the quartz due to operation at high temperature and pressure. The housing may comprise at least one of carbon and ceramic, and a metal that has a higher melting point and is resistant to deformation at high temperatures. Exemplary housings include stainless steel, C, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Nb, Ir, Ru, Hf, Tc, Rh, V, Cr, Zr, Pa, Pt, Th, Lu, Ti, Pd, Tm, Sc , at least one of Fe, Y, Er, Co, Ho, Ni and Dy. To SunCell components such as reservoir 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, polymerization-bifurcation nozzle or MHD nozzle section 307, MHD expansion or generation section 308, MHD condensation section 309, MHD electrode penetration, electromagnetic pump The bus bar 5k2, and at least one seal of one of the ignition reservoir bus bars 5k2a1 supplying ignition power to the molten metal of the reservoir may comprise a wet seal. In an exemplary embodiment, the reservoir flange 5k17 includes a wet seal with a bottom plate 5kk1, wherein the flange outer perimeter can be cooled by a cooling circuit 5k18, such as a water cooling circuit. In another exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tube includes a liner, such as a BN liner, and at least one of the electromagnetic pump bus bar 5k2 and the ignition reservoir bus bar 5k2a1 includes a wet seal.

In an embodiment, a ceramic SunCell®, such as a quartz SunCell®, is mounted on a metal base plate 5kk1 (FIG. 30B), where the wet seal contains penetrations into the reservoir 5c, which allow for the presence of materials such as silver in the reservoir The molten metal contacts the solidified molten metal on the bottom plate 5kk1 of each EM pump assembly to form a wet seal. Each backplane can be connected to a terminal of an ignition power source, such as a DC or AC power source, so that the wet seal can also act as a bus bar for the ignition power. The EM pump may comprise an induction AC type, such as the type shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 . Ceramic SunCell® can contain multiple components, such as EM pumps, reservoirs, reaction cell chambers, and MHD components, which are sealed by flanged gasket joints that can be bolted together. Gaskets may contain carbon or ceramic, such as Thermiculite.

Rhenium (MP 3185°C) is resistant to attack by gallium, gallium alloys, silver and copper, and is resistant to oxidation by oxygen and water, and low energy hydrogen reaction mixtures such as reaction mixtures containing oxygen and water; Thus, it can act as a coating for metal components, such as components of EM pump assembly 5kk, such as base plate 5kk1, EM pump tubes 5k6, EM pump bus bars 5k2, EM pump injectors 5k61, EM pump nozzles 5q, inlet risers 5qa, gas line 710 and vacuum line 711. Components can be coated with rhenium by electroplating, vacuum deposition, chemical deposition, and other methods known in the art. In embodiments, bus bars or electrical connections at penetrations, such as EM pump bus bar 5k2 or penetrations for MHD electrodes in MHD generator channel 308, may include wet vias at penetrations Sealed solid rhenium.

In an embodiment (FIGS. 30A-30B), the heater that melts the metal to form the molten metal comprises a resistance such as a Kanthal wire heater around the reservoir 5c and reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as a cell chamber comprising quartz Sex heater. The EM pump 5kk may contain a heat transfer block to transfer heat from the reservoir 5c to the EM pump tube 5k6. In an exemplary embodiment, the heater comprises a coil of Kanthal wire wrapped over the reservoir and reaction cell chamber, with a graphite heat transfer block having a ceramic heat transfer paste attached to the EM pump tube 5k6 to transfer heat Passed to the tube to melt the metal in it. A larger diameter EM pump tube can be used to better transfer heat to the EM pump tube to cause melting in the EM pump tube. Components containing molten metal can be well insulated by insulators such as ceramic fibers or other high temperature insulators known in the art. Components can be heated slowly to avoid thermal shock.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a heater, such as a resistive heater. The heater may comprise a kiln or boiler positioned above at least one of the reaction unit chamber, the reservoir, and the EM pump tube. In embodiments where the EM pump tube is inside the kiln, the EM pump magnet and wet seal may be selectively insulated and cooled by a cooling system such as a water cooling system. In an embodiment, each reservoir may include an insulator, such as a ceramic insulator, at the bottom plate at the base of the molten metal. The insulator may comprise BN or a molded ceramic, such as a ceramic comprising alumina, magnesia, silica, zirconia, or hafnium oxide. The ceramic insulator at the base of the molten metal may include penetrations for the EM pump inlet and injector, gas and vacuum lines, thermocouples, and ignition bus bars in direct contact with the molten metal. In an embodiment, the insulator allows the molten metal to melt at the base of the reservoir by reducing heat loss to the base plate and cooling of the wet seal. The diameter of the EM pump inlet penetration can be enlarged to increase heat transfer from the molten metal in the reservoir to the molten metal in the EM pump tubing. The EM pump tube may contain a heat transfer block to transfer heat from the inlet penetration to the EM pump tube.

In an embodiment, the base plate 5kk1 may include materials such as stainless steel, C, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Nb, Ir, Ru, Hf, Tc, Rh, V, Cr, Zr, Pa, Pt, Th, Lu, Ti, Refractories or metals of Pd, Tm, Sc, Fe, Y, Er, Co, Ho, Ni and Dy, which may be coated with a lining or coating such as one of the present invention, which H, and O ₂ by the corrosion of at least one of the alloy ₂ O and at least one of the molten metal, such as silver gallium or resistant form. In embodiments, the EM pump tubing may be lined or coated with materials that prevent corrosion or alloy formation. The EM bus bars may include conductors that are resistant to at least one of corrosion or alloy formation. Exemplary EM pump bus bars where the molten metal is gallium are Ta, W, Re, and Ir. Exemplary EM pump bus bars where the molten metal is silver are W, Ta, Re, Ni, Co, and Cr. In embodiments, the EM bus bars may comprise carbon or metal having a high melting point, which may be coated with a conductive coating that is resistant to alloying with molten metals such as at least one of gallium and silver. Exemplary coatings include carbides or diborides, such as those of titanium, zirconium, and hafnium.

In embodiments where a molten metal such as copper or gallium may be alloyed with a base plate such as containing stainless steel, the base plate contains a liner or is coated with a non-alloying material such as Ta, W, Re or a ceramic such as BN, aluminum rich Andalusite or zirconia-titania-yttria.

In the embodiment of the SunCell® shown in Figures 30A-30B, the molten metal comprises gallium or a gallium alloy, and the seal at the base plate 5kk1 comprises a gasket, such as a Viton O-ring or a carbon (Graphoil) gasket , and the diameter of the inlet riser 5qa is sufficiently large that the level of molten metal in the reservoir 5c remains approximately uniform with the molten metal flow injected from the two reservoirs near steady. The diameter of each inlet riser is larger than that of the silver molten metal embodiment to overcome the higher viscosity of gallium and gallium alloys. The inlet riser diameter can range from about 3 mm to 2 cm. Bottom plate 5kk1 may be stainless steel maintained below about 500°C or may be a ceramic coated to prevent gallium alloy formation. Exemplary backplane coatings are mullite and ZTY.

In an embodiment, the wet seal of the penetration may include a threaded joint through which the molten silver portion extends to be continuous with the solidified silver electrode. In the exemplary embodiment, the EM pump bus bar 5k2 includes a wet seal including an interior ceramic coated EM pump tube 5k6 with opposing threaded joints through which molten silver passes to contact the EM pump power connector including the and at least one of the bus bars optionally further includes a connector to one of the leads of the ignition power supply.

EM pump tube 5k6 may contain materials, linings or coatings resistant to alloying with gallium or silver, such as W, Ta, Re, Ir, Mo, BN, alumina, mullite, silica, quartz , at least one of zirconia, hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, or another of the present invention. In one embodiment, the pump tube, liner or coating comprises carbon. The carbon can be applied by suspension means, such as a cured and degassed spray or liquid coating. In one embodiment, carbon-coated metals such as Ni may be resistant to carbide formation at high temperatures. In one embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a metal tube filled with a lining or coating material (such as BN) that is perforated to form the pump tube. The EM pump tubing can be segmented or contain an assembly that contains multiple sections (FIG. 29C). The portions may contain materials such as Ta or a liner or coating resistant to alloying with gallium. In one embodiment, the parts may be individually coated and assembled. The assembly may include at least one of: a housing comprising two opposing bus bars 5k2, a liquid metal inlet and a liquid metal outlet; and means to seal the housing, such as a joint sleeve. In one embodiment, the EM pump bus bar 5k2 may include a conductive portion in contact with gallium inside the EM pump tube, the conductive portion being resistant to alloying with gallium. The conductive portion may comprise an alloy resistant material such as Ta, W, Re or Mo; or an alloy resistant cladding or coating on another metal such as SS, such as a cladding comprising Ta, W, Re, Ir or Mo, or coating. In one embodiment, the exterior of the EM pump tube, such as a Ta or W containing appearance, may be coated or coated with a coating or cladding of the present invention to protect the exterior from oxidation. In an exemplary embodiment, the Ta EM pump tubing may be coated with Re, ZTY, or mullite or clad with stainless steel (SS), wherein the cladding to the exterior of the Ta EM pump tubing may include the use of welds or extreme SS pieces adhered together with temperature grade SS glue (such as JB Weld 37901).

In one embodiment, the liner may comprise a thin-walled flexible metal resistant to alloying with gallium, such as W, Ta, Re, Ir, Mo, or Ta tube liner, which may be inserted into another metal comprising another metal, such as stainless steel The EM pump tubing is 5k6. The liner can be inserted into preformed EM pump tubing or straight tubing that is then bent. The EM pump bus bar 5k2 may be attached by means such as welding after installing the liner in the formed EM pump tube. The EM pump tube liner may form a tight seal with the EM pump bus bar 5k2 by means of compression fittings or sealing materials such as carbon or ceramic sealants.

In embodiments in which at least one of the molten metal and any alloy formed from the molten metal can expel gas to create a gas boundary layer that interferes with EM pumping by at least partially blocking the Lorentz current, the location of magnet 5k4 The EM pump tube 5k6 at can be vertical to break the gas boundary layer.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes an interference canceller that includes means for mitigating or eliminating any interference between the power source to the ignition circuit and the power source to the EM pump 5kk. The interference canceller may include at least one of one or more circuit elements and one or more controllers to adjust the relative voltages, currents, polarities, waveforms, and duty cycles of the ignition and EM pump currents to prevent the two corresponding power supplies interference between.

SunCell® may further comprise a photovoltaic (PV) converter and a window that transmits light to the PV converter. In the embodiment shown in Figures 24-25, the SunCell® comprises a reaction cell chamber 5b31 with a tapered cross-section along the vertical axis and a PV window 5b4 at the apex of the tapered shape. A window with a matching taper can include any desired geometry to accommodate the PV array 26a, such as a circle (FIG. 24) or a square or rectangle (FIG. 25). The taper can inhibit the metallization of PV window 5b4 to allow efficient power conversion of light by photovoltaic (PV) converter 26a. PV converter 26a may include a dense receiver array of concentrating PV cells, such as the PV cells of the present invention, and may further include a cooling system such as a cooling system including microchannel plates. PV window 5b4 may include a metallization inhibiting coating. The PV window can be cooled to prevent thermal degradation of the PV window coating. The SunCell® may include at least one partially inverted base 5c2 with a cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted base 5c2, which is similar to the inverted base shown in Figure 23, except that each base and electrode 10 are vertical The straight axis can be oriented at an angle relative to the vertical or z axis. The angle can be in the range of 1° to 90°. In one embodiment, at least one opposing injector electrode 5k61, where applicable, injects molten metal from its reservoir 5c obliquely in the positive z-direction relative to gravity. Jet pumping can be provided by the EM pump assembly 5kk mounted on the EM pump assembly slide 409c. In an exemplary embodiment, the partially inverted base 5c2 and opposing injector electrode 5k61 are aligned on an axis at 135° to the horizontal or x-axis, as shown in Figure 24, or at 45° to the horizontal or x-axis On-axis alignment as shown in Figure 25. A plug-in reservoir 409f with a plug-in reservoir flange 409g can be mounted to the cell chamber 5b3 by means of the reservoir base plate 409a, casing reservoir 409d, and casing reservoir flange 409e. The electrodes can penetrate the reservoir bottom plate 409a via the electrode penetrations 10a1. The nozzle 5q of the injector electrode may be immersed in a liquid metal, such as liquid gallium, contained in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the bottom of the reservoir 5c. Gas can be supplied to reaction cell chamber 5b31, or the chamber can be evacuated via a gas port such as 409h.

In an alternative embodiment shown in Figure 26, the SunCell® comprises a reaction cell chamber 5b31 with a tapered cross-section along the negative vertical axis, and the larger diameter of the cone at the top comprising the reaction cell chamber 5b31 The PV window 5b4 at the end, the relative taper of the embodiment is shown in Figures 24-25. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises reaction cell chamber 5b31, which comprises a straight column geometry. The injector nozzle and base opposing electrodes may be aligned on the vertical axis at opposite ends of the cylinder or along a line inclined to the vertical axis.

In the embodiment shown in Figures 24 and 25, electrode 10 and PV panel 26a may be interchanged in position and orientation such that molten metal injector 5k6 and nozzle 5q spray molten metal vertically to opposing electrode 10, and PV panel 26a Receives light from the plasma side.

The SunCell may contain a transparent window to act as a light source for wavelengths that are transparent to the window. The SunCell may include a blackbody radiator 5b4 that can act as a blackbody light source. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a light source (eg, plasma from a reaction), wherein the low energy hydrogen plasma light emitted through a window is used for desired lighting applications, such as room, street, commercial or industrial lighting or for applications such as Chemical treatment or lithography heating or processing.

In one embodiment, the top electrode includes a positive electrode. SunCell can include an optical window and photovoltaic (PV) panel behind the positive electrode. The positive electrode can act as a black body radiator to provide at least one of heat, light, and illumination of the PV panel. In the latter case, the illumination of the PV panel generates electricity from incident light. In one embodiment, the optical window may include a vacuum tight outer window and an inner spin window to prevent molten metal from adhering to and devitrifying the inner window. In an embodiment, the positive electrode can heat a black body radiator, which emits light through the PV window to the PV panel. A blackbody radiator can be connected to the positive electrode to receive heat therefrom by conduction as well as radiation. Blackbody radiation may contain refractory metals, such as tungsten (MP = 3422°C) or tantalum (MP = 3020°C); or ceramics such as one of the present invention, such as graphite (sublimation point = 3642°C), borides , carbides, nitrides, and one or more of the group of oxides such as metal oxides such as alumina, zirconia, yttria-stabilized zirconia, magnesia, hafnium oxide, or dioxide Thorium (ThO ₂ ); transition metal diborides such as hafnium boride (HfB ₂ ), zirconium diboride (ZrB ₂ ), niobium boride (NbB ₂ ); metal nitrides such as hafnium nitride (HfN), Zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium nitride (TiN); and carbides such as titanium carbide (TiC), zirconium carbide or tantalum carbide (TaC) and associated composites thereof. Exemplary ceramics with the desired high melting point are magnesium oxide (MgO) (MP = 2852°C), zirconia (ZrO) (MP = 2715°C), boron nitride (BN) (MP = 2973°C), zirconium dioxide ( ZrO ₂ ) (MP = 2715 ℃), Hafnium Boride (HfB ₂ ) (MP = 3380 ℃), Hafnium Carbide (HfC) (MP = 3900 ℃), Ta ₄ HfC ₅ (MP = 4000 ℃), Ta ₄ HfC ₅ TaX ₄ HfCX ₅ (4215 ℃), Hafnium Nitride (HfN) (MP = 3385 ℃), Zirconium Diboride (ZrB ₂ ) (MP = 3246 ℃), Zirconium Carbide (ZrC) (MP = 3400 ℃), Zirconium Nitride (ZrN) (MP = 2950 ℃), Titanium Boride (TiB ₂ ) (MP = 3225 ℃), Titanium Carbide (TiC) (MP = 3100 ℃), Titanium Nitride (TiN) (MP = 2950 ℃) ), Silicon Carbide (SiC) (MP = 2820 ℃), Tantalum Boride (TaB ₂ ) (MP = 3040 ℃), Tantalum Carbide (TaC) (MP = 3800 ℃), Tantalum Nitride (TaN) (MP = 2700 ℃), Niobium Carbide (NbC) (MP = 3490 ℃), Niobium Nitride (NbN) (MP = 2573 ℃), Vanadium Carbide (VC) (MP = 2810 ℃) and Vanadium Nitride (VN) (MP = 2050 °C).

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes an inductive ignition system with cross-connected channels of reservoir 414, a pump such as an inductive EM pump, a conductive EM pump or injector reservoir, and a non-injector reservoir that acts as an opposing electrode The mechanical pump. The cross-connecting passages of the reservoir 414 may include flow restricting members so that the non-ejector reservoir may remain substantially full. In one embodiment, the cross-connect channels of the reservoir 414 may contain a non-flowing conductor, such as a solid conductor, such as solid silver.

In one embodiment (FIG. 27), the SunCell® includes a current connector or reservoir jumper cable 414a between the cathode and anode bus bars or current connectors. The cell body 5b3 may comprise a non-conductor, or the cell body 5b3 may comprise a conductor, such as stainless steel, with at least one electrode being electrically isolated from the cell body 5b3 such that an induced current is forced to flow between the electrodes. A current connector or jumper cable can connect at least one of the base electrode 8 and at least one of the electrical connectors to the EM pump and the bus bar in contact with the metal in the reservoir 5c of the EM pump. SunCell® cathodes and anodes (such as those shown in Figures 23-26) that include base electrodes such as inverted base 5c2 or base 5c2 at an angle to the z-axis may include electrical connections between anode and cathode The electrical connector forms a closed current loop by the flow of molten metal injected by at least one EM pump 5kk. The metal flow can close the conductive loop by contacting the molten metal EM pump injectors 5k61 and 5q in the reservoir 5c or at least one of the electrodes of the metal and the base. SunCell® may further comprise an ignition transformer 401 having a yoke 402 in a closed conductive loop to induce a current in the molten metal of the loop that acts as a single loop short circuit secondary current. Transformers 401 and 402 induce ignition current in a closed current loop. In an exemplary embodiment, the primary winding is operable in at least one of the following frequency ranges: 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, and 60 Hz to 2000 Hz, and the input voltage is operable in at least one of the following ranges: Approx. 10 V to 10 MV, 50 V to 1 MV, 50 V to 100 kV, 50 V to 10 kV, 50 V to 1 kV, and 100 V to 480 V, with input current operable in at least one of the following ranges: Approx. 1 A to 1 MA, 10 A to 100 kA, 10 A to 10 kA, 10 A to 1 kA, and 30 A to 200 A, the ignition voltage can be operated in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 0.1 V to 100 kV, 1 V to 10 kV, 1 V to 1 kV, and 1 V to 50 V, and the ignition current can be in the following ranges: about 10 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 5 kA . In one embodiment, the plasma gas may include any gas, such as at least one of noble gas, hydrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and air. The gas pressure may be in at least one of the following ranges: about 1 microtorr to 100 atm, 1 mtorr to 10 atm, 100 mtorr to 5 atm, and 1 torr to 1 atm.

Exemplary test examples include a quartz SunCell® with two crossed EM pump injectors, such as the SunCell® shown in FIG. 10 . Two molten metal injectors, each comprising an induction-type electromagnetic pump including an exemplary Fe-based amorphous core, pump gallium streams such that they intersect to create a triangular current loop connecting the primary windings of the 1000 Hz transformer. The current loop includes flow at the base of the reservoir, two gallium alloy reservoirs, and a crossover channel. The loop acts as a short-circuited secondary winding to the 1000 Hz transformer primary winding. The induced current in the secondary winding maintains the plasma in the atmospheric air with low power consumption. The induction system implements the silver-based working fluid SunCell® magnetohydrodynamic generator of the present invention, wherein the low energy hydrogen reactant is supplied to the reaction cell chamber according to the present invention. Specifically, (i) the primary loop of the ignition transformer was operated at 1000 Hz, (ii) the input voltage was 100 V to 150 V, and (iii) the input current was 25 A. The 60 Hz voltage and current of the EM pump current transformer were 300 V and 6.6 A, respectively. Each of the electromagnet EM pump at 60 Hz 299 μ F capacitor of the power supply via a series of 15 to 20 A, so that the phase of the resultant magnetic field and Lorentz EM pump current transformers crossover current matching.

The transformer is powered by a 1000 Hz AC power supply. In one embodiment, the ignition transformer may be powered by a variable frequency drive such as a single phase variable frequency drive (VFD). In one embodiment, the VFD input power is matched to provide an output voltage and current that further provides the desired firing voltage and current, with the number of turns and wire size selected for the VFD's corresponding output voltage and current. The induced ignition current may be in at least one of the following ranges: about 10 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 5 kA. The induced ignition voltage may be in at least one of the following ranges: 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10V. The frequency may be in at least one of the following ranges: about 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, and 10 Hz to 1 kHz. An exemplary VFD is an ATO 7.5 kW, 220 V to 240 V output single phase 500 Hz VFD.

Another exemplary test example includes a Pyrex SunCell® with one EM pump injector electrode and a base opposing electrode with a connecting jumper cable 414a between the two electrodes, such as the SunCell® shown in FIG. 27 . A molten metal injector comprising a DC-type electromagnetic pump pumps a flow of gallium alloy connected to the opposite electrode of the base to close the contained flow, the EM pump reservoir, and is connected at each end to the corresponding electrode bus bar and through the 60 Hz transformer primary The current loop of the jumper cable between the windings. The loop acts as a short circuited secondary winding to the primary winding of the 60 Hz transformer. The induced current in the secondary winding maintains the plasma in the atmospheric air with low power consumption. The induction ignition system implements the silver or gallium based molten metal SunCell® generator of the present invention, wherein a low energy hydrogen reactant is supplied to the reaction cell chamber according to the present invention. Specifically, (i) the primary loop of the ignition transformer was operated at 60 Hz, (ii) the input voltage was 300 V peak, and (iii) the input current was 29 A peak. The maximum induced plasma ignition current is 1.38 kA.

In one embodiment, the power source or ignition power source comprises a non-direct current (DC) source, such as a time-dependent current source, such as a pulsed or alternating current (AC) source. The peak current may be in at least one range such as: 10 A to 100 MA, 100 A to 10 MA, 100 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 1 kA. The peak voltage may be in at least one of the following ranges: 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10V. In one embodiment, the EM pump power supply and AC ignition system may be selected to avoid inferences that would result in at least one of ineffective EM pumping and distortion of the desired ignition waveform.

In one embodiment, the power source or ignition power supply that supplies the ignition current may comprise at least one of DC, AC and DC and AC power supplies, such as powered by at least one of AC, DC and DC and AC power Power supplies such as switching power supplies, variable frequency drives (VFDs), AC to AC converters, DC to DC converters and AC to DC converters, DC to AC converters, rectifiers, full wave rectifiers, inverters , photovoltaic array generators, magnetohydrodynamic generators, and conventional generators such as Rankine or Braden cycle generators, thermionic generators, and thermoelectric generators. The ignition power supply may include at least one circuit element to generate the desired ignition current, such as transitions, IGBTs, inductors, transformers, capacitors, rectifiers, bridges such as H-bridges, resistors, operational amplifiers, or others known in the art A circuit element or power conditioning device. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition power supply may comprise a full wave corrected high frequency source, such as a high frequency source that supplies square wave pulses at about 50% duty cycle or greater. The frequency can be in the range of about 60 Hz to 100 kHz. An exemplary supply provides about 30 to 40 V and 3000 to 5000 A at frequencies in the range of about 10 kHz to 40 kHz. In one embodiment, the power used to supply the ignition current may comprise a capacitor bank, which may be connected in series with an AC transformer or power supply, charged to an initial offset voltage such as a voltage in the range of 1 V to 100 V, where the resulting The voltage may include a DC voltage with AC modulation. The DC component may decay at a rate depending on its normal discharge time constant, or may increase or eliminate the discharge time, wherein the ignition power supply further includes a DC power supply to recharge the capacitor bank. The DV voltage component can assist in starting the plasma, where the plasma can thereafter remain at a lower voltage. Ignition power supplies, such as capacitor banks, may include quick switches to connect and disconnect ignition power to the electrodes, such as switches controlled by servo motors or solenoids.

In an embodiment, at least one of the low energy hydrogen plasma and the ignition current may comprise an arc current. The arc current may have the characteristics of higher current and lower voltage. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction unit chamber walls and the electrodes are selected to form and support at least one of a low energy hydrogen plasma current and an ignition current including an arc current at very high currents Has very low voltage. The current density can be in at least one of the following ranges: about 1 A/cm ² to 100 MA/cm ² , 10 A/cm ² to 10 MA/cm ² , 100 A/cm ² to 10 MA/cm ^{2 ,} and 1 kA /cm ² to 1 MA/cm ² .

In one embodiment, the ignition system may apply a high initial power to the plasma and then reduce the ignition power after the resistance drops. The resistance may drop due to at least one of: increased conductivity due to the reduction of any oxides in the ignition circuit (such as on electrodes or molten metal flow), and plasma formation. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition system includes a capacitor bank in series with the AC to produce AC modulation of high power DC, where the DC voltage decays as the capacitor discharges and only lower AC power remains.

In one embodiment, the molten metal may be selected to form gaseous nanoparticles that are more volatile, or contain more volatile components, to increase the conductivity of the plasma. For example, the molten metal may be more volatile or contain components that are more volatile than silver (eg, the molten metal may have a boiling point less than that of silver). In an exemplary embodiment, the molten metal may comprise a gallium alloy having increased volatility at a given temperature compared to gallium, since gallium alloys boil at about 1300°C compared to the gallium boiling point of 2400°C. In another exemplary embodiment, silver can fumes at its melting point in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen. Zinc is another exemplary metal that exhibits nanoparticle fumes. Zinc forms non-volatile oxides (B. P. =1974°C), and ZnO can be reduced by hydrogen. ZnO can be reduced by hydrogen from the low energy hydrogen reaction mixture. In an embodiment, the molten metal may comprise a mixture or alloy of zinc metal and gallium or a gallium alloy. The ratio of each metal can be selected to achieve the desired nanoparticle formation and enhancement of at least one of power generation and MHD power conversion. The increased ion recombination rate due to higher plasma conductivity can maintain low energy hydrogen reactions and plasma at reduced ignition current or in the absence of ignition current. In an embodiment, SunCell® includes a condenser to reflow vaporized metals such as gallium alloys or aerosolized nanoparticle metals. In one embodiment, the refluxing metal in the gas phase maintains the low energy hydrogen reaction with low to no ignition power. In an exemplary embodiment, the cell is operated at about the boiling point of the gallium alloy, such that the refluxing gallium alloy metal maintains a low energy hydrogen reaction with low to no ignition power, and in another exemplary embodiment, the refluxing silver navy Rice particles maintain a low energy hydrogen reaction with low to no ignition power.

In one embodiment, one or more properties of metals having low boiling points or low heats of vaporization relative to other candidates, and the ability to form nanoparticle smoke at temperatures below their boiling points make them suitable for use in MHD systems Gas in which the working gas forms a gas phase when sufficiently heated and provides the pressure volume or kinetic energy function for the MHD conversion system to generate electricity.

In one embodiment, the base electrode 8 may be recessed into the plug-in reservoir 409f, with pumped molten metal filling the cavity such as 5c1a to dynamically form a pool of molten metal in contact with the base electrode 8. The base electrode 8 may comprise a conductor that does not alloy with molten metals such as gallium at the operating temperatures of the SunCell®. Exemplary base electrode 8 comprising tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum, or stainless steel, wherein Mo is not less than ₃ Ga such as a Ga alloy of Mo and formation of operating at 600 ℃. In an embodiment, the inlet of the EM pump may include a filter 5qa1, such as a screen or mesh that blocks alloy particles while allowing gallium to enter. To increase the surface area, the filter may extend and connect to the inlet at least one of vertically and horizontally. The filter may contain a material that prevents alloying with gallium, such as stainless steel (SS), tantalum or tungsten. An exemplary inlet filter comprises a SS cylinder with a diameter equal to the inlet diameter but raised vertically. Filters can be cleaned periodically as part of routine maintenance.

In one embodiment, the non-injector electrode may be intermittently immersed in the molten metal in order to cool it. In an embodiment, the SunCell® includes the ejector EM pump and its reservoir 5c and at least one additional EM pump, and may include another reservoir for the additional EM pump. Using the additional reservoir, the additional EM pump can at least one of: (i) reversibly pump molten metal into the reaction cell chamber to intermittently submerge the non-injector electrodes to cool them; and (ii) ) pump the molten metal onto the non-injector electrode to allow it to cool. The SunCell® may include: a coolant tank with coolant; a coolant pump for circulating coolant through the non-injector electrodes; and a heat exchanger for removing heat from the coolant. In one embodiment, the non-injector electrode may contain a coolant, such as water, molten salt, molten metal, or another coolant known in the art, at the channel or cannula to cool the non-injector electrode.

In the inverted embodiment shown in Figure 23, the SunCell® was rotated 180° so that the non-injector electrode was at the bottom of the cell and the injector electrode was at the top of the reaction cell chamber so that the molten metal was ejected along the negative z-axis. At least one of the non-injector electrode and the injector electrode can be mounted in a corresponding plate and can be connected to the reaction cell chamber by a corresponding flange seal. The seal may comprise a gasket comprising a material that does not alloy with gallium, such as Ta, W or ceramic, such as this invention or one known in the art. The reaction unit chamber section at the bottom can act as a reservoir, the previous reservoir can be eliminated, and the EM pump can contain an inlet riser in a new bottom reservoir that can penetrate the bottom floor , is connected to an EM pump tube, and the molten metal stream is provided to the EM pump, wherein the outlet portion of the EM pump tube penetrates the top plate and is connected to a nozzle inside the reaction unit chamber. During operation, the EM pump can pump molten metal from the bottom reservoir and inject it into the non-injector electrode 8 at the bottom of the reaction unit chamber. The inverted SunCell® can be cooled by a high flow of gallium sprayed from the injector electrode on top of the cell. Non-injector electrodes 8 may contain concave cavities to collect gallium for better electrode cooling. In one embodiment, the non-injector electrode may act as the positive electrode; however, reverse polarity is also an embodiment of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the electrodes 8 may be cooled by emitting radiation. To increase heat transfer, the radiating surface area can be increased. In one embodiment, the bus bar 10 may include attached radiators, such as vane radiators, such as flat plates. The plates can be attached by fixing the faces of the edges along the axis of the bus bar 10 . The vanes may contain a paddle wheel pattern. The vanes can be heated by conductive heat transfer from the bus bar 10, which can be heated by at least one of resistive heating by ignition current and reactive heating by low energy hydrogen. Radiators such as vanes may contain refractory metals such as Ta, Re or W.

In one embodiment, the window may comprise a PV PV window in front of an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) to block such as the Ga ₂ O oxide particles. The ESP may include a tube with a central corona discharge electrode, such as a central wire, and a high voltage power supply at the wire that induces a discharge, such as a corona discharge. The discharge can charge oxide particles that can be attracted to and migrate to the wall of the ESP tube, where they can be at least one of collected and removed. The ESP tube walls can be highly polished to reflect light from the reaction cell chambers to PV windows and PV converters, such as dense receiver arrays of concentrating PV cells.

In one embodiment, the PV window system includes at least one of: a transparent rotating baffle in front of the stationary sealed window, all in the xy plane for light propagating along the z-axis; and a window, which can be in Rotation in the xy plane for light propagating along the z axis. Exemplary embodiments include spinning transparent discs, such as clear view screens https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear_view_screen that may include at least one of baffles and windows. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a corona discharge system that includes a negative electrode, a counter electrode, and a discharge power source. In an exemplary embodiment, the negative electrode may include pins, needles, or wires that can access a PV baffle or a window such as a spin window. The unit body may include opposing electrodes. Corona discharge may be maintained in the vicinity of the PV window so as Ga ₂ O particles and the PV formed during power generation operation of the baffle or the at least one window is negatively charged, so that such particles are baffles or window exclusion PV.

In embodiments, the flow of molten metal injected by the EM pump may become misaligned or deviate from the track to affect the opposite electrode center. The EM pump can further include a controller that senses misalignment and alters the EM pump current to re-establish proper flow alignment and then can re-establish the initial EM pumping rate. The controller may include a sensor, such as at least one thermocouple, to sense misalignment, wherein the temperature of the at least one component being monitored increases as the misalignment occurs. In an exemplary embodiment, the controller controls the EM pump current to maintain spray stability using sensors such as thermocouples and software.

In one embodiment, the injector nozzle 5q and the opposing electrode 8 are axially aligned to ensure that the molten metal flow affects the center of the opposing electrode. Manufacturing methods known in the art, such as laser alignment and other methods, such as drilling holes in nozzle 5q after insertion of injector pump tube 5k61, may be implemented to achieve alignment. In another embodiment, the concave opposing electrode may reduce any adverse effects of misalignment by containing the sprayed molten metal within the cavity.

Holding Plasma Generation In an embodiment, the SunCell® includes a vacuum system that includes an inlet to a vacuum line, a vacuum line, a trap, and a vacuum pump. The vacuum pump may comprise a vacuum pump with a high pumping speed, such as a root pump, a reel or a multi-lobe pump, and may further comprise a trap for water vapor, which may be connected in series or in parallel with the vacuum pump, such as in series before the vacuum pump. In one embodiment, a vacuum pump such as a multi-lobe pump or a drum or root pump comprising a stainless steel pumping assembly may be resistant to damage caused by gallium alloy formation. Water traps may contain water-absorbing materials, such as solid desiccants or cryogenic traps. In one embodiment, the pump may include at least one of a cryopump, cryogenic filter, or cooler to at least one of cool the gases and condense at least one gas, such as water vapor, before the gases enter the pump. To increase pumping capacity and rate, the pumping system may include a plurality of vacuum lines connected to the reaction unit chambers, and a vacuum manifold connected to the vacuum lines, wherein the manifold is connected to a vacuum pump. In an embodiment, the inlet to the vacuum line includes a shield for preventing molten metal particles in the reaction unit chamber from entering the vacuum line. Exemplary shields may include metal plates or domes above the inlet but raised from the surface of the inlet to provide selective clearance for gas flow from the reaction unit chamber into the vacuum line. The vacuum system may further include a particle flow restrictor to the vacuum line inlet, such as a set of baffles, to allow gas flow and block particle flow.

The vacuum system may be capable of at least one of performing an ultra-high vacuum and maintaining the reaction unit chamber operating pressure in at least one low range, such as about 0.01 Torr to 500 Torr, 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr, 1 Torr to 10 Torr, and 1 Torr to 5 Torr. HOH H with traces of the catalyst (i) or in traces of water in the reaction with H ₂ to form the HOH ₂ O ₂ was added in the form of supply and (ii) H ₂ O added in the case where at least one of the pressure can be kept low. Where a noble gas such as argon is also supplied to the reaction mixture, the pressure can be maintained within at least one high operating pressure range, such as about 100 torr to 100 atm, 500 torr to 10 atm, and 1 atm to 10 atm, where argon The gas may be in excess compared to other reaction unit chamber gases. The argon pressure can increase the lifetime of at least one of the HOH catalyst and atomic H and can prevent rapid dispersion of the plasma formed at the electrodes, resulting in increased plasma strength.

In one embodiment, the reaction unit chamber includes means for controlling the reaction unit chamber pressure within a desired range by changing volume in response to pressure changes in the reaction unit chamber. The components may include pressure sensors, mechanically expandable sections, actuators to expand and contract the expandable sections, and controllers to control the differential volume created by the expansion and contraction of the expandable sections. The expandable section may contain bellows. Actuators may include mechanical, pneumatic, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, hydraulic, and others known in the art.

In one embodiment, SunCell® may comprise (i) a gas recirculation system, having a gas inlet and outlet, (ii) a gas separation system capable of separating a rare gas such as _{argon, O 2, H 2, H} 2 O, as volatile species, GaX ₃ (X = halide) or _{N x O y (x, y} = integers) of the reaction mixture of low energy and hydrogen mixtures at least two of the at least two gases in gas separation system, (iii) at least one _{sensor for noble gas, O 2} , H ₂ and H ₂ O partial pressure, (iv) a flow controller, (v) at least one injector, such as a micro injector for spraying water, (vi) ) at least one valve, (vii) a pump, (viii) the exhaust gas pressure and flow control, and (ix) computer, which is for holding a rare gas, _{argon, O 2, H 2, H} 2 O and a low energy hydrogen at least one of the pressures. The recirculation system may include a semi-permeable membrane for allowing at least one gas, such as molecular low energy hydrogen gas, to be removed from the recirculated gas. In one embodiment, at least one gas, such as a noble gas, may be selectively recycled, while at least one gas of the reaction mixture may flow from an outlet and may be exhausted via an exhaust. The noble gas may achieve at least one of: increasing the low energy hydrogen reaction rate and increasing the delivery rate of at least one species in the reaction unit chamber out of the exhaust. The noble gas increases the rate of removal of excess water to maintain the desired pressure. Noble gases can increase the rate of low energy hydrogen emission. In one embodiment, the noble gas, such as argon, may be replaced by a noble-like gas that is at least one of readily available from the ambient atmosphere and readily exhausted into the ambient atmosphere. Noble-like gases may have low reactivity with the reaction mixture. Noble-like gases can be obtained from the atmosphere and exhausted rather than being recirculated by a recirculation system. Noble-like gases can be formed from gases that are readily available from the atmosphere and can be vented to the atmosphere. The noble gas can include nitrogen that can be separated from oxygen before flowing into the reaction unit chamber. Alternatively, air can be used as a source of noble gases, where oxygen can react with carbon from the source to form carbon dioxide. At least one of nitrogen and carbon dioxide may serve as the noble gas. Alternatively, oxygen can be removed by reaction with molten metal such as gallium. The resulting gallium oxide can be regenerated in a gallium regeneration system such as one that forms sodium gallate by the reaction of aqueous sodium hydroxide and gallium oxide and electrolyzes the sodium gallate to gallium metal and vented oxygen.

In one embodiment, SunCell® reactants may be added by H _2, O ₂ and H ₂ O is at least one of the closed and significant manner, wherein the reaction unit comprises a reaction chamber atmosphere and a rare gas, such as argon . The noble gas can be maintained at high pressures, such as in the range of 10 Torr to 100 atm. The atmosphere may be at least one of continuously and periodically or intermittently exhausted or recirculated by the recirculation system. This venting removes excess oxygen. The addition of the reactants O ₂ and H ₂ can make O ₂ a secondary species and substantially form a HOH catalyst when it is injected into the reaction unit chamber _{with excess H 2 .} Torch may be injected directly react to form a catalyst and excess H ₂ HOH reaction of H ₂ O ₂ and mixtures thereof. In one embodiment, at least one hydrogen may be by reduction, electrolytic reduction, since the thermal decomposition and vaporization of volatile Ga ₂ O and at least one sublimation of the gallium oxide and partially released from the at least excess oxygen. In embodiments, at least one of the oxygen inventories can be controlled, and the oxygen inventory can be allowed, at least in part, to form a HOH catalyst by intermittently flowing oxygen into the reaction unit chamber in the presence of hydrogen. In one embodiment, the oxygen can stock by adding the reaction of H ₂ and H ₂ O. recirculation In another embodiment, the oxygen excess stock as Ga ₂ O ₃ may be removed and regenerated by means of the present invention, such as by an overflow of the present invention and the electrolytic system and at least one. The source of excess oxygen can be at least one _{of O 2} addition and H _{2 O addition.}

In one embodiment, the gas pressure in the reaction unit chamber can be controlled at least in part by controlling at least one of a pumping rate and a recirculation rate. At least one of these rates can be controlled by a valve controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller. Exemplary valves used to control airflow open and close in response to upper and lower target pressures and variable flow restriction valves, such as butterfly and throttle valves controlled by pressure sensors and controllers to maintain a desired air pressure range solenoid valve.

In an embodiment, SunCell® includes means for venting or removing molecular low energy hydrogen gas from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, the cell walls of the reaction chamber of the lining and the reaction of at least one unit having a high permeability such as for H ₂ (1/4) of the low-energy hydrogen molecules. To increase permeability, at least one of wall thickness can be minimized and wall operating temperature can be maximized. In an embodiment, the thickness of at least one of the walls of the reservoir 5c and the walls of the reaction unit chamber 5b31 may be in the range of 0.05 mm to 5 mm thick. In an embodiment, the reaction unit chamber walls are thinner in at least one zone relative to another zone to increase the diffusion or permeability of the molecular low energy hydrogen product from the reaction unit chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the upper sidewall section of the reaction unit chamber wall, such as the upper sidewall section just below the casing reservoir flange 409e of Figure 29, is thinned. Thinning may also be required to reduce heat transfer to the casing reservoir flange 409e. The degree of thinning relative to other wall regions can be in the range of 5% to 90% (for example, the cross-sectional width of the thinned region is 5% to 90% of the cross-sectional width of the non-thinned region, and the section such as the lower sidewall section of the reaction chamber close to and below the electrode 8).

SunCell® may include temperature sensors, temperature controllers, and heat exchangers such as water jets to controllably maintain the reaction cell chamber walls at a desired temperature, such as in the range of 300°C to 1000°C, to provide the desired high Molecular low energy hydrogen permeability.

At least one of the wall and liner materials can be selected to increase permeability. In an embodiment, reaction cell chamber 5b31 may contain a plurality of materials, such as one or more materials that contact gallium and are separated from gallium by a liner, coating or cladding such as the lining, coating or cladding of the present invention one or more materials. At least one of the separated or protected materials may comprise a material having an increased molecular low energy hydrogen permeability relative to a material that is not separated or prevented from contacting gallium. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber material may comprise stainless steel (such as 347 SS, such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS), nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium and one or more of Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%). Crystalline materials such as SiC may be more permeable to low energy hydrogen than amorphous materials such as sialon or quartz, making crystalline materials exemplary liners.

A different reaction cell chamber wall, such as highly permeable low energy hydrogen, can replace the reaction cell chamber wall of SunCell® (FIG. 29B), which contains another metal that is less permeable, such as containing 347 or 304 SS. The wall section may be a tubular wall section. The replacement section can be welded, welded, or welded to the remainder of the SunCell® by methods known in the art, such as methods involving the use of metals of different thermal expansion coefficients to match the expansion rates of the joining materials. In one embodiment, the replacement section comprising a refractory metal such as Ta, W, Nb or Mo may be bonded to a dissimilar metal such as stainless steel by an adhesive such as an adhesive produced by Coltronics such as Resbond or Durabond 954. In one embodiment, the joint between dissimilar metals may comprise a laminate, such as a ceramic laminate between bonded metals, where each metal is bonded to one face of the laminate. Ceramics may comprise ceramics of the present invention, such as BN, quartz, alumina, hafnium oxide, or zirconia. An exemplary linker is Ta/Durabond 954/BN/Durabond 954/SS. In one embodiment, the flange 409e and the bottom plate 409a may be gasketed or welded.

In an embodiment, the reaction unit chamber comprising the carbon lining comprises at least one of a wall having a high heat transfer capacity, a larger diameter and a powerful cooling system, wherein the heat transfer capacity, the larger diameter and the cooling system are sufficient to displace the carbon The temperature of the liner is maintained below the temperature at which it will react with at least one component of the low energy hydrogen reaction mixture, such as water or hydrogen. Exemplary heat transfer capacity can range from about 10 W / cm ² to 10 kW / cm area range of the ^second wall; exemplary diameter may be in the range of about 2 cm & lt to 100 cm range, exemplary cooling system external water bath; exemplary desired liner The temperature may be below about 700°C to 750°C. The reaction cell chamber walls can further be highly permeable to molecular low energy hydrogen. The liner can be in contact with the wall to improve heat transfer from the liner to the cooling system to maintain the desired temperature.

In an embodiment, the SunCell® includes a gap between the liner and at least one reaction cell chamber wall and a vacuum pump, wherein the gap includes a chamber evacuated by the vacuum pump to remove molecular low energy hydrogen. The liner can be porous. In an exemplary embodiment, the liner comprises a porous ceramic, such as porous BN, SiC-coated carbon, or quartz to increase permeability. In an embodiment, SunCell® may contain an insulator. Insulators can be highly permeable to low energy hydrogen. In another embodiment, SunCell® comprises a molecular low energy hydrogen gas getter, such as at least one iron nanoparticle inside and outside the reaction cell chamber, wherein the gas getter binds molecular low energy hydrogen to self-react Chamber removed. In an embodiment, molecular low energy hydrogen gas may be drawn from the reaction cell chamber. The reaction gas mixture (such as a gas comprising hydrogen gas and the H ₂ O) or the other of the present invention may contain a purge gas such as rare gases, in order to assist in the removal by evacuation of low energy hydrogen molecules. The flushing gas can be vented to the atmosphere or circulated through the recirculator of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the liner may contain a hydrogen dissociation agent, such as niobium. The liner may comprise a plurality of materials, such as a material that resists gallium alloy formation in the hottest zone of the reaction cell chamber, and hydrogen dissociation in at least one zone, such as operating at a temperature lower than the gallium alloy formation temperature of another material Another material for the agent.

In one embodiment, since the Ga ₂ O of volatile, such as gallium oxide Ga ₂ O of the unit can be removed from the reaction by vaporizing chamber and at least one of sublimation. Removal can be accomplished by at least one method of flowing gas through the reaction cell chamber and maintaining a low pressure, such as sub-atmospheric pressure. The gas flow can be maintained by the recirculator of the present invention. Low pressure can be maintained by the vacuum pumping system of the present invention. Gallium oxide can be condensed in the condenser of the present invention and transferred back to the reaction unit chamber. Alternatively, gallium oxide can be trapped in a filter or trap, such as a cryogenic trap from which gallium oxide can be removed and regenerated by the systems and methods of the present invention. The trap may be in at least one gas line of the recirculator. In one embodiment, Ga ₂ O may be in the trap by the vacuum system in which the well may comprise a filter, electrostatic precipitator, and the cryogenic trap in the at least one. Electrostatic precipitator comprising a high voltage electrode may be held electrostatically charged plasma Ga ₂ O particles and collecting the charged particles. In the exemplary embodiment, each set of at least one set of electrodes may comprise a Ga ₂ O to produce particles are negatively electrostatically charging wire of the corona discharge, and positively charged collector electrode, such as a unit from the reaction chamber from the A plate or tube electrode where charged particles are deposited by the air flow. This may be by means known in the art, such as mechanically removed from each collector electrode Ga ₂ O particles, and may be converted into gallium Ga ₂ O and recycled. Gallium may be by methods and systems, such as the NaOH solution by the electrolysis from the Ga ₂ O regeneration.

The electrostatic precipitator (ESP) may further comprise means for precipitating at least one desired species from the gas stream from the reaction unit chamber and returning it to the reaction unit chamber. The settler may include conveying means, such as Oji, conveyor belts, pneumatic, electromechanical or other conveying means of the present invention or known in the art to convey the particles collected by the settler back to the reaction unit chamber. A settler can be installed in a portion of a vacuum line containing a refluxer that returns the desired particles to the reaction unit chamber by gravity flow, where the particles can settle and by gravity flow (such as flow in the vacuum line) Flow back to the reaction unit chamber. The vacuum line can be oriented vertically in at least a portion that allows the desired particles to undergo gravitational backflow.

In an exemplary embodiment, the test, the reaction cell chamber pressure is maintained at about the range of 1 to 2 atm at 4 ml / min H ₂ O injection. The DC voltage is about 30 V and the DC current is about 1.5 kA. The reaction cell chamber is a 6 inch diameter stainless steel sphere, such as the stainless steel sphere shown in Figure 23 containing 3.6 kg of molten gallium. The electrodes consisted of a 1 inch submerged SS nozzle of a DC EM pump and an opposing electrode consisting of a 4 cm diameter, 1 cm thick W disk with a 1 cm diameter lead covered by a BN base. The EM pump rate is about 30 to 40 ml/s. Gallium is polarized positively by the immersion nozzle, and the W base electrode is polarized negatively. Gallium is thoroughly mixed by EM pump injector. The SunCell® output is approximately 85 kW, measured using the product of the mass, specific heat and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactors.

Embodiment, 2500 sccm H ₂ and 25 sccm O ₂ flow through about 2g of 10% Pt / Al ₂ O ₃ In another test embodiment beads, such beads are maintained at a H ₂ O ₂ and a gas inlet and a reaction unit The chamber is consistent with the outer chamber. Additionally, argon was flowed into the reaction cell chamber at a rate that maintained a chamber pressure of 50 Torr while active vacuum pumping was applied. The DC voltage is about 20 V and the DC current is about 1.25 kA. The SunCell® output is approximately 120 kW, measured using the product of the mass, specific heat and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactors.

In one embodiment, a recirculation system or recirculator (such as a noble gas recirculation system) capable of operating at one or more of atmospheric pressure, atmospheric pressure, and above atmospheric pressure may comprise (i) a gas a mover, such as at least one of a vacuum pump, a compressor, and a blower to recycle at least one gas from the reaction unit chamber; (ii) a recycle gas line; (iii) a separation system to remove waste gas such as low energy hydrogen and oxygen; and (iv) a reactant supply system. In one embodiment, the gas mover is capable of pumping gas from the reaction unit chamber, pushing the gas through the separation system to remove off-gas, and returning regeneration gas to the reaction unit chamber. The gas mover may include at least two of a pump, a compressor and a blower as the same unit. In one embodiment, the pump, compressor, blower, or combination thereof may include at least one of a cryopump, cryogenic filter, or cooler to perform at least one of the following operations: cooling the gas before entering the gas mover gas and condensate at least one gas such as water vapor. The recycle gas line may include a line from the vacuum pump to the gas mover, a line from the gas mover to the separation system for removing waste gas, and removing waste gas from the separation system to a reaction unit chamber that can be connected to the reactant supply system Room piping. An exemplary reactant supply system includes at least one connection to a line to a reaction unit chamber having at least one reaction mixture gas for at least one of a noble gas such as argon, oxygen, hydrogen, and water Supply line. The addition of the reactants O ₂ and H ₂ can make O ₂ a secondary species and substantially form a HOH catalyst when it is injected into the reaction unit chamber _{with excess H 2 .} Torch may be injected directly react to form a catalyst and excess H ₂ HOH reaction of H ₂ O ₂ and mixtures thereof. The reactant supply system may include a gas manifold connected to the reaction mixture gas supply line and an outflow line to the reaction unit chamber.

Separation systems to remove exhaust gases may include cryogenic filters or cryogenic traps. Separation systems to remove low energy hydrogen product gas from recycle gas can include semipermeable membranes for selective exhaust by diffusion across the membrane from recycle gas to atmosphere or to an exhaust chamber or stream Low energy hydrogen. The separation system of the recycler may include an oxygen scrubber system that removes oxygen from the recycle gas. The scrubber system may include a vessel, such as a metal, such as an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, or iron, and at least one of a getter or absorbent that reacts with oxygen in the vessel. Alternatively, an absorbent, such as activated carbon or another oxygen absorbent known in the art, can absorb oxygen. The charcoal absorbent can comprise a charcoal filter that can be sealed in a breathable filter cartridge, such as a commercially available breathable filter cartridge. The filter cartridge may be removable. The oxygen absorber of the scrubber system can be periodically replaced or regenerated by methods known in the art. The scrubber regeneration system of the recirculation system may include at least one of one or more absorbent heaters and one or more vacuum pumps. In an exemplary embodiment, the charcoal absorbent is heated by a heater and subjected to at least one of a vacuum applied by a vacuum pump to release vented or trapped oxygen, and the resulting regenerated charcoal is reused. Heat from SunCell® can be used to regenerate the absorbent. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes at least one heat exchanger, a coolant pump, and a coolant flow loop that acts as a scrubber heater to regenerate an absorbent such as charcoal. The scrubber can contain larger volumes and areas to efficiently scrub without significantly increasing airflow resistance. This flow can be maintained by a gas mover connected to the recycle line. The charcoal can be cooled to more efficiently absorb species to be scrubbed from recycled gases, such as mixtures containing noble gases such as argon. Oxygen absorbers such as charcoal can also scrub or absorb low energy hydrogen gas. The separation system may comprise a plurality of scrubber systems, each comprising (i) a chamber capable of maintaining a gas seal; (ii) an absorbent to remove waste gases such as oxygen; (iii) a chamber that can be combined with the recirculating gas Inlet and outlet valves for line isolation and isolating the recirculation gas line from the chamber; (iv) means controlled by a controller to connect and disconnect the chamber from the recirculation line, such as a robotic mechanism; (v) for Means for regenerating the absorbent, such as heaters and vacuum pumps, wherein the heaters and vacuum pumps may be used together during their regeneration to regenerate at least one other scrubber system; (v) a controller for scrubbing at the n+1th Controls the disconnection of the nth scrubber system, the connection of the n+1th scrubber system, and the regeneration of the nth scrubber system when the scrubber system is functioning as an active scrubber system, wherein at least one of the plurality of scrubber systems can be At least the other can be actively scrubbed or regenerated while absorbing the desired gas. The scrubber system allows SunCell® to operate under closed exhaust conditions and periodic controlled exhaust or gas recovery. In an exemplary embodiment, hydrogen and oxygen may be separately collected from an absorbent such as activated carbon by heating to different temperatures at which the corresponding gases are released approximately separately.

In the embodiment of the reaction cell chamber gas mixture comprising noble gas, hydrogen, and oxygen, where the partial pressure of the noble gas of the reaction cell chamber gas exceeds the hydrogen partial pressure due to the dilution effect of the reactant concentration of the noble gas such as argon , the oxygen partial pressure can be increased to compensate for the reduced reaction rate between hydrogen and oxygen to form the HOH catalyst. In embodiments, the HOH catalyst may be formed prior to combining with a noble gas such as argon. The hydrogen and oxygen can be caused to react by a recombiner or burner such as a recombiner catalyst, a plasma source, or a hot surface such as a filament. The recombiner catalyst may comprise a precious metal such as alumina, zirconia, hafnium oxide, silica or Pt, Pd or Ir on zeolite powder or beads supported on a ceramic support; another supported recombination of the present invention or dissociator, such as Raney Ni, Ni, niobium, titanium, or other dissociator metal of the present invention; or known in the art in a form that provides a high surface area, such as powder, mat, fabric, or woven cloth s material. Recombination exemplary embodiment shown comprises the Al 10 wt% Pt of beads ₂ O _3. The plasma source may comprise a glow discharge, microwave plasma, plasma torch, inductively or capacitively coupled RF discharge, dielectric barrier discharge, piezoelectric direct discharge, acoustic discharge, or another discharge cell of the present invention or known in the art . The hot filaments may comprise hot tungsten filaments, Pt or Pd black on Pt filaments, or another catalytic filament known in the art.

The inlet flow of reaction mixture species, such as at least one of water, hydrogen, oxygen, and noble gases, may be continuous or intermittent. The inlet flow rate and the exhaust or vacuum flow rate can be controlled to achieve the desired pressure range. The inlet flow can be intermittent, wherein the flow can be stopped at the maximum pressure of the desired range and started at the minimum of the desired range. Where the reaction mixture gas comprises a high pressure noble gas such as argon, the reaction cell chamber can be evacuated, filled with the reaction mixture, and operated under approximately static exhaust flow conditions with at least one of water, hydrogen and oxygen The inlet flow of the reactants for one is maintained under continuous or intermittent flow conditions to maintain the pressure within the desired range. Additionally, the noble gas may flow at an economically practical flow rate and corresponding exhaust pumping rate, or the noble gas may be regenerated or scrubbed and recirculated by a recirculation system or recirculator. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture gas can be forced into the cell by an impeller or by a gas jet to increase the flow rate of the reactants through the cell while maintaining the reaction cell pressure within a desired range.

The reaction unit chamber 5b31 gas may include at least one of _{H 2} , noble gases such as argon, O ₂ and H ₂ O, and _{oxides such as CO 2 .} In an embodiment, the pressure in the reaction unit chamber 5b31 may be lower than atmospheric pressure. The pressure may be in a range of at least one of about 1 mTorr to 750 Torr, 10 mTorr to 100 Torr, 100 mTorr to 10 Torr, and 250 mTorr to 1 Torr. SunCell® may include a water vapor supply system comprising a water reservoir with heater and temperature controller, channels or conduits and valves. In an embodiment, the reaction gas chamber means may comprise a H ₂ O vapor. Water vapor can be supplied through the channel by controlling the temperature of the water reservoir, which may be the coldest component of the water vapor supply system, by combining an external water reservoir with the reaction unit chamber. The temperature of the water reservoir can control the water vapor pressure based on the partial pressure of the water as a function of temperature. The water reservoir may further include a cooler to reduce vapor pressure. The water may contain additives such as dissolved compounds, such as salts, such as NaCl or other alkali or alkaline earth halides; absorbents, such as zeolites; hydrate-forming materials or compounds; or other vapor pressure reducing agents known to those skilled in the art. A material or compound. Exemplary mechanisms for lowering the vapor pressure are through colligative effects or bonding interactions. In an embodiment, the water vapor pressure source may comprise ice that may be contained in a reservoir and supplied to the reaction unit chamber 5b31 via a conduit. The ice may have a high surface area to increase at least one of the rate of HOH catalyst and H formation from the ice and the rate of the low energy hydrogen reaction. The ice can be in the form of fine fragments to increase the surface area. Ice can be kept at the desired temperature below 0°C to control the water vapor pressure. Such as at least one carrier gas may flow through the reservoir of ice H ₂ and argon and flows into the reaction chamber means. Water vapor pressure can also be controlled by controlling the carrier gas flow rate.

Liquid H in H ₂ O ₂ equivalent molar concentration of 55 mole / liter, wherein the H ₂ gas is 22.4 liters at STP. In one embodiment, the H ₂ supplied as reactant to the reaction chamber 5b31 unit to form a low energy hydrogen form of liquid water and steam contained in the at least one of the. SunCell® can include at least one ejector of at least one of liquid water and steam. The eductor may include at least one of water and steam jets. The injector orifices in the reaction unit chambers can be small to prevent backflow. The injector may contain an antioxidant, a refractory material such as ceramic, or another material of the present invention. SunCell® may include a source of at least one of water and steam and a pressure and flow control system. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise a sonicator, nebulizer, aerosol or nebulizer to generate small water droplets that can be entrained in the carrier gas stream and flow into the reaction unit chamber. The sonic processor may include at least one of a vibrator and a piezoelectric device. The vapor pressure of water in the carrier gas stream can be controlled by controlling the temperature of the water vapor source or the temperature of the flow conduit from the source to the reaction unit chamber. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise a hydrogen source and a hydrogen recombiner, such as a CuO recombiner, to the reaction unit chamber by flowing hydrogen through a recombiner, such as a heated copper oxide recombiner 5b31 Water is added so that the generated water vapor flows into the reaction unit chamber. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise a steam ejector. The steam injector may include at least one of a control valve and a controller to control at least one of steam and unit gas to the steam injector, gas inlet to the polymerization nozzle, polymerization-bifurcation nozzle, communication with water source and overflow Flow in the combined cone, water source, overflow outlet, transfer cone and check valve connected by the outflow outlet. Control valves may include electronic solenoids or other computer-controlled valves that may be controlled by timers, sensors such as cell pressure or water sensors, or manual activators. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further comprise a pump to spray water. Water can be delivered through a narrow cross-section catheter, such as a thin hypodermic needle, so that the heat from the SunCell® does not boil the water in the pump. Pumps may include syringe pumps, peristaltic pumps, metering pumps, or other pumps known in the art. A syringe pump may contain a plurality of syringes so that at least one can be refilled while the other is firing. Syringe pumps can amplify the force of the water in the catheter due to the much smaller cross-section of the catheter relative to the plunger of the syringe. The conduit can be at least one of heat dissipation and cooling to prevent the water in the pump from boiling.

In an embodiment, the reaction unit chamber mixture is controlled by controlling the reaction unit chamber pressure, by controlling the injection rate of the reactants and by controlling the rate at which excess reactants and products of the reaction mixture are discharged from the reaction unit chamber 5b31 at least one means to control this pressure. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a pressure sensor, a vacuum pump, a vacuum line, a valve controller, and a valve, such as a pressure-activated valve, such as a solenoid valve or a throttle valve, which responds to processing the data measured by the sensor. The pressure controller opens and closes the vacuum line from the reaction unit chamber to the vacuum pump. The valve controls the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve can remain closed until the cell pressure reaches a first high set point, then the valve can be actuated to open the valve until the vacuum pump drops the pressure to a second low set point, which can cause activation of the closing valve. In one embodiment, the controller may control at least one reaction parameter, such as reaction cell chamber pressure, reactant injection rate, voltage, current, and molten metal injection rate, to maintain a non-pulsed or approximately steady or continuous plasma.

In one embodiment, SunCell® includes a pressure sensor, or the reaction mixture of at least one reactive source of species (such as _{H 2 O, H 2, O} 2 and argon as a noble gas of the source), a reactant tube Lines, valve controllers, and valves such as pressure activated valves, such as solenoid valves or throttle valves, that open and close at least one reactant from a reactive mixture in response to a controller that handles pressure measured by a sensor Or the source of species to the reactant line of the reaction unit chamber. The valve controls the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve can remain open until the cell pressure reaches a first high set point, then the valve can be actuated to close the valve until the vacuum pump drops the pressure to a second low set point, which can enable activation of the open valve.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® may contain an ejector, such as a micropump. Micropumps may contain mechanical or non-mechanical devices. Exemplary mechanical devices include moving parts that may include actuation and microvalve membranes and rotary plates. The driving force of the micropump can be generated by utilizing at least one effect from the group of piezoelectric effect, electrostatic effect, thermopneumatic effect, pneumatic effect and magnetic effect. Non-mechanical pumps can function with at least one of: electrohydrodynamic, electroosmotic, electrochemical, ultrasonic, capillary, chemical, and another flow generation mechanism known in the art. The micropump may comprise at least one of piezoelectric, electroosmotic, diaphragm, peristaltic, injection, and valveless micropumps, and at least one of capillary and chemically powered pumps, and others known in the art a micropump. An ejector, such as a micropump, may continuously supply the reactant, such as water, or it may supply the reactant intermittently, such as in a pulsed mode. In one embodiment, the water spray includes at least one of a pump such as a micropump, at least one valve, and a water reservoir, and may further include a cooler or extension conduit to store water for the reaction unit chambers The valve and valve are removed a sufficient distance to avoid overheating or boiling of the pre-spray water.

SunCell® may include a jet controller and at least one sensor, such as a sensor that records pressure, temperature, plasma conductivity, or other reactive gas or plasma parameters. The spray sequence can be controlled by a controller that uses input from at least one sensor to deliver the required power while avoiding damage to the SunCell® due to overpowering. In an embodiment, the SunCell® includes a plurality of eductors, such as water spargers, to spray into different zones within the reaction cell chamber, wherein the eductors are activated by the controller to alternate the locations of plasma hot spots in time to avoid damage to the SunCell®. The jetting can be intermittent, periodically intermittent, continuous, or include any other jetting pattern that achieves the desired power, gain, and performance optimization.

SunCell® may include valves, such as pump inlet and outlet valves, that open and close in response to pump injection and filling, wherein the open or closed states of the inlet and outlet valves may be 180° out of phase with each other. The pump can generate a pressure higher than the reaction unit chamber pressure to achieve ejection. In situations where pump injection is susceptible to reaction cell chamber pressure, SunCell® may include a gas connection between the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir that supplies water to the pump to dynamically match the pump discharge pressure to the reaction cell The discharge pressure of the chamber.

In embodiments where the reaction unit chamber pressure is lower than the pump pressure, the pump may include at least one valve to stop flow to the reaction unit chamber when the pump is idle. The pump may contain at least one valve. In an exemplary embodiment, the peristaltic micropump includes at least three microvalves in series. These three valves open and close sequentially to draw fluid from the inlet to the outlet in a process called peristalsis. In one embodiment, the valve may be active, such as a solenoid or piezoelectric check valve, or it may act passively, whereby the valve is closed by back pressure, such as a check valve, such as a ball, swing, diaphragm or Duckbill check valve.

In embodiments where a pressure gradient exists between the water source to be injected into the reaction unit chamber and the reaction unit chamber, the pump may comprise two valves that can be periodically opened and closed 180° out of phase: the reservoir valve and the reaction unit chamber valve. The valve can be separated by a pump chamber with the desired spray volume. With the reaction unit chamber valve closed, the reservoir valve to the water reservoir can be opened to fill the pump chamber. With the reservoir valve closed, the reaction unit chamber valve can be opened to allow the desired volume of water to be injected into the reaction unit chamber. The flow into and out of the pump chamber can be driven by a pressure gradient. The water flow rate can be controlled by controlling the volume of the pump chamber and the period of the synchronizing valve opening and closing. In one embodiment, a micro sprinkler may include two valves: an inlet and an outlet valve to the microchamber or volume of about 10 ul to 15 ul, each mechanically linked and 180° out of phase with respect to opening and closing. The valve can be mechanically actuated by a cam.

In another embodiment, another species of the reaction mixture means, such as H _2, O _2, water, and a rare gas of at least one of water or alternatively may be added to the water. Where the species flowing into the reaction cell chamber is a gas at room temperature, the SunCell® can include a mass flow controller to control the input flow of the gas.

In an embodiment, additives are added to the reaction unit chamber 5b31 to increase the low energy hydrogen reaction rate by providing a source of at least one of H and HOH in the molten metal. Suitable additives can reversibly form hydrates, wherein hydrates are formed at about SunCell® operating temperatures and released at higher temperatures, such as those found in low energy hydrogen reaction plasmas. In an embodiment, the operating temperature of SunCell® may be in the range of about 100°C to 3000°C, and the corresponding temperature range of the low energy hydrogen reactive plasma may be in the range of about 50°C to 2000°C higher than the operating temperature of SunCell®. In an exemplary embodiment, additives such as lithium vanadate or bismuth oxide can be added to the molten metal, where the additives can bind and release water molecules in the plasma to provide at least one of H and HOH catalysts. A source of water may be continuously supplied to the reaction unit chamber, wherein at least some of the water may be bound to additives. Additives can increase the low energy hydrogen reaction rate by binding water into water of hydration and transport the bound water into the plasma where the corresponding additive hydrate can be dehydrated to provide H and HOH catalysts for the low energy hydrogen reaction at least one of them. The water source may include at least one of liquid and gaseous water, hydrogen, and oxygen. The SunCell® may comprise at least one of the water sprinkler of the present invention and the hydrogen-oxygen recombiner of the present invention, such as a precious metal supported on a ceramic such as alumina. The mixture of hydrogen and oxygen can be supplied to a recombiner, which recombines the hydrogen and oxygen into water which then flows into the reaction unit chamber.

In another embodiment where a pressure gradient exists between the water source to be injected into the reaction unit chamber and the reaction unit chamber, the inlet flow of water may be continuously supplied via a flow rate controller or restrictor, which flow rate controller or a restrictor such as at least one of: (i) a needle valve; (ii) a narrow or small ID tube; (iii) a hygroscopic material such as cellulose, cotton, polyethylene glycol, or the like another hygroscopic material known in the art; and (iv) a semipermeable membrane, such as a ceramic membrane, glass frit, or another semipermeable membrane known in the art. An absorbent material, such as cotton, can contain the packaging and, in addition to another restrictor, such as a needle valve, can be used to restrict flow. SunCell® may contain retainers for hygroscopic materials or semipermeable membranes. The flow rate of the flow restrictor can be calibrated, and the vacuum pump and pressure controlled vent valve can further maintain the desired dynamic chamber pressure and water flow rate. In another embodiment, another species of the reaction mixture means, such as H _2, O _2, water, and a rare gas of at least one of water or alternatively may be added to the water. Where the species flowing into the reaction cell chamber is a gas at room temperature, the SunCell® can include a mass flow controller to control the input flow of the gas.

In one embodiment, the eductor operating under the reaction unit chamber vacuum may include a flow restrictor, such as a needle valve or narrow tube, where the length and diameter are controlled to control the water flow rate. Exemplary small diameter tube injectors include injectors similar to those used for ESI-ToF injection systems, such as injectors with IDs in the range of about 25 um to 300 um. The flow restrictor may be combined with at least one other injector element such as a valve or pump. In an exemplary embodiment, the head pressure of the small diameter tube is controlled by a pump such as a syringe pump. The injection rate can be further controlled by a valve from the tube to the reaction unit chamber. The discharge pressure can be applied by pressurizing the gas on the surface of the water, where the gas is compressible and the water is incompressible. Gas pressurization can be applied by means of a pump. The water spray rate can be controlled by at least one of pipe diameter, length, discharge pressure and valve opening and closing frequency and duty cycle. Tube diameters can range from about 10 um to 10 mm, lengths can range from about 1 cm to 1 m, discharge pressures can range from about 1 Torr to 100 atm, and valve opening and closing frequencies can range from about 0.1 Hz to 1 kHz range, and the duty cycle may be in the range of about 0.01 to 0.99.

In an embodiment, SunCell® includes a source of hydrogen, such as hydrogen, and a source of oxygen, such as oxygen. The source of at least one of the hydrogen and oxygen sources includes at least one or more gas tanks, flow regulators, pressure gauges, valves, and gas lines to the reaction unit chamber. In an embodiment, the HOH catalyst is produced by the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen can flow into the reaction unit chamber. The inlet flow of reactants such as at least one of hydrogen and oxygen may be continuous or intermittent. The flow rate and exhaust or vacuum flow rate can be controlled to achieve the desired pressure. The inlet flow can be intermittent, wherein the flow can be stopped at the maximum pressure of the desired range and started at the minimum of the desired range. H ₂ pressure and the flow rate and O ₂ pressure and flow rates of the at least one can be controlled to the HOH and H ₂ concentration or the partial pressure of the at least one held in the desired range, in order to control and optimize from the low The power of the energy hydrogen reaction. In one embodiment, at least one of hydrogen inventory and flow is significantly greater than oxygen inventory and flow. And the partial pressure of H ₂ O ₂ and flow rate of the H ₂ O ₂ in a ratio of at least one may be from about 1.1 to 10,000,1.5 to 1000,1.5 to 500,1.5 to 100, 2 to 50 and 2 to 10 at least one of the ranges. In embodiments, the total pressure may be maintained in a range that supports high concentrations of nascent HOH and atomic H, such as about 1 mTorr to 500 Torr, 10 mTorr to 100 Torr, 100 mTorr to 50 Torr, and 1 mTorr within at least one pressure range to 100 Torr. In one embodiment, at least one of the reservoir and the reaction cell chamber can be maintained at an operating temperature that is greater than the decomposition temperature of at least one of gallium oxy(hydroxide) and gallium hydroxide. The operating temperature may be in at least one range of about 200°C to 2000°C, 200°C to 1000°C, and 200°C to 700°C. With suppression of the formation of gallium oxy(hydroxide) and gallium hydroxide, the water inventory can be controlled in the gaseous state.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a gas mixer to mix at least two gases, such as hydrogen and oxygen, flowing into the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the micro-injector for water comprises a mixer that mixes hydrogen and oxygen, where the mixture forms HOH as it enters the reaction unit chamber. The mixer may further comprise at least one mass flow controller, such as a mass flow controller for each gas or gas mixture such as a premixed gas. The premixed gas may comprise each gas in a desired molar ratio, such as a mixture comprising hydrogen and oxygen. H H ₂ -O ₂ mixture of ₂ mole percentage excess can be significant, such as in O mole percentage of from about 1.5 to 1000 times the molar ratio range _2. A mass flow controller can control the flow and subsequent combustion of hydrogen and oxygen to form the HOH catalyst such that the resulting gas flowing into the reaction unit chamber contains excess hydrogen and HOH catalyst. In an exemplary embodiment, H ₂ mole percentage in the range of about 1.5 to 1000-fold of the mole percentage of HOH. The mixer may contain a hydrogen-oxygen torch. Torches may comprise designs known in the art, such as commercial oxyhydrogen torches. In the illustrative embodiment, is mixed with H ₂ O ₂ by the torch injector is formed so that the O ₂ in the H ₂ stream HOH to avoid oxygen gallium cell components or reaction of the electrolyte dissolved gallium, by thus contributing to the Regeneration to gallium by in situ electrolysis of an electrolyte such as NaI or another electrolyte of the present invention. Alternatively, the supply of the torch compared to the two flow controllers, so that by a single flow controller comprising H ₂ -O ₂ mixture of at least tenfold molar excess of hydrogen flow into the reaction chamber means.

So that H ₂ O by the reaction with gallium Ga ₂ O ₃ and ₂ to form H, the H ₂ gas instead of hydrogen as water is supplied to the Ga reaction chamber unit can be reduced by the amount of formed ₂ O ₃ as source of H _2. Micro-sprinklers that include gas mixers may have advantageous properties that allow the ability to spray precise amounts of water at very low flow rates due to the ability to more precisely control gas flow relative to liquid flow. Furthermore, _{the reaction of O 2} with excess H ₂ can form about 100% nascent water as the initial product compared to large amounts of water and steam that contain multiple hydrogen-bonded water molecules. In one embodiment, the gallium is maintained at a temperature below 100°C so that the gallium may have low reactivity for depleting the HOH catalyst by forming gallium oxide. The gallium can be maintained at low temperature by a cooling system, such as a cooling system including a heat exchanger or a water bath for at least one of the reservoir and the reaction unit chamber. Embodiment, SunCell® operated at trace H ₂ O ₂ and flow conditions such as high flowing _{99% H 2/1% O} 2 at a rate of the exemplary embodiment, wherein the reaction cell chamber pressure may be kept low, such as a pressure within the range of about 1 to 30 Torr, the flow rate and can be controlled to produce the desired power, where H ₂ (1/4) is formed by the theoretical maximum power of about 1 kW / 30 sccm. Any resulting gallium oxide can be reduced by in situ hydrogen plasma and electrolytic reduction. In an exemplary embodiment capable of producing a maximum excess power of 75 kW, where the vacuum system is capable of ultra-high vacuum, operating conditions are about an oxide-free gallium surface, a low operating pressure such as about 1 to 5 Torr, and a low operating pressure such as about 2000 the high H ₂ sccm flow rate, and supplied via a torch injector as from about 10 to 20 sccm oxygen traces of HOH catalyst.

In one embodiment, at least one of the gallium-contacting components or component surfaces of the SunCell®, such as the walls of the reaction unit chamber, the top of the reaction unit chamber, the inner wall of the reservoir, and the inner wall of the EM pump tube may be Coated with coatings that do not readily alloy with gallium, such as ceramics, such as mullite, BN, or another of the present invention; or metals, such as W, Ta, Re, Nb, Zr, Mo, TZM, or another of the present invention. In another embodiment, the surface may be coated with a material that does not easily alloy with gallium, such as carbon; a ceramic, such as BN, alumina, zirconia, quartz, or another of the present invention; or a metal, such as W , Ta, Re or another of the present invention. In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction unit chamber, the reservoir, and the EM pump tube may comprise Nb, Zr, W, Ta, Re, Mo, or TZM. In one embodiment, SunCell® components or portions of components such as reaction cell chambers, reservoirs, and EM pump tubes may contain gallium exposure at temperatures exceeding extremes, such as exceeding about 400°C, 500°C, 600°C , 700°C, 800°C, 900°C, and 1000°C at least one extreme value) that does not form an alloy. SunCell® can operate at temperatures where parts of the assembly do not reach the temperature at which gallium alloy formation occurs. SunCell® operating temperature can be controlled by cooling by cooling means such as a heat exchanger or water bath. The water bath may comprise impinging water jets, such as jets from a water manifold, wherein at least one of the number and flow rate of jets incident on the reaction chamber or each jet is controlled by a controller to maintain the reaction chamber at within the desired operating temperature range. In embodiments such as water jet cooling comprising at least one surface, the exterior surface of at least one component of the SunCell® may be coated with an insulator, such as carbon, to maintain elevated interior temperatures while allowing operational cooling. In embodiments in which the SunCell® is cooled by means such as at least one of a suspension in a coolant such as water or a jet of coolant that is impacted, the EM pump tubing is insulated to prevent the spray of cold liquid metal to in the plasma to avoid reducing the rate of low-energy hydrogen reactions. In an exemplary insulating embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may be cast in a cementitious material that is an excellent insulator (eg, the cementitious material may have less than 1 W/mK or less than 0.5 W/mK or less than 0.1 W /mK thermal conductivity). Surfaces that form gallium alloys above the temperature extremes achieved during SunCell® operation can be selectively coated or coated with materials that do not readily alloy with gallium. Portions of SunCell® components that contact gallium and exceed the alloying temperature of component materials such as stainless steel can be coated with materials that do not readily alloy with gallium. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction unit chamber walls may be clad with W, Ta, Re, Mo, TZM, niobium, vanadium, or zirconium plates or ceramics such as quartz, especially near the electrodes where the reaction unit chamber temperature is greatest area. The cladding may comprise the reaction cell chamber liner 5b31a. The liner may contain a gasket or other gallium impermeable material, such as a ceramic paste positioned between the liner and the reaction cell chamber wall, to prevent gallium leakage behind the liner. The liner can be attached to the wall by at least one of welds, bolts, or another fastener or adhesive known in the art.

In one embodiment, a bus bar, such as at least one of 10, 5k2, and corresponding electrical leads from the bus bar to at least one of ignition and EM pump power supplies may serve as for removal from reaction cell chamber 5b31 A component of heat for use. SunCell® may include a heat exchanger to remove heat from at least one of the bus bars and corresponding leads. In SunCell® embodiments including MHD converters, heat losses on the bus bars and their leads can be transferred back to the reaction cell chamber by means of a heat exchanger that transfers heat from the bus bars to the molten silver, which Molten silver is transferred from the MHD converter back to the reaction unit chamber by the EM pump.

In an embodiment, the side walls of the reaction cell chamber, such as the four vertical sides of a cubic reaction cell chamber or the walls of a cylindrical cell, may be coated or clad in a refractory metal such as W, Ta, or Re , or covered by a refractory metal such as a W, Ta or Re lining. Metals can be resistant to alloying with gallium. The top of the reaction unit chamber can be clad or coated with an electrical insulator, or include an electrical insulating liner, such as ceramic. Exemplary cladding, coating, and lining materials are BN, Gorilla Glass (eg, alkali aluminosilicate glass flakes available from Corning), quartz, titanium dioxide, aluminum oxide, yttrium oxide, hafnium oxide, zirconium oxide, carbide silicon, such as graphite, pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide coated by the graphite or as a mixture of TiO _{2 -Yr 2 O 3 -Al 2 O} 3 is at least one of the. The top liner may have penetrations for the base 5c1 (FIG. 23). The top liner prevents the top electrode 8 from being electrically shorted to the top of the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the top flange 409a (FIGS. 29A-29C) may comprise a lining, such as the lining of the present invention; or a coating, such as a ceramic coating, such as mullite, ZTY, Resbond, or another of the present invention. a coating; or paint, such as VHT Flameproof ^™ .

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a backplane 409a thermal sensor, an ignition power controller, an ignition power supply, and a shutdown switch that can be directly or indirectly connected to at least one of the ignition power controller and the ignition power supply. One terminates the ignition when a short circuit occurs at the bottom plate 409a and it overheats. In one embodiment, the ceramic liner comprises a plurality of sections, wherein the sections provide at least one of expansion gaps or junctions between the sections and limit the thermal gradient along the length of the plurality of sections of the liner . In one embodiment, the liner may be suspended above the liquid metal level to avoid the steep thermal gradients that develop if a portion of the liner is partially immersed in gallium. During operation, the liner sections may contain different combinations of materials for different zones with different temperature ranges. In an exemplary embodiment of a liner comprising a plurality of ceramic segments of at least two types of ceramics, the segment in the hottest region, such as the region near the positive electrode, may comprise SiC or BN, and at least one other segment may comprise SiC or BN. Contains quartz.

In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 contains an internal insulator (also referred to herein as a liner), such as at least one ceramic or carbon liner, such as quartz, BN, alumina, zirconia, hafnium oxide, or the present invention Another lining. In some embodiments, the reaction unit chamber does not contain a liner, such as a ceramic liner. In some embodiments, the reaction cell chamber walls may comprise metal in stainless steel, such as SS 347, such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS or W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re or in the case of silicide-coated Mo kept below the temperature at which alloying with the molten metal occurs, such as below about 400°C to 500°C. In embodiments such as where the reaction unit chamber is immersed in a coolant such as water, the reaction unit chamber 5b31 wall thickness may be thin such that the inner wall temperature is lower than the wall material (such as 347 SS, such as 4130 Alloy SS, The temperature at which Cr-Mo SS or Nb-Mo (5 wt %)-Zr (1 wt %)) is alloyed with a molten metal such as gallium. The reaction unit chamber wall thickness may be about at least one of less than 5 mm, less than 4 mm, less than 3 mm, less than 2 mm, and less than 1 mm. The temperature inside the liner can be much higher, such as in at least one range of about 500°C to 3400°C, 500°C to 2500°C, 500°C to 1000°C, and 500°C to 1500°C. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction unit chamber and reservoir include a plurality of liners, such as a BN innermost liner, which may include W, Ta, or Re inlays and may be segmented; and one or more concentric outer liners Quartz lining. The bottom liner may include an inner BN plate and at least one other ceramic plate, each with perforations for penetrations. In one embodiment, the penetration may be sealed with a cement such as ceramic cement, such as Resbond, or in the case of molten gallium, a refractory powder that is resistant to molten metal alloy formation, such as W powder. An exemplary floor liner is a moldable ceramic insulating disk. In one embodiment, the liner may comprise a refractory or ceramic inlay, such as a W or Ta inlay. Ceramic inlays may comprise ceramic tiles, such as ceramic tiles comprising semicircular rings of small height stacked into cylinders. Exemplary ceramics are zirconia, yttria stabilized zirconia, hafnium oxide, alumina, and magnesia. The height of the ring may range from about 1 mm to 5 cm. In another embodiment, the inlay may comprise tiles or beads that can be held in place by high temperature bonding materials or cement. Alternatively, the tiles or beads may be embedded in a refractory matrix such as carbon; a refractory metal such as W, Ta or Mo; or a refractory diboride or carbide such as diboron of Ta, W, Re, Ti, Zr or Hf or carbides, such as ZrB _2, TaC, HfC or WC and the other of the present invention.

In an exemplary embodiment, the liner may comprise a segmented ring with quartz at the gallium surface level, and the remainder of the ring may comprise SiC. The quartz segment may comprise a beveled quartz plate that forms a ring such as a hexagonal or octagonal ring. In another exemplary embodiment, the reaction unit chamber walls may be sprayed, carbon coated, or ceramic coated, and the lining may comprise carbon with an inner refractory metal lining, such as a lining comprising Nb, Mo, Ta, or W. Another inner liner may comprise a refractory metal ring, such as a hexagonal or octagonal ring at the gallium surface, such as a refractory metal ring comprising a beveled refractory metal plate, such as a refractory metal comprising a Nb, Mo, Ta or W plate ring.

The insulator may contain a vacuum gap. The vacuum gap may comprise the space between the liner having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the reservoir and the walls of the reaction unit chamber, where the reaction unit chamber pressure is low, such as below about 50 Torr. To prevent the plasma from contacting the reaction cell chamber walls, the reaction cell chamber may contain a cap or cover, such as a ceramic plug, such as a BN plug. A low energy hydrogen reaction mixture gas line can supply the reaction cell chamber, and a vacuum line can provide gas evacuation. The vacuum gap can be evacuated by a separate vacuum line connection or by a connection to the vacuum provided by the reaction cell chamber or its vacuum line. To prevent the hot gallium from contacting the reservoir walls, the reservoir walls may include a liner, such as at least one quartz liner, having a height from the base of the reservoir to just above the gallium level, wherein the liner displaces the molten gallium to provide Insulate from thermal gallium contact with the wall.

The cell walls can be thin to enhance the permeability of molecular low energy hydrogen products, thereby avoiding product inhibition. The liner may comprise a porous material, such as BN, porous quartz, porous SiC, or gas gaps to facilitate diffusion and permeation of the low energy hydrogen product from the reaction cell chamber. The reaction cell chamber walls may comprise a material that is highly permeable to molecular low energy hydrogen, such as Cr-Mo SS, such as 4130 alloy SS.

In one embodiment, at least one SunCell® component, such as the walls of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the walls of the reservoir 5c, the walls of the EM pump tubing 5k6, the bottom plate 5kk1, and the top flange 409a may be coated with a coating such as by one of the present invention, such as a ceramic resistant and resistant to corrosion and O ₂ and H ₂ O in at least one of the at least one of the pair of forming an alloy with the molten metal. The coefficients of thermal expansion of the coating and the coated component may be approximately matched, such as within at least one range of factors of about 0.1 to 10, 0.1 to 5, and 0.1 to 2. In the case of a ceramic coating with a low coefficient of thermal expansion, a coated metal with a similar coefficient of thermal expansion, such as Kovar or nickel steel, is chosen for the coated component.

In one embodiment, the EM pump tubes 5k6 and the EM bus bars 5k2 attached to the EM pump tubes 5k6 are approximately matched in thermal expansion coefficients. In an exemplary embodiment, the section of EM pump tubing connected to the EM pump bus bar 5k2 comprises nickel steel or Kovar to match the low coefficient of thermal expansion of the W bus bar.

In one embodiment, at least one component including the liner may be cooled by a cooling system. The cooling system can maintain the temperature of the components below the temperature of alloying with molten metals such as gallium. The cooling system may include a water bath in which the components are submerged. The cooling system may further include water jets impinging on the cooling element. In an exemplary embodiment, the assembly includes an EM pump tube, and water bath immersion and water jet cooling of the EM pump tube can be achieved by using an EM pump tube liner with very low thermal conductivity, such as a liner comprising quartz The pumped hot gallium is implemented with minimal cooling.

Formation of Nascent Water and Atomic Hydrogen In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber further comprises a dissociator chamber that contains a hydrogen dissociator (such as Pt, Pd, Ir, Re) or other dissociated metal on a support (such as carbon) _{, or ceramic beads such as Al 2} O ₃ , silica or zeolite beads, Raney nickel or Ni, niobium, titanium or the present invention in a form that provides a high surface area such as powder, mat, fabric or braid other dissociated metals). In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a recombiner to _{catalyze the reaction of the supplied H 2} and O ₂ to HOH and H, which flow into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The recombiner may further include a controller including at least one of a temperature sensor, a heater, and a cooling system, such as sensing recombiner temperature and controlling cooling systems such as sprinklers and heating at least one of the heat exchangers) to maintain the recombiner catalyst in a desired operating temperature range, such as a heat exchanger in a temperature range in the range of about 60°C to 600°C. The upper temperature is limited by the temperature at which the recombiner catalyst sinters and loses effective catalyst surface area.

H ₂ / O ₂ recombination reaction of H ₂ O to 100% may not yield, in particular under flow conditions. Removal of oxygen to prevent oxide coating formation may allow ignition power to be reduced in the range of about 10% to 100%. Recombination may be used to remove approximately all of the oxygen comprise means of the oxygen by converting it into H ₂ O and flows to the battery. The recombiner can further act as a dissociator to form H atoms and HOH catalyst, which flow through the gas line to the reaction unit chamber. The longer the flow path of the gas is combined with the combined increase of the residence time of the reactor and allowing the reaction H ₂ O ₂ is closer to completion. However, longer paths in the recombiners and gas lines may allow for more undesirable H recombination and HOH dimerization. Thus, the balance of competing effects of flow path length is optimized in the recombiner, and the length of gas lines from the recombiner/dissociator to the reaction unit chamber can be minimized.

In one embodiment, the source of oxygen such as O ₂ or H ₂ O supplied to the reaction unit of the chamber to cause the oxygen in the reaction chamber stock unit increases. In the case of molten metal gallium, gallium oxide may comprise oxygen gas stock, H ₂ O and O ₂ in the at least one. Oxygen inventories may be necessary to form HOH catalysts for low energy hydrogen reactions. However, oxide coatings on molten metals, such as gallium oxide on liquid gallium, can cause suppression of low energy hydrogen reactions and an increase in ignition voltage at a fixed ignition current. In one embodiment, the oxygen inventory is optimized. Optimization can be achieved by intermittently flowing oxygen with the controller. Alternatively, oxygen can flow at a high rate until an optimal inventory is accumulated, and then the flow rate can be reduced to maintain the desired optimal inventory at a lower flow rate balanced by the self-reaction cell chamber and the reservoir The rate at which the device is depleted by removing the oxygen inventory, such as by evacuating through a vacuum pump. In an exemplary embodiment, the gas flow rate is about 2500 sccm H ₂ /250 sccm O ₂ for about 1 minute to load about 100 cc reaction cell chamber and about 1 kg gallium reservoir inventory, and then thereafter is about 2500 sccm H ₂ /5 sccm O ₂ . An indication that the oxide layer is not forming or is being consumed is the decrease in firing voltage over time at a constant firing current, where the voltage can be monitored by a voltage sensor and the oxygen flow rate can be controlled by a controller.

In one embodiment, SunCell® includes an ignition power parameter sensor and an oxygen source flow rate controller that senses at least one of ignition voltage at fixed current, ignition current at fixed voltage, and ignition power, and responds Change the oxygen source flow rate based on the power parameter. The oxygen source may include at least one of oxygen and water. In an exemplary embodiment, the oxygen source controller may control the flow of oxygen into the reaction unit chamber based on the firing voltage, wherein the oxygen inventory in the reaction unit chamber is responsive to being lower than sensed by the firing power parameter sensor The voltage of the threshold voltage increases and decreases in response to a sensed voltage above the threshold voltage.

To increase recombiner productivity, recombiner residence time, surface area, and catalytic activity can be increased. Catalysts with higher kinetics can be selected. The operating temperature can be increased.

In another embodiment, the recombiner comprises a hot filament, such as a noble metal black coated Pt filament, such as a Pt-black-Pt filament. The filaments can be maintained at a temperature high enough to maintain the desired recombination rate by resistive heating maintained by the power supply, temperature sensor, and controller.

In one embodiment, H ₂ / O ₂ recombination comprises a plasma source, such as a glow discharge, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively or capacitively coupled RF plasma. Discharged cells cut off as recombiners can have high vacuum capability. The exemplary discharge cell 900 shown in FIGS. 31A-C includes a stainless steel vessel or glow discharge plasma chamber 901 with a Conflat flange 902 on top of a mating top plate 903 sealed with a silver-plated copper gasket. The top plate may have a high voltage feedthrough 904 to the inner tungsten rod electrodes 905 . The battery body can be grounded to serve as the opposing electrode. It may further comprise a top flange H _2, O ₂ and mixtures of at least one gas inlet 906. The bottom plate 907 of the stainless steel vessel may contain a gas outlet to the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge cell further includes a power source, such as a DC power source having a voltage in the range of about 10 V to 5 kV and a current in the range of about 0.01 A to 100 A. Glow breakdown and maintenance voltages for the desired gas pressure, electrode separation and discharge current can be selected according to Paschen's law. The glow discharge cell may further include means, such as a spark plug ignition system, to cause gas collapse to initiate a discharge plasma, wherein the glow discharge plasma power operates at a lower holding voltage that maintains the glow discharge. The breakdown voltage may be in the range of about 50 V to 5 kV, and the maintenance voltage may be in the range of about 10 V to 1 kV. The glow discharge cell can be electrically isolated from other SunCell® components, such as reaction cell chamber 5b31 and reservoir 5c, to prevent shorting of ignition power. Pressure waves can cause glow discharge instabilities that produce changes in the reactants flowing into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and can damage the glow discharge power supply. To prevent backpressure waves due to low energy hydrogen reactions from propagating into the glow discharge plasma chamber, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may contain a baffle, such as a baffle screwed into a BN sleeve on the electrode bus bar, where The gas line from the glow discharge cell enters the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge power supply may contain at least one surge protector element, such as a capacitor. The length of the discharge cell and the height of the reaction cell chamber can be simulated to reduce the distance from the glow discharge plasma to the gallium positive surface by reducing the distance for possible recombination, thereby increasing the concentration of atomic hydrogen and HOH catalyst.

In one embodiment, the connection area between the plasma cell and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be minimized to avoid atomic H-wall recombination and HOH dimerization. Plasma cells, such as glow discharge cells, can be connected directly to electrical isolators, such as ceramic isolators, such as those from Solid Seal Technologies, which are directly connected to the top flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber. The electrical isolator can be attached to the discharge cell and flange by welding, flanged joints, or other fasteners known in the art. The inner diameter of the electrical isolator may be larger, such as about the diameter of the discharge cell chamber, such as in the range of about 0.05 cm to 15 cm. In another embodiment where the bodies of the SunCell® and the discharge cell are kept at the same voltage (such as at ground level), the discharge cell may be connected directly to the reaction cell chamber, such as at the top flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber place. Connections may include welds, flanged joints, or other fasteners known in the art. The inner diameter of the connector may be larger, such as about the diameter of the discharge cell chamber, such as in the range of about 0.05 cm to 15 cm.

Output power levels can be controlled by hydrogen and oxygen flow rates, discharge current, ignition current and voltage, and EM pump current and molten metal temperature. SunCell® may include corresponding sensors and controllers for each of these and other parameters to control output power. Molten metals such as gallium can be maintained in a temperature range of about 200°C to 2200°C. In an exemplary embodiment comprising an 8-inch diameter 4130 Cr-Mo SS cell with Mo liner along the reaction cell chamber wall, the glow discharge hydrogen dissociator and recombiner are directly via the 0.75-inch OD set of the Conflat flange Connecting the flange 409a of the reaction unit chamber, the glow discharge voltage is 260 V; the glow discharge current is 2 A; the hydrogen flow rate is 2000 sccm; the oxygen flow rate is 1 sccm; the operating pressure is 5.9 Torr; Maintained at 400°C; ignition current and voltage of 1300 A and 26 to 27 V; EM pump rate of 100 g/s, and output power exceeding 300 kW for an input ignition power of 29 kW, corresponding to a gain of at least 10 times .

In one embodiment, a recombiner such as a glow discharge battery recombiner may be cooled by a coolant such as water. In an exemplary embodiment, the electrical feedthrough of the recombiner may be water cooled. The recombiner can be submerged in a stirred water bath for cooling. The recombiner may include a safety disconnect switch that senses discrete voltages and terminates the plasma power supply when the voltage is above a threshold value, such as at about 0 V to 20 V (eg, Threshold values in the range of 0.1 V to 20 V).

In one embodiment, SunCell® driving a plasma comprising a battery, such as battery discharge, such as a glow discharge, microwave discharge or inductive or capacitive coupling discharge of the battery, wherein the reaction mixture comprises a low energy with respect to the hydrogen H ₂ (66.6%) to O ₂ (33.3%) mole percent of the low energy hydrogen reaction mixture of the invention, such as hydrogen, in which the stoichiometric mixture exceeds oxygen. The drive plasma cell may include a vacuum capable vessel, a reaction mixture supply, a vacuum pump, a pressure gauge, a flow meter, a plasma generator, a plasma power supply, and a controller. Plasma sources for maintaining low energy hydrogen reactions are given in Mills prior applications, which are incorporated by reference. The plasma source can maintain a plasma in a low energy hydrogen reaction mixture comprising a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, compared to the _{stoichiometry of H 2} (66.6%) to O ₂ (33.3%) mole percent The mixture is deficient in oxygen. The oxygen deficit of the hydrogen-oxygen mixture can range from about 5% to 99% of the stoichiometric mixture. The mixture may comprise from about 99.66% to 68.33% H ₂ and from about 0.333% to 31.66% O ₂ mole percentage of. These mixtures can produce reaction mixtures after passing through a plasma cell such as a glow discharge sufficient to induce a catalytic reaction as described herein upon interaction with the biased molten metal in the reaction cell chamber.

In one embodiment, the reactant mixture gas formed at the outflow of the plasma cell can be pressurized into the reaction cell by a velocity gas flow member such as an impeller or by a gas jet to increase the flow rate of the reactants through the cell, while increasing the flow rate of the reactants through the cell. The reaction cell pressure was maintained in the desired range. The high velocity gas can be passed through the recombiner plasma source before being injected into the reaction cell chamber.

In one embodiment, the plasma recombiner/dissociator maintains atomic H and HOH catalysts in the reaction unit chamber by injecting atomic H and HOH catalyst directly into the reaction unit chamber from an external plasma recombiner/dissociator High concentration of at least one of the HOH catalysts. The corresponding reaction conditions may be similar to the reaction conditions resulting in extremely high kinetic and power effects produced by the extremely high temperature in the reaction unit chamber. An exemplary high temperature range is about 2000°C to 3400°C. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a plurality of recombiners/dissociators, such as plasma discharge cell recombiners/dissociators that inject at least one of atomic H and HOH catalysts into the reaction unit chamber It can be done by flow.

In another embodiment, the source of hydrogen such as H ₂ of the tank may be connected to the manifold, the manifold may be connected to at least two mass flow controllers (MFC). The first MFC can _{supply H 2} gas to a _{second manifold that receives the H 2} line and the rare gas line from a rare gas source such as an argon tank. Second manifold output in a housing to be connected to a dissociation agent (such as a catalyst, such as _{Pt / Al 2 O 3, Pt} / C according to the present invention or the other) line, wherein the dissociation agent can be output to the reaction Lines of unit chambers. The second MFC H ₂ gas may be supplied to and from a receiving line, such as H ₂ O ₂ of the third manifold oxygen line groove of an oxygen source tube. The third manifold may be output through the housing to the recombination device (such as a catalyst, such as _{Pt / Al 2 O 3, Pt} / C according to the present invention or the other) line, wherein the output device may be combined to Lines of the reaction unit chamber.

Alternatively, the second MFC may be connected to the second manifold supplied by the first MFC. In another embodiment, the first MFC may flow hydrogen directly to the recombiner or the recombiner and the second MFC. Argon can be supplied by a third MFC that receives gas from a supply such as an argon tank and outputs argon directly into the reaction cell chamber.

In another embodiment, H ₂ may flow from its supply, such as an H ₂ tank, to the first MFC output to the first manifold. O ₂ can flow from its supply, such as an O ₂ tank, to the second MFC outputting to the first manifold. The first manifold may output to a recombiner/dissociator that outputs to the second manifold. A noble gas, such as argon, can flow from its supply, such as an argon tank, to a second manifold output to the reaction cell chamber. Other flow schemes are within the scope of the present invention, wherein such flows deliver reactant gases in possibly ordered arrangements by means of gas supplies, MFCs, manifolds, and connections known in the art.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes at least one of: a source of hydrogen (such as water or hydrogen), such as a hydrogen tank; means to control flow from a source (such as a hydrogen mass flow controller); pressure regulation a line, such as a hydrogen line, from a hydrogen source to at least one of a reservoir or reaction unit chamber below the molten metal level in the chamber; and a controller. Hydrogen or a source of hydrogen can be introduced directly into the molten metal, where the concentration or pressure can be greater than that achieved by external introduction of the metal. Higher concentrations or pressures increase the solubility of hydrogen in the molten metal. Hydrogen can be dissolved as atomic hydrogen, where molten metals such as gallium or gallium indium tin alloys can act as dissociating agents. In another embodiment, the hydrogen line may contain a hydrogen dissociation agent, such as a noble metal on a support, such as Pt on an _{Al 2} O _{3 support.} Atomic hydrogen may be released from the surface of the molten metal in the reaction cell chamber to support the low energy hydrogen reaction. The gas line may have an inlet from the hydrogen source at a higher level than the outlet into the molten metal to prevent reverse flow of the molten metal into the mass flow controller. The hydrogen line may extend into the molten metal, and may further include a hydrogen diffuser at the end to distribute the hydrogen. Lines, such as hydrogen lines, may contain U-sections or traps. Lines may enter the reaction unit chamber above the molten metal and contain sections that bend below the surface of the molten metal. At least one of a source of hydrogen, such as a hydrogen tank, a regulator, and a mass flow controller, can provide sufficient pressure of the hydrogen or source of hydrogen to overcome the discharge pressure of the molten metal at the outlet of the line, such as the hydrogen line, allowing for Desired source of hydrogen or hydrogen stream.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a source of hydrogen, such as tanks, valves, regulators, pressure gauges, vacuum pumps, and controllers, and may further include at least one means for forming atomic hydrogen from the source of hydrogen, such as at least one of the following : hydrogen dissociation agent (such as one of the present invention, such as Re/C or Pt/C) and plasma source (such as low energy hydrogen reaction plasma); high voltage power supply, which can be applied to SunCell® electrodes to maintain the glow A discharge plasma; an RF plasma source; a microwave plasma source; or another plasma source of the present invention that maintains the hydrogen plasma in the reaction cell chamber. The hydrogen source may supply pressurized hydrogen. The source of pressurized hydrogen may be at least one of reversibly and intermittently pressurizing the reaction unit chambers with hydrogen. Pressurized hydrogen can dissolve in molten metals such as gallium. The atomic hydrogen-forming structure increases the solubility of hydrogen in the molten metal. The reaction unit chamber hydrogen pressure may be in at least one of a range of about 0.01 atm to 1000 atm, 0.1 atm to 500 atm, and 0.1 atm to 100 atm. Hydrogen can be removed by evacuation after a residence time to allow absorption. The residence time may be in the range of at least one of about 0.1 second to 60 minutes, 1 second to 30 minutes, and 1 second to 1 minute. SunCell® may include a plurality of reaction unit chambers that may be intermittently supplied with atomic hydrogen and at least one of pressurized and depressurized with the hydrogen in a coordinated manner, wherein each reaction unit chamber may be Hydrogen is absorbed while the other is pressurizing or supplying atomic hydrogen, being evacuated, or in operation to maintain a low energy hydrogen reaction. For causing the absorption of hydrogen to the exemplary system and conditions of the molten gallium Carreon [MLCarreon, "synergistic interaction of H ₂ and N ₂ with a melt of gallium in the presence of plasma _{(Synergistic interactions of H 2 and N} 2 with molten gallium in the presence of plasma)”, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, Vol. 36, No. 2, (2018), 021303, pp. 1-8; https://doi.org/10.1116/1.5004540] gives, It is incorporated herein by reference. In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® operates at high hydrogen pressures, such as 0.5 to 10 atm, where the plasma exhibits pulsed behavior with much lower input power than with continuous plasma and ignition current. Subsequently, pressure was maintained at about 1 torr to 5 torr, where 1500 sccm H ₂ +15 sccm O ₂ at greater than 90 deg.] C flows through the G 1 Pt / Al ₂ O _3, and then flows to the reaction chamber means, wherein high power output by improving the gallium from the gallium temperature of excess H ₂ gas is generated in addition. Or the corresponding H ₂ loading (Ga uptake) and unloading (H ₂ exhaust from gallium) can be repeated.

In one embodiment, hydrogen or a source of hydrogen gas may be injected directly into the molten metal in a direction that pushes the molten metal to the opposite electrode of a pair of electrodes, where the molten metal bath acts as the electrode. Gas line may act as an injector, wherein the injection of H ₂ gas such as hydrogen or a hydrogen source may be at least partially ejecting the molten metal to serve as an injector. The EM pump injector can act as an additional molten metal injector for an ignition system comprising at least two electrodes and a power source.

In one embodiment, SunCell® includes a molecular hydrogen dissociation agent. The dissociating agent may be contained in the reaction unit chamber or in a separation chamber in gaseous communication with the reaction unit chamber. Separating the housing prevents the dissociation agent from failing due to exposure to molten metal, such as gallium. The dissociating agent may comprise a dissociating material, such as supported Pt, such as Pt on alumina beads or another one of the present invention or known in the art. Alternatively, the dissociating agent may comprise a hot filament or plasma discharge source, such as a glow discharge, microwave plasma, plasma torch, inductively or capacitively coupled RF discharge, dielectric barrier discharge, piezoelectric direct discharge, acoustic discharge or the present invention or the like Another discharge battery known in the art. The hot filaments can be resistively heated by passing current through an electrically isolated feedthrough to penetrate the reaction cell chamber walls and then through the filament's power supply.

In another embodiment, the ignition current may be increased to increase at least one of the hydrogen dissociation rate and the plasma ion-electron recombination rate. In one embodiment, the firing waveform may include a DC offset, such as a DC offset in the range of about 1 V to 100 V, with the superimposed AC voltage in the range of about 1 V to 100 V. The DC voltage can sufficiently increase the AC voltage to form a plasma in the low energy hydrogen reaction mixture, and the AC component can include high currents in the presence of the plasma, such as in the range of about 100 A to 100,000 A. The DC current with AC modulation can cause the ignition current to be pulsed at a corresponding AC frequency, such as a frequency in at least one of a range of about 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 1 Hz to 1 kHz, and 1 Hz to 100 Hz. In one embodiment, EM pumping is increased to reduce resistance and increase stability of current and firing power.

In one embodiment, the high voltage glow discharge can be maintained by means of a micro hollow cathode discharge. A micro-hollow cathode discharge can be held between two closely spaced electrodes with openings approximately 100 microns in diameter. Exemplary DC discharges can be maintained up to about atmospheric pressure. In one embodiment, a larger volume of plasma at high pressure can be maintained via overlapping separate glow discharges operating simultaneously. The plasma current can be at least one of DC or AC.

In one embodiment, by supplying O compared to H ₂ or H ₂ easier dissociation of a hydrogen source to increase the concentration of hydrogen atoms. Exemplary sources are sources having at least one of a lower enthalpy and a lower free energy of formation per H atom, such as methane, hydrocarbons, methanol, alcohols, another organic molecule comprising H.

In one embodiment, the dissociating agent may comprise an electrode 8, such as the electrode shown in FIG. 23 . Electrode 8 may comprise a dissociating agent capable of operating at high temperatures such as up to 3200°C and may further comprise a material resistant to alloy formation with molten metals such as gallium. Exemplary electrodes include at least one of W and Ta. In one embodiment, the bus bar 10 may include an attached dissociator, such as a vane dissociator, such as a flat plate. The plates can be attached by sealing the faces of the edges along the axis of the bus bar 10 . The vanes may contain paddle wheel patterns. The vanes can be heated by conductive heat transfer from the bus bar 10, which can be heated by at least one of resistive heating by ignition current and reactive heating by low energy hydrogen. The dissociating agent, such as the vanes, may contain a refractory metal, such as Hf, Ta, W, Nb or Ti.

In one embodiment, SunCell® comprises a source of about monochromatic light (eg, light having a spectral bandwidth of less than 50 nm or less than 25 nm or less than 10 nm or less than 5 nm) and a window of about monochromatic light. Light can be incident on hydrogen such as hydrogen in the reaction cell chamber. The fundamental vibration frequency of H ₂ ^{is 4161 cm - 1} . A plurality of possible frequencies of the at least one frequency of vibration of H ₂ may be approximately the resonance energy. H ₂ resonance radiation may be about to cause selective absorption of H ₂ bond dissociation. In another embodiment, the frequency of the optical resonator may be about, having (i) such as 3756 cm ^- H ¹ ₂ O of vibration of the OH bond energy and known to those skilled in the art of other energy, such as by the Lemus, [ R.Lemus, "the vibration of the frame end model of the excitation in H ₂ O _{(Vibrational excitations in H 2 O in} the framework of a local model) ", J.Mol.Spectrosc., Vol. 225, (2004) , pp. 73-92], which are incorporated by reference; (ii) hydrogen bonds, such as _{vibrational energies between hydrogen-bonded H 2} O molecules; and (iii) hydrogen-bonded H ₂ O molecules hydrogen bonding between at least one of energy, wherein the light absorption by H ₂ O H ₂ O dimers and other multimers of dissociated nascent water molecules. In one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen as the reaction gas mixture may comprise additional gas can be from a source of H ₂ O molecules and H bond of the ammonia to the water by increasing the H bonded dimer compete with the primary HOH concentration. The nascent HOH can act as a low-energy hydrogen catalyst.

In one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen reaction produces at least one reaction signature from the group of power, thermal power, plasma, light, pressure, electromagnetic pulses, and shock waves. In one embodiment, SunCell® includes at least one sensor and at least one control system to monitor reaction characteristics and control reaction parameters, such as reaction mixture composition and conditions (such as pressure and temperature) to control low energy hydrogen reaction rates. The reaction mixture may contain _{H 2 O, H 2, O} 2, noble gases (such as argon) and GaX ₃ (X = halide) or in at least one of the sources. In an exemplary embodiment, the intensity and frequency of electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) are sensed, and reaction parameters are controlled to increase the intensity and frequency of the EMPs to increase the reaction rate, and vice versa. In another exemplary embodiment, the shock wave frequency, intensity and propagation velocity are sensed, such as at least one of them between two acoustic detectors, and the response parameters are controlled to increase the shock wave frequency, intensity and propagation velocity at least one of them to increase the reaction rate, and vice versa.

H ₂ O molten metal may be molten metallic gallium reacted to form with such as H ₂ (g), such as Ga ₂ O ₃ and Ga ₂ O and of the corresponding oxides, such as a compound GaO (OH) oxy (hydroxide) and as Ga (OH) ₃ hydroxide. Gallium may be controlled to control the temperature of the reaction with H ₂ O it. In an exemplary embodiment, the gallium temperature may be maintained in the at least one of the following less than 100 deg.] C to achieve: gallium prevent reaction with H ₂ O and H ₂ O- that gallium reaction occurs by slow kinetics.

Embodiment, gallium may be maintained above a temperature of about 100 deg.] C so that the H ₂ O- gallium reaction by fast kinetics occurs in another exemplary embodiment. H ₂ O in a reaction with the gallium unit 5b31 in the chamber can promote the formation of at least one low energy hydrogen reactant (such as H or catalyst HOH) of. In one embodiment, the water may be injected into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 in and may gallium reacted with gallium may be maintained at exceed 100 ℃ of temperature (i) forming H ₂ to serve as the H origin; (ii) due to H ₂ The O dimer forms at least one of HOH monomer or nascent HOH to act as a catalyst; and (iii) reducing water vapor pressure.

In one embodiment, GaOOH can act as a solid fuel low energy hydrogen reactant to form at least one of a HOH catalyst and H to act as a reactant to form low energy hydrogen. In one embodiment, an oxide (such as Ga ₂ O ₃ or Ga ₂ O), hydroxides (such as ₃ Ga (OH)) and oxygen (hydroxyl) compound (such as GaOOH, AlOOH or FeOOH) in at least one of It may act as a binding matrix such as H ₂ (1/4) of the low-energy hydrogen. In one embodiment, at least one of GaOOH and metal oxides, such as stainless steel and oxides of stainless steel and stainless steel-gallium alloys, is added to the reaction cell chamber to act as a getter for low energy hydrogen. The getter can be heated to high temperatures, such as a temperature in the range from about 100 deg.] C to 1200 deg.] C, the release of molecules at low energy hydrogen such as H ₂ (1/4).

In one embodiment, the alloy forming reaction captures and absorbs at least one of molecular low energy hydrogen in the alloy product acting as a getter. A solid metal piece, such as stainless steel (SS), immersed in liquid gallium can react with gallium to form a metal-gallium alloy that acts as a molecular low energy hydrogen getter. In an exemplary embodiment, a stainless steel reaction unit chamber and the reservoir wall is at least one may act via consumed to form an absorbent or trap molecules of hydrogen low energy of at least one stainless steel alloy (such as Ga ₃ Fe, Ga ₃ Ni and _{at least one of Ga 3} Cr) on the reactive surface. Molecular low energy hydrogen gas can be attributed to the accumulation of permeation barriers at the walls. The increased local concentration of the low energy hydrogen reaction product generally increases the concentration of molecular low energy hydrogen gas trapped in the alloy. After absorbing the reaction products in the getter, the getter can be a source of molecular low energy hydrogen gas that can be released by, for example, heating the getter. In one embodiment, the getter includes at least one of gallium oxide, GaOOH, and at least one stainless steel alloy. Getter soluble in aqueous base such as NaOH or KOH to the catcher molecules are formed in the matrix GaOOH low energy hydrogen such as H ₂ (1/4).

In one embodiment, the solid fuel of the present invention (such as FeOOH, alkali halide - hydroxide, and mixtures such as Cu (OH) a transition metal halide ₂ + FeBr ₂ - A mixture of hydroxides) may be activated to by At least one of applying heat and applying mechanical power reacts to form low energy hydrogen. The latter can be achieved by ball milling the solid fuel.

In an alternate embodiment, the SunCell® includes a coolant flow heat exchanger that includes a pumping system in which the reaction unit chamber is cooled by flowing a coolant, wherein the flow rate can be varied to control the reaction unit chamber at a desired temperature operate within the scope. Heat exchangers may comprise plates with channels such as microchannel plates. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a battery that includes the reaction cell chamber 531, the reservoir 5c, the base 5c1, and all components in contact with the low energy hydrogen reactive plasma, one or more of which may include the battery area. In one embodiment, a heat exchanger, such as a heat exchanger containing a flowing coolant, may include a plurality of heat exchangers organized in cell zones to maintain corresponding cell zones at individually desired temperatures .

In an embodiment, such as the embodiment shown in Figure 28, SunCell® includes thermal insulation or gasket 5b31a fastened to the interior of reaction cell chamber 5b31 at the molten gallium level to prevent direct contact of the thermal gallium with the chamber chamber wall. The thermal insulator can include at least one of a thermal insulator, an electrical insulator, and a material that is resistant to wetting by a molten metal such as gallium. The insulation may at least one of: allow the surface temperature of the gallium to increase and reduce the formation of localized hot spots on the walls of the reaction cell chamber of the meltable wall. Additionally, a hydrogen dissociation agent, such as the hydrogen dissociation agent of the present invention, can be coated on the surface of the liner. In another embodiment, at least one of the wall thicknesses is increased, and a heat spreader, such as a copper block, is clad on the outer surface of the wall to spread thermal power within the wall to prevent localized wall melting. Thermal insulators may comprise ceramics such as BN, SiC, carbon, mullite, quartz, fused silica, alumina, zirconia, hafnium oxide, other ceramics of the present invention and those known to those skilled in the art. The thickness of the insulator can be selected to achieve the desired area of molten metal and gallium oxide surface coating, where a smaller area can be elevated in temperature by the concentration of the low energy hydrogen reactive plasma. Since the smaller area can reduce the electron-ion recombination rate, the area can be optimized to facilitate elimination of the gallium oxide film while optimizing the low energy hydrogen reaction power. In an exemplary embodiment comprising a rectangular reaction cell chamber, the rectangular BN blocks are bolted to threaded studs welded to the inner wall of the reaction cell chamber at the level of the surface of the molten gallium. The BN block forms a continuous raised surface at this location on the interior of the reaction unit chamber.

In an embodiment (FIGS. 23 and 28), SunCell® includes bus bars 5k2ka1 that pass through the bottom plate of the EM pump at the bottom of reservoir 5c. The bus bars can be connected to the ignition current power supply. The bus bars may extend above the molten metal level. In addition to molten metals such as gallium, bus bars can also act as positive electrodes. The molten metal dissipates heat from the bus bar to cool it. The bus bar may comprise a refractory metal that does not form an alloy with a molten metal such as W, Ta, or Re if the molten metal contains gallium. Bus bars, such as W rods protruding from the gallium surface, can concentrate the plasma at the gallium surface. Ejector nozzles, such as those containing W, may be submerged in molten metal in a reservoir to protect the ejector nozzles from thermal damage.

In embodiments (FIG. 23), such as those in which the molten metal acts as the electrode, the cross-sectional area acting as the molten electrode may be minimized to increase current density. The molten metal electrode may comprise an injector electrode. Submersible nozzles. The molten metal electrode may be positive polarity. The area of the molten metal electrode may be approximately the area of the opposing electrode. The area of the molten metal surface can be minimized to act as an electrode with high current density. The area may be in the range of at least one of ^{about 1 cm 2} to 100 cm ² , 1 cm ² to 50 cm ^{2 ,} and 1 cm ² to 20 cm ^{2 .} At least one of the reaction unit chamber and the reservoir can taper to a smaller cross-sectional area at the molten metal level. At least a portion of at least one of the reaction unit chamber and the reservoir may comprise a refractory material, such as tungsten, tantalum, or a ceramic, such as BN, at the level of the molten metal. In an exemplary embodiment, the area of at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir at the molten metal level can be minimized to act as a positive electrode with high current density. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction unit chamber may be cylindrical and may further comprise a reducing agent, a conical section, or a transition region to a reservoir where molten metal such as gallium fills the reservoir to a level , making the gallium cross-sectional area corresponding to the molten metal surface smaller to concentrate the current and increase the current density. In an exemplary embodiment (FIG. 29A), at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir may comprise an hourglass shape or hyperboloid of a sheet, with the molten metal level being about the level of the smallest cross-sectional area. This region may comprise a refractory material or a liner 5b31a comprising a refractory material such as carbon, a refractory metal such as W, Ta or Re, or a ceramic such as BN, SiC or quartz. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber may comprise stainless steel such as 347 SS (such as 4130 alloy SS) and the gasket may comprise W or BN. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber contains at least one plasma confinement structure, such as a ring centered on the axis between the electrodes, to confine the plasma inside the ring. The rings may be at least one of shorted to the molten metal and walls of the reaction cell chamber and electrically isolated by at least one electrically insulating carrier.

Reaction Cell or Chamber Configuration In one embodiment, the reaction unit chamber may comprise a tube reactor (FIGS. 29B-C), such as a tube reactor comprising a stainless steel tube vessel 5b3 with vacuum or high pressure capability. The pressure inside the vessel and the reaction mixture can be controlled by flowing gas through gas inlet 710 and evacuating the gas through vacuum line 711 . The reaction unit chamber 5b31 may contain a liner 5b31a, such as a refractory liner, such as a ceramic liner, such as a liner containing BN, quartz, pyrolytic carbon or SiC, which can electrically isolate the reaction unit chamber 5b31 from the vessel 5b3 wall, and can further prevent gallium alloy formation. Alternatively, a refractory metal liner such as W, Ta or Re may reduce gallium alloy formation. The EM bus bar 5k2 may include a material, coating or cladding that conducts electricity and prevents the formation of gallium alloys. Exemplary materials are Ta, Re, Mo, W and Ir. Each bus bar 5k2 may be fastened to the EM pump tube by welds or fasteners (such as joint sleeves), which may include ceramic or anti-gallium alloy metals such as Ta, Re, Mo, W and at least one of Ir) coating.

In one embodiment, the liners (eg, liners of EM pumps, reaction cell liners) comprise a plurality of materials such as a plurality of ceramics or a mixture of ceramics and refractory metals. The present invention may be ceramic ceramic, such as BN, silica, alumina, zirconium oxide, hafnium oxide, or such as Ta, W, Re, Ti, Zr or Hf bis borides or carbides, such as ZrB _2, TaC, HfC and WC. The refractory metal may be the refractory metal of the present invention, such as W, Ta, Re, Ir or Mo. In the exemplary embodiment of the tubular cell (FIGS. 29B-C), the liner comprises a BN tube with a concave band at the region where the plasma is strongest, with a section of the W tube with a diameter slightly larger than the diameter of the BN tube liner remaining in the BN in the recessed strip of the pad. In an exemplary embodiment, a liner of refractory metal tubular reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as a liner containing niobium or vanadium and coated with a ceramic such as zirconium titanium yttrium oxide (ZTY) to prevent oxidation, contains internal BN A tube having at least one refractory metal or ceramic inlay, such as a W inlay, at a desired location, such as where the plasma is strongest due to low energy hydrogen reactions.

In one embodiment, the ceramic liner, coating, or cladding of at least one SunCell® component, such as the reservoir, reaction cell chamber, and EM pump tubing, may comprise at least one of the following: a metal oxide , alumina, zirconia, yttria-stabilized zirconia, magnesia, hafnium oxide, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride (Si ₃ N ₄ ), glass ceramics (such as Li ₂ O x Al ₂ O ₃ × n SiO ₂ system (LAS system), MgO×Al ₂ O ₃ × n SiO ₂ system (MAS system), ZnO×Al ₂ O ₃ × n SiO ₂ system (ZAS system)). At least one SunCell® component (such as a reservoir, reaction cell chamber, EM pump tube, liner, cladding, or coating) may comprise a refractory material, such as at least one of the following: Graphite (sublimation point = 3642°C) ; refractory metals (such as tungsten (melting point=3422°C) or tantalum (melting point=3020°C), niobium, niobium alloys, vanadium, ceramics, ultra-high temperature ceramics); and ceramic matrix composites such as borides, carbides, nitrides and at least one of oxides such as early transition metals such as hafnium boride (HfB ₂ ), zirconium diboride (ZrB ₂ ), hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium carbide (TiC ), titanium nitride (TiN), thorium dioxide (ThO ₂ ), niobium boride (NbB ₂ ), and tantalum carbide (TaC) and their associated composites). Exemplary ceramics with the desired high melting point are magnesium oxide (MgO) (melting point=2852°C), zirconia (ZrO) (melting point=2715°C), boron nitride (BN) (melting point=2973°C), zirconium dioxide (ZrO ₂ ) (melting point=2715°C), hafnium boride (HfB ₂ ) (melting point=3380°C), hafnium carbide (HfC) (melting point=3900°C), Ta ₄ HfC ₅ (melting point=4000° C), Ta ₄ HfC ₅ TaX ₄ HfCX ₅ (4215°C), Hafnium Nitride (HfN) (melting point=3385°C), Zirconium Diboride (ZrB ₂ ) (melting point=3246°C), Zirconium Carbide (ZrC) (melting point=3400°C) , zirconium nitride (ZrN) (melting point=2950℃), titanium boride (TiB ₂ ) (melting point=3225℃), titanium carbide (TiC) (melting point=3100℃), titanium nitride (TiN) (melting point=2950 ℃), silicon carbide (SiC) (melting point=2820℃), tantalum boride (TaB ₂ ) (melting point=3040℃), tantalum carbide (TaC) (melting point=3800℃), tantalum nitride (TaN) (melting point=3800℃) 2700℃), niobium carbide (NbC) (melting point=3490℃), niobium nitride (NbN) (melting point=2573℃), vanadium carbide (VC) (melting point=2810℃) and vanadium nitride (VN) (melting point= 2050°C), and turbine blade materials such as one or more from the group of superalloys comprising chromium, cobalt and rhenium, nickel-based superalloys comprising ceramic matrix composites U-500, Rene 77, Rene N5 , Rene N6, PWA 1484, CMSX-4, CMSX-10, Inconel, IN-738, GTD-111, EPM-102 and PWA 1497. Such as MgO and ZrO of ceramic may be resistant to reaction with H _2.

In one embodiment, at least one of the interior of each reservoir 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, and EM pump tube 5k6 is coated with a ceramic or includes a ceramic liner, such as one of the following: BN, quartz , carbon, pyrolytic carbon, silicon carbide, titanium oxide, aluminum oxide, yttrium oxide, hafnium oxide, zirconium oxide, or mixtures, such as TiO _{2 -Yr 2 O 3 -Al 2 O} 3 or the other of the present invention. Exemplary carbon coatings include Aremco Products Graphite Bonds 551RN and exemplary alumina coatings include Cotronics Resbond 989. In one embodiment, the liner comprises at least two concentric clamshells, such as two BN clamshell liners. The vertical seams of the clamshell (parallel to the reservoir) can be offset or staggered by relative rotation angles to avoid a direct electrical path from the plasma or molten metal inside the reaction unit chamber to the reaction unit chamber walls. In an exemplary embodiment, the offset is 90° at the vertical slit, where the two sections of the clamshell allow thermal expansion of the liner without cracking, and the overlapping inner and outer liners prevent plasma from being attributed to the concentric clams The relative offset of the seam set of the shell liner electrically shorts the wall of the reaction chamber. Another exemplary embodiment includes a clamshell liner and a complete outer liner, such as a BN clamshell liner and a carbon or ceramic tube outer liner. In another embodiment of the plurality of concentric liners, at least the inner liners comprise vertically stacked sections. Where the outer liner also includes vertically stacked sections, the horizontal seams of the inner liner may be covered by the outer liner, wherein the seams of the inner liner are at different vertical heights than the seams of the outer liner. The resulting seam offset prevents electrical shorting between at least one of the molten metal and plasma inside the reaction unit chamber and the reaction unit chamber walls.

The gasket contains an electrical insulator capable of high temperature operation and good thermal shock resistance. Processability, the ability to provide thermal insulation, and resistance to reactivity with low energy hydrogen reactants and molten metals are also required. Exemplary liner materials are at least one of BN, AlN, Sialon, and Shapal. Silicon nitride (Si ₃ N ₄ ), silicon carbide, Sialon, mullite and Macor can provide circumferential thermal insulation for BN linings. The gasket may comprise a porous type of gasket material, such as porous Sialon. Other exemplary liners include at least one of SiC-carbon vitrified graphite or inner BN liners with Ta or W inlays to protect them from low energy hydrogen plasma, pyrolytic carbon, SiC-C composites, Influence of silicon carbide bonded by silicon nitride, zirconia stabilized by yttria, SiC with Ta or W inlays. The liner can be at least one of horizontally and vertically segmented to reduce thermal shock. Liner components, such as at least one of reaction cell chamber 5b31 and reservoir 5c, can avoid liner thermal shock (eg, shock caused by plasma heating too fast to The rate at which thermal gradients and differential expansion-based stresses are created in the failure-causing gasket. The temperature ramp rate may range from about 1°C/min to 200°C/sec. The segmented sections can be interlocked by structural features on the juxtaposed sections such as laps or tongues and grooves. In one embodiment, the interlocking segments each comprising an electrical insulator prevent the plasma from electrically shorting to the reaction cell chamber wall 5b31. In another embodiment, the gasket may comprise a porous ceramic, such as porous SiC, MgO, refractory bricks, ZrO _2, HfO ₂ and Al ₂ O ₃ in order to avoid thermal shock. The gasket may comprise a plurality of concentric gasket materials or stacks that in combination provide the desired properties of the gasket. The innermost layer may have chemical passivation at high temperatures, high thermal shock resistance, and high temperature operability. The outer layer can provide electrical and thermal insulation and resistance to reactivity at its operating temperature. In an exemplary embodiment, the quartz is operated below about 700°C to avoid reaction with gallium to gallium oxide. Exemplary concentric liner stacks to be tested are from inside to outside: BN-SiC-Si3N4, where quartz, SiC, SiC-coated graphite, or SiC-C composite can be substituted for Si3N4, and AlN, Sialon, or Shapal can be substituted BN or SiC.

In one embodiment, the gasket may comprise a shell that is circumferential to the reaction unit chamber 5b31. The walls of the housing may comprise the ceramic of the present invention or a coated or clad metal. The housing may be filled with a thermally stable thermal insulator. In an exemplary embodiment, the housing includes a double-walled BN tube gasket that includes inner and outer BN with a gap between the two tubes and BN end plate seals at the top and bottom of the gap to form the cavity tube, wherein the cavity may be filled with silicone or other thermal insulator with high temperature capability such as an inner quartz tube.

In one embodiment including a plurality of concentric liners, at least one outer concentric liner can at least one of (i) act as a heat sink and (ii) remove heat from the side-by-side liners. The outer liner may comprise a material with a high heat transfer coefficient, such as BN or SiC. In an exemplary embodiment, the innermost liner may include BN, which may be segmented, and the corresponding outer liner may include SiC, which may be segmented and stacked such that the seam of the innermost liner and outer liner segments offset or staggered.

In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber plasma may be shorted to the reaction cell chamber walls due to gallium boiling that increases the total pressure between the reservoir gallium and electrode 8 to the point where no plasma can form , rather than connecting to the reservoir gallium surface. The ignition voltage can be increased as the pressure increases until the resistance decreases through the lower pressure bulk gas to the reaction chamber walls. In one embodiment, gallium vaporization can be sensed by raising the ignition voltage at a constant ignition current. The controller can reduce the ignition power, change the gas pressure, reduce the plasma power of the recombiner, or increase the EM pumping and gallium mixing in response to a voltage increase to reduce vaporization. In another embodiment, the controller may perform at least one of intermittently applying an ignition current to suppress gallium boiling, wherein the low energy hydrogen reactive plasma may be maintained during a portion of the duty cycle with the ignition off ; and causing argon to flow from the source into the reaction cell chamber to suppress gallium boiling by increasing the pressure while avoiding a reduction in the concentration of H atoms. In an embodiment, such as the embodiment shown in Figures 31A-B, the EM pump 5kk includes multiple stages or pumps to increase molten metal agitation, thereby preventing the formation of localized hot spots that can boil. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 31C , the SunCell® may comprise a plurality of EM pump assemblies 5kk and a plurality of molten metal injectors 5k61 , each with a corresponding opposing electrode 8 . In one embodiment, the EM pump may spray molten gallium to at least one opposing electrode 8 via the plurality of spray electrodes 5k61. Multiple electrode pairs can increase current while reducing plasma resistance to increase low energy hydrogen reaction power and gain. The high pressure due to gallium boiling from excess local gallium surface heating can also be reduced.

Vacuum line 711 may contain materials such as metal fleece (such as SS fleece) or ceramic fibers with larger surface areas such as ceramic fibers containing at least one of alumina, silicate, zirconia, magnesia, and hafnium oxide. segment; but highly diffusible for gases. Condensing condensable materials, gallium oxide and gallium oxide, which may be refluxed back to the reactor chamber unit, while allowing the removal by evacuation H _2, O _2, H ₂ O and argon as the gas. Vacuum line 711 may include vertical sections to enhance the return of gallium and gallium product to reaction unit chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, a gallium additive, such as at least one other metal, element, compound or material, may be added to the gallium to prevent boiling. The gallium additive may include silver, which may further form nanoparticles in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to reduce plasma resistance and increase low energy hydrogen power gain.

Experimentally, the low energy hydrogen reaction power increased in the case of SunCell® containing smaller diameter reaction cell chambers due to increases in plasma current density, plasma density and corresponding plasma heating effect. In the case of the innovation of the glow discharge recombiner, plasma concentration is not necessary because of the high temperature effects of the discharge plasma, including the preparation of an amount of nascent water, which can be characterized as having sufficient internal energy to prevent hydrogen bond formation water. In embodiments including plasma recombiners, such as glow discharge recombiners, damage to pads such as BN pads is avoided by isolating the pads from the low energy hydrogen plasma. To achieve isolation, the pad may contain a larger diameter than a SunCell that produces similar power. In one embodiment, a liner, such as a BN liner, contacts the reaction cell chamber walls to improve heat transfer to the external water bath, thereby preventing BN cracking. In one embodiment, the liner may be segmented and contain a plurality of materials (such as BN) in the strongest plasma region (such as the region between the molten metal surface and the opposing electrode 8), and further contain at least A section of a different ceramic such as SiC. In addition, certain liners, such as BN, can provide increased passivation of reaction products, such as low energy hydrogen, for more efficient power generation.

At least one section of the innermost liner (such as a BN liner) may comprise a desired thickness such as 0.1 mm to 10 cm thick to transfer heat at least radially from the molten metal (such as gallium) to an external heat sink (such as water cooling agent). In one embodiment, a liner, such as a BN liner, can make good thermal contact with at least one of the reservoir wall and the reaction chamber wall. The diameter of the liner can be selected to sufficiently remove it from the center of the reaction cell chamber to reduce plasma damage to the desired extent. Diameters can range from 0.5 cm to 100 cm. The liner may be a refractory metal inlay, such as a W inlay in areas where the plasma is strongest. In an exemplary embodiment, an 8 cm diameter BN gasket is in contact with the circumferential reaction cell chamber and the reservoir wall, wherein the portion of the gasket submerged in the molten metal includes perforations to allow the molten metal to contact the reservoir wall to increase the Heat transfer to reservoir walls and external coolant such as water or air coolant. In another exemplary embodiment, the inner end-to-end stacked BN segmented liner includes perforations below the molten metal level and the outer concentric liner includes a single piece SiC cylinder with notches cut in the bottom to allow Radial molten metal flow and heat transfer.

In one embodiment, at least one of the inner liner or outer liner comprises a refractory metal (such as W or Ta), and the other comprises an electrical insulator (such as a ceramic, such as BN), wherein the refractory metal liner can conduct heat by and at least one of heat dissipation dissipates the local hot spot. In addition to removing thermal stress on the innermost liner exposed to the low-energy hydrogen reactive plasma by transferring heat away from the innermost liner surface, the low energy hydrogen permeability is beneficial in liners and reaction cells with high heat transfer coefficients It can be higher in chamber materials such as Cr-Mo SS vs. 304 SS or BN vs. Sialon, which can increase the low-energy hydrogen reaction rate by reducing low-energy hydrogen product inhibition. Exemplary SunCell® embodiments that include concentric liners and reaction cell chamber wall components to facilitate low energy hydrogen product permeation and heat transfer to an external coolant such as a water bath include BN innermost liners, corresponding SiC outer liners, and concentric Cr -Mo SS reaction cell chamber walls with good thermal contact between concentric components. In embodiments where heat retention is desired in a reaction unit chamber, such as a reaction unit chamber containing a heat exchanger such as a molten gallium-to-air heat exchanger, the reaction unit chamber may contain an additional external concentric insulating liner ( such as a quartz concentric insulating liner), and may further include an insulating base, such as one that includes a bottom quartz liner.

In one embodiment, the liner may comprise a refractory metal, such as at least one of W, Ta, Mo, or Nb, which is resistant to alloying with gallium. A metal gasket can be in contact with the cell walls to increase heat transfer to an external coolant, such as water. In one embodiment, the horizontal distance from the circumferential edge of the electrode 8 to the wall of the reaction unit chamber 5b31 is greater than the vertical separation between the molten metal in the reservoir and the electrode 8, wherein the reaction unit chamber and the reservoir At least one of them may optionally include a pad. In an exemplary embodiment, the central W electrode 8 has a diameter of about 1 to 1.5 inches in the reaction cell chamber having a diameter in the range of about 6 to 8 inches, where the W, Ta, Mo or Nb liner and the reaction cell chamber are wall contact. A reaction cell chamber having a diameter sufficient to avoid the formation of a discharge between the wall and electrode 8 may not include a liner to improve at least one of heat transfer across the wall and low energy hydrogen diffusion through the wall to avoid low energy Hydrogen product inhibition. In an embodiment, such as the embodiment shown in Figures 31A-B, at least one of a portion of the reservoir and the walls of the reaction cell chamber may be replaced with a material that is resistant to gallium alloy formation, such as a metal , such as Nb, Mo, Ta or W. The joints 911 to other components of the cell, such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall and the remainder of the reservoir wall, may be joined by welding, brazing, or an adhesive such as glue. The key may be at the lip overlapping the replacement section.

In one embodiment, the innermost liner may comprise at least one of a refractory material, such as a refractory material comprising W or Ta, and a molten metal cooling system. The molten metal cooling system may include an EM pump nozzle that directs at least a portion of the sprayed molten metal, such as gallium, onto the pad to cool the molten metal. The molten metal cooling system may include a plurality of nozzles that spray molten metal to the opposing electrode and further spray molten metal onto the walls of the liner to cool it. In an exemplary embodiment, the molten metal cooling system includes an injector nozzle positioned in a central region of the reservoir, such as at or near the center of the reservoir, which nozzle may be submerged in the molten metal contained in the reservoir; and a ring injector inside the liner that contains a series of apertures or nozzles to spray an annular spray onto the inner surface of the liner. The center and ring injectors can be supplied by the same EM pump or by separate EM pumps. Liners, such as BN or SiC liners, can have high heat transfer coefficients. The liner can be in close contact with the reaction unit chamber wall 5b31 which can be cooled to cool the liner. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction unit chamber wall 5b31 may be water or air cooled.

In one embodiment, the liners such as quartz liners are cooled by molten metal such as gallium. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a multi-nozzle molten metal injector or multiple molten metal injectors to diffuse the heat released by the low energy hydrogen reaction by stirring and distributing the reactants on the surface of the molten metal. Multiple nozzles can distribute the reaction power to avoid localized over-vaporization of the molten metal.

In one embodiment, the Ta, Re or W liner may comprise a Ta, Re or W container comprising walls, such as a Ta, Re or W cylindrical tube, a welded Ta, Re or W base plate and at least one fastening penetration , such as at least one of: welded Ta, Re, or W EM pump tube inlets and injector outlets, ignition bus bars, and thermowells. In another embodiment, the vessel may comprise a ceramic such as SiC, BN, quartz, or another ceramic of the present invention, wherein the vessel may comprise at least one boss transitioning to the penetration assembly, wherein the fastener may comprise a gasket fitting , such as a gasketed pipe joint comprising a graphite gasket or another or a glue of the present invention, such as a ceramic to metal glue, such as the Resbond or Durabond of the present invention. The container can have an open top. The container can be housed in a metal shell, such as a stainless steel shell. Penetrations such as ignition bus bars can be vacuum sealed to the stainless steel shell by seals such as a joint sleeve or housing, such as a joint sleeve or housing formed from flanges and gaskets. The shell can be sealed at the top. The seal may include a Conflat flange 409e and a base plate 409a (FIGS. 29A-C). The flange can be sealed with bolts which can include spring loaded bolts, disc spring washers or lock washers. The container liner may further comprise an inner liner, such as a ceramic liner, such as at least one concentric BN or quartz liner. Components of the present invention comprising Re may comprise other metals coated with Re.

In one embodiment, the gasket 5b31a may cover all walls of the reaction unit chamber 5b31 and the reservoir 5c. At least one of reactant gas supply line 710 and vacuum line 711 may be mounted on top flange 409a (FIGS. 29B-C). A vacuum line can be installed vertically to further act as a condenser and refluxer for metal vapor or another condensate that needs to be refluxed. SunCell® may contain traps, such as traps on vacuum lines. Exemplary traps may include at least one elbow on the vacuum line to condense and reflux the vaporized gallium. The trap may be cooled by a coolant such as water. The gasket may comprise components such as a bottom, top or flange plate and a tube body section or a plurality of stacked body sections. The component may comprise carbon or a ceramic, such as BN, quartz, alumina, magnesia, hafnium oxide, or another ceramic of the present invention. The components can be glued together or joined with gasketed fittings. In an exemplary embodiment, the assembly comprises quartz cemented together. Alternatively, the components include BN containing graphite gasket fittings.

In one embodiment, the temperature of a molten metal such as gallium can be monitored by a thermocouple, such as a high temperature thermocouple, which can be further resistant to alloying with molten metal such as gallium. Thermocouples may contain W, Re or Ta or may contain protective sheaths such as W, Re, Ta or ceramic sheaths. In one embodiment, the base plate may contain a thermowell for the thermocouple that protrudes into the molten metal and protects the thermocouple, wherein a heat transfer paste may be used between the thermocouple and the bushing Make good thermal contact. In an exemplary embodiment, a Ta, Re or W thermocouple or Ta, Re or W tube thermowell is connected to the bottom plate of the reservoir by a joint bushing. Alternatively, a thermocouple can be inserted into the EM pump tubing, inlet side.

The top of the tube reactor (FIGS. 29A-C) may include a base electrode 8 with feedthroughs and bus bars 10 covered with an electrically insulating sheath 5c2, with the feedthroughs mounted in a base plate 409a connected by flanges 409e to container 5b3. The bottom of the vessel may include a molten metal reservoir 5c with at least one thermocouple port 712 to monitor molten metal temperature and an injector electrode such as an EM pump injector electrode 5k61 with a nozzle 5q. The inlet of the EM pump 5kk can be covered by the inlet screen 5qa1. The EM pump tube 5k6 may be segmented or comprise a plurality of segments fastened together by means such as welding, wherein the segmented EM pump tube comprises material or is made of materials such as Ta, W, Re, Ir, Mo or paragallium. Alloy forming or oxidizing resistant ceramic material lining, coating or cladding. In one embodiment, the feedthrough to the top electrode 8 may be cooled, such as by water cooling. The ignition electrode water cooling system (FIGS. 31A-B) may include inlet 909 and outlet water 910 cooling lines. In another embodiment, the bottom plate 409a may include a stand to move the feedthrough further from the reaction unit chamber 5b31 to allow it to cool during operation.

In one embodiment, the gasket may include a thinner upper section and a thicker lower section with a wedge between the sections, such that the gasket has at one or more regions, such as the region housing the upper electrode 8 . Relatively large cross-sectional area with smaller cross-sectional area at the gallium level to increase the current density at the gallium surface. The relative ratio of the cross-sectional areas at the top section to the bottom section may range from 1.01 times to 100 times.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® can be cooled by a medium such as a gas (such as air) or a liquid (such as water). SunCell® may include a heat exchanger that can transfer heat (eg, the heat of the reaction cell chamber) to a gas (such as air) or a liquid (such as water). In one embodiment, the heat exchanger comprises a closed vessel, such as a tube, containing the SunCell® or its thermal portion, such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The heat exchanger may further comprise a pump that causes water to flow through the tubes. The stream can be pressurized so that steam generation can be suppressed to increase the heat transfer rate. The resulting superheated water can flow into a steam generator to form steam, and the steam can power a steam turbine. Alternatively, steam can be used for heating.

In an embodiment of an air-cooled heat exchanger, the SunCell® heat exchanger may include high surface area fins on the hot outer surface and for flowing air over the fins to remove heat from the SunCell® for heating and power generation applications the blower or compressor. In another air-cooled heat exchanger embodiment, molten metal such as gallium is pumped by an EM pump such as 5ka through the heat exchanger outside of reservoir 5c and then pumped back to the reservoir in a closed loop 5c.

In embodiments in which heat transfer across the walls of the reaction unit chamber is at least partially by an electrical conduction mechanism, heat transfer across the walls to a coolant such as air or water is increased by at least one of: increasing Wall area, reduced wall thickness, and selection of reaction cell chamber walls comprising materials such as nickel or stainless steel, such as chrome molybdenum steel with higher thermal conductivity than alternatives such as 316 stainless steel.

In one embodiment (FIGS. 29A-D), the heat exchanger may include a SunCell® reservoir 5c, an EM pump assembly 5kk, and an EM pump tube 5k6 at its inlet and the section containing the EM pump tube bus bar 5k2 Sections of EM pump tubing in between are extended to achieve the desired area of at least one loop or coil conduit in a coolant bath such as a water bath, molten metal bath, or molten salt bath. Multiple loops or coils can be fed from at least one supply manifold, and the flow of molten metal can be collected by at least one collector manifold for return to the EM pump. The loop or coil conduits and manifolds may contain materials that are resistant to alloying with molten metals such as gallium and have high heat transfer coefficients. Exemplary conduit materials are Cr-Mo SS, tantalum, niobium, molybdenum, and tungsten. The conduits can be coated or painted to prevent corrosion. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tubes and heat exchanger tubes comprise Ta coated with CrN, a ceramic such as mullite or ZTY, or a water-resistant ^{paint such as VHT Flameproof™} , and the EM pumps converge Bar 5k2 contains Ta. In another exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tubes and heat exchanger tubes comprise Nb coated with CrN, a ceramic such as mullite or ZTY, or a water-resistant ^{paint such as VHT Flameproof™} , and the EM The pump bus bar 5k2 contains Nb.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® comprises at least one component (such as the reaction cell chamber and reservoir) comprising a wall metal (such as 4130 CrMo SS, Nb, Ta) having a high heat transfer coefficient, sufficiently thin walls and sufficiently large areas , W or Mo) to provide sufficient heat loss to a heat sink (such as a water bath) to maintain the desired molten metal temperature during the generation of the desired amount of power. An external heat exchanger may not be necessary. The wall thickness may be in the range of about 0.05 mm to 5 mm. Wall area and thickness can be calculated using the bath self-conduction heat transfer equation and require molten metal temperature as the thermal gradient. SunCell® exterior surfaces can be coated with paints (such as VHT Flameproof ^™ ), ceramics (such as mullite), or plated corrosion-resistant metals (such as SS, Ni, or chromium) to protect against finned coolants (such as water baths) water) corrosion.

The flow in the conduit can be controlled by controlling the EM pump current. The firing voltage to maintain the plasma within the desired adjustable range of the molten metal flow rate through both the heat exchanger and the reaction chamber injector can be controlled by controlling the separation distance between the nozzles 5q and the opposing electrodes 8. The separation distance may be in the range of about 1 mm to 10 cm. The heat exchanger may further comprise a controllable conduit cooling jet and at least one of: (i) one or more thermal sensors; (ii) one or more molten metal and coolant flow sensors; and ( iii) Controller. Heat transfer from the single loop heat exchanger to the coolant bath can be further controlled by controlling the jets of the cooling conduits.

In another embodiment, the heat exchanger may include at least one conduit loop or coil and at least one pump, such as an EM pump or a mechanical molten metal pump, independent of the EM pump injection assembly 5kk. In one embodiment, the pump may be positioned on the cold side of the molten metal recirculation flow path to avoid exceeding the maximum operating temperature of the pump. In one embodiment, the EM pump used for at least one of molten metal injection and heat exchanger recirculation may comprise an AC EM pump. The AC EM pump may include a common AC power supply for supplying DC alternating current to the EM busbars or induced current coils and the electromagnets of the AC EM pump so that the current and magnetic field are in phase to generate Lorentz in one direction with high efficiency pumping force.

The temperature of the molten metal, such as molten gallium, can be maintained at a desired temperature, such as an elevated temperature that is less than the temperature at which the alloy is formed. Control of gallium temperature can be achieved by controlling at least one of: EM pump current, which changes heat exchanger flow rates; jets on heat exchangers; water coolant temperature; degree; means the reaction chamber was immersed in water to the extent of; the flow rate of the reactants H _2; O ₂ reactant flow rate; recombination is a plasma voltage and current parameters; and an ignition power.

In one embodiment, the nozzles 5q may be replaced by a plurality of nozzles, or the nozzles may have a plurality of openings, such as openings of a shower head, to disperse the sprayed gallium from the plurality of orifices toward the opposite electrode. Such a configuration can promote plasma formation at higher molten metal injection rates, such as maintaining high flow rates in a single loop conduit with a heat exchanger in series with an EM pump injection system comprising EM pump tubes and their inlets and injection outlets Desired molten metal injection rate.

Heat Exchanger In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a heat source for a turbine system, such as a heat source of the type including an external combustor, where heat from the heat exchanger heats air from the turbo compressor and replaces heat from combustion. The heat exchanger may be positioned inside the gas turbine to receive air from the compressor, or it may be external to the turbine, where the air is directed from the compressor across the heat exchanger and returned into the combustion section of the gas turbine. The heat exchanger may include EM pump tubes embedded in fins that force air to flow over them. The pipe can have a serpentine or Z-coil pattern.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a heat exchanger, such as an air-cooled or water-cooled heat exchanger. In one embodiment, the heater exchanger may include a tube-in-shell design (FIGS. 29D-E). The heater exchanger may contain a plurality of tubes 801 through which molten metal, such as molten silver or molten gallium, circulates from the SunCell® 812. The heat exchanger may comprise (i) a molten metal reservoir (such as reservoir 5c) containing molten metal (such as molten gallium or molten silver) receiving thermal power from reaction unit chamber 5b31; (ii) at least one cycle Solenoid pump 810 which pumps molten metal from SunCell® and back to SunCell® via heat exchanger; (iv) Shell 806 with inlet 807 and outlet 808 for forcing of external coolant such as air or water flow, wherein the baffle 809 can direct the flow of the external coolant through the shell, wherein the gas flow can be reversed to the flow of molten gallium in the conduit; (v) at least one channel or conduit 801 inside the shell 806 for internal flow Molten metal with external coolant flowing through the shell 806 and via conduit 801 to transfer heat from the molten metal to the external coolant; (v) heat exchanger inlet line 803 and heat exchanger outlet line 804 with the circulating pump running at Molten metal reservoir 5c, heat exchanger and connections in the loop formed by inlet and outlet lines; (vi) coolant pumps or blowers; and (vii) sensors and control systems to control the flow of molten metal and coolant . The heat exchanger may further include at least one heat exchanger manifold 802 and distributor 805 . Inlet manifold 802 may receive hot molten metal from circulating EM pump 810 and distribute it to a plurality of channels or conduits 801 . Molten metal outlet manifold 802 may receive molten metal via distributor 805, combine the dispersed flow from the plurality of conduits, and direct the molten metal flow to a heat exchanger outlet line 804 connected back to battery reservoir 5c. The circulating EM pump can pump hot gallium to the heat exchanger via heat exchanger inlet line 803 and back to battery reservoir 5c via outlet line 804 . The heat exchanger may further include an external coolant inlet 807 and an outlet 808 and may further include baffles 809 to direct the flow of the external coolant over the molten metal conduit 801 . This flow may be produced by an external coolant blower or pump 811 such as a blower or compressor or water pump. In response to input from at least one sensor such as a thermocouple and flow rate meter, the flow of SunCell® molten metal and external coolant through the heat exchanger can be pumped by at least one controller and control the corresponding pump or blower Or computer control of the blower speed.

Other external coolants are within the scope of the present invention, such as molten metal, molten salt, or another gas or liquid compared to air and water, which are known in the art. In embodiments comprising a water boiler heat exchanger with water coolant, the tubes 801 may comprise carbon. Water can enter inlet 807 and steam can exit outlet 808 . In the steam boiler embodiment, the reservoir contains a height of gallium and gallium is recirculated from the bottom of the reservoir to maintain the desired temperature gradient from top to bottom so that the gallium temperature in the tubes of the steam boiler is kept below The temperature that causes the film to boil on the surface of the tube. In addition, lower temperature gallium injection from the bottom of the reservoir can inhibit boiling of the gallium in the reaction unit chamber to prevent undesirable pressure increases.

Exemplary heat exchangers, including those that can exchange heat between an external coolant and molten metal, are illustrated in Figure 29D. The heat exchanger may include Ta components such as at least one of Ta conduit 801 , manifold 802 , distributor 805 , heat exchanger inlet line 803 and heat exchanger outlet line 804 . Molten metal may enter via inlet line 803 , collect in inlet manifold 802 , pass via distributor 805 and conduit 801 to outlet manifold 802 , and finally exit via outlet line 804 . The exemplary heat exchanger further includes a stainless steel shell 806 , an external coolant inlet 807 , an external coolant outlet 808 , and a baffle 809 . Coolant may enter inlet 807 and pass over the outer surface of conduit 801 towards outlet 808 . Contact between the coolant and the conduit can transfer heat from the molten metal via the surface of the conduit and to the coolant before it exits at outlet line 804 . Ta components can be soldered together. Air exposed surfaces of Ta heat exchanger components such as conduit 801 can be anodized to prevent corrosion. Alternatively, Ta conduit 801 may comprise a coating or cladding, such as in rhenium, noble metals, Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, Rh, TiN, CrN, ceramic, zirconium titanium yttrium oxide (ZTY), and mullite At least one of or the other of the present invention is a coating or cladding to prevent oxidation of the outside of the Ta conduit. Ta components can be clad with stainless steel. The cladding may comprise a plurality of pieces joined together by means such as solder or glue (such as glue having a stability of at least 1000°C, such as J-B solder 37901 rated to 1300°C). The steel casing 806 may contain a liner or coating of at least the bottom section to collect any leaking gallium, such as a Ta liner or ZTY or mullite coating. Heat exchangers containing Ta, such as the heat exchanger containing Ta conduit 801, may be modular, with multiple heat exchanger modules acting as a cumulative size heat exchanger of the modules rather than a single heat exchanger to avoid Thermal expansion failure.

Alternatively, at least one Ta component may be replaced by a Ta coated component such as a Ta electroplated component, wherein the Ta coated component comprises stainless steel or other metal with approximately matching coefficient of thermal expansion (eg nickel steel, Kovar or other SS or metal) ). Rhenium (melting point 3185°C) is resistant to attack by gallium, gallium indium tin alloy, silver and copper, and is resistant to oxidation by oxygen and water. In another embodiment, the heat exchanger includes at least one Re-coated component, such as a Re-plated component, wherein the Re-coated component includes stainless steel or other metals with approximately matching coefficients of thermal expansion (eg, nickel steel, Kovar, or other SS or metal). In another embodiment, at least one Ta component may contain or be coated with 347 SS or Cr-Mo SS, W, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%) ), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, and at least one of silicide-coated Mo component replacement.

Another exemplary heat exchanger comprises quartz, SiC, Si ₃ N _4, of yttria stabilized zirconia or BN conduit 801, manifold 802, a dispenser 805, the heat exchanger inlet line 803, the heat exchanger outlet line 804 , shell 806 , external coolant inlet 807 , external coolant outlet 808 and baffle 809 . The components may be joined by fusing, gluing with quartz, SiC or BN adhesives or by joints or fittings such as those comprising flanges and gaskets such as carbon (Graphoil) gaskets. Exemplary SiC heat exchanger comprising (i) plate, (ii) in the housing block, (iii) SiC annular groove and (iv) by the manufacturer (such as GAB Neumann (https:. // www gab - neumann. com ) shell and tube heat exchange. Si may be added to molten metal (such as gallium) in small wt % (such as less than 5 wt %) to prevent SiC degradation. The heat exchanger may include a blower or compressor 811 to force air through the SiC The channel of the block. An exemplary EM pump 810 is a Pyrotek model 410 that includes a SiC liner and is capable of operating at 1000° C. In embodiments including a Ga molten metal coolant, at least one connection may include a pair of alloys with gallium Resistant materials, such as the materials of the present invention. In the exemplary embodiment, heat exchanger inlet 803, heat exchanger inlet manifold 803a, heat exchanger inlet line 803b, heat exchanger outlet 804, heat exchanger outlet manifold At least one of the tube 804a and the heat exchanger outlet line 804 comprises a ceramic such as BN, SiC-coated carbon, W, Ta, vanadium, 347 SS or Cr-Mo SS, Mo, Nb, Nb (94.33 wt. %)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, and silicide-coated Mo.

Seals between components (such as connecting pump 810, heat exchanger inlet 803, heat exchanger inlet manifold 803a, heat exchanger inlet line 803b, heat exchanger outlet 804, heat exchanger outlet manifold 804a, and heat exchanger The seals for at least two of the outlet lines 804b) may comprise glued joints, welded joints or flanged joints with gaskets such as ceramic gaskets such as those containing Thermiculite (eg Flexitallic) gaskets or carbon gaskets such as Graphoil or Graphilor. Carbon gaskets can be hermetically sealed by coatings such as Resbond, SiC paste or thermal paste, cladding, or protected from oxidation by a casing. In one embodiment, the seal may comprise a malleable metal, such as Ta, wherein the sealing member may also contain a malleable metal. In one embodiment, the seal may include two ceramic faces that are precision machined and urged together by a compression member such as a spring.

In embodiments in which the molten metal in conduit 801 is maintained at a lower temperature, such as a temperature below at least one of 750°C, 650°C, 550°C, 450°C, and 350°C, heat exchange pump 810 may include Mechanical pumps such as those with ceramic impellers and casings avoid alloy formation. EM pumps may include flow meters (such as electromagnetic flow meters) and controllers to monitor and control the flow of molten metal through, for example, heat exchanger assemblies, such as at their inlets, outlets, in manifolds, in distributors, in conduits or a combination thereof, wherein the flow meter can be positioned to sense flow through one or more of these components.

In an exemplary embodiment, the SiC block in the shell or shell 806 of the shell and SiC tubular heat exchanger may comprise a material such as Kovar or nickel-steel stainless steel having a coefficient of thermal expansion approximately matching SiC such that the shells The expansion is about the same as that of a SiC block or SiC tube. Shell 806 may contain expansion members, such as bellows. Alternatively, the heat exchanger shell 806 may include two sections that overlap to allow expansion. Joints such as lap joints or tongue and groove joints can be sealed by expansion.

In one embodiment, the heat exchanger includes at least one of a protection circuit and protection software to control the EM pump against thermal shock of at least one heat exchanger component, such as a ceramic, such as a block-in-shell heat exchanger component. SiC blocks for exchangers or SiC tubes for shell and tube heat exchangers.

The heat exchanger may include carbon components such as carbon conduit 801, manifold 802, distributor 805, heat exchanger inlet line 803 and heat exchanger outlet lines 804, 806, external coolant inlet 807, external coolant outlet 808, and partitions At least one of the plates 809. The carbon components may be at least one of glued together or fastened together by gasket joints, such as joints comprising Graphoil gaskets. Surfaces exposed to air may be coated with an anti-oxidation coating, such as SiC, such as CVD SiC or SiC glaze. An exemplary heat exchanger is a shell-and-tube design of GAB Neumann (https://www.gab-neumann.com), where the outer surface, such as the outer surface of conduit 801, is coated with SiC. Alternatively, the outer surface may be clad in an oxidation resistant material such as stainless steel. In another embodiment, SunCell® components (such as EM pump components or heat exchanger components that react with air (such as carbon or Ta)) may be contained in evacuable or inert gas such as noble gases (such as argon or nitrogen) Gas filled to protect the contained SunCell® components from oxidation at high temperatures in a hermetically sealed or vacuum capable housing. The gallium line from the EM pump to the heat exchanger inlet 803 may contain a metal that does not react with carbon at operating temperatures, so that metal-to-carbon connections such as gasket connections (such as carbon gasket flange connections) do not react to form carbide. Exemplary metals that do not react with carbon at 1000°C are nickel or nickel or rhenium plated metals, such as nickel or rhenium plated stainless steel.

In the exemplary embodiment shown in Figures 29E-G, the components contacting the molten gallium comprise carbon, and the components contacting the air coolant comprise stainless steel. Conduit liner 801a, manifold or cover 802, heat exchanger inlet line 803, and heat exchanger outlet line 804 contain carbon, and conduit 801, distributor 805, shell 806, external coolant inlet 807, external coolant outlet 808 and separator 809 comprise stainless steel. Each stainless steel conduit 801 is welded to the corresponding distributor 805 at each end. The distributor 805 is welded to the shell 806 so that the air coolant only contacts the stainless steel. Cover 802, inlet 803 and outlet 804 are attached inside stainless steel housing 806a with welded inlet line 803c and welded outlet line 804c connected to carbon heat exchanger inlet line 803 and outlet line 804 inside housing 806a, Wherein the connectors comprise gasket flange pipe joints. Gaskets may contain carbon. Each dispenser 805 may comprise two pieces, an outer piece 805a comprising carbon glued to the end of the gasket 801a and an inner piece comprising stainless steel welded to the housing 806a and shell 806. Line 803 from gallium circulating EM pump 810 and return line 804 to reservoir 5c may include expansion joints, such as bellows or spring loaded joints.

In one embodiment, a heat exchanger including a carbon component such as an air exposed carbon component such as conduit 801 further includes a carbon combustion product detector such as a smoke detector and protection system to avoid component failure and Involves potential combustion of molten metals such as gallium. The protection system may include a fire suppression system, such as those known in the art, such as a fire extinguisher system or a set of values to close the airflow to the chamber of the shell 806, such valves at the external coolant inlet 807 and outlet 808.

Anode films can be formed on surfaces of titanium, zinc, magnesium, niobium, zirconium, hafnium, and tantalum. Exemplary oxides of Nb, Ta and Zr are more stable than gallium oxide. In one embodiment, at least one component of the SunCell® and heat exchanger comprises a metal forming an anode or oxide film or coating. The oxide coating can be at least one of: (i) protecting the components from alloying with molten metals, such as at least one of gallium, gallium indium tin alloys, silver, and copper; and (ii) ) protects the components from oxidation. In an exemplary embodiment, the component includes at least one of Nb, Ta, and Zr, which may include a protective oxide coating. In embodiments of SunCell® components, the components can be anodized to form a protective oxide coating that protects the components from alloying with molten metals such as gallium, gallium indium tin alloys, silver, and copper and The components are protected from oxidation by the low energy hydrogen reaction mixture. In embodiments of heat exchanger assemblies, components exposed to air may be anodized to protect the components from air oxidation.

In one embodiment shown in Figure 29H, the exchanger includes a plurality of modular units 813 of the heat exchanger of the present invention. Molten metal may flow from the reservoir 5c to the heat exchanger inlet manifold 803a via the heat exchanger inlet line 803b to the inlet 803 of each heat exchanger module 813. Molten metal can be pumped back to reservoir 5c by EM pump 810, which keeps molten metal flowing through each heat exchanger outlet 804, outlet manifold 804a, and heat exchanger outlet line 804b.

In one embodiment, the heat exchanger may comprise a primary loop and a secondary loop, wherein the molten metal of the reservoir 5c is kept separate from the coolant (such as molten metal or molten salt coolant in the secondary loop) in the primary loop . Heat is exchanged from the primary loop to the secondary loop by the first stage heat exchanger and delivered to the load by the secondary heat exchanger. In one embodiment, the secondary loop comprises a molten metal or molten salt heat exchanger. In one embodiment, the molten gallium to air heat exchanger may comprise a commercial molten gallium to air heat exchanger or a commercial molten salt to air heat exchanger, wherein the latter is compatible with modifications comprising substituting molten gallium for molten salt.

The heat exchanger may comprise multiple stages, such as a two-stage heat exchanger, in which a first gas or liquid contains the external coolant in the first stage and a second gas or liquid contains the external coolant in the second stage. Heat is transferred from the first external coolant to the second external coolant via a heat exchanger, such as a gas-to-gas heat exchanger. An exemplary two-stage heat exchanger includes carbon conduit 801, manifold 802, distributor 805, heat exchanger inlet line 803, heat exchanger outlet line 804, shell 806, external coolant inlet 807, external coolant outlet 808, and Separator 809. The components may be joined by gluing with carbon adhesive or by joints or pipe joints, such as joints or pipe joints including flanges and gaskets such as carbon (Graphoil) gaskets. The first external coolant may contain a noble gas, such as helium or nitrogen, which transfers heat through the gas-gas heat exchanger to the second external coolant containing air.

In one embodiment, the first stage heat exchanger comprises carbon, such as graphite annular groove heat exchanger shell block from GAB Neumann: - shell (https // www gab neumann com. .) Of A tubular heat exchanger in which gallium exchanges heat with silver as an external coolant in a first stage and silver exchanges its heat with another external coolant, such as air, in a second stage. The second stage heat exchanger may comprise a shell and tube design such as that shown in Figure 29D. In another embodiment, the first stage heat exchanger, such as a shell and tube heat exchanger, contains tantalum.

In one embodiment, the external coolant blower 811 includes a compressor of a gas turbine that supplies compressed air via the heat exchanger external coolant inlet 807 . Air can flow over conduit 801 . The heated air may exit the heat exchanger external coolant outlet 808 and flow into the power section of the gas turbine, where the SunCell® 812 and heat exchanger 813 comprise the thermal power source of the external combustor type gas turbine mechanical or electrical power generator .

In one embodiment, at least one heat exchanger component (such as inlet line 803 and outlet line 804, distributor 805, manifold 802, and conduit 801) is coated or lined to prevent alloying with molten metal, such as gallium or at least one of the materials that otherwise prevent corrosion of the components. The coating or liner may comprise a coating or liner of the present invention, such as BN, carbon, quartz, zirconium titanium yttrium oxide, mullite or alumina. In an exemplary embodiment, the molten metal comprises gallium, at least one heat exchanger component (such as inlet line 803 and outlet line 804, distributor 805, manifold 802, and conduit 801) comprises stainless steel, and the gasket comprises quartz or another ceramics. Stainless steel can be replaced by Kovar or nickel steel, avoiding thermal expansion and shrinkage mismatch with ceramic liners such as those containing quartz. In an alternative exemplary embodiment, the conduits comprise nickel, each having a carbon backing.

In one embodiment, the heat exchanger may be inside the SunCell® reservoir versus outside. At least one heat exchanger manifold may contain reservoir 5c. The EM pump that circulates the molten metal, such as gallium, through the heat exchanger conduits may comprise at least one of the ejector EM pump 5ka and another pump.

In one embodiment, the heat exchanger may include a manifold 802 at both ends and a plurality of tubes 801 connecting the manifolds. Alternatively, the heat exchanger contains one or more Z-shaped conduits connecting the manifolds. The manifold can further act as a reservoir. These conduits can be embedded in a system or array of heat sinks. The heat exchanger may comprise a truck radiator type where the water coolant is replaced by molten metal and the water pump is replaced by a molten metal pump, such as an EM pump. The radiator can be cooled by an external coolant such as air or water. The external coolant may be delivered by a blower or water pump, respectively, which forces an external coolant, such as air or water, to flow through the fins. The heat sink may comprise a material with a high thermal transfer coefficient, such as copper, nickel or Ni-Cu alloys.

In another embodiment, the heat exchanger may comprise a plate heat exchanger, such as a plate heat exchanger made by Alfa-Laval comprising parallel plates in which an external coolant (such as air) and SunCell® molten metal are flow in alternating channels.

In an embodiment, the heat exchanger may comprise a boiler, such as a steam boiler. In one embodiment, the liquid molten metal heat exchanger includes conduits that include boiler tubes 801 for heating water in a pressurized vessel 806 containing a boiler. Conduit 801 may be positioned inside a pressurized vessel 806 containing a boiler. Molten metal can be pumped through conduit 801 where thermal power flows into a pool to form at least one of superheated water and steam in the boiler. The superheated water can be converted into steam in a steam generator.

In an exemplary embodiment, the boiler includes a cylindrical shell with longitudinal conduits in the shell, wherein external water coolant flows longitudinally through the shell and along conduits that may include surface protrusions to increase conduit surface area and create turbulence to enhance at least one of heat transfer from the conduit to the water. The cylindrical shell can be oriented vertically. In one embodiment, the bottom plate 5kk1 may have openings for coolant flow. Additionally, the base plate 5kk1 may be at least one of: comprising thin plates such as thicknesses ranging from about 0.1 mm and 5 mm, and comprising metals with higher heat transfer coefficients such as W, Ta, Nb or Cr-Mo SS plate for improved bottom plate cooling.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® and heat exchanger include at least one temperature measurement device, such as a thermocouple or thermistor, which may be surface-attached to the component, immersed in molten metal, and exposed in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 at least one of gas or plasma. Among the walls of the reaction unit chamber, EM pump tubing 5k6 and heat exchanger components such as at least one of conduit 801, manifold 802, distributor 805, heat exchanger inlet line 803 and heat exchanger outlet line 804 The temperature of at least one can be monitored by at least one surface mount thermocouple that can be bonded to the surface of the component. The bonding may comprise a weld or ceramic glue, such as a weld or ceramic glue with a high heat transfer coefficient. The glue may contain BN or SiC.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes: a vacuum system including a vacuum line to the reaction unit chamber; and a vacuum pump for evacuating gas from the reaction unit chamber on an intermittent or continuous basis. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a condenser to condense at least one low energy hydrogen reactant or product. The condenser can be in-line with the vacuum pump or contain a gas conduit connection to the vacuum pump. The vacuum system may further include a condenser to condense at least one reactant or product flowing from the reaction unit chamber. The condenser allows selective flow of condensate, condensed reactants or products back into the reaction unit chamber. The condenser can be maintained within a temperature range to allow selective flow of condensate back to the reaction unit chamber. Flow can be by means of active or passive delivery, such as by pumping or by gravity flow, respectively. In one embodiment, the condenser may include means to prevent particles, such as gallium or gallium oxide nanoparticles, from flowing from the reaction cell chamber into a vacuum system, such as at least one of a filter, a Z-channel, and an electrostatic precipitator. In one embodiment, the vacuum pump may be cooled by means such as water or forced air cooling.

In an exemplary test example, the reaction cell chamber was maintained at a pressure ranging from about 1 Torr to 20 Torr while flowing 10 seem of H ₂ and sparging 4 ml of H ₂ O per minute while applying active vacuum pumping. The DC voltage is about 28 V and the DC current is about 1 kA. The reaction cell chamber was an edged SS cube with a 9 inch length containing 47 kg of molten gallium. The electrodes consisted of a 1 inch submerged SS nozzle of a DC EM pump and an opposing electrode consisting of a 4 cm diameter, 1 cm thick W disk with a 1 cm diameter lead covered by a BN base. The EM pump rate is about 30 to 40 ml/s. The gallium is positively polarized and the W base electrode is negatively polarized. SunCell® has an output of approximately 150 kW, measured using the product of mass, specific heat and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactors.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may include additives including species such as metals or compounds that react with at least one of oxygen and water. Additives are renewable. Regeneration can be achieved by at least one system of SunCell®. The regeneration system can include at least one of thermal, plasma, and electrolysis systems. Additives can be added to the reaction mixture containing molten silver. In one embodiment, the additive may comprise gallium which may be added to molten silver comprising molten metal. In one embodiment, water may be supplied to the reaction unit chamber. Water can be supplied by a sprayer. Gallium can react with water supplied to the reaction mixture to form hydrogen and gallium. Hydrogen can react with some residual HOH that acts as a low energy hydrogen catalyst. Gallium oxide can be regenerated by an electrolysis system. The gallium metal and oxygen reduced by the electrolysis system can be pumped back to the reaction cell chamber and evacuated the cell, respectively.

In one embodiment, hydrogen gas may be added to the reaction mixture to eliminate the gallium oxide film formed by the reaction of the sprayed water and gallium. The hydrogen gas in the reaction unit chamber may be in at least one pressure range of about 0.1 Torr to 100 atm, 1 Torr to 1 atm, and 1 Torr to 10 Torr. Hydrogen may flow into the reaction unit chamber at a rate per liter of reaction unit chamber volume at least in the range of about 0.001 seem to 10 liters/min, 0.001 seem to 10 liters/min, and 0.001 seem to 10 liters/min.

In one embodiment, hydrogen can act as a catalyst. A source of hydrogen supplying nH (n is an integer) as catalyst and H atoms to form low energy hydrogen can include the use of a mass flow controller through a hydrogen permeable membrane such as Pd or Pd-Ag in the walls of the EM pump tube 5k4 to control the flow of hydrogen flow of high-pressure water to the decomposing agent supplied H ₂ gas, the hydrogen permeable membrane such as 23% Ag / 77% Pd alloy membrane. The use of hydrogen as an alternative catalyst to the HOH catalyst can avoid oxidation reactions of at least one cell component such as the carbon reaction unit chamber 5b31. A reaction chamber held unit of plasma can be dissociated to provide H ₂ H atoms. The carbon may contain thermal carbon to inhibit the reaction between carbon and hydrogen.

In a solid fuel SunCell ® embodiment, SunCell® comprising the solid fuel, the solid fuel to form at least one reactant to form a low energy hydrogen. The low energy hydrogen reactant may comprise atomic H and a catalyst to form low energy hydrogen. The catalyst may contain nascent water, HOH. Reactants can be at least partially regenerated in situ in SunCell®. The solid fuel can be regenerated by plasma or thermally driven reactions in the reaction unit chamber 5b31. Regeneration can be achieved by at least one of plasma and thermal power held and released in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Solid fuel reactants can be regenerated by supplying a source of elements that are consumed in forming low energy hydrogen or products comprising low energy hydrogen, such as lower energy hydrogen compounds and compositions of matter. SunCell® may include at least one of a source of H and oxygen to replace any loss of solid fuel during propagation of low energy hydrogen reactions in SunCell®. H, and O in the at least one of the sources may include H _2, H ₂ O and O ₂ in the at least one. In an exemplary embodiment, regeneration, the H ₂ consumed to form the (1/4) of one is replaced by H ₂ H ₂ is added in the least and H2O, wherein H ₂ O HOH may further act as a catalyst in the at least O ₂ and source of one. Optimally, CO _2, and a rare gas (such as argon) may be at least one of the components of the reaction mixtures, wherein the CO ₂ may act as a source of oxygen to form a catalyst HOH.

In one embodiment, the SunCell® further comprises an electrolytic cell to regenerate at least some of the at least one starting material from any product formed in the reaction cell chamber. The starting material can comprise at least one of the reactants of the solid fuel, wherein the product can be formed by reacting the solid fuel to form a low energy hydrogen reactant. The starting material may comprise molten metal such as gallium or silver. In one embodiment, the molten metal does not react with the molten metal. Exemplary non-reactive molten metals include silver. The electrolytic cell may include reservoir 5c, reaction unit chamber 5b31, and at least one of a separation chamber external to at least one of reservoir 5c and reaction unit chamber 5b31. The electrolytic cell may contain at least (i) two electrodes; (ii) inlet and outlet channels and conveyors for separate chambers; (iii) may contain molten metal and a the electrolyte of at least one of the reactants and the products in at least one of them; (iv) an electrolysis power supply; and (v) a controller for electrolysis and a conveyor for entering and leaving the electrolysis cell, as applicable controller and power supply. The conveyor may comprise the conveyor of the present invention.

*T=熱化學，E=電化學。 表2.關於H₂ O催化劑及H₂ 之熱可逆反應循環。[C.Perkins及A.W.Weimer，可再生氫氣之太陽能熱發電(Solar-Thermal Production of Renewable Hydrogen)，AIChE期刊，55(2)，(2009)，第286至293頁。]

表3.關於H₂ O催化劑及H₂ 之熱可逆反應循環。[S.Abanades，P.Charvin，G.Flamant，P.Neveu，對於太陽能集中制氫有潛在吸引力的分裂水熱化學循環篩選、Energy，31，(2006), 第2805-2822頁。]

In one embodiment, the solid fuel to form H ₂ O and H as a reaction product or intermediate product. H ₂ O may act as a catalyst to form a low energy hydrogen. The reactants include at least one oxidizing agent and one reducing agent, and the reaction includes at least one redox reaction. The reducing agent may contain metals such as alkali metals. The reaction mixture may further comprise a source of hydrogen and a source of H ₂ O, and optionally comprise a carrier, such as carbon, carbides, borides, nitrides, such as the TiCN-carbonitrile, or a nitrile. The carrier may contain metal powder. The source of H can be selected from the group of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, rare earth hydrides and hydrides of the present invention. The source of hydrogen may be hydrogen, which may further comprise a dissociating agent, such as the dissociating agent of the present invention, such as a precious metal on a support, such as carbon or alumina, and other precious metals of the present invention. The water source may comprise dehydrated compounds, such as hydroxides or hydroxide complexes, such as hydroxide complexes of Al, Zn, Sn, Cr, Sb, and Pb. The water source may include a hydrogen source and an oxygen source. The oxygen source may comprise oxygenates. Exemplary compounds or molecules are O ₂ , alkali or alkaline earth oxides, peroxides or superoxides, TeO ₂ , SeO ₂ , PO ₂ , P ₂ O ₅ , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , M ₂ SO ₄ , MHSO _{4 , CO 2, M 2 S 2} O 8, MMnO 4, M 2 Mn 2 O 4, M x H y PO 4 (x, y = _{integers), POBr 2, MClO 4,} MNO 3, NO, N 2 O, NO ₂ , N ₂ O ₃ , Cl ₂ O ₇ and O ₂ (M=alkali metal; and alkaline earth or other cations may replace M). Other exemplary reactant comprises a reactant selected from the group _{of: Li, LiH, LiNO 3,} LiNO, LiNO 2, Li 3 N, Li 2 NH, LiNH 2, LiX, NH3, LiBH 4, LiAlH 4, Li 3 AlH ₆ , LiOH, Li ₂ S, LiHS, LiFeSi, Li ₂ CO ₃ , LiHCO ₃ , Li ₂ SO ₄ , LiHSO ₄ , Li ₃ PO ₄ , Li ₂ HPO ₄ , LiH ₂ PO ₄ , Li ₂ MoO ₄ , LiNbO _3. Li ₂ B ₄ O ₇ (lithium tetraborate), LiBO ₂ , Li ₂ WO ₄ , LiAlCl ₄ , LiGaCl ₄ , Li ₂ CrO ₄ , Li ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , Li ₂ TiO ₃ , LiZrO ₃ , _{LiAlO 2} , LiCoO ₂ , LiGaO ₂ , Li ₂ GeO ₃ , LiMn ₂ O ₄ , Li ₄ SiO ₄ , Li ₂ SiO ₃ , LiTaO ₃ , LiCuCl ₄ , LiPdCl ₄ , LiVO ₃ , LiIO ₃ , LiBrO ₃ , LiXO ₃ (X= F, Br, Cl, I) , LiFeO 2, LiIO 4, LiBrO 4, LiIO 4, LiXO 4 (X = F, Br, Cl, I), LiScO n, LiTiO n, LiVO n, LiCrO n, LiCr 2 O _{n, LiMn 2 O n, LiFeO} n, LiCoO n, LiNiO n, LiNi 2 O n, LiCuO n and LiZnO _n, where n = 1,2,3 or 4; oxyanion, oxyanion of a strong acid, an oxidant, the oxidant molecules , such as V ₂ O ₃ , I ₂ O ₅ , MnO ₂ , Re ₂ O ₇ , CrO ₃ , RuO ₂ , AgO, PdO, PdO ₂ , PtO, PtO ₂ , and NH ₄ X, where X is nitrate or CRC Other suitable anions are given in; and reducing agents. Another alkali metal or other cation can replace Li. The additional oxygen source may be selected from the group of: MCoO ₂ , MGaO ₂ , M ₂ GeO ₃ , MMn ₂ O ₄ , M ₄ SiO ₄ , M ₂ SiO ₃ , MTaO ₃ , MVO ₃ , MIO ₃ , MFeO _{2, MIO 4, MClO 4,} MScO n, mTiO n, MVO n, MCrO n, MCr 2 O n, MMn 2 O n, MFeO n, MCoO n, MNiO n, MNi 2 O n, MCuO n and MZnO _n, wherein M is an alkali metal and n=1, 2, 3 or 4; oxyanions, oxyanions of strong acids, oxidizing agents, molecular oxidizing agents such as V ₂ O ₃ , I ₂ O ₅ , MnO ₂ , Re ₂ O ₇ , CrO ₃ , RuO ₂ , AgO, PdO, PdO ₂ , PtO, PtO ₂ , I ₂ O ₄ , I ₂ O ₅ , I ₂ O ₉ , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , CO ₂ , N ₂ O, NO, NO ₂ , N _{2 O 3, N 2 O 4} , N 2 O 5, Cl 2 O, ClO 2, Cl 2 O 3, Cl 2 O 6, Cl 2 O 7, PO 2, P 2 O 3 and P ₂ O _5. The reactants can be in any desired ratio to form low energy hydrogen. An exemplary reaction mixture is a mixture of 0.33 g of LiH, 1.7 g of LiNO ₃ and 1 g of MgH ₂ and 4 g of activated C powder. Forming additional reaction H ₂ O and H ₂ in the catalyst is at least one suitable exemplary reaction provided in Tables 1, 2 and 3. Table 1. Thermal and H ₂ on a catalyst H ₂ O The reaction of the reversible cycle. [LCBrown, GEBesenbruch, KRSchultz, ACMarshall, SK Showalter, PSPickard and JFFunk, Nuclear Production of Hydrogen Using Thermochemical Water-Splitting Cycles, 19-13 June 2002 at Preprint of paper presented at the International Conference on Advanced Nuclear Power Plants (ICAPP) in Hollywood, FL and published in Proceedings. ]

*T=thermochemical, E=electrochemical. Table 2. Thermal and H ₂ O on catalyst cycle reversible reaction of H _2. [C. Perkins and AW Weimer, Solar-Thermal Production of Renewable Hydrogen, AIChE Journal, 55(2), (2009), pp. 286-293. ]

Table 3. Thermal and H ₂ on a catalyst H ₂ O The reaction of the reversible cycle. [S. Abanades, P. Charvin, G. Flamant, P. Neveu, Screening of potentially attractive split hydrothermal chemical cycles for concentrated solar hydrogen production, Energy, 31, (2006), pp. 2805-2822. ]

-MnO(OH)錳榍石及

-MnO(OH)亞錳酸鹽)、FeO(OH)、CoO(OH)、NiO(OH)、RhO(OH)、GaO(OH)、InO(OH)、Ni_{1 / 2} Co_{1 / 2} O(OH)及Ni_{1 / 3} Co_{1 / 3} Mn_{1 / 3} O(OH)。適合的例示性氫氧化物為諸如鹼、鹼土、過渡、內過渡及稀土金屬之金屬之氫氧化物及其他金屬及類金屬，諸如Al、Ga、In、Si、Ge、Sn、Pb、As、Sb、Bi、Se及Te之氫氧化物，及混合物。適合的錯離子氫氧化物為Li₂ Zn(OH)₄ ，Na₂ Zn(OH)₄ ，Li₂ Sn(OH)₄ ，Na₂ Sn(OH)₄ ，Li₂ Pb(OH)₄ ，Na₂ Pb(OH)₄ ，LiSb(OH)₄ ，NaSb(OH)₄ ，LiAl(OH)₄ ，NaAl(OH)₄ ，LiCr(OH)₄ ，NaCr(OH)₄ ，Li₂ Sn(OH)₆ 及Na₂ Sn(OH)₆ 。額外的例示性適合氫氧化物為來自Co(OH)₂ ，Zn(OH)₂ ，Ni(OH)₂ ，其他過渡金屬氫氧化物，Cd(OH)₂ ，Sn(OH)₂ 及Pb(OH)之至少一者。適合的例示性過氧化物為H₂ O₂ 、有機化合物之過氧化物及金屬之過氧化物(諸如M₂ O₂ ，其中M為鹼金屬，諸如Li₂ O₂ 、Na₂ O₂ 、K₂ O₂ )、其他離子過氧化物(諸如鹼土金屬過氧化物，諸如Ca、Sr或Ba過氧化物)、其他正電性金屬之過氧化物(諸如鑭系元素之過氧化物)及共價金屬過氧化物(諸如Zn、Cd及Hg之過氧化物)。適合的例示性超氧化物為金屬MO₂ 之超氧化物，其中M為鹼金屬，諸如NaO₂ 、KO₂ 、RbO₂ 及CsO₂ ，及鹼土金屬超氧化物。在一實施例中，固體燃料包含鹼金屬過氧化物及氫來源，諸如氫化物、烴或氫儲存材料，諸如BH₃ NH₃ 。反應混合物可包含氫氧化物，諸如以下之氫氧化物：鹼、鹼土、過渡、內過渡及稀土金屬，以及Al、Ga、In、Sn、Pb及形成氫氧化物及氧來源，諸如包含諸如碳酸根之至少一個氧陰離子之化合物的其他元素，諸如包含鹼、鹼土、過渡、內過渡及稀土金屬，以及Al、Ga、In、Sn、Pb之氫氧化物及本發明之其他氫氧化物。包含氧之其他適合化合物為以下之群組之氧陰離子化合物中之至少一者：鋁酸鹽、鎢酸鹽、鋯酸鹽、鈦酸鹽、硫酸鹽、磷酸鹽、碳酸鹽、硝酸鹽、鉻酸鹽、重鉻酸鹽及錳酸鹽、氧化物、氧(氫氧)化物、過氧化物、超氧化物、矽酸鹽、鈦酸鹽、鎢酸鹽及本發明之其他化合物。氫氧化物與碳酸鹽之例示性反應藉由以下給出： Ca(OH)₂ + Li₂ CO₃ 至CaO + H₂ O + Li₂ O + CO₂ (60)H ₂ O forming reaction catalyst may comprise the source of O, species such as O, H, and source. O source may comprise species of O _2, air, and the blend comprising the compound or compounds of at least one of O's. The oxygen-containing compound may contain an oxidizing agent. The oxygen-containing compound may contain at least one of oxides, oxygen (hydroxides), hydroxides, peroxides, and superoxides. Exemplary of suitable metal oxide: alkali metal oxide, such as Li ₂ O, Na ₂ O and K ₂ O; alkaline earth metal oxides, such as MgO, CaO, SrO and of BaO; transition oxides, such as NiO, Ni _{2 O 3, FeO, Fe 2 O} 3 and of CoO; and the transition and rare earth metal oxide; and the other metals and metal oxides, such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, as, Sb, Oxides of Bi, Se and Te; and mixtures of these and other elements containing oxygen. Oxides may comprise oxide anions, such as the oxide anions of the present invention, such as metal oxide anions and cations, such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metal cations; and oxide anions of other metals and metalloids, such as al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, as, Sb, Bi, Se , and Te of the oxide anion, such as MM _'2x O _{3x + 1} or MM' _2x O ₄ (M = alkaline earth, M '= such as Fe or a transition metal Ni or Mn,, x = an integer) and _{M 2 M '2x O 3x +} 1 or _{M 2 M' 2x O 4 (} M = an alkali metal, M '= such as Fe or Ni or a transition metal Mn, , x = integer). Suitable exemplary metal oxygen (hydroxide) compounds are AlO(OH), ScO(OH), YO(OH), VO(OH), CrO(OH), MnO(OH) (

-MnO(OH) manganese sphene and

-MnO(OH) manganite), FeO(OH), CoO(OH), NiO(OH), RhO(OH), GaO(OH), InO(OH), Ni _{1 / 2} Co _{1 / 2} O (OH) and Ni _{1 / 3} Co _{1 / 3} Mn _{1 / 3} O(OH). Suitable exemplary hydroxides are hydroxides of metals such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition and rare earth metals and other metals and metalloids such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Hydroxides of Sb, Bi, Se and Te, and mixtures. Suitable anion hydroxides are Li ₂ Zn(OH) ₄ , Na ₂ Zn(OH) ₄ , Li ₂ Sn(OH) ₄ , Na ₂ Sn(OH) ₄ , Li ₂ Pb(OH) ₄ , Na ₂ Pb(OH) ₄ , LiSb(OH) ₄ , NaSb(OH) ₄ , LiAl(OH) ₄ , NaAl(OH) ₄ , LiCr(OH) ₄ , NaCr(OH) ₄ , Li ₂ Sn(OH) ₆ and Na ₂ Sn(OH) ₆ . Additional exemplary suitable hydroxides are from Co(OH) ₂ , Zn(OH) ₂ , Ni(OH) ₂ , other transition metal hydroxides, Cd(OH) ₂ , Sn(OH) ₂ and Pb(OH) ) at least one. Suitable exemplary peroxides are H ₂ O ₂ , peroxides of organic compounds and peroxides of metals such as M ₂ O ₂ where M is an alkali metal such as Li ₂ O ₂ , Na ₂ O ₂ , K ₂ O ₂ ), other ionic peroxides (such as alkaline earth metal peroxides such as Ca, Sr or Ba peroxides), other electropositive metal peroxides (such as lanthanide peroxides) and co- Valence metal peroxides (such as peroxides of Zn, Cd and Hg). Exemplary of suitable metal superoxide MO ₂ of superoxide, wherein M is an alkali metal, such as NaO _2, KO _2, RbO ₂ and CsO _2, an alkaline earth metal and superoxide. In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprising hydrogen peroxide and a source of an alkali metal, such as a hydride, hydrogen storage material, or a hydrocarbon, such as BH ₃ NH _3. The reaction mixture may contain hydroxides such as those of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition and rare earth metals, as well as Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb and forming hydroxides and sources of oxygen such as those containing carbonic acid Other elements of compounds of at least one oxyanion of the root, such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition and rare earth metals, and hydroxides of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb and other hydroxides of the invention. Other suitable compounds containing oxygen are at least one of the oxyanion compounds of the following group: aluminates, tungstates, zirconates, titanates, sulfates, phosphates, carbonates, nitrates, chromium Salts, dichromates and manganates, oxides, oxygen (hydroxides), peroxides, superoxides, silicates, titanates, tungstates and other compounds of the invention. Exemplary reactions of hydroxides and carbonates are given by: Ca(OH) ₂ + Li ₂ CO ₃ to CaO + H ₂ O + Li ₂ O + CO ₂ (60)

In other embodiments, the oxygen source is a gaseous or readily forming gas, such as _{NO 2, NO, N 2 O} , CO 2, P 2 O 3, P 2 O 5 and SO _2. Reduced oxide products formed from H ₂ O catalysts such as C, N, NH ₃ , P or S can be converted back to oxides again by combustion with oxygen or a source thereof, as given in the Mills previous application . Batteries can generate waste heat that can be used for heating applications, or the heat can be converted into electricity by means such as Rankine or Brayton systems. Alternatively, batteries can be used to synthesize lower energy hydrogen species, such as molecular low energy hydrogen and low energy hydrogen hydride ions and corresponding compounds.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture forming low energy hydrogen for at least one of the production of lower energy hydrogen species and compounds and the production of energy comprises a source of atomic hydrogen and a source of catalyst comprising at least one of H and O one catalyst of the present invention such as H ₂ O as catalyst. The reaction mixture may further comprise an acid, such as _{H 2 SO 3, H 2 SO} 4, H 2 CO 3, HNO 2, HNO 3, HClO 4, H 3 PO 3 and H ₃ PO _4, or an acid source, such as an acid anhydride or anhydrous acid. The latter may comprise at least one of the group of _{SO 2} , SO ₃ , CO ₂ , NO ₂ , N ₂ O ₃ , N ₂ O ₅ , Cl ₂ O ₇ , PO ₂ , P ₂ O ₃ and P ₂ O ₅ . The reaction mixture may comprise a base and a basic anhydride is at least one, such as M ₂ O (M = alkali metal), M'O (M '= alkaline earth metals), ZnO, or other transition metal oxides, CdO, CoO, SnO , AgO, HgO or Al ₂ O ₃ . Other exemplary acid anhydride comprising for H ₂ O and stability of the metal, such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. The acid anhydride may be an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal oxide, and the hydrated compound may contain a hydroxide. The reaction mixture may contain oxygen (hydroxide) compounds such as FeOOH, NiOOH or CoOOH. The reaction mixture may comprise a source of H ₂ O and H ₂ O in the at least one. H ₂ O is reversibly may be formed by the hydration and dehydration reaction in the presence of atomic hydrogen. Formation of H ₂ O exemplary catalysts of as Mg (OH) ₂ to _{MgO + H 2 O (61)} 2LiOH to _{Li 2 O + H 2 O (} 62) H 2 CO 3 to _{CO 2 + H 2 O (63} ) 2FeOOH to Fe ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ O (64)

；長鏈偏磷酸鹽。諸如

；環狀偏磷酸鹽，諸如

，其中n≥3；以及超磷酸鹽，諸如P₄ O₁₀ 。例示性反應為

In one embodiment, H ₂ O by the catalyst is formed of at least one compound of dehydration, the compound comprises a phosphate, such as phosphate, hydrogen phosphate and dihydrogen salts of phosphoric acid, such as a cation of their compounds, such as cationic Cations containing metals, such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals; and other metals and their compounds of metalloids, such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Those compounds of Sb, Bi, Se, and Te; and mixtures forming condensed phosphates, such as at least one of the following: polyphosphates, such as

; long chain metaphosphates. such as

; cyclic metaphosphates such as

, where n≧3; and superphosphates, such as P ₄ O ₁₀ . An exemplary response is

The reactants of the dehydration reaction may include R-Ni which may include at least one of _{Al(OH) 3} and Al ₂ O _{3 .} The reactants may further comprise a metal M, such as a metal M of the present invention, such as an alkali metal, a metal hydride MH, a metal hydroxide (such as a metal hydroxide of the present invention, such as an alkali metal hydroxide), and a source of hydrogen (such as H ₂ ) and inherent hydrogen. Exemplary reactions are 2Al(OH) ₃ + to Al ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ O (67) Al ₂ O ₃ + 2NaOH to 2NaAlO ₂ + H ₂ O (68) 3MH + Al(OH) ₃ + to M ₃ Al + 3H ₂ O (69) MoCu + 2MOH + 4O ₂ to M ₂ MoO ₄ + CuO + H ₂ O (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) (70)

The reaction product may comprise an alloy. R-Ni can be regenerated by rehydration. The reaction mixture and formed H ₂ O dehydration reaction to catalyst may comprise and involves oxygen (hydroxyl) compound, oxide of the present invention illustrating exemplary reactions such embodiments given in the (hydroxyl) compound: 3Co (OH) ₂ to 2CoOOH + Co + 2H ₂ O (71)

Atomic hydrogen H ₂ gas may be formed by dissociation. Hydrogen dissociation agent solution of the present invention may be from one of those agents, the noble metal or transition metal, such as R-Ni or carriers, such as carbon, or of the Al ₂ O ₃ Ni or Pt or Pd. Alternatively, atomic H may come from H permeation through a membrane such as the membrane of the present invention. In one embodiment, a battery separator comprising a ceramic membrane such as to allow the selective diffusion through H _2, H ₂ O while preventing diffusion. In one embodiment, _{at least one of H 2} and atomic H is supplied to the cell by electrolysis of an electrolyte comprising a source of hydrogen, such as an _{aqueous or molten electrolyte comprising H 2 O.} In one embodiment, H ₂ O dehydration catalyst by an acid or base to form an anhydride formed reversibly. In one embodiment, the formed H ₂ O, and the reaction of the hydrogen-based energy low catalyst activity by changing the pH or the battery, the temperature and pressure in at least one of the spread, wherein the pressure may be varied by varying the temperature. The activity of species such as acids, bases or anhydrides can be altered by adding salts as known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may comprise a material such as carbon, which can absorb a gas such as H ₂ or as a source of acid anhydride, or a reaction gas is formed of a low-energy hydrogen. The reactants can be in any desired concentration and ratio. The reaction mixture may be molten or contain an aqueous slurry.

In another embodiment, the source of H ₂ O catalyst of the reaction between acid and base, a reaction between the one with a base, such as a hydrohalic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and nitrous acid in the least. Other suitable acid reactant _{H 2 SO 4, HCl, HX} (X- _{halide), H 3 PO 4, HClO} 4, HNO 3, HNO, HNO 2, H 2 S, H 2 CO 3, H 2 MoO _4. HNbO ₃ , H ₂ B ₄ O ₇ (M tetraborate), HBO ₂ , H ₂ WO ₄ , H ₂ CrO ₄ , H ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , H ₂ TiO ₃ , HZrO ₃ , MAlO ₂ , HMn _{2 O 4, HIO 3, HIO} 4, HClO 4 aqueous solution or an organic acid such as formic acid or acetic acid. Suitable exemplary bases are hydroxides, oxygen (hydroxides) or oxides, including alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition or rare earth metals or Al, Ga, In, Sn or Pb.

In one embodiment, the reactant can include a base or an acid anhydride are reacted with an acid or a base to form a compound of anionic anionic cationic cationic catalyst H ₂ O, and a base of an alkaline or acid anhydride with an acid anhydride of the acid of each. An exemplary reaction of anhydride SiO ₂ with base NaOH is 4NaOH + SiO ₂ to Na ₄ SiO ₄ + 2H ₂ O (72) wherein the dehydration reaction of the corresponding acid is H ₄ SiO ₄ to 2H ₂ O + SiO ₂ (73)

Other suitable exemplary anhydrides may comprise elements, metals, alloys or mixtures such as those from Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Anhydrides of the group of Hf, Co and Mg. Corresponding oxides may include MoO ₂ , TiO ₂ , ZrO ₂ , SiO ₂ , Al ₂ O ₃ , NiO, Ni ₂ O ₃ , FeO, Fe ₂ O ₃ , TaO ₂ , Ta ₂ O ₅ , VO, VO ₂ , V ₂ O ₃ , V ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O ₃ , NbO, NbO ₂ , Nb ₂ O ₅ , SeO ₂ , SeO ₃ , TeO ₂ , TeO ₃ , WO ₂ , WO ₃ , Cr ₃ O ₄ , Cr ₂ O _3. Any of CrO _{2 , CrO 3} , MnO, Mn 3 O ₄ , Mn ₂ O ₃ , MnO ₂ , Mn ₂ O ₇ , HfO ₂ , Co ₂ O ₃ , CoO, Co ₃ O ₄ , Co ₂ O ₃ and MgO at least one. In an exemplary embodiment, the base comprises a hydroxide, such as alkali metal hydroxides, such as MOH (M = alkali metal), such as LiOH, which may form the corresponding basic oxides, such as M ₂ O, such as Li ₂ O , and H2O. Basic oxides can react with anhydride oxides to form product oxides. In an exemplary reaction of LiOH and anhydride oxide with release of H ₂ O, the product oxide compound may comprise Li ₂ MoO ₃ or Li ₂ MoO ₄ , Li ₂ TiO ₃ , Li ₂ ZrO ₃ , Li ₂ SiO ₃ , LiAlO ₂ , LiNiO ₂ , LiFeO ₂ , LiTaO ₃ , LiVO ₃ , Li ₂ B ₄ O ₇ , Li ₂ NbO ₃ , Li ₂ SeO ₃ , Li ₃ PO ₄ , Li ₂ SeO ₄ , Li ₂ TeO ₃ , Li ₂ TeO _4. Li ₂ WO ₄ , Li ₂ CrO ₄ , Li ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , Li ₂ MnO ₄ , Li ₂ HfO ₃ , LiCoO ₂ and MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxides are As ₂ O ₃ , As ₂ O ₅ , Sb ₂ O ₃ , Sb ₂ O ₄ , Sb ₂ O ₅ , Bi ₂ O ₃ , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , CO ₂ , NO ₂ , _{N 2 O 3, N 2 O} 5, Cl 2 O 7, PO 2, P 2 O 3 and P ₂ O ₅ and known to those skilled in the art of other similar groups in the oxide of at least one. Another example is given by equation (91). Suitable reactions for metal oxides are 2LiOH + NiO to Li ₂ NiO ₂ + H ₂ O (74) 3LiOH + NiO to LiNiO ₂ + H ₂ O + Li ₂ O + 1/2H ₂ (75) 4LiOH + Ni ₂ O ₃ to 2Li ₂ NiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O + 1/2O ₂ (76) 2LiOH + Ni ₂ O ₃ to 2LiNiO ₂ + H ₂ O (77)

Other transition metals such as Fe, Cr and Ti, inner transition metals and rare earth metals and other metals or metalloids such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te can be Ni is substituted, and other alkali metals such as Li, Na, Rb, and Cs can replace K. In one embodiment, the oxide may comprise Mo, which is formed during the reaction of H ₂ O, may be further reacted to form a nascent form of low energy hydrogen and H ₂ O Catalyst H. Exemplary solid fuel reactions and possible redox pathways are

The reaction may further comprise a source of hydrogen (such as hydrogen) and dissociation agent (such as a Pd / Al ₂ O _3). Hydrogen can be any of protium, deuterium, or tritium, or combinations thereof. The reaction to form the H2O catalyst may comprise the reaction of two hydroxides to form water. The cations of the hydroxides can have different oxidation states, such as those in the reaction of alkali metal hydroxides with transition metal or alkaline earth metal hydroxides. The reaction mixture and the reaction may further comprise from and to a source of H _2, as illustrated in exemplary reactions _{given: LiOH + 2Co (OH) 2} + 1 / 2H 2 to _{LiCoO 2 + 3H 2 O + Co} (84)

Reaction mixtures and reactions may further comprise and involve metals M, such as alkali or alkaline earth metals given in the exemplary reactions: M + LiOH + Co(OH) ₂ to LiCoO ₂ + H ₂ O + MH (85)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes metal oxides and hydroxides, which can serve as a source of H and, optionally, another source of H, wherein a metal such as Fe of the metal oxide can have multiple oxidation states such that it reacts undergo a redox reaction to form H ₂ O during, acting as a catalyst for reaction with H to form the low energy hydrogen. Examples of FeO, Fe ^{2 +} which can undergo oxidation to Fe ³⁺ during the reaction to form the catalyst. An exemplary reaction is FeO + 3LiOH to H ₂ O _{+ LiFeO 2} + H(1/p) + Li ₂ O (86)

In one embodiment, at least one reactant, such as a metal oxide, hydroxide, or oxygen (hydroxide) acts as an oxidizing agent, wherein a metal atom such as Fe, Ni, Mo, or Mn may be present at a higher level than another possible oxidation The oxidation state of the state. The reaction to form the catalyst and the low energy hydrogen can cause the atoms to undergo reduction to at least one lower oxidation state. H ₂ O is formed of a metal oxide catalyst, the reaction exemplary hydroxide and oxygen (hydrogen) of the compound of 2KOH + NiO to _{K 2 NiO 2 + H 2 O} (87) 3KOH + NiO to KNiO ₂ + H ₂ O + K ₂ O + 1/2H ₂ (88) 2KOH + Ni ₂ O ₃ to 2KNiO ₂ + H ₂ O (89) 4KOH + Ni ₂ O ₃ to 2K ₂ NiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O + 1/2O ₂ (90 ) 2KOH + Ni(OH) ₂ to K ₂ NiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O (91) 2LiOH + MoO ₃ to Li ₂ MoO ₄ + H ₂ O (92) 3KOH + Ni(OH) ₂ to KNiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O + K ₂ O + 1/2H ₂ (93) 2KOH + 2NiOOH to K ₂ NiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O + NiO + 1/2O ₂ (94) KOH + NiOOH to KNiO ₂ + H ₂ O (95) 2NaOH + Fe ₂ O ₃ to 2NaFeO ₂ + H ₂ O (96)

Other transition metals such as Ni, Fe, Cr and Ti, inner transition metals and rare earth metals and other metals or metalloids such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te ) can replace Ni or Fe, and other alkali metals such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs can replace K or Na. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises respect to H ₂ O and stability of the metal, such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, At least one of oxides and hydroxides of Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. Further, the reaction mixture comprising a source of hydrogen (such as H ₂ gas) and optionally comprising a dissociation agent (such as a noble metal on the support). In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a mixture of a metal halide is at least one of the transition metal halide, such as a metal halide (such as a bromide, such as FeBr ₂₎ and the formation of oxygen (hydroxyl) compound, hydroxides or oxides of H ₂ O and the at least one metal. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprising a metal oxide, hydroxide and oxygen (hydrogen) compound in the at least one, such as a transition metal oxide (such as Ni ₂ O ₃ and H ₂ O) in the a mixture of at least one.

An exemplary reaction of basic acid anhydride NiO with acid HCl is 2HCl + NiO to H ₂ O + NiCl ₂ (97) wherein the dehydration reaction of the corresponding base is Ni(OH) ₂ to H ₂ O + NiO (98)

The reactants may comprise at least one of a Lewis acid or base and a Brons-delauer acid or base. The reaction mixture and reaction may further comprise and involve an oxygen-containing compound, wherein the acid reacts with the oxygen-containing compound to form water, as given in the exemplary reactions: 2HX + POX ₃ to H ₂ O + PX ₅ (99)

(X=halide). Compounds analogous to POX ₃ are suitable, such as those in which P is replaced by S. Other suitable exemplary acid anhydrides may comprise oxides of acid-soluble elements, metals, alloys or mixtures, such as hydroxides, oxygen (hydroxides) or comprising alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals or Rare earth metals, or oxides of Al, Ga, In, Sn or Pb, such as from Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn , oxides of the group of Hf, Co and Mg. Corresponding oxides may include MoO ₂ , TiO ₂ , ZrO ₂ , SiO ₂ , Al ₂ O ₃ , NiO, FeO or Fe ₂ O ₃ , TaO ₂ , Ta ₂ O ₅ , VO, VO ₂ , V ₂ O ₃ , V ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O ₃ , NbO, NbO ₂ , Nb ₂ O ₅ , SeO ₂ , SeO ₃ , TeO ₂ , TeO ₃ , WO ₂ , WO ₃ , Cr ₃ O ₄ , Cr ₂ O ₃ , CrO ₂ , CrO ₃ , MnO, Mn ₃ O ₄ , Mn ₂ O ₃ , MnO ₂ , Mn ₂ O ₇ , HfO ₂ , Co ₂ O ₃ , CoO, Co ₃ O ₄ , Co ₂ O ₃ and MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxides are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Oxides of the group of Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In exemplary embodiments, the acid comprises a hydrohalogenic acid is a metal halide and the product H ₂ O and oxides. The reaction mixture further comprises a source of hydrogen (such as H ₂ gas) and a dissociation agent (such as Pt / C), where H and H ₂ O catalyst to form a low energy hydrogen.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprising H ₂ source, such as a permeable membrane or H ₂ gas; and a dissociating agent, such as Pt / C; and H ₂ O catalyst source, comprising reduced to H ₂ O of the oxide or hydroxide thing. Metals of oxides or hydroxides can form metal hydrides that serve as sources of H. Alkali metal hydroxides and oxides (such as LiOH and Li ₂ O) Exemplary reaction of LiOH + H ₂ to _{H 2 O + LiH (100)} Li 2 O + H 2 to LiOH + LiH (101)

The reaction mixture may contain the metal oxide or hydroxide, which was subjected to hydrogen reduction to H ₂ O, such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os , oxides or hydroxides of Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In; and sources of hydrogen, such as H ₂ gas; and a dissociating agent, such as Pt / C.

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture containing H ₂ source (such as H ₂ gas) and a dissociation agent (such as Pt / C) and peroxide compounds (such as H ₂ O _2), which is decomposed into H ₂ O and a catalyst comprising other product oxygen (such as O ₂₎ of the. Such as H ₂ and O ₂ decomposition product of some of the H ₂ O may react to form the catalyst.

In one embodiment, H ₂ O is formed as a reaction catalyst comprising the organic dehydration reaction, such as alcohol dehydration reaction of an organic, such as polyols, such as sugars to aldehydes and H ₂ O. In one embodiment, the dehydration reaction involves release of the alcohol from the terminal H ₂ O to form an aldehyde. Terminal alcohol may comprise the release of H ₂ O or a sugar derivative, the H ₂ O may act as a catalyst. Suitable exemplary alcohols are erythritol, galactitol or dulcitol and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Exemplary reaction mixtures include sugar + hydrogen dissociation agent, such as Pd/Al ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ . Alternatively, the reaction comprises dehydrating a metal salt, such as a metal salt having at least one water of hydration. In one embodiment, the loss of H ₂ O containing dehydrated to serve as a catalyst from the hydrate (such as water ions) and salt hydrate thereof (such as BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O and EuBr ₂ nH2O) of.

In one embodiment, the catalyst formed in the reaction of H ₂ O containing hydrogen by the reduction of the following: compounds containing oxygen (such as CO), oxygen anion (such as an MNO ₃ (M = alkali metal)), metal oxides (such as NiO , Ni ₂ O ₃ , Fe ₂ O _{3 ,} or SnO), hydroxides (such as Co(OH) ₂ ), oxygen (hydroxides) (such as FeOOH, CoOOH, and NiOOH); and hydrogen can be reduced to H ₂ O Compounds, oxyanions, oxides, hydroxides, oxygen (hydroxides), peroxides, superoxides, and other compositions of oxygen-containing species, such as those of the present invention. Exemplary compounds containing oxygen or oxygen anions are SOCl ₂ , Na ₂ S ₂ O ₃ , NaMnO ₄ , POBr ₃ , K ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , CO, CO ₂ , NO, NO ₂ , P ₂ O ₅ , N ₂ O ₅ , N ₂ O, SO ₂ , I ₂ O ₅ , NaClO ₂ , NaClO, K ₂ SO ₄ and KHSO ₄ . The source of hydrogen for the reduction of the hydrogen gas may be H ₂ and hydrides (such as metal hydrides, hydrides of the present invention, such as a) in at least one of. The reaction mixture can further comprise a reducing agent, which can form oxygen-containing compounds or ions. The cation of the oxyanion can form a product compound comprising another anion, such as a halide, other chalcogenide, phosphide, other oxyanion, nitride, silicide, arsenide, or other anions of the invention. Exemplary reaction _{4NaNO 3 (c) + 5MgH 2} (c) to 5MgO (c) + 4NaOH (c ) + 3H 2 O (l) + 2N 2 (g) (102) P 2 O 5 (c) + 6NaH (c) to 2Na ₃ PO ₄ (c) + 3H ₂ O(g) (103) NaClO ₄ (c) + 2MgH ₂ (c) to 2MgO(c) + NaCl(c) + 2H ₂ O(l) ( 104) KHSO ₄ + 4H ₂ to KHS + 4H ₂ O (105) K ₂ SO ₄ + 4H ₂ to 2KOH + 2H ₂ O + H ₂ S (106) LiNO ₃ + 4H ₂ to LiNH ₂ + 3H ₂ O (107 ) GeO ₂ + 2H ₂ to Ge + 2H ₂ O (108) CO ₂ + H ₂ to C + 2H ₂ O (109) PbO ₂ + 2H ₂ to 2H ₂ O + Pb (110) V ₂ O ₅ + 5H ₂ to 2V + 5H ₂ O (111) Co(OH) ₂ + H ₂ to Co + 2H ₂ O (112) Fe ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ to 2Fe + 3H ₂ O (113) 3Fe ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ to 2Fe ₃ O ₄ + H ₂ O (114) Fe ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ to 2FeO + H ₂ O (115) Ni ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ to 2Ni + 3H ₂ O (116) 3Ni ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ to 2Ni ₃ O ₄ + H ₂ O (117) Ni ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ to 2NiO + H ₂ O (118) 3FeOOH + 1/2H ₂ to Fe ₃ O ₄ + 2H ₂ O (119) 3NiOOH + 1/2H ₂ to Ni ₃ O ₄ + 2H ₂ O (120) 3CoOOH + 1/2H ₂ to Co ₃ O ₄ + 2H ₂ O (121) FeOOH + 1/2H ₂ to FeO + H ₂ O (122) NiOOH + 1/2H ₂ to NiO + H ₂ O (123 ) CoOOH + 1/2H ₂ to CoO + H ₂ O (124) SnO + H ₂ to Sn + H ₂ O (125)

The reaction mixture may contain an anion or anion source and source of oxygen or oxygen, oxygen compounds of such comprising, wherein the anion of H ₂ O catalyst to include optionally reacts with oxygen from the AND to form H H ₂ O of the sources of the _two forms - Oxygen Swap reactions. Exemplary reaction 2NaOH + H ₂ + S to _{Na 2 S + 2H 2 O (} 126) 2NaOH + H 2 + Te to _{Na 2 Te + 2H 2 O (} 127) 2NaOH + H 2 + Se to Na ₂ Se + 2H ₂ O (128) LiOH + NH ₃ to LiNH ₂ + H ₂ O (129)

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an interchange reaction between chalcogenides, such as an interchange reaction between reactants comprising O and S. Exemplary chalcogenide reactants, such as tetrahedral ammonium tetrathiomolybdate contain ([MoS ₄ ] ^{2 −} ) anions. An exemplary reaction to form a nascent H ₂ O catalyst and optionally nascent H includes the reaction of molybdate [MoO ₄ ] ^{2 -} with hydrogen sulfide in the presence of ammonia: [NH ₄ ] ₂ [MoO ₄ ] + 4H ₂ S to [ NH ₄ ] ₂ [MoS ₄ ] + 4H ₂ O (130)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen, an oxygen-containing compound, and at least one element capable of forming an alloy with at least one other element of the reaction mixture. H ₂ O forming reaction catalyst may comprise an oxygen of the oxygen-containing compound capable of forming alloy elements interchange reactions with the cationic compound of oxygen, wherein the oxygen to react with the hydrogen formed from the source of H ₂ O. Exemplary reaction NaOH + 1 / 2H ₂ + Pd to _{NaPb + H 2 O (131)} NaOH + 1 / 2H 2 + Bi to _{NaBi + H 2 O (132)} NaOH + 1 / 2H 2 + 2Cd to Cd ₂ Na + H ₂ O (133) NaOH + 1/2H ₂ + 4Ga to Ga ₄ Na + H ₂ O (134) NaOH + 1/2H ₂ + Sn to NaSn + H ₂ O (135) NaAlH ₄ + Al(OH) ₃ + 5Ni to NaAlO ₂ + Ni ₅ Al + H ₂ O + 5/2H ₂ (136)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes an oxygen-containing compound, such as oxygen (hydroxide); and a reducing agent, such as an oxide-forming metal. H ₂ O forming reaction catalyst may comprise of oxygen (hydrogen) is reacted with a metal compound to form metal oxides and H ₂ O. Exemplary reactions are 2MnOOH + Sn to 2MnO + SnO + H ₂ O (137) 4MnOOH + Sn to 4MnO + SnO ₂ + 2H ₂ O (138) 2MnOOH + Zn to 2MnO + ZnO + H ₂ O (139)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes an oxygen-containing compound, such as a hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, and at least one other compound that includes a different anion, such as a halide or another element. H ₂ O forming reaction catalyst may comprise a reaction of hydroxide and another compound or element, the element and wherein the anionic or hydroxide anion exchange or another compound to form the element, a hydroxide and H ₂ O and H The reaction of _{2 is formed.} The anion may contain a halide. Exemplary reactions are 2NaOH + NiCl ₂ + H ₂ to 2NaCl + 2H ₂ O + Ni (140) 2NaOH + I ₂ + H ₂ to 2NaI + 2H ₂ O (141) 2NaOH + XeF ₂ + H ₂ to 2NaF + 2H ₂ O + Xe (142) BiX ₃ (X=halide) + 4Bi(OH) ₃ to 3BiOX + Bi ₂ O ₃ + 6H ₂ O (143)

Alternatively hydroxide and a halide compound such that a H ₂ O The reaction of the halide and the other is thermally reversible. In one example, the general interchange reaction is NaOH + 1/2H ₂ + 1/yM _{x C y} = NaCl + 6H ₂ O + x/yM (171)

Wherein exemplified compound M _x Cl _y as _{AlCl 3, BeCl 2, HfCl 4} , KAgCl 2, MnCl 2, NaAlCl 4, ScCl 3, TiCl 2, TiCl 3, UCl 3, UCl 4, ZrCl 4, EuCl 3, GdCl 3 , MgCl ₂ , NdCl ₃ and YCl ₃ . At high temperatures, reactions such as equation (171) in the range of about 100°C to 2000°C have at least one of an enthalpy and a free energy of about 0 kJ, and are reversible. The reversible temperature is calculated from the corresponding thermodynamic parameters of each reaction. Representative temperature ranges are NaCl-ScCl _{3 at about 800 K-900 K, NaCl-TiCl 2 at} about 300 K-400 K _{, NaCl-UCl 3 at} about 600 K-800 K, NaCl- UCl ₄ , about 250 K-300 K NaCl-ZrCl ₄ , about 900 K-1300 K NaCl-MgCl ₂ , about 900 K-1000 K NaCl-EuCl ₃ , about >1000 K NaCl-NdCl ₃ and about NaCl-YCl _{3 at >1000 K.}

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises oxides, such as metal oxides, such as alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, inner transition metal and rare earth metal oxides, and oxides of other metals and metalloids such as Al, Ga , oxides of In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te), peroxides (such as M ₂ O ₂ where M is an alkali metal such as Li ₂ O ₂ , Na ₂ O ₂ and K ₂ O ₂ ) and superoxides such as MO ₂ where M is an alkali metal such as NaO ₂ , KO ₂ , RbO ₂ and CsO ₂ and alkaline earth metal superoxides, and sources of hydrogen. The ionic peroxide may further comprise peroxides of Ca, Sr or Ba. H ₂ O forming reaction catalyst may include hydrogen reduction of oxides, super-oxides or peroxides to form H ₂ O. Exemplary reactions are Na ₂ O + 2H ₂ to 2NaH + H ₂ O (144) Li ₂ O ₂ + H ₂ to Li ₂ O + H ₂ O (145) KO ₂ + 3/2H ₂ to KOH + H ₂ O (146)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a hydrogen source, such as of at least one of the following: H _2; hydride hydrides, such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, rare earth metals and the transition metal hydride according to the present invention, and in the at least one; and flammable hydrogen or a hydrogen source such other compounds, such as metal Amides; and a source of oxygen, such as O _2. H ₂ O forming reaction catalyst may comprise an oxidation of H _2, hydrides or hydrogen compounds (such as metal Amides) to form H ₂ O. Exemplary reactions are 2NaH + O ₂ to Na ₂ O + H ₂ O (147) H ₂ + 1/2O ₂ to H ₂ O (148) LiNH ₂ + 2O ₂ to LiNO ₃ + H ₂ O (149) 2LiNH ₂ + 3/2O ₂ to 2LiOH + H ₂ O + N ₂ (150)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen. Forming at least one of H ₂ O decomposition catalyst may comprise the source of hydrogen and oxygen to form a source H ₂ O. Exemplary reactions are NH ₄ NO ₃ to N ₂ O + 2H ₂ O (151) NH ₄ NO ₃ to N ₂ + 1/2O ₂ + 2H ₂ O (152) H ₂ O ₂ to 1/2O ₂ + H ₂ O (153) H ₂ O ₂ + H ₂ to 2H ₂ O (154)

(157) 其中例示性M及M'金屬分別為鹼土金屬及過渡金屬，諸如Cu(OH)₂ +FeBr₂ 、Cu(OH)₂ +CuBr₂ 或Co(OH)₂ +CuBr₂ 。在一實施例中，固體燃料可包含金屬氫氧化物及金屬鹵化物，其中至少一種金屬為Fe。H₂ O及H₂ 中之至少一者可經添加以再生反應物。在一實施例中，M及M'可選自以下之群組：鹼金屬、鹼土金屬、過渡金屬、內過渡金屬及稀土金屬，Al、Ga、In、Si、Ge、Sn、Pb，第13、14、15及16族元素，及氫氧化物或鹵化物之其他陽離子，諸如本發明之彼等者。形成HOH催化劑、初生H及低能量氫中之至少一者的例示性反應為

(158)The reaction mixtures disclosed herein further comprise a source of hydrogen to form low energy hydrogen. A hydrogen atom may be the source of origin of the hydrogen dissociation agent such as H ₂ gas or a metal hydride, such as a solution of the present invention from a metal hydride agent. The source of hydrogen that provides atomic hydrogen may be a compound containing hydrogen, such as hydroxide or oxygen (hydroxide). The H that reacts to form low energy hydrogen may be nascent H formed from the reaction of one or more reactants, at least one of which comprises a source of hydrogen, such as the reaction of a hydroxide and an oxide. The reaction may also form H ₂ O catalyst. The oxides and hydroxides may comprise the same compound. For example, the FeOOH such as oxygen (hydroxyl) compound may be dehydrated to provide the H ₂ O is also within the catalyst during the dehydration reaction provides a low energy hydrogen Primary H: 4FeOOH to _{H 2 O + Fe 2 O 3} + 2FeO + O ₂ + 2H(1/4) (155) where nascent H formed during the reaction reacts with low energy hydrogen. Other exemplary reaction with oxygen hydroxide (hydroxide) or an oxide (such as NaOH + FeOOH or Fe ₂ O ₃₎ to form alkali metal oxides (such as NaFeO ₂ + H ₂ O), which is formed during the reaction The nascent H can form low-energy hydrogen with H ₂ O acting as a catalyst. The oxides and hydroxides may comprise the same compound. For example, the FeOOH such as oxygen (hydroxyl) compound may be dehydrated to provide the H ₂ O is also within the catalyst during the dehydration reaction provides a low energy hydrogen Primary H: 4FeOOH to _{H 2 O + Fe 2 O 3} + 2FeO + O ₂ + 2H(1/4) (156) where nascent H formed during the reaction reacts with low energy hydrogen. Other exemplary reaction with oxygen hydroxide (hydroxide) or an oxide (such as NaOH + FeOOH or Fe ₂ O ₃₎ to form alkali metal oxides (such as NaFeO ₂ + H ₂ O), which is formed during the reaction The nascent H can form low-energy hydrogen with H ₂ O acting as a catalyst. In forming H ₂ O and oxide ions, hydroxide ions of reduced and oxidized. Oxide ions can react with H ₂ O to form OH ⁻ . The same route can be obtained by a hydroxide-halide exchange reaction such as

(157) wherein M exemplary and M 'are metals and alkaline earth transition metals, such as _{Cu (OH) 2 + FeBr 2} , Cu (OH) 2 + CuBr 2 or _{Co (OH) 2 + CuBr 2} . In one embodiment, the solid fuel may include metal hydroxides and metal halides, wherein at least one of the metals is Fe. H ₂ O in the H ₂ and at least one may be added to regenerate the reactants. In one embodiment, M and M' may be selected from the group of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, thirteenth , Group 14, 15 and 16 elements, and other cations of hydroxides or halides, such as those of the present invention. Exemplary reactions to form at least one of HOH catalyst, nascent H, and low energy hydrogen are

(158)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes at least one of hydroxide and halide compounds, such as those of the present invention. In one embodiment, the halide can be used to promote at least one of the formation and retention of at least one of the nascent HOH catalyst and H. In one embodiment, the mixture can be used to lower the melting point of the reaction mixture.

Acid - base reaction is another method to obtain the H ₂ O catalyst. Exemplary halide and hydroxide mixtures are mixtures of Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo, and Cd and Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Mixtures of hydroxides and halides of metals with low water reactivity of the group of Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W and Zn. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises H ₂ O, and which may serve as the primary source of H ₂ O H of the catalyst of at least one of. Water may be in the form of a hydrate that decomposes or otherwise reacts during the reaction.

、

、

及

(X=鹵素)。產物亦可為還原陽離子及鹵素氣體中之至少一者。鹵化物可為金屬鹵化物，諸如鹼金屬、鹼土金屬、過渡金屬、內過渡金屬及稀土金屬以及Al、Ga、In、Sn、Pb、S、Te、Se、N、P、As、Sb、Bi、C、Si、Ge及B，以及形成鹵化物之其他元素中之一者。金屬或元素可另外為形成氫氧化物、氧(氫氧)化物、氧化物、鹵氧化物、羥基鹵化物、水合物中之至少一者的金屬或元素；及形成具有包含氧及鹵素之陰離子，諸如

、

、

及

(X=鹵素)的化合物的金屬或元素。適合的例示性金屬及元素為鹼金屬、鹼土金屬、過渡金屬、內過渡金屬及稀土金屬以及Al、Ga、In、Sn、Pb、S、Te、Se、N、P、As、Sb、Bi、C、Si、Ge及B中之至少一者。例示性反應為 5MX₂ + 7H₂ O至MXOH + M(OH)₂ + MO + M₂ O₃ + 11H(1/4) + 9/2X₂ (159) 其中M為金屬，諸如過渡金屬，諸如Cu，且X為鹵素，諸如Cl。In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a _{reaction mixture of H 2} O and inorganic compounds that form nascent H and nascent H ₂ O. The inorganic compounds may contain a halide, such as a metal halide with the reaction of H ₂ O. The reaction product can be at least one of hydroxide, oxygen (hydroxide), oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, and hydrate. Other products may contain anions containing oxygen and halogen, such as

,

,

and

(X=halogen). The product may also be at least one of a reduced cation and a halogen gas. Halides can be metal halides such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi , C, Si, Ge, and B, and one of the other elements that form halides. The metal or element may additionally be a metal or element that forms at least one of hydroxides, oxygen (hydroxides), oxides, oxyhalides, hydroxyhalides, hydrates; and forms having anions comprising oxygen and halogen , such as

,

,

and

A metal or element of a compound of (X=halogen). Suitable exemplary metals and elements are alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, At least one of C, Si, Ge and B. An exemplary reaction is 5MX ₂ + 7H ₂ O to MXOH + M(OH) ₂ + MO + M ₂ O ₃ + 11H(1/4) + 9/2X ₂ (159) where M is a metal such as a transition metal such as Cu, and X is a halogen, such as Cl.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a source of singlet oxygen. An exemplary reaction to produce singlet oxygen is NaOCl + H ₂ O ₂ to O ₂ + NaCl + H ₂ O (160)

In another embodiment, the energetic material comprises a solid fuel, or the Fenton reaction of reactants, such as a source of H ₂ O _2.

The solid fuel and reaction can be at least one of: regenerated and reversible by at least one SunCell® plasma or thermal power and methods disclosed herein and in Mills prior applications, such as hydrogen catalyst reactors, PCT/ US08/61455, applied in PCT 4/24/2008; Heterogeneous hydrogen catalyst reactor, PCT/US09/052072, applied in PCT 7/29/2009; Heterogeneous hydrogen catalyst power system, PCT/US10/27828, applied in PCT 3 /18/2010; Electrochemical hydrogen catalyst power system, PCT/US11/28889, filed on PCT 3/17/2011; _{Electrochemical hydrogen catalyst power system based on H 2} O, PCT/US12/31369, filed on 3/30 /2012; and CIHT Power Systems, PCT/US13/041938, filed 5/21/13, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

2CuO + 2CaBr₂ + H₂ O                              (161) T 730        CaBr₂ + 2H₂ O

Ca(OH)₂ + 2HBr                                               (162) T 100        CuO + 2HBr

CuBr₂ + H₂ O                                                       (163) T 100        2CuBr₂ + Cu(OH)₂

2CuO + 2CaBr₂ + H₂ O                              (164) T 730        CuBr₂ + 2H₂ O

Cu(OH)₂ + 2HBr                                              (165) T 100        CuO + 2HBr

CuBr₂ + H₂ O                                                       (166)In one embodiment, the regeneration reaction of a mixture of hydroxide and halide compounds, such as Cu(OH) ₂ +CuBr ₂ , can be accomplished by adding at least one of H ₂ and H _{2 O.} An exemplary thermally reversible solid fuel cycle is T 100 2CuBr ₂ + Ca(OH) ₂

2CuO + 2CaBr ₂ + H ₂ O (161) T 730 CaBr ₂ + 2H ₂ O

Ca(OH) ₂ + 2HBr (162) T 100 CuO + 2HBr

CuBr ₂ + H ₂ O (163) T 100 2CuBr ₂ + Cu(OH) ₂

2CuO + 2CaBr ₂ + H ₂ O (164) T 730 CuBr ₂ + 2H ₂ O

Cu(OH) ₂ + 2HBr (165) T 100 CuO + 2HBr

CuBr ₂ + H ₂ O (166)

In one embodiment, where such as K or Li and nH (n = integer), OH, O, 2O, O 2 and H ₂ O of an alkali metal M in the at least one acts as a catalyst, H source of a metal such as MH's The hydride and at least one of metal M and metal hydride MH react with a source of H to form at least one of H. One product may be oxidized M, such as an oxide or hydroxide. The reaction that produces at least one of atomic hydrogen and the catalyst can be an electron transfer reaction or a redox reaction. The reaction mixture may further comprise H _2, H ₂ dissociation agent (such as a solution of the present invention and SunCell® from the agent (such as Ni mesh or R-Ni) in the at least one) and a conductive support (such as dissociation of these agents and other persons and at least one of the supports of the present invention, such as carbon and carbides, borides and carbonitrides. An exemplary oxidation reaction of M or MH is 4MH + Fe ₂ O ₃ to + H ₂ O + H(1/p) + M ₂ O + MOH + 2Fe + M (167) wherein at least one of _{H 2 O and M} which can act as catalysts to form H(1/p).

In one embodiment, the oxygen source is a compound having a heat of formation similar to that of water, such that oxygen exchange between the reduction product of the oxygen source compound and hydrogen occurs with minimal energy release. Exemplary of suitable oxygen source compound is _{CdO, CuO, ZnO, SO 2} , SeO 2 , and TeO _2. Other materials (such as metal oxides) may also be an acid anhydride of an acid or base, which can be subjected to a dehydration reaction, H ₂ O as a catalyst source for MnO _x, AlO _x and SiO _x. In one embodiment, the oxide layer oxygen source may encompass a source of hydrogen, such as a metal hydride, such as palladium hydride. Formed is further reacted to form a low energy hydrogen catalyst of H ₂ O and H atoms may be heated by a source of hydrogen through the oxide coating (such as palladium oxide coating the metal hydride) is initiated. In one embodiment, the reaction to form the low energy hydrogen catalyst and the regeneration reaction comprise oxygen exchange between the oxygen source compound and hydrogen and between water and the reduced oxygen source compound, respectively. Suitable sources of reduced oxygen are Cd, Cu, Zn, S, Se and Te. In one embodiment, the oxygen exchange reactions may include those for thermally forming hydrogen gas. Exemplary thermal methods are iron oxide cycling, ceria(IV) oxide-ceria(III) oxide cycling, zinc oxide-zinc oxide cycling, sulfur iodine cycling, copper chloride cycling and mixed sulfur cycling and others known to those skilled in the art . In one embodiment, the reaction to form the low energy hydrogen catalyst and the regeneration reaction such as the oxygen exchange reaction occur simultaneously in the same reaction vessel. Conditions such as temperature and pressure can be controlled to achieve simultaneity of the reaction. Alternatively, the product can be removed and regenerated in at least one other separation vessel, which can occur under conditions different from those of the power-forming reaction as presented in the present invention and in the Mills previous application.

Solid fuels may contain various ions such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and other cations and anions such as halides and oxyanions. The cation of the solid fuel may comprise at least one of the following: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, rare earth metals, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ga, Al , V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni , Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, W and those that form ionic compounds other cations known in the art. The anion may comprise at least one of the following: hydroxide, halide, oxide, chalcogenide, sulfate, phosphate, phosphide, nitrate, nitride, carbonate, chromate, silicide, arsenic compound, boride, perchlorate, periodate, cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, aluminate, tungstate, zirconate, titanate, manganate, carbide, Metal oxides, non-metal oxides; alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge and B, and oxides of other elements forming oxides or oxyanions; LiAlO ₂ , MgO, CaO, ZnO, CeO ₂ , CuO, CrO ₄ , Li ₂ TiO ₃ or SrTiO ₃ , including Oxides of elements, metals, alloys or mixtures of the group Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf and Co; MoO ₂ , TiO ₂ , ZrO ₂ , SiO ₂ , Al ₂ O ₃ , NiO, FeO or Fe ₂ O ₃ , TaO ₂ , Ta ₂ O ₅ , VO, VO ₂ , V ₂ O ₃ , V ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O ₃ , NbO, NbO ₂ , Nb ₂ O ₅ , SeO ₂ , SeO ₃ , TeO ₂ , TeO ₃ , WO ₂ , WO ₃ , Cr ₃ O ₄ , Cr ₂ O ₃ , CrO ₂ , CrO ₃ , MnO, Mn ₃ O ₄ , Mn ₂ O ₃ , MnO ₂ , Mn ₂ O ₇ , HfO ₂ , CoO, Co ₂ O ₃ , Co ₃ O ₄ , Li ₂ MoO ₃ or Li ₂ MoO ₄ , Li ₂ TiO ₃ , Li ₂ ZrO ₃ , Li ₂ SiO ₃ , LiAlO ₂ , LiNiO ₂ , LiFeO ₂ , LiTaO ₃ , LiVO ₃ , Li ₂ B ₄ O ₇ , Li ₂ NbO ₃ , Li ₂ PO ₄ , Li ₂ SeO ₃ , Li ₂ SeO ₄ , Li ₂ TeO ₃ , Li ₂ TeO ₄ , Li ₂ WO ₄ , Li ₂ CrO ₄ , Li ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , Li ₂ MnO ₃ , Li ₂ MnO ₄ , Li ₂ HfO ₃ , LiCoO ₂ , Li ₂ MoO ₄ , MoO ₂ , Li ₂ WO ₄ , Li ₂ CrO ₄ and Li ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , S, Li ₂ S, MoO ₂ , TiO ₂ , ZrO ₂ , SiO ₂ , Al ₂ O ₃ , NiO, FeO or Fe ₂ O ₃ , TaO ₂ , Ta ₂ O ₅ , VO, VO ₂ , V ₂ O ₃ , V ₂ O ₅ , P ₂ O ₃ , P ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O _3, and forming the other anions are known in the art ionic compounds.

In one embodiment, the NH ₂ group of an amide (such as LiNH ₂ ) acts as a catalyst with a potential energy of about 81.6 eV or about 3×27.2 eV. Elimination of H ₂ O similar to the reversible-addition reaction between the acid or base or with an acid anhydride, and vice versa, a reversible reaction between the amine and acyl (PEI) or a nitride NH ₂ results in the formation of the catalyst, which is further reacted with H atoms The reaction forms low energy hydrogen. The reversible reaction between amide and at least one of amide and nitride can also serve as a source of hydrogen, such as atomic H.

And melting the solid fuel cell in one embodiment, formed in the thermal power and low energy hydrogen species (such as H (1 / p) and H ₂ (1 / p)) of the reactor (wherein p is an integer) comprising act as H and a molten salt that is the source of at least one of the HOH catalysts. The molten salt may comprise a mixture of salts, such as a eutectic mixture. The mixture may comprise at least one of a hydroxide and a halide, such as a mixture of at least one of alkaline and alkaline earth metal hydroxides and halides, such as LiOH-LiBr or KOH-KCl. The reactor may further comprise a heater, a heater power supply and a temperature controller to maintain the salt in a molten state. The source of at least one of the H and HOH catalyst may comprise water. Water can dissociate in molten salts. The molten salt may further comprise additives such as at least one of oxides and metals such as hydrogen dissociator metals such as at least one of Ti, Ni and noble metals such as Pt or Pd to provide H and HOH catalysts in at least one of them. In one embodiment, H and HOH may be formed by the reaction of at least one of hydroxide, halide, and water present in the molten salt. In an exemplary embodiment, H and HOH in the at least one available by MOH (M = alkali metal): 2MOH to _{M 2 O + HOH; MX +} H 2 O (; MOH + H 2 O to MOOH + 2H Dehydration of X=halide) to MOX+2H is formed, where the dehydration and exchange reactions can be catalyzed by MX. Other examples of molten salt reactions are given in the solid fuel disclosure, where such reactions may also include SunCell® solid fuel reactants and reactions.

In one embodiment, forming a thermal power and low energy hydrogen species (such as H (1 / p) and H ₂ (1 / p)) of the reactor (wherein p is an integer) comprising: an electrolysis system, which comprises at least two and an electrolysis power supply; an electrolysis controller; a molten salt electrolyte; a heater; a temperature sensor; and a heater controller to maintain a desired temperature; and a source of at least one of H and HOH catalysts . The electrodes may be stable in the electrolyte. Exemplary electrodes are nickel and noble metal electrodes. Water can be supplied to the battery and a voltage such as a DC voltage can be applied to the electrodes. Hydrogen can be formed at the cathode and oxygen can be formed at the anode. The hydrogen can react with the HOH catalyst also formed in the cell to form low energy hydrogen. The HOH catalyst can be derived from the added water. The energy from the formation of low-energy hydrogen can generate heat in the battery. The battery can be well insulated so that the heat from the low energy hydrogen reaction can reduce the amount of power required by the heater to maintain the molten salt. The insulation may comprise a vacuum jacket or other thermal insulation known in the art, such as ceramic fiber insulation. The reactor may further comprise a heat exchanger. A heat exchanger can remove waste heat to be delivered to an external load.

The molten salt may comprise a hydroxide with at least one other salt, such as a salt selected from one or more other hydroxides, halides, nitrates, sulfates, carbonates, and phosphates. In one embodiment, the salt mixture may comprise a metal hydroxide and the same metal as another anion of the present invention, such as halide, nitrate, sulfate, carbonate, and phosphate. The molten salt mixture may comprise at least one salt selected from _{CsNO 3 -CsOH, CsOH-KOH,} CsOH-LiOH, CsOH-NaOH, CsOH-RbOH, K 2 CO 3 -KOH, KBr-KOH, KCl-KOH, KF- _{KOH, KI-KOH, KNO 3} -KOH, KOH-K 2 SO 4, KOH-LiOH, KOH-NaOH, KOH-RbOH, Li 2 CO 3 -LiOH, LiBr-LiOH, LiCl-LiOH, LiF-LiOH, LiI _{-LiOH, LiNO 3 -LiOH, LiOH-} NaOH, LiOH-RbOH, Na 2 CO 3 -NaOH, NaBr-NaOH, NaCl-NaOH, NaF-NaOH, NaI-NaOH, NaNO 3 -NaOH, NaOH-Na 2 SO 4 , NaOH-RbOH, RbCl-RbOH, RbNO ₃ -RbOH, LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaX, KOH-KX, RbOH-RbX, CsOH-CsX, Mg(OH) ₂ -MgX ₂ , Ca(OH) ₂ -CaX ₂ , Sr(OH) ₂ -SrX ₂ or Ba(OH) ₂ -BaX ₂ , wherein X=F, Cl, Br or I; and LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Mg(OH) ₂ , Ca( _{OH) 2, Sr (OH)} 2 or Ba (OH) ₂ and _{AlX 3, VX 2, ZrX 2} , TiX 3, MnX 2, ZnX 2, CrX 2, SnX 2, InX 3, CuX 2, NiX 2, PbX ₂ , SbX ₃ , BiX ₃ , CoX ₂ , CdX ₂ , GeX ₃ , AuX ₃ , IrX ₃ , FeX ₃ , HgX ₂ , MoX ₄ , OsX ₄ , PdX ₂ , ReX ₃ , RhX ₃ , RuX ₃ , SeX ₂ , One or more of AgX ₂ , TcX ₄ , TeX ₄ , TlX and WX ₄ , wherein X=F, Cl, Br or I. The molten salt may contain cations common to the anions of the salt mixture electrolyte; or the anions are common to the cations and the hydroxide is stable to the other salts of the mixture. The mixture may be a eutectic mixture. The cell can be operated at temperatures about the melting point of the eutectic mixture but can be operated at higher temperatures. The electrolysis voltage may be in a range of at least one of about 1 V to 50 V, 2 V to 25 V, 2 V to 10 V, 2 V to 5 V, and 2 V to 3.5 V. Current densities are available at about 10 mA/cm ² to 100 A/cm ² , 100 mA/cm ² to 75 A/cm ² , 100 mA/cm ² to 50 A/cm ² , 100 mA/cm ² to 20 A/ cm ² and at least one range of 100 mA/cm ² to 10 A/cm ^{2 .}

In another embodiment, the electrolytic thermal power system further includes a hydrogen electrode such as a hydrogen permeable electrode. The hydrogen electrode may contain H ₂ gas permeating through a metal membrane such as Ni(H ₂ ), V(H ₂ ), Ti(H ₂ ), Nb(H ₂ ), Pd(H ₂ ), PdAg ( Ni, V, Ti, Nb, Pd, PdAg or Fe as designated by H ₂ ), Fe(H ₂ ) or 430 SS(H _{2 ).} Applies to the alkaline electrolyte and the hydrogen permeable electrode comprises a Ni alloy, such as LaNi _5, a noble metal (such as Pt, Pd and Au) and nickel or noble metal coating over the hydrogen permeable metal (such as V, Nb, Fe, Fe -Mo alloy, W, Mo, Rh, Zr, Be, Ta, Rh, Ti, Th, Pd, Pd-coated Ag, Pd-coated V, Pd-coated Ti, rare earth metals, other refractory metal, such as stainless steel of the 430 SS (the SS), and known to those skilled in the art of such other metals. designated M (H ₂₎ of the hydrogen electrode, wherein M is H ₂ permeation through the metal may comprise of Ni (H ₂₎ At least one of , V(H ₂ ), Ti(H ₂ ), Nb(H ₂ ), Pd(H ₂ ), PdAg(H ₂ ), Fe(H ₂ ), and 430 SS(H ₂ ). Hydrogen electrode may comprise a hydrogen electrode may include a hydride of the inflator ₂ H porous electrode, such as selected from _{R-Ni, LaNi 5 H 6} , La 2 Co 1 Ni 9 H 6, ZrCr 2 H 3. 8, LaNi 3. _{55 Mn 0. 4 Al 0.} 3 Co 0. 75, ZrMn 0. 5 Cr 0. 2 V 0. 1 Ni 1. 2 , and other alloys AB ₅ (LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB ₂ (VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) type of capable of storing hydrogen, hydrides, where "AB _x " designation refers to the ratio of: A-type element (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to B-type element (VNiCrCoMnAlSn); AB ₅ -type: MmNi _{3 . 2} Co _{1 . 0} Mn _{0 . 6} Al _{0 11} Mo _{0 09} (Mm = misch metal: 25 wt% La, 50 wt.% Ce, 7 wt% Pr, 18 wt% Nd); AB ₂ - _{type:.... Ti 0 51} Zr 0 49 V 0 _{. 70 Ni 1. 18 Cr 0} . 12 based alloys, magnesium _{alloys, Mg 1. 9 Al 0.} 1 Ni 0. 8 Co 0. 1 Mn 0. 1 _{alloy, Mg 0. 72 Sc 0.} 28 (Pd 0 _{. 012} +Rh _{0 . 012} ) and Mg ₈₀ Ti ₂₀ , Mg ₈₀ V ₂₀ , La _{0 . 8} Nd _{0 . 2} Ni _{2 . 4} Co _{2 . 5} Si _{0 . 1} , LaNi _{5 - x} M _x (M=Mn , Al), (M=Al, Si, Cu), (M=Sn), (M=Al, Mn, Cu) and LaNi ₄ Co, MmNi _{3 . 55 Mn 0. 44 Al 0} . 3 Co 0. 75, LaNi 3. 55 Mn 0. 44 Al 0. 3 Co 0. 75, MgCu 2, MgZn 2, MgNi 2, AB compound, TiFe, TiCo and TiNi, compound AB _n (n = 5,2 or 1), AB _{3 - 4 compound, AB x (A = La,} Ce, Mn, Mg; B = Ni, Mn, Co, Al)., ZrFe 2, Zr 0 5 Cs _{0 . 5} Fe ₂ , Zr _{0 . 8} Sc _{0 . 2} Fe ₂ , YNi ₅ , LaNi ₅ , LaNi _{4 . 5} Co _{0 . 5} , (Ce, La, Nd, Pr)Ni ₅ , misch metal-nickel Alloy, Ti _{0 . 98} Zr _{0 . 02} V _{0 . 43} Fe _{0 . 09} Cr _{0 . 05} Mn _{1 . 5} , La ₂ Co ₁ Ni ₉ , FeNi and TiMn ₂ . In one embodiment, the cathode comprises electrolytic reduction electrode, and H ₂ O in the hydrogen electrode is at least one. In one embodiment, the electrolytic anode includes ^{at least one of an OH-} oxidizing electrode and a hydrogen electrode.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the electrolytic thermal power system includes at least one of the following: [M'''/MOH-M'halide/M''(H ₂ )], [M'''/M (OH) ₂ -M'halide/M''(H ₂ )], [M''(H ₂ )/MOH-M'halide/M'''] and [M''(H ₂ )/ M(OH) ₂ -M'halide/M'''], wherein M is an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal, M' is a medium that is less stable than an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal or has a low reactivity with water at least one of a hydroxide and an oxide metal, M'' is a hydrogen permeable metal, and M''' is a conductor. In one embodiment, M' is a metal, such as selected from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Metals of Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, In, Pt and Pb. Alternatively, M and M' may be metals, such as independently selected from Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, Of In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl and W Metal. Other exemplary system comprising [M '' / MOH M''X / M '(H 2)] and _{[M' (H 2) /} MOH M'X / M '')], where M, M ', M 'and M''' is a metal or a metal cation, X is an anion, such as selected from hydroxide, halide, nitrate, sulfate, carbonate and phosphate of an anion, and M 'is permeable to H ₂ . In one embodiment, the hydrogen electrode comprises a metal such as selected from the group consisting of V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, At least one of Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, W and noble metals. In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system comprises a hydrogen source, capable of providing H or form a hydrogen atom of an electrode can be formed by _{H, H 2, OH, OH} - and H ₂ O in the catalyst of at least one electrode, O ₂ H, and the source of at least one of O _2, H ₂ O is capable of reducing the O and the at least one of the cathode _2, an alkaline electrolyte ₂ O vapor and for collecting and recycling H, O ₂ and N _2, and H A system of at least one of _2. H _2, oxygen and water sources may comprise sources of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the system is supplied to the electrolysis of H ₂ O H atoms may act as the catalyst to be formed at the cathode catalyst to HOH of low energy hydrogen. Provided by the hydrogen electrode reaction H H also serve to form a low-energy hydrogen such as H (1/4) and H ₂ (1/4). In another embodiment, the catalyst may be by H ₂ O at the anode of the OH ^- and H is formed from the reaction of from the source of the oxide. H source may be from the electrolyte, such as a hydrogen electrode and an electrolyte comprising electrolysis of H ₂ O and the hydroxides of at least one of the at least one. H can diffuse from the cathode to the anode. Exemplary cathodic and anodic reactions are: Cathodic Electrolysis 2H ₂ O + 2e- to H ₂ + 2OH- (168) Anodic Electrolysis 1/2H ₂ + OH ^- to H ₂ O + e ^- (169) H ₂ + OH ^- to H ₂ O + e ^- + H(1/4) (170) OH ^- + 2H to H ₂ O + e ^- + H(1/4) (171)

、

及

。諸如

之陰離子可形成鹼性溶液。例示性陰極反應為 陰極

+ 4e^- + 3H₂ O至C + 6OH^- (172) 反應可涉及可逆半電池氧化反應，諸如

+ H₂ O至CO₂ + 2OH^- (173) H₂ O還原成OH^- +H可引起陰極反應以形成低能量氫，其中H₂ O充當催化劑。在一實施例中，CO₂ 、SO₂ 、NO、NO₂ 、PO₂ 及其他類似反應物可作為氧來源添加至電池中。In regard to the anode OH ^- form a catalyst of the oxidation reaction HOH, OH ^- source may be oxygen O _2, such as a reduction of the displacement at the cathode. In one embodiment, the anions of the molten electrolyte can serve as the source of oxygen at the cathode. Suitable anions are oxyanions such as

,

and

. such as

The anion can form an alkaline solution. An exemplary cathodic reaction is cathodic

The + 4e ^- + 3H ₂ O to C + 6OH ^- (172) reaction may involve a reversible half-cell oxidation reaction such as

+ H ₂ O into ^{_{CO 2 + 2OH - (173)}} H 2 O is reduced to OH ^- + H cathode reaction causes hydrogen to form a low energy, wherein the H ₂ O serving as a catalyst. In one _{embodiment, CO 2, SO 2, NO} , NO 2, PO 2 and the like can be added as the oxygen reactant source to the cell.

(174) 以及半電池反應，諸如

(175)

(176)Addition to the molten electrolytic cell, it is possible to produce H ₂ O catalyst in a melt or an aqueous alkali carbonate or an electrolytic cell, where H is generated on the cathode. By the reduction of H ₂ O OH ^- + H H between the electrode formed of the deposit at the cathode may cause the equation (171) of the reaction. Alternatively, there are a number of reactions involving the carbonate, which can produce H ₂ O catalyst, such as a reversible reaction involving the redox reaction of the interior, such as

(174) and half-cell reactions such as

(175)

(176)

及

，其中n為整數；(ii)傅里葉變換紅外光譜分析(FTIR)，其可記錄在約1940 cm^{- 1} 處之H₂ (1/4)旋轉能量及指紋區域中之損壞條帶中之至少一者，其中已知官能基之其他高能量特徵可不存在；(iii)質子魔角自旋核磁共振光譜分析(¹ H MAS NMR)，其可記錄高磁場矩陣峰值(諸如在-4 ppm至-6 ppm範圍中之一者)；(iv)X射線繞射(XRD)，其可記錄歸因於可包含聚合結構之唯一組成之新穎峰值； (v)可記錄氫聚合物在極低溫度(諸如大約200℃至900℃)下之分解且提供獨特氫化學計量或組合物(諸如FeH或K₂ CO₃ H₂ )的熱解重量分析(TGA)；(vi)可記錄260 nm區域中之H₂ (1/4)振轉帶的電子束激發發射光譜分析，該區域包含以0.25 eV間隔開之峰值； (vii)光致發光拉曼光譜分析，其可記錄260 nm區域中之二階H₂ (1/4)振轉帶，該區域包含以0.25 eV間隔開之峰值；(viii)藉由電子束激發發射光譜分析記錄之260 nm區域中之一階H₂ (1/4)振轉帶及藉由光致發光拉曼光譜分析記錄之二階H₂ (1/4)振轉帶中之至少一者在藉由製冷機進行熱冷卻時可以可逆地隨溫度減小強度，該區域包含以0.25 eV間隔開之峰值；(ix)振轉發射光譜分析，其中H₂ (1/p)(諸如H₂ (1/4))之振轉帶可藉由高能光(諸如至少振轉發射能量之光)激發；(x)拉曼光譜分析，其可記錄40至8000 cm^{- 1} 範圍內之連續拉曼光譜及1500至2000 cm^{- 1} 範圍內之峰值中之至少一者，歸因於順磁性及奈米粒子位移中之至少一者；(xi)關於氣相中或嵌入於液體或固體(諸如結晶基質，諸如包含KCl之結晶基質)中之H₂ (1/4)之振轉帶之光譜分析，該結晶基質經電漿(諸如氦或氫電漿，諸如微波、RF或輝光放電電漿)激發；(xii)拉曼光譜分析，其可記錄在1940 cm^{- 1} ±10%及5820 cm^{- 1} ±10%中之約一或多者下之H₂ (1/4)旋轉峰值；(xiii)X射線光電子光譜分析(XPS)，其可記錄H₂ (1/4)在約495至500 eV下之總能量；(xiv)氣相層析法，其可記錄負峰值，其中峰值可具有比氦或氫快的遷移時間；(xv)電子順磁共振(EPR)光譜分析，其可記錄以下中之至少一者：H₂ (1/4)峰值、約2.0046±20%之g因數、以約1至10 G之間隔將EPR光譜分裂成兩個主峰值，其中每一主峰值細分成具有約0.1至1 G之間隔的一系列峰值，及質子分裂，諸如約1.6×10^{- 2} eV±20%之質子-電子偶極子分裂能量及包含氫分子二聚體[H₂ (1/4)]₂ 之氫產物，其中EPR光譜展示約9.9×10^{- 5} eV±20%之電子-電子偶極子分裂能量及約1.6×10^{- 2} eV±20%之質子-電子偶極子分裂能量。(xvi)四極力矩量測，諸如磁化率及g因數量測，其記錄約

之H₂ (1/p)四極力矩/e；以及 (xvii)高壓液相層析(HPLC)，其使用含有溶劑(諸如包含水或水-甲醇-甲酸)及溶離劑(諸如梯度水+乙酸銨+甲酸及乙腈/水+乙酸銨+甲酸)之有機管柱展示滯留時間比載體空隙體積時間長的層析峰值，其中藉由質譜分析(諸如ESI-ToF)偵測峰值展示來自藉由將Ga₂ O₃ 自SunCell®溶解於NaOH中製備之樣本的至少一種離子或無機化合物(諸如NaGaO₂ 型片段)的片段。低能量氫分子可形成二聚體及固體H₂ (1/p)中之至少一者。在一實施例中，H₂ (1/4)二聚體([H₂ (1/4)]₂ )及D₂ (1/4)二聚體([D₂ (1/4)]₂ )的整數J至J+1躍遷之端對端旋轉能量分別為約(J+1)44.30 cm^{- 1} 及(J+1)22.15 cm^{- 1} 。在一實施例中，[H₂ (1/4)]₂ 之至少一個參數為：(i)約1.028 Å的H₂ (1/4)分子之間的間隔距離，(ii)約23 cm^{- 1} 之H₂ (1/4)分子之間的振動能，及(iii)約0.0011 eV之H₂ (1/4)分子之間的凡得瓦能量。在一實施例中，固體H₂ (1/4)之至少一個參數為：(i)約1.028 Å之H₂ (1/4)分子之間的間隔距離，(ii)約23 cm^{- 1} 之H₂ (1/4)分子之間的振動能，及(iii)約0.019 eV之H₂ (1/4)分子之間的凡得瓦能量。在一實施例中，諸如GaOOH:H₂ (1/4)之低能量氫化合物相較於非低能量氫類似物GaOOH包含新穎的結晶結構，諸如藉由X射線繞射(XRD)及透射電子顯微術(TEM)新穎晶體模式藉由TEM或XRD記錄之六邊形對比正斜方晶結構。旋轉及振動光譜中之至少一者可藉由FTIR及拉曼光譜分析中之至少一者記錄，其中鍵解離能量及間隔距離亦可自光譜判定。低能量氫產物之參數的解在Mills GUTCP[其以引用之方式併入本文中，可自https://brilliantlightpower.com處獲得]中給出，諸如在第5-6、11-12及16章中給出。 Low energy hydrogen compounds or species of matter such as molecular low energy hydrogen containing lower energy hydrogen species can be identified by: (i) Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) and Electrospray Time of Flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF), which can record the unique metal hydride, and hydride ion having a bond H ₂ (1/4) groups of inorganic ion, M + 2 such as a monomeric or polymeric unit forms such as

and

, where n is an integer; (ii) Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), which can be recorded at about 1940 cm ^{− 1} for H ₂ (1/4) rotational energy and damage bands in the fingerprint region At least one, where other high-energy features of known functional groups may not be present; (iii) proton magic angle spin nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ( ¹ H MAS NMR), which can record high magnetic field matrix peaks (such as at -4 ppm to - one in the range of -6 ppm); (iv) X-ray diffraction (XRD), which can record novel peaks attributable to unique compositions that can contain polymeric structures; (v) can record hydrogen polymers at very low temperatures Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of decomposition (such as about 200°C to 900°C) and provides unique hydrogen stoichiometry or composition (such as FeH or K ₂ CO ₃ H ₂ ); (vi) can record in the 260 nm region the H ₂ (1/4) electron beam with the vibration transfer excitation emission spectroscopy, the peak at 0.25 eV region comprising of spaced apart; (VII) photoluminescence Raman spectroscopic analysis, which may be recorded in the second order 260 nm region H ₂ (1/4) vibrational rotation band, a region containing peaks spaced 0.25 eV apart; (viii) first-order H ₂ (1/4) vibration in the 260 nm region recorded by electron beam excited emission spectroscopic analysis At least one of the transition band and the second-order H ₂ (1/4) vibrational transition band recorded by photoluminescence Raman spectroscopic analysis can reversibly decrease in intensity with temperature upon thermal cooling by a refrigerator, this region comprising the peaks at 0.25 eV intervals apart; (IX) emission spectrometry vibration transfer, where H ₂ (1 / p) (such as H ₂ (1/4)) by the vibration can be transferred with high-energy light (such as at least rovibrational (x) Raman spectroscopic analysis, which can record at least one of continuous Raman spectra in the range of ^{40 to 8000 cm- 1} and peaks in the range of ^{1500 to 2000 cm- 1, attributed} and magnetic nanoparticles in the displacement in at least one of _{cis; H 2 (1/4) (xi} ) embedded in the gas phase or on a liquid or solid (such as crystallization matrix such as a matrix comprising a crystalline of KCl) in the vibration of Spectroscopic analysis of transition bands, the crystalline matrix is excited by plasma (such as helium or hydrogen plasma, such as microwave, RF or glow discharge plasma); (xii) Raman spectroscopic analysis, which can be recorded at 1940 cm ^{− 1} ±10 % and about one or more of ^{5820 cm − 1} _{±10% H 2} (1/4) rotation peak; (xiii) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), which can record H ₂ (1/4) Total energy at about 495 to 500 eV; (xiv) gas chromatography, which can record negative peaks, where peaks can have faster migration times than helium or hydrogen; (xv) electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy Analysis, which can record at least one of the following: H ₂ (1/4) a peak, a g-factor of about 2.0046 ± 20%, splitting the EPR spectrum into two main peaks at intervals of about 1 to 10 G, wherein each main peak is subdivided into a series of peaks with intervals of about 0.1 to 1 G, and proton splitting, such as about ^{1.6 × 10 - 2 eV ± 20} % of the protons - electrons splitting energy and dipole-dimer molecules containing hydrogen [H ₂ (1/4)] ₂ of the hydrogen product, wherein the EPR spectra show about 9.9 × 10 ^{- 5} eV ± 20% of the electron - electron dipole splitting energy and approximately ^{1.6 × 10 - 2 eV ± 20} % of the protons - electrons dipole splitting energy. (xvi) Quadrupole moment measurements, such as susceptibility and g-factor measurements, which record approximately

H ₂ (1/p) quadrupole torque/e; and (xvii) high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) using a solvent containing The organic columns of ammonium acetate + formic acid and acetonitrile/water + ammonium acetate + formic acid) showed chromatographic peaks with retention times longer than the support void volume time, with peaks detected by mass spectrometry (such as ESI-ToF) showing that the the Ga ₂ O ₃ dissolved in NaOH SunCell® from the sample preparation or the at least one ionic inorganic compound (such as type ₂ NaGaO fragment) fragment. Low energy hydrogen molecules can form dimers and solid H ₂ (1 / p) of the at least one. In one embodiment, H ₂ (1/4) dimer ([H ₂ (1/4)] ₂ ) and D ₂ (1/4) dimer ([D ₂ (1/4)] ₂ ) is an integer from J + 1 to J-end of the transition of rotational energy are about ^{(J + 1) 44.30 cm -} 1 and ^{(J + 1) 22.15 cm -} 1. In one embodiment, at least one parameter of _{[H 2} (1/4)] _{2 is: (i) the separation distance between H 2} (1/4) molecules of about 1.028 Å, (ii) about 23 cm ⁻ van der Waals energy between the vibrational energy between ^an H ₂ (1/4) molecule, and (iii) from about 0.0011 eV of H ₂ (1/4) molecule. In one embodiment, the at least one parameter of the solid H ₂ (1/4) is of: (i) a separation distance of between about 1.028 Å of H ₂ (1/4) molecule, (ii) from about 23 cm ^{- 1} of van der Waals energy between vibrational energy between the H ₂ (1/4) molecule, and (iii) from about 0.019 eV of H ₂ (1/4) molecule. In one embodiment, such GaOOH: H ₂ (1/4) of the low energy as compared to the non-hydrogen compounds like low energy hydrogen GaOOH comprising a novel crystalline structure, such as by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron Microscopy (TEM) Novel Crystal Mode Hexagonal versus Orthorhombic structure recorded by TEM or XRD. At least one of rotational and vibrational spectra can be recorded by at least one of FTIR and Raman spectral analysis, wherein bond dissociation energies and separation distances can also be determined from the spectra. Solutions for the parameters of low energy hydrogen products are given in Mills GUTCP [which is incorporated herein by reference, available at https://brilliantlightpower.com], such as at pages 5-6, 11-12 and 16 given in chapter.

In one embodiment, the apparatus for collecting molecular low-energy hydrogen in gaseous, physically absorbed, liquefied, or other states comprises: a source of large aggregates or polymers comprising lower-energy hydrogen species, comprising a source of lower-energy hydrogen species chambers of large aggregates or polymers, building blocks of large aggregates or polymers containing lower energy hydrogen species in thermal decomposition chambers, and collected from large aggregates or polymers containing lower energy hydrogen species Component of released gas. The decomposition member may contain a heater. The heater can heat the first chamber to a temperature higher than the decomposition temperature of large aggregates or polymers containing lower energy hydrogen species, such as at about 10°C to 3000°C, 100°C to 2000°C, and 100°C to 100°C. Temperatures within at least one range of 1000°C. The means for collecting gas from the decomposition of large aggregates or polymers containing lower energy hydrogen species may comprise a second chamber. The second chamber may include at least one of a gas pump, a gas valve, a pressure gauge, and a mass flow controller to perform at least one of: storing and delivering the collected molecular low energy hydrogen gas. The second chamber may further comprise a getter to absorb molecular low energy hydrogen gas or a cooler such as a cryogenic system to liquefy molecular low energy hydrogen. The cooler may comprise a cryopump or dewar containing a cryogenic liquid such as liquid helium or liquid nitrogen.

The members forming large aggregates or polymers comprising lower energy hydrogen species may further comprise a field source, such as a source of at least one of an electric field or a magnetic field. The source of the electric field can include at least two electrodes and a voltage source to apply the electric field to the reaction chamber where aggregates or polymers are formed. Alternatively, the source of the electric field may comprise an electrostatically charged material. Electrostatically charged materials may include reaction cell chambers such as carbon-containing chambers, such as Plexiglas chambers. The detonation of the present invention can electrostatically charge the reaction unit chamber. The source of the magnetic field may include at least one magnet, such as a permanent electromagnet or a superconducting magnet, to apply the magnetic field to the reaction chamber where the aggregates or polymers are formed.

Molecular low-energy hydrogen, such as those that can be produced in the power generation systems described herein, can be characterized by its spectral characteristics, such as by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) and electron nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (ENDOR). those determined) are uniquely identified. In one embodiment, the lower energy hydrogen product may comprise a metal (such as a metal oxide) in a diamagnetic chemical state, and further lack of any free non-low energy hydrogen radical species due to the presence of H ₂ (1 / p) (such as H ₂ (1/4)) observed peak electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR). Low energy hydrogen reactant chamber unit - comprising the electric wire to serve as a knock (such as a metal oxide source reactant is at least one member of low energy and to propagate the reaction to form hydrogen H ₂ (1/4) molecule, an inorganic compound , hydroxide), hydrated inorganic compound (such as a hydrous metal oxides and hydroxides, further comprising (1 / p H ₂₎ (such as H ₂ (1/4))) is at least one member of, and Large aggregates or polymers comprising lower energy hydrogen species such as molecular low energy hydrogen comprise the wire detonation system shown in FIG. 32 . In one embodiment, the atmosphere of the reaction unit chamber can be adjusted to form a mesh product from wire epitaxy that also includes carbon dioxide in addition to water vapor. Carbon dioxide can enhance the bonding of low energy hydrogen molecules and growth reticular fibers, wherein the reaction of CO ₂ may be formed of a metal oxide of a metal wire and to form the corresponding metal carbonate or bicarbonate during the explosion.

Such as H ₂ (1/4) of the electronic magnetic moment of a plurality of low-energy hydrogen molecules can cause permanent magnetized. Molecular low energy hydrogen can generate bulk magnetism when the magnetic moments of a plurality of low energy hydrogen molecules interact cooperatively, and where multimers such as dimers can appear. The magnetism of dimers, aggregates or polymers comprising molecular low energy hydrogen can arise from interactions that cooperatively align the magnetic moments. The magnetism can be much greater than that due to the interaction of permanent electron magnetic moments of additional species with at least one unpaired electron such as iron atoms.

Self-assembly mechanisms can also include magnetic sequences in addition to Van der Waals forces. It is well known that the application of an external magnetic field produces _{colloidal magnetic nanoparticles such as magnets (Fe 2} O ₃ ) suspended in a solvent such as toluene for assembly into linear structures. Due to the smaller mass and higher magnetic moment, molecular low energy hydrogen self-assembles magnetically even in the absence of a magnetic field. In embodiments that enhance self-assembly and control the formation of alternative structures for low-energy hydrogen products, an external magnetic field is applied to low-energy hydrogen reactions, such as wire detonation. The magnetic field can be applied by placing at least one permanent magnet in the reaction chamber. Alternatively, the detonating wire may comprise a metal that acts as a source of magnetic particles such as a magnet to drive the magnetic self-assembly of molecular low energy hydrogen, where the source may be wire detonation in water vapor or another source.

In one embodiment, low energy hydrogen products such as low energy hydrogen compounds or large aggregates may contain at least one other element of the periodic table of elements other than hydrogen. The low-energy hydrogen product may comprise low-energy hydrogen molecules and at least one other element, such as at least one of metal atoms, metal ions, oxygen atoms, and oxygen ions. Exemplary low energy hydrogen product may contain information such as (1 / p) and Sn, Zn, Ag, Fe, Ga, Ga 2 O 3 H 2 (1/4) of _{H 2, GaOO, SnO, ZnO} , AgO, FeO and At least one of Fe ₂ O _{3 .}

及藉由

之Mills等式(16.202)至Mills等式(16.223)得到之H₂ (1/4)二聚體分離，使

之兩個電子磁矩之自旋方向翻轉的能量

為

Molecular low energy hydrogen can also form dimers that can be visualized by EPR spectroscopic analysis. Consider a splitting interaction energy of H ₂ (1/4) a dimer of two axially aligned magnetic moment. Replacing Bohr magnetons by aligning magnetic moments for each axis

and by

_{The H 2} (1/4) dimer obtained from Mills equation (16.202) to Mills equation (16.223) is separated, so that

The energy of the spin direction reversal of the two electron magnetic moments

for

Energy (Mills equation (16.220)) can be further influenced by the presence of more than two polymers such as trimers, tetramers, pentamers, hexamers, and the internal magnetic properties of low energy hydrogen compounds body etc. The energy shift due to the plurality of polymers can be determined by the superimposed magnetic dipole interactions given by Mills equation (16.223) and the vector additions corresponding to distances and angles. The unpaired electrons of molecular low-energy hydrogen can induce non-zero or finite-body magnetism, such as paramagnetism, superparamagnetism, and even ferromagnetism, when the magnetic moments of multiple low-energy hydrogen molecules cooperatively interact. Molecular low-energy hydrogen can produce non-zero or finite bulk magnetism, such as paramagnetism, superparamagnetism, and even ferromagnetism, when the magnetic moments of multiple low-energy hydrogen molecules cooperatively interact. Superparamagnetic and ferromagnetism are advantageous when large aggregates of molecular low energy hydrogen additionally contain ferromagnetic atoms such as iron. Large aggregates that are stable beyond room temperature can be formed by magnetic assembly and binding. The magnetic energy becomes about 0.01 eV, which is comparable to ambient laboratory thermal energy. The EPR spectra of compounds with magnetizations that cause excitation at the lower B field and de-excitation at the higher B field can be observed as having corresponding low-field and high-field shifts of spectral characteristics, respectively. Even though the effect may be small, it may still be observed due to extremely small splitting energies between 1000 and 10,000 times smaller than the H-Lammer shift. In the case of GaOOH:H ₂ (1/4) samples, EPR spectra recorded at Delft University [F. Hagen, R. Mills, "Distinguishing Electron Paramagnetic Resonance signature of molecular low-energy hydrogen molecular hydrino) ", Nature, (2020), in progress] attributed to the collection of dilution containing H ₂ (1/4) GaOOH cage diamagnetic molecules present in the matrix show significantly narrow linewidth.

之結合係歸因於凡得瓦力，分子低能量氫的凡得瓦力歸因於經減小尺寸及如Mills GUTCP中所展示更大填料而比分子氫的凡得瓦力大得多。歸因於分子低能量氫之固有磁矩及凡得瓦力，分子低能量氫可自組裝至大型聚集體中。在一實施例中，諸如H₂ (1/p)之低能量氫(諸如H₂ (1/4))可形成聚合物、管、鏈、立方體、富勒烯及其他宏觀結構。Molecular low-energy hydrogen molecules used to form solids at room temperature to high temperature

The binding is due to the Van der Waals force, which is much larger than that of molecular hydrogen due to reduced size and larger packing as demonstrated in Mills GUTCP. Molecular low-energy hydrogen can self-assemble into large aggregates due to its intrinsic magnetic moment and Van der Waals forces. In one embodiment, such as H ₂ (1 / p) of the low-energy hydrogen (such as H ₂ (1/4)) may form a polymer, tube, chain, cubes, and other fullerenes macrostructure.

In one embodiment, compositions of matter comprising lower energy hydrogen species such as molecular low energy hydrogen ("low energy hydrogen compounds") may be magnetically separated. The low energy hydrogen compounds can be cooled to further enhance the magnetic properties before being magnetically separated. The magnetic separation method may comprise moving a mixture of compounds containing the desired low energy hydrogen compound through a magnetic field such that the mobility of the low energy hydrogen compound is preferably delayed relative to the remainder of the mixture or moving the low energy hydrogen compound through the mixture with a magnet such that the Low energy hydrogen compounds are separated from the mixture. In an exemplary embodiment, the low energy hydrogen compound is separated from the non-low energy hydrogen product of wire detonation by immersing the detonation product material in liquid nitrogen and using magnetic separation, wherein the low temperature increases the magnetic properties of the low energy hydrogen compound product . Separation can be enhanced at the boiling surface of the liquid nitrogen.

In addition to being negatively charged, in one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen hydride ion H ⁻ (1/p) contains a doublet state with unpaired electrons of Bohr magnons that generate magnetic moments. The low energy hydrogen hydride ion separator can include at least one of an electric field and a magnetic field source to be based on the charge and magnetic moment of the low energy hydrogen hydride ions based on the differential and selective forces maintained on the low energy hydrogen hydride ions at least one of the low energy hydrogen hydride ions is separated from the ion mixture. In one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen hydride ions may be accelerated in an electric field and deflected to the collector based on the unique mass to charge ratio of the low energy hydrogen hydride ions. The separator may comprise a hemispherical analyzer or a time-of-flight analyzer type device. In another embodiment, low energy hydrogen hydride ions can be collected by magnetic separation, wherein a magnetic field is applied to the sample by a magnet, and the low energy hydrogen hydride ions selectively adhere to the magnet to be separated. Low energy hydrogen hydride ions can be separated together with counter ions.

中之至少一者的普通氫物種，諸如有機離子或有機分子之有機分子物種；以及(iv)諸如無機離子或無機化合物之無機物種。低能量氫化合物可包含諸如鹼或鹼土碳酸鹽或氫氧化物之氧陰離子化合物、諸如GaOOH、AlOOH及FeOOH之氧(氫氧)化物或本發明之其他此等化合物。在一實施例中，產物包含

及

(M=鹼金屬或本發明之其他陽離子)錯合物中之至少一者。產物可藉由ToF-SIMS或電噴灑飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ESI-ToF)識別為分別包含

及

之正譜中之一系列離子，其中n為整數且整數及整數p＞1可取代4。在一實施例中，包含諸如SiO₂ 或石英之矽及氧之化合物可充當H₂ (1/4)的吸氣劑。H₂ (1/4)之吸氣劑可包含過渡金屬、鹼金屬、鹼土金屬、內過渡金屬、稀土金屬、金屬組合、諸如MoCu的諸如Mo合金之合金、以及諸如本發明之材料的氫儲存材料。In one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen such as atomic, molecular or low-energy low-hydrogen hydride hydrogen energy of low energy hydrogen species H and OH ions by H ₂ O and at least one of the catalyst synthesis reaction. SunCell® reactions and energy in one embodiment, such as pellets or wire comprising the present invention to form a low ignition energy of hydrogen in the reaction product of at least one of the following comprises at least one of the malocclusion, such as H ₂ (1/p) Low-energy hydrogen compounds or species of low-energy hydrogen species: (i) elements other than hydrogen; (ii) such as H ⁺ , ordinary H _{2 ,} ordinary H − and ordinary ^{H − .}

at least one of ordinary hydrogen species, such as organic ions or organic molecular species; and (iv) inorganic species such as inorganic ions or inorganic compounds. Low energy hydrogen compounds may comprise oxyanion compounds such as alkali or alkaline earth carbonates or hydroxides, oxygen (hydroxides) such as GaOOH, AlOOH and FeOOH or other such compounds of the invention. In one embodiment, the product comprises

and

(M=alkali metal or other cations of the present invention) at least one of the complexes. Products can be identified by ToF-SIMS or electrospray time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) as containing, respectively

and

A series of ions in the positive spectrum of , where n is an integer and integers and integers p>1 can be substituted for 4. In one embodiment, a compound comprising silicon and oxygen such as SiO ₂ or of quartz may act as H ₂ (1/4) of the getter. H ₂ (1/4) of the getter can comprise a transition metal, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, the transition metals, rare earth metals, combinations of metals, such as Mo alloy such as alloy MoCu, and the hydrogen storage material of the present invention, such as Material.

，其中M為鹼陽離子或其他+1陽離子，m及n皆為整數，且化合物之氫內容物H_m 包含至少一種低能量氫物種。化合物可具有式

，其中M為鹼陽離子或其他+1陽離子，m及n皆為整數，X為單帶負電陰離子，且化合物之氫內容物H_m 包含至少一種低能量氫物種。化合物可具有式

，其中M為鹼陽離子或其他+1陽離子，n為整數，且化合物之氫內容物H包含至少一種低能量氫物種。化合物可具有式

，其中M為鹼陽離子或其他+1陽離子，n為整數，且化合物之氫內容物H包含至少一種低能量氫物種。包括陰離子或陽離子之化合物可具有式

，其中m及n皆為整數，M及M'皆為鹼或鹼土陽離子，X為單或雙帶負電陰離子，且化合物之氫內容物H_m 包含至少一種低能量氫物種。包括陰離子或陽離子之化合物可具有式

，其中m及n皆為整數，M及M'皆為鹼或鹼土陽離子，X及X'為單或雙帶負電陰離子，且化合物之氫內容物H_m 包含至少一種低能量氫物種。陰離子可包含本發明之陰離子中之一者。適合例示性單帶負電陰離子為鹵離子、氫氧根離子、碳酸氫根離子或硝酸根離子。適合例示性雙帶負電陰離子為碳酸根離子、氧化物或硫酸根離子。Compounds containing low-energy hydrogen species synthesized by the method of the present invention can have the formula MH, MH _2, or M ₂ H _2, where M is an alkali cation, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. Compound having the formula MH _n, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MHX, wherein M is a base cation, X is one of a neutral atom such as a halogen atom, a molecule, or a single negatively charged anion such as a halogen anion, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. Compound may have the formula M ₂ HX, where M is an alkali cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. Compound having the formula MH _n, where n is an integer, M being an alkaline cation, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one low energy hydrogen species. Compound may have the formula M ₂ H _n, where n is an integer, M being an alkaline earth cation, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one low energy hydrogen species. Compound may have the formula M ₂ XH _n, where n is an integer, M being an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one low energy hydrogen species. Compound may have the formula M ₂ X ₂ H _n, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a negatively charged anion single band, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one low energy hydrogen species. Compound may have the formula M ₂ X ₃ H, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. Compound may have the formula M ₂ XH _n, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one low energy hydrogen species. Compound may have the formula M ₂ XX'H, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, X 'is a double with negatively charged anion, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. Compound having the formula MM'H _n, where n is an integer of from 1 to 3, M being an alkaline earth cation, M 'is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one low energy hydrogen species. Compound having the formula MM'XH _n, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M 'is an alkali metal cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one low energy hydrogen species . The compound may have the formula MM'XH, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MM'XX'H, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are singly negatively charged anions, and H is a low energy hydrogen species. Compound having the formula MXX'H _n, where n is an integer of 1 to 5, M being an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a single or double negatively charged anion, X 'is a metal or metalloid, transition elements, inner transition elements or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content _{Hn of the} compound comprises at least one low-energy hydrogen species. Compound having the formula MH _n, where n is an integer, M being a transition element such as, inner transition element or rare earth cation, the hydrogen content H _n and the compound comprises at least one low energy hydrogen species. Compound having the formula MXH _n, where n is an integer, M being a cation such as an alkali, alkaline-earth cation of the cation, X is a transition element such as, inner transition element or rare earth element other cations of the cation, and the hydrogen content comprises a compound H _n At least one low energy hydrogen species. Compounds can have the formula

Wherein M is an alkali cation or other cation + 1, m and n are both integers, and the hydrogen content H _m of the compound comprising at least one low energy hydrogen species. Compounds can have the formula

, where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and n are both integers, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _{m of the} compound contains at least one low-energy hydrogen species. Compounds can have the formula

, where M is a base cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one low-energy hydrogen species. Compounds can have the formula

, where M is a base cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one low-energy hydrogen species. Compounds including anions or cations may have the formula

, wherein m and n are integers, M and M' are alkali or alkaline earth cations, X is a mono- or double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _{m of the} compound comprises at least one low-energy hydrogen species. Compounds including anions or cations may have the formula

, wherein m and n are integers, M and M' are alkali or alkaline earth cations, X and X' are single or double negatively charged anions, and the hydrogen content H _{m of the} compound includes at least one low-energy hydrogen species. The anion may comprise one of the anions of the present invention. Suitable exemplary single negatively charged anions are halide, hydroxide, bicarbonate or nitrate ions. Suitable exemplary double negatively charged anions are carbonate, oxide or sulfate ions.

The low energy hydrogen compounds of the present invention are preferably more than 0.1 atomic % pure. More preferably, the compound is more than 1 atomic % pure. Even more preferably, the compound is more than 10 atomic % pure. Optimally, the compound is more than 50 atomic % pure. In another embodiment, the compound is more than 90 atomic % pure. In another embodiment, the compound is more than 95 atomic % pure.

The properties of the reaction product are due to the fact that low energy hydrogen compounds (or reaction products with spectral characteristics as described herein) interact during chromatography such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with tubes containing organic packing such as C18 columns. Column interactions, low energy hydrogen compounds (eg, such as those generated during SunCell® operations) can be released from organic solvents such as at least one of hydrocarbons, alcohols, ether dimethylformamide, and carbonates. Aqueous solution (such as aqueous base, such as NaOH or KOH) extraction. In one embodiment, chromatography using a stationary phase comprising organic compounds such as HPLC with C18 column packing is used for separation, purification and identification of compounds comprising lower energy hydrogens such as compounds comprising molecular low energy hydrogen At least one of these is due to the interaction between the lower energy hydrogen containing compound and the stationary phase. The lower energy hydrogen moiety of the compound further comprising at least one inorganic moiety can produce interactions with the stationary phase of the column having at least some organic properties, wherein in the absence of the lower energy hydrogen moiety the interaction would be negligible or non-existent. In one embodiment, compounds comprising lower energy hydrogen, such as molecular low energy hydrogen, can be purified from at least one of solutions and mixtures of compounds by column or membrane chromatography. The elution solvent may comprise at least one of water and at least one organic solvent, such as acetonitrile, formic acid, alcohol, diethyl ether, DMSO, and another such solvent known in the art. Column packing may contain organic type stationary phases.

之量化單位的磁通量。藉由低能量氫氫化物離子及分子低能量氫針對磁通量之連結預測及觀測到相同的行為。在自由電子結合至對應原子

期間

之可見發射光譜中觀測到前者。藉由涉及所施加磁場中

之微波照射的電子順磁共振光譜分析觀測到藉由分子低能量氫之磁通量子之連結，其中諧振吸收引起涉及具有經量化磁通量連結之自旋軌道耦合的自旋翻轉躍遷。藉由分子低能量氫連結磁通量子亦藉由拉曼光譜分析觀測到，拉曼光譜分析涉及

之紅外線、可見光或紫外線雷射照射，其中諧振吸收引起涉及與經量化磁通量連結之自旋軌道耦合的旋轉躍遷。藉由拉曼光譜分析進一步觀測到磁通量子藉由分子低能量氫之連結，拉曼光譜分析涉及

之紅外線照射，其中當施加磁場以改變紅外線吸收之選擇規則時，諧振吸收引起涉及與經量化磁通量連結之自旋軌道耦合的旋轉躍遷。藉由諸如

及

之低能量氫物種進行的磁鏈現象在實現諸如邏輯閘、記憶體元件及其他電子量測或致動器裝置(諸如磁力計、感測器及利用此等低能量氫反應產物之獨特特徵的開關)之低能量氫SQUID及低能量氫SQUID類型電子元件中具有效用。舉例而言，在甚至高溫對比低溫下操作之電腦邏輯閘或記憶體元件可為單一分子低能量氫，諸如

，比分子氫小4³ 倍或64倍。Josephson junctions, such as those of superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), are connected as magnetic flux quanta or flux trajectories

The quantified unit of magnetic flux. The same behavior is predicted and observed by the connection of low-energy hydrogen hydride ions and molecular low-energy hydrogen for magnetic flux. Free electrons bind to corresponding atoms

period

The former is observed in the visible emission spectrum. by involving the applied magnetic field

Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy analysis of microwave irradiation observed linkages of magnetic flux quanta by molecular low-energy hydrogen, with resonant absorption causing spin-flip transitions involving spin-orbit coupling with quantified flux linkages. Magnetic flux quanta linked by molecular low-energy hydrogen are also observed by Raman spectroscopy, which involves

Infrared, visible or ultraviolet laser irradiation, where resonant absorption induces rotational transitions involving spin-orbit coupling linked to the quantized magnetic flux. It was further observed that the magnetic flux quanta were linked by molecular low-energy hydrogen by means of Raman spectroscopy, which involved

of infrared radiation, wherein when a magnetic field is applied to change the selection rule for infrared absorption, the resonant absorption induces rotational transitions involving spin-orbit coupling with quantized magnetic flux linkages. by such as

and

The phenomenon of flux linkage by low-energy hydrogen species is useful in realizing applications such as logic gates, memory devices, and other electronic measurement or actuator devices such as magnetometers, sensors, and applications that take advantage of the unique characteristics of these low-energy hydrogen reaction products. Switch) of low-energy hydrogen SQUID and low-energy hydrogen SQUID type electronic components have utility. For example, a computer logic gate or memory device that operates at even high versus low temperature may be a single molecule of low energy hydrogen, such as

, Small molecular hydrogen than ⁴³ times or 64 times.

Low-energy hydrogen SQUIDs and low-energy hydrogen SQUID-type electronics may include at least one of an input current and input voltage circuit and an output current and output voltage circuit to perform at least one of: sensing and changing the magnetic linkage state of at least one of low energy hydrogen hydride ions and molecular low energy hydrogen. These circuits may include AC resonant circuits, such as radio frequency RLC circuits. The low energy hydrogen SQUID and low energy hydrogen SQUID type electronic components may further comprise at least one source of electromagnetic radiation, such as a source of at least one of microwave, infrared, visible or ultraviolet radiation. The radiation source may comprise a laser or microwave generator. Laser radiation can be applied in a focused manner by means of lenses or optical fibers. Low-energy hydrogen SQUIDs and low-energy hydrogen SQUID-type electronic devices may further include a magnetic field source applied to at least one of low-energy hydrogen hydride ions and molecular low-energy hydrogen. The magnetic field may be tunable. Steerability of at least one of the radiation source and the magnetic field can enable selective and controlled achievement of resonance between the electromagnetic radiation source and the magnetic field.

In one embodiment, an intrinsic or external magnetic field or magnetization may allow molecular low-energy hydrogen transitions that include at least one of electron spin flips, molecular spins, spin spins, spin-orbit coupling, and flux-bonded transitions to be allowed . Metal foils containing low energy hydrogen on the surface, such as ferromagnetic foils, such as Ni, Fe or Co foils, can exhibit these molecular low energy hydrogen transitions in Raman spectroscopy. In another embodiment, such GaOOH: H ₂ (1/4) of the low energy molecular hydrogen compound may be subjected to an external magnetic field applied by the magnet to allow for these low energy molecular hydrogen transitions, such as is observed by Raman spectroscopy 's transition. Molecular low-energy hydrogen transitions can also occur through surface-enhanced effects, such as when molecular low-energy hydrogen is located on the surface of a conductor, such as on a metallic surface, such as observed by surface-enhanced Raman (SER). surface enhancement effect. Exemplary metal surfaces are foils of Ni, Cu, Cr, Fe, stainless steel, Ag, Au, and other metals or metal alloys.

In one embodiment, such as H ₂ (1/4) of the low-energy hydrogen molecules are soluble in the condensable gases such as noble gases, the noble gases, such as liquid argon, liquid nitrogen, liquid CO ₂ or CO ₂ as the solid solid gas. (Source such as H ₂ and comprises a low energy hydrogen molecules (such as a gas from the SunCell®) the mixture) in the case of low energy hydrogen is more soluble than hydrogen, liquid argon from the source can be used to selectively collect and enrich Molecular low energy hydrogen gas. In one embodiment, gas from SunCell® is bubbled through liquid argon, which acts as a getter due to the solubility of molecular low energy hydrogen in liquid argon. In one embodiment, the rate of loss of gaseous molecular low energy hydrogen from the sealed vessel can be reduced by adding another gas that retains the molecular low energy hydrogen, such as argon.

As described above, the power generation system of the present invention operates through reactions with unique features that can be used to characterize the system. These products can be collected in a number of different ways. In one embodiment, the solvent is used for low energy hydrogen harvesting. In one embodiment, the solvent may be magnetic, such as paramagnetic, such that the molecular low energy hydrogen has certain absorption interactions due to the magnetic properties of the molecular low energy hydrogen. Exemplary solvents for the liquid oxygen, the oxygen dissolved in _2, B _2, such as _{water, NO, NO, ClO 2,} SO 2, N another liquid ₂ O's, in which _{NO 2, O 2, NO,} B 2 and ClO ₂ is paramagnetic. Alternatively, the low energy hydrogen can be bubbled through a solid solvent, such as a solid which is a gas at room temperature, such as solid CO _2. Low energy hydrogen gas can be directly collected. Alternatively, the resulting solution can be filtered, skimmed, decanted or centrifuged to collect insoluble compounds comprising low energy hydrogen, such as large aggregates of low energy hydrogen.

Solid getters can also be used to capture low energy hydrogen gas, such as the low energy hydrogen gas produced in SunCell® at one temperature, such as cryogenic temperatures, and released at a higher temperature upon warming or heating. The getter may contain oxides or hydroxides, such as metal oxides, hydroxides or carbonates. Additional exemplary getter is of at least one of the following: alkali metal hydroxides, such as KOH, or alkaline earth metal hydroxide, such as Ca (OH) _2; carbonates such as K ₂ CO _3; getter, such as hydroxides and carbonates, such as _{Ca (OH) 2 + Li 2} CO 3 the mixture; alkali halide such as KCl or LiBr; nitrates, such as NaNO _3; and nitrite, such as NaNO _2. Such as FeOOH, Fe (OH) ₃ and Fe ₂ O ₃ of the getter may be paramagnetic. In one embodiment, the getter may comprise a magnetic compound, material, liquid or species, such as paramagnetic nanoparticles comprising Mn, Cu or Ti or such as ferromagnetic metal nanoparticles such as Ni, Fe, Co, CoSm , Magnetic nanoparticles of AlNiCo alloy and other ferromagnetic metal nanoparticles. Magnetic compounds, materials, liquids or species can be dispersed in the surface of the magnet. Magnets can be kept at cryogenic temperatures. In an exemplary embodiment, the molecular low energy hydrogen getter comprises iron, nickel or cobalt powder dispersed on a permanent magnet, such as a CoSm or neodymium permanent magnet placed in a vacuum line section, immersed in a liquid such as in nitrogen refrigerant. In one embodiment, a getter, such as a magnetic material, such as Fe metal powder, is placed in at least one of the interior of the reaction unit chamber and proximate to and connected to the reaction unit chamber. The getter can be contained in a container such as a crucible. The container can be covered to prevent the molten metal from contacting the getter. The cover may be at least one of: capable of high temperature operation, resistant to alloying with molten metal, and permeable to low energy hydrogen gas. Exemplary caps are thin porous carbon, BN, silica, quartz or other ceramic caps.

In one embodiment, the low energy molecular hydrogen species available from the use of such SunCell® (such as a getter) the release composition, comprising by using a getter such as ₂ (carbonic _{acid), HNO 3, H 2 SO} CO _4. Low energy hydrogen treated with anhydrous acid of HCl(g) or HF(g). The acid can be neutralized in the aqueous trap and the molecular low energy hydrogen gas collected in at least one of _{the separated salt from the neutralization and a cryogenic trap such as containing CO 2 .} At least one of the acid and the base can be selected to form the desired compound comprising molecular low energy hydrogen. In the exemplary embodiment, it comprises a low energy hydrogen of NaNO ₃ or KNO ₃ lines by NaOH or KOH in an aqueous solution from dissolving gallium oxide or oxygen SunCell® collected (hydroxide) and gallium with a solution of HNO ₃ and formed.

In one embodiment, the food and not sub potassium sodium gallic used in the at least one formed by making CO ₂ was bubbled through the solution to form the carbonate and _{K 2 CO 3: H 2 (} 1/4 ) and Na ₂ CO ₃ :H ₂ (1/4). With embodiments of the gallium -ToF-SIMS analysis shown potassium carbonate analogs show _{K {K 2 CO 3: H} 2 (1/4)} n, n = integer value of the spectrum.

In one embodiment, the strong acid comprises an alkaline solution of low energy hydrogen molecules (such as from a Ga ₂ O ₃₎ and lead GaOOH of low energy hydrogen molecules to include (such as GaOOH: H ₂ (1/4)) of forming, The molecular low energy hydrogen harvesting is used in SunCell®'s low energy hydrogen reaction operation and is dissolved in a base such as an alkali or alkaline earth metal hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH. Exemplary acid-based HCl and HNO _3. Neutralization with a weak acid (such as carbonic acid) results in the formation of a compound or mixture of compounds (such as carbonic acid) that results in the formation of GaOOH comprising molecular low-energy hydrogen and at least one of gallium, oxide, hydroxide, carbonate, water, and a base cation Potassium gallium hydrate, such as K ₂ Ga ₂ C ₂ O ₈ (H ₂ O) ₃ ).

Alternatively, molecular low energy hydrogen may be released from a compound comprising low energy hydrogen by at least one of: application of high temperature, such as in the range of about 100°C to 3400°C; application of plasma; high energy ions or Electron bombardment; application of at least one of high power and high energy light, such as by irradiating the compound with a high power UV lamp or flash lamp; and laser irradiation, such as by UV laser irradiation such as emitting 325 nm laser light, frequency Twice as argon ion laser line (244 nm) or HeCd laser.

In one embodiment, molecular low energy hydrogen gas can be obtained by forming a compound comprising molecular low energy hydrogen and then cooling the compound to a temperature (release temperature) at which molecular low energy hydrogen is no longer soluble or Stably bound and released as free molecular low energy hydrogen gas. The release temperature may be a cryogenic temperature, such as a cryogenic temperature in at least one of a range of about 0.1 K to 272 K, 2 K to 75 K, and 3 K to 150 K. Compound may comprise a low energy hydrogen and oxygen or an oxide (hydroxide) compound such as H ₂ (1/4) of the molecule, such as comprising Fe, Zn, Ga, and Ag in the oxide or at least one of oxygen (hydroxyl) matter. Compounds can be formed by high current detonation of corresponding wires in an atmosphere containing water vapour or by detonation of stagnant water-containing pellets according to the invention. In an exemplary embodiment, comprising molecular low energy hydrogen and (i) Fe and Zn oxides and oxygen (hydroxides) formed by high current detonation of the corresponding metal wires in the presence of water vapor and (ii) formed by At least one compound of at least one of the silver oxides formed by air detonation of silver pellets containing water is cooled to below liquid nitrogen temperature to release molecular low energy hydrogen gas.

In one embodiment, trapped in a getter or alloy, oxide or oxygen (hydroxide), absorbed on a getter or alloy, oxide or oxygen (hydroxide) or bonded to a getter Molecular low energy hydrogen or alloys, oxides or oxygen (hydroxides) formed by at least one of the following methods: (i) metal wires (such as according to the present invention comprising silver, Mo, W, Cu, Ti, Ni , at least one of Co, Zr, Hf, Ta, and rare earth metals); (ii) ball milling or heating KOH-KCl mixtures, such as Cu(OH) ₂ + FeCl ₃ other halides-hydroxide Compound mixtures such as AlO(OH), ScO(OH), YO(OH), VO(OH), CrO(OH), MnO(OH) (α-MnO(OH) manganese titanite and γ-MnO(OH) manganite), FeO(OH), CoO(OH), NiO(OH), RhO(OH), GaO(OH), InO(OH), Ni _{1 / 2} Co _{1 / 2} O(OH) and Ni _{1 / 3} Co _{1 / 3} Mn _{1 / 3} O(OH); and (iii) operation of SunCell® according to the present invention. In the latter case, an additive reactant or getter can be added to the molten metal, such as gallium. The additive reactants can form corresponding alloys, oxides, or oxygen (hydroxide) compounds. Exemplary additives or getter comprises Ga ₂ O _3, gallium - stainless steel (the SS), iron - gallium, nickel, and chromium, gallium - gallium alloy, SS alloy oxide, SS metals, nickel, iron and chromium of at least one of . By maintaining the getter or material at low temperatures, such as cryogenic temperatures, molecular low energy hydrogen can be stored in the getter or material to which it is bound or incorporated. Cryogenic temperatures of liquid nitrogen can be used as the holding or CO ₂ refrigerant.

In one embodiment, molecular low energy hydrogen is released as a free gas from an oxide or oxygen (hydroxide) compound comprising molecular low energy hydrogen by dissolving the compound in a molten salt such as an alkali metal or a eutectic mixture of salts or alkaline earth metal halides, such as in the incorporated herein incorporated by reference in http:... // www crct polymtl ca / fact / documentation / FTsalt / FTsalt _ Figs given in the htm. theirs. Exemplary salts having a mixture of oxides based lysed _{MgCl 2 - MgO http:. //} www crct polymtl ca / fact / phase _ diagram php file = MgCl2 - MgO jpg & dir = FTsalt...?..

In one embodiment, gaseous product collected directly from SunCell® or gaseous product released from SunCell® solid product is passed through a recombiner, such as a CuO recombiner, to remove hydrogen with low enrichment. the energy of the hydrogen gas in the cryopump cryogenic means or the valving on the cold stage may be sealed, such as low-temperature chamber or a solid containing a liquid nitrogen cooled by the cryogenic trap of CO ₂ is condensed in the cryogenic trap. The molecular low energy hydrogen gas can be co-condensed with at least one other gas or absorbed in a co-condensed gas, such as one or more of argon, nitrogen, and oxygen, which can act as a solvent. In an exemplary embodiment, the gallium oxide collected from SunCell® after the low energy hydrogen reaction run is dissolved in an aqueous alkaline solution such as KOH (aqueous), and the released gas comprising the low energy hydrogen and hydrogen flows through the gallium oxide contained by liquid nitrogen the cryogenic trap cooled solid CO _2, wherein the low energy hydrogen gas collected with respect to hydrogen-rich. When enough liquid has accumulated, the cryogenic chamber can be sealed and allowed to warm to vaporize the condensed liquid. The resulting gas can be used for industrial or analytical purposes. For example, the gas can be injected into a gas chromatography via a chamber valve or into a cell for electron beam emission spectrometry. In an alternative embodiment, the low energy molecular hydrogen may flow directly to the low temperature and condensation chamber means, wherein the cryogenic means can be operated at a temperature higher than the 20.3 K (H ₂ having a boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure of) the next, so that hydrogen is not co condensation.

In embodiments in which molecular low-energy hydrogen is cryogenically condensed by means such as a cryo-trap or cryopump, hydrogen may be at pressures and temperatures outside the pure hydrogen range due to the presence of molecular low-energy hydrogen that can increase the boiling point of hydrogen Co-condenses in a cryogenic trap or cryopump. In one embodiment, for the purpose of storing liquid hydrogen, molecular low energy hydrogen gas can be added to the hydrogen gas to increase its boiling point, wherein at least one of the energy and equipment required for hydrogen storage is reduced.

In one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen reaction mixture further comprises a molecular low energy hydrogen getter, such as at least one of metals, elements and compounds such as inorganic compounds such as metal oxides. The molecular low energy hydrogen getter can be mixed with the molten metal of the reaction unit chamber and reservoir to act as a collector, binder, absorber or getter for the molecular low energy hydrogen formed in the reaction unit chamber . Molecular low energy hydrogen can be used to bind or aggregate added metals or compounds to form particles. Molecular low-energy hydrogen can function in the same way as metals of alloys or metal oxides formed from materials of molten metal contacts such as their stainless steel elements or oxides. The particles can be isolated from the molten metal. The particles can be separated by melting the molten metal containing the particles and allowing the particles to separate. Particles can float to the top of the mixture and slide off the molten metal surface during separation. Alternatively, the denser particles can sink, and the molten metal can be decanted to enrich the molecular hydride-containing particle content of the mixture. The particles can be further purified by methods known in the art, such as dissolving undesired components in a suitable solvent and precipitating the desired particles. Particle purification can also be achieved by recrystallization from a suitable solution. Molecular low energy hydrogen gas can be released by heating, cryogenic cooling, acid dissolution, molten salt dissolution and other methods of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the accumulation of particles comprising molecular low energy hydrogen suppresses the low energy hydrogen reaction by means such as product suppression. The particles can be removed by means such as mechanical means to reduce reaction rate inhibition.

As described above, the power generation system of the present invention operates through reactions with unique features that can be used to characterize the system. These products can be collected in a number of different ways, such as by using cryopumps or cryogenic traps. Fractionate gas cryogenic distillation columns are rated for plates in relation to condensation surface area and number of differential separations. The condensation of low energy hydrogen depends on pressure, temperature, residence time, flow rate and condensation surface area. In one embodiment, these parameters are controlled to optimize the collection of low energy hydrogen gas of the desired purity. In another embodiment, the cryopump or cryotrap may include at least one surface area enhancer to improve low energy hydrogen gas condensation and separation, such as at least one of: structures such as protrusions and particles with larger surface areas Materials such as glass or ceramic beads (sand), powders such as those containing inorganic compounds or metals, and meshes such as metal cloth, fabric or sponge. The surface area enhancer can be located inside a cooled collection chamber or tube of a cryopump or cryotrap, such as a cryopump tube. The surface area enhancer may be selected to avoid blocking the flow of at least a portion of the gas containing molecular low energy hydrogen through the cryopump or cryotrap. In an exemplary embodiment, the cryopump or cryotrap collection vessel or tube comprises a section of a chromatography column, such as a stainless steel column packed with a zeolite or similar gas permeable matrix having a large surface area to condense low molecular weight energy hydrogen.

In the embodiment shown in Figure 32, a system 500 for forming large aggregates or polymers comprising lower energy hydrogen species includes a chamber 507 such as a Plexiglas chamber, metal wires 506, The high voltage capacitor 505 of the ground connection 504 charged by the power supply 503 and switches such as the 12 V electrical switch 502 and the trigger gap switch 501 which closes the circuit from the capacitor to the metal leads 506 inside the chamber 507 to Makes the wire knock. The chamber may contain water vapor and gases such as atmospheric air or inert gases.

An exemplary system for forming large aggregates or polymers containing lower energy hydrogen species includes: a closed rectangular cuboid Plexiglas chamber having a length of 46 cm and a width and height of 12.7 cm; 10.2 cm long and 0.22-0.5 mm in diameter Metal wire mounted between two Mo poles using Mo nut at a distance of 9 cm from the bottom of the chamber; 15 kV capacitor (Westinghouse model 5PH349001AAA, 55 uF), which corresponds to 557 J charged to about 4.5 kV; charged capacitor The 35 kV DC power supply of the ; and a 12 V switch and a trigger gap switch (Information Unlimited, model Trigatron 10, 3 kJ), which closes the circuit from the capacitor to the metal wire inside the chamber to detonate the wire. Wire may contain Mo (molybdenum metal mesh, 20 mesh from 0.305 mm diameter wire, 99.95%, Alpha Aesar), Zn (0.25 mm diameter, 99.993%, Alpha Aesar), Fe-Cr-Al alloy (73%-22% -4.8%, 31 gauge, 0.226 mm diameter, KD Cr-Al-Fe alloy wire assembly No. #1231201848, Hyndman Industrial Products) or Ti (0.25 mm diameter, 99.99%, Alpha Aesar) wire. In an exemplary extension, the chamber contains air containing about 20 Torr of water vapor. The high voltage DC power supply is turned off before closing the trigger switch. A peak voltage of about 4.5 kV is discharged with a damped harmonic oscillator above about 300 us at a peak current of 5 kA. Large aggregates or polymers containing lower energy hydrogen species form within about 3-10 minutes after wire detonation. Analytical samples were collected from the chamber floor and walls and on Si wafers placed in the chamber. The analysis results match the low energy hydrogen characteristics of the present invention.

In one embodiment, such as H ₂ (1/4) of the low-energy hydrogen can be crystallized by distillation from SunCell® enrichment. Alternatively, the low energy hydrogen such as H ₂ O it may comprise a H ₂ O plasma is maintained by a rare gas such as argon rather formed in situ is at least one. The plasma can be at a pressure ranging from about 0.1 mTorr to 1000 Torr. H ₂ O plasma may contain another gas, such as rare gas, such as argon. In the exemplary embodiment, comprises 1 Torr H ₂ O vapor atmosphere of the system by an argon plasma plasma source (such as plasma source of the present invention, such as electron beam, glow, the RF discharge or microwave power) remains.

In one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen species such as molecular low energy hydrogen is at least one of: suspended and dissolved in a liquid or solvent such as water such that the low energy hydrogen species is present in the liquid or solvent At least one physical property of the liquid or solvent is altered, such as at least one of surface tension, boiling point, freezing point, viscosity, spectrum such as infrared spectroscopy, and evaporation rate. The reaction product exemplary embodiment, the low energy hydrogen as a white reaction product of the polymerization of a lower energy hydrogen compounds contained by comprising the following form: Ga ₂ O ₃ and that the gallium from the low energy hydrogen SunCell® reactor operating collected - The stainless steel metal (about 0.1 to 5%) alloy dissolves in aqueous KOH, allowing fibers to grow and float to the surface where they are collected by filtration, increasing water evaporation and changing its FTIR spectrum. In one embodiment, molecular low energy hydrogen gas is bubbled through the water and absorbed to change the surface tension, allowing a water bridge to form between the two beakers containing the water.

In embodiments in which molecular low-energy hydrogen is cryogenically condensed by means such as a cryo-trap or cryopump, hydrogen may be at pressures and temperatures outside the pure hydrogen range due to the presence of molecular low-energy hydrogen that can increase the boiling point of hydrogen Co-condenses in a cryogenic trap or cryopump. In one embodiment, for the purpose of storing liquid hydrogen, molecular low energy hydrogen gas can be added to the hydrogen gas to increase its boiling point, wherein at least one of the energy and equipment required for hydrogen storage is reduced.

In an embodiment, the low energy hydrogen molecular gas laser comprises molecular low energy hydrogen gas (H ₂ (1/p) p=2, 3, 4, 5, ..., 137) or a source of molecular low energy hydrogen gas (such as SunCell®), laser cavity containing molecular low-energy hydrogen gas, excitation source of rotational energy level of molecular low-energy hydrogen gas, and laser optics. The laser optics may include mirrors at the ends of the cavity containing the molecular low energy hydrogen gas in an excited rotational state. One of the mirrors may be translucent to allow laser light to be emitted from the cavity. At least one of H ₂ (1 / p) energy level of rotational excitation source may comprise the at least one of the following: laser, flash lamp, gas discharge system, glow, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively coupled RF, such as a capacitively coupled RF or other plasma discharge systems known in the art. The at least one rotational energy level excited by the source may be a combination of energy levels given by equations (22-49) for GUTCP and have an exemplary energy as illustrated in Example 10. The low-energy molecular hydrogen laser may further comprise an external or internal field source (such as an electric or magnetic field source) such that at least one desired molecular low-energy hydrogen rotational energy level is filled, wherein the energy levels may comprise desired spin-orbit and flux linkage energies at least one of the displacements. Laser transitions can occur between an inversion population of the selected spin state and a less populated lower energy population. The laser cavity, optics, excitation source, and external field source are selected to achieve the desired inverted population and stimulated emission of the desired less populated lower energy state.

Molecular low energy hydrogen lasers may include solid state lasers. The laser may comprise a solid laser medium, such as a medium comprising molecular low energy hydrogen trapped in a solid matrix, where the low energy hydrogen molecules may be free rotors. The solid medium can replace the gas cavity of the molecular low energy hydrogen gas laser. The laser may include laser optics at the end of the solid laser medium, such as mirrors and windows to support the emission of laser light from the laser medium. The solid laser medium may be at least partially transparent to laser light generated by laser transitions of inverse molecular low energy hydrogen populations resonating with a laser cavity comprising the solid medium. Exemplary solid-state laser medium _{GaOOH: H 2 (1/4),} KCl: H 2 (1/4), and has advantages such as Si (crystalline): H ₂ (1/4) of the catcher molecules of low energy silicon silicon. In each case, the laser wavelength is selected for transmission through the solid-state laser medium.

In an embodiment of a SunCell mesh network comprising a plurality of SunCell-transmitter-receiver nodes transmitting and receiving electromagnetic signals in at least one frequency band, due to the ability to locate nodes locally at short separation distances, the frequency band The frequency can be high frequency. As the number of nodes increases, the spacing between nodes can be reduced, allowing signals at frequencies compared to those used in cellular telephone or wireless Internet transmission and reception due to the spacing of nodes compared to subsequent antennas and occasionally use higher frequency signals, where higher frequency microwave signals have shorter ranges. The frequency may be in a range of at least one of about 0.1 GHz to 500 GHz, 1 GHz to 250 GHz, 1 GHz to 100 GHz, 1 GHz to 50 GHz, and 1 GHz to 25 GHz.

Experimental Example 1: SunCell® shown in the FIG. 23 was produced in SunCell ® and treated silicon dioxide - alumina fiber insulation good insulation, 2500 sccm H ₂ and 250 sccm O ₂ gas flow through the Pt / Al ₂ O ₃ beads . Heat the SunCell® to a temperature in the range of 900°C to 1400°C. And continued to maintain the H ₂ O ₂ and flow pumping EM case, plasma is formed in the reaction is the absence of the self-sustaining ignition power, such as by the increase over time in the input power ignition temperature confirmed the absence of .

Example 2: SunCell ® operation and the operation for producing a quartz SunCell® two intersecting EM pumps of the ejector (SunCell® as shown in the FIG. 10) to produce a sustainable plasma forming reaction. Two molten metal injectors, each comprising an induction-type electromagnetic pump containing an exemplary Fe-based amorphous core, pump the gallium alloy streams such that they intersect to create a triangular current loop connecting the primary windings of the 1000 Hz transformer. The current loop includes flow at the base of the reservoir, two gallium alloy reservoirs, and a crossover channel. The loop acts as a short-circuited secondary winding to the 1000 Hz transformer primary winding. The induced current in the secondary winding maintains the plasma in the atmospheric air with low power consumption. Specifically, (i) the primary loop of the ignition transformer was operated at 1000 Hz, (ii) the input voltage was 100 V to 150 V, and (iii) the input current was 25 A. The 60 Hz voltage and current of the EM pump current transformer were 300 V and 6.6 A, respectively. The electromagnets of each EM pump were powered at 15 to 20 A at 60 Hz via a 299 μF capacitor in series to match the phase of the resulting magnetic field with the Lorentz crossover current of the EM pump current transformer. The transformer is powered by a 1000 Hz AC power supply.

Example 3: SunCell ® operating SunCell® manufacturing a jumper cable connected therebetween having a pump sprayer EM electrode 414a and the base electrodes of opposing Pyrex SunCell®, similar to the shown in FIG. 27. A molten metal injector comprising a DC type electromagnetic pump pumps a flow of gallium alloy connected to the opposite electrode of the base to close the contained flow, the EM pump reservoir and at each end connected to the corresponding electrode bus bar and through the 60 Hz transformer primary winding The current loop of the jumper cable. The loop acts as a short circuited secondary winding to the primary winding of the 60 Hz transformer. The induced current in the secondary winding maintains the plasma in the atmospheric air with low power consumption. The induction ignition system implements the silver or gallium based molten metal SunCell® generator of the present invention, wherein the reactants are supplied to the reaction cell chamber according to the present invention. Specifically, (i) the primary loop of the ignition transformer was operated at 60 Hz, (ii) the input voltage was 300 V peak, and (iii) the input current was 29 A peak. The maximum induced plasma ignition current is 1.38 kA.

Example 4: SunCell ® operating at 4 ml / min H ₂ O and the reaction unit injector chamber pressure is maintained at about the range of 1 to 2 atm. The DC voltage is about 30 V and the DC current is about 1.5 kA. The reaction cell chamber is a 6 inch diameter stainless steel sphere, such as the stainless steel sphere shown in Figure 23 containing 3.6 kg of molten gallium. The electrodes consisted of a 1 inch submerged SS nozzle of a DC EM pump and an opposing electrode consisting of a 4 cm diameter, 1 cm thick W disk with a 1 cm diameter lead covered by a BN base. The EM pump rate was about 30 to 40 ml/s. Gallium is polarized positively by the immersion nozzle, and the W base electrode is polarized negatively. Gallium is thoroughly mixed by means of an EM pump injector. The SunCell® output is approximately 85 kW, measured using the product of the mass, specific heat and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactors.

Example 5: SunCell ® makes 2500 sccm H ₂ and 25 sccm O ₂ flow by about 2 g of 10% Pt / Al ₂ O ₃ beads held in the outer chamber, and the H ₂ O ₂ and the reaction gas inlet Unit chambers are consistent. Additionally, argon was flowed into the reaction cell chamber at a rate that maintained a combustion chamber pressure of 50 Torr while active vacuum pumping was applied. The DC ignition voltage was about 20 V and the DC current was about 1.25 kA. The SunCell® output is approximately 120 kW, measured using the product of the mass, specific heat and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactors.

Example 6: SunCell ® operating a power generation system using glow illustration similar to FIG. 24 discharge hydrogen dissociation agent and recombination device, SunCell comprising Mo pad along the reaction chamber wall means of 8-inch diameter of 4130 Cr-Mo SS Battery. The glow discharge was directly connected to the flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber through the 0.75 inch OD set of the Conflat flange, the glow discharge voltage was 260 V; the glow discharge current was 2 A; the hydrogen flow rate was 2000 sccm; the oxygen flow rate was 1 sccm ; operating pressure 5.9 torr; gallium temperature maintained at 400°C by water bath cooling; ignition current and voltage 1300 A and 26 to 27 V; EM pump rate 100 g/s and output power for 29 kW input ignition Powers exceeding 300 kW correspond to a gain of at least 10 times.

Example 7: SunCell ® operating unit reaction chamber maintained at a pressure in the range from about 1 Torr to 20 Torr of, while flowing 10 sccm of H ₂ per minute and the injection of 4 ml H ₂ O, while applying the active vacuum pump. The DC voltage is about 28 V and the DC current is about 1 kA. The reaction cell chamber was an edged SS cube with a 9 inch length containing 47 kg of molten gallium. The electrodes consisted of a 1 inch submerged SS nozzle of a DC EM pump and an opposing electrode consisting of a 4 cm diameter, 1 cm thick W disk with a 1 cm diameter lead covered by a BN base. The EM pump rate is about 30 to 40 ml/s. The gallium polarization is positive and the W base electrode polarization is negative. SunCell® has an output of approximately 150 kW, measured using the product of mass, specific heat and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactors.

Example 8: SunCell ® manufacturing operation having a 6-inch diameter spherical SunCell a battery, comprising as the molten metal of an alloy of gallium. The plasma formation reaction was supplied with 750 sccm H ₂ and 30 sccm O ₂ , which were mixed in an oxyhydrogen torch and passed through a refill _{containing 1 g of 10% Pt/Al 2} O _{3 at >90° C. before flowing into the cell.} Binder chamber. Further, the reaction chamber unit supplied with 1250 sccm H _2, which flows comprising 1 g of 10% Pt / Al in the flow cell to greater than 90 deg.] C before ₂ O ₃ of the second chamber combined. Each of the three gas supplies is controlled by a corresponding mass flow controller. The combined flow of H ₂ and O ₂ provides the nascent HOH catalyst and atomic H, and the second H ₂ supply provides additional atomic H. The reactive plasma was maintained at about 30 V to 35 V and a DC input of about 1000 A. The input power measured by VI integration was 34.6 kW, and the output power was 129.4 kW measured by molten metal bath calorimetry, with gallium in the reservoir and reaction cell chamber acting as a bath.

Example 9: SunCell ® manufacturing operation and the operation having a 4 inch SunCell side of the battery, which is preloaded with 2500 sccm H ₂ and 70 sccm O ₂ and Ta contained in the liner walls of the reaction chamber of the unit. Currents in the range of 3000 A to 1500 A are supplied by a capacitor bank charged to 50 V, supplied to ignite the plasma formation reaction. The capacitor bank consisted of 3 parallel banks of 18 capacitors (Maxwell Technologies K2 Ultracapacitor 2.85V/3400F) connected in series, limited to a total bank voltage capacity of 51.3 V and a total bank capacitance of 566.7 Farads. The input power is 83 kW and the output power is 338 kW. The 6-inch diameter spherical cell was supplied with 4000 sccm H ₂ and 60 sccm O ₂ , and the current in the range of 3000 A to 1500 A was supplied by a capacitor bank charged to 50 V. The input power is 104 kW and the output power is 341 kW.

Example 10 : Spectroscopic Measurements Several low energy hydrogen spectral features were confirmed by experiments as described in WO 2020/148709, which is hereby incorporated in its entirety. It should be understood that these spectral features can be found in the reaction products of the plasma-forming reactions described herein. An extensive array of spectral and energy signature measurements are provided herein.

Formation of recording GaOOH hydrogen reaction: H ₂ (1/4): EPR and H ₂ O on the Raman spectroscopic analysis and recording by _{GaOOH: H 2 (1/4):} H 2 O thermal decomposition in the on the electron beams emitted gas spectroscopic analysis confirmed that the compound comprising decisively spectral characteristics H ₂ (1/4), the identification of the gas and H ₂ (1/4) gas. The EPR peaks are each assigned to spin-flip transitions and spin-orbit splitting and flux chain splitting. Both Raman and e-beam spectra show the same splitting, except that Raman involves spin main transitions. Notably _{system, GaOOH: H 2 (1/4)} : Raman line recording of H ₂ O on the DIB adapted to their Raman line. We have been to H ₂ (1/4) periodical rotation of transition and flux trajectory and spin-orbit splitting sub-division, who were LMHobbs of Astrophysics 680 (2008): All 380 DIB distribution of listed 1256-1270.

Another characteristic feature of the reaction mechanism of nascent HOH and atomic hydrogen is the observation of unusually fast H generated from the reaction. Plasma from sources such as glow, RF, and microwave discharges, which are ubiquitous in diverse applications ranging from light sources to materials processing, are now increasingly interpreted relative to the results of ion energy characterization studies of specific hydrogen "mixed gas" plasmas focus of debate. In a mixture of argon and hydrogen, the hydrogen emission line is significantly broader than any argon line.

、

及

)加速及存在於陰極位降區域中之高場(例如超過10 kV/cm)中之各種模型(本文中被稱作場加速模型(FAM))，就都卜勒加寬解釋加寬之Balmer線。然而，作為定向、位置相依且不具有任何特定離子之選擇性的場加速機制無法解釋高斯都卜勒分配、快速H能量之位置獨立性、不存在分子氫及氬線之加寬、氫混合電漿之氣體成分相依性，且通常不與經量測密度及橫截面內部一致或一致。Historically, mixed hydrogen-argon plasmas have been characterized by excited hydrogens determined from measurements of line broadening of one or more of the Balmer alpha, beta and lines of atomic hydrogen at 656.28, 486.13 and 434.05 alpha, respectively atomic energy. has been attributed to involving electric charges (such as

,

and

) acceleration and various models (referred to herein as the Field Acceleration Model (FAM)) existing in high fields (eg, over 10 kV/cm) in the cathode drop region, Balmer explained broadened in terms of Doppler broadening String. However, field acceleration mechanisms that are directional, site-dependent and do not have any specific ion selectivity cannot explain Gaussian Doppler assignments, site independence of fast H energies, absence of molecular hydrogen and broadening of argon lines, hydrogen hybrid electricity The gas composition of the slurry is dependent and generally not consistent or consistent with the measured density and cross-section interior.

The high-energy chemical reaction of the present invention with hydrogen as a broadening source explains all aspects of atomic H spectral line broadening, such as the lack of applied field dependencies, only observations of specific hydrogen mixed plasmas showing unusual broadening. Specifically, nascent HOH and mH can be used for self-ionization to form fast protons and electrons, thereby saving m27.2 eV energy transfer from H. Such rapid proton ionization in an excited state recombine with free electrons in the emission as Akhtar et al. J Phys D: App Phys 42 ( 2009):... 135207, Mills et al. The Int J Hydrogen Energy 34 (2009) : . 6467, and Mills et al. the Int J Hydrogen Energy 33 (2008) : H by widening the line 802 as described. In the rare gas, argon HOH uniquely -H ₂ present in the plasma, since the oxygen from the air during the condensation and co-purification of argon, H ₂ and H is dissociated by a catalyst in the presence of hydrogen in the plasma. Water vapor plasmons also show extreme selective broadening over 150 eV [51,52,55] and further demonstrate atomic hydrogen population inversion [58-60], also due to the transfer of resonant energy from atomic low energy hydrogen Free electron thermal proton recombination after the HOH catalyst.

Presented herein is an extensive array of additional spectral and energy signature measurements of hydrogen products that match the theoretical low energy hydrogen state of hydrogen. These "low energy hydrogen signals" cannot be assigned to any known species because they have one or more unusual characteristics, such as (i) the signals are outside the energy range of their signals of known species; (ii) the signals are of low energy Physical properties specific to hydrogen, the absence of other features required for alternative partitioning, or the presence of low-energy hydrogen with alternative combinations of features for which no known species exists; (iii) the features are completely novel; and (iv) in energetics In illustrative cases of , energy- or power-related features are much larger than those of known species, and alternative explanations do not exist, or alternatives are excluded from further study.

能態存在之氫原子的能態。類似於分子氫之情況，兩個低能量氫原子可反應以形成分子低能量氫。基於理論，分子低能量氫H ₂ (1/p)包含(i)以包含分子軌道(MO)之最小能量、等電位、長橢球形、二維電流隔膜結合之兩個電子；(ii)兩個

核，諸如在長橢球體之焦點處之兩個質子；以及(iii)光子，其中每一狀態之光子等式與經激發H₂ 狀態之光子等式不同，其中光子使中心場增加整數而非使中心長橢球形場降低至居中於球體之焦點上之每一核處的基本電荷之倒數整數，且H ₂ (1/p)之電子在相同位置ξ處相對於在單獨位置中疊加於同一殼層中。整數低能量氫狀態光子電場與MO、電子1及電子2之每一電子的相互作用產生非輻射徑向單極，使得狀態為穩定的。為了符合滿足每一對應光子在方向上與每一電子電流匹配且電子角動量為

的邊界條件，電子1之一半及電子2之一半可向上自旋且與MO上之兩個電子的兩個光子匹配，且電子1之另一半可向上自旋且電子2之另一半可向下自旋，使得電流之一半配對且電流之一半不配對。因此，MO之自旋為

，其中每一箭頭指定一個電子之自旋向量。結合分子低能量氫狀態下之兩個電子的兩個光子經鎖相至電子電流且在相反方向上循環。鑒於每一電子之不可分割性及MO包含兩個相同電子之條件，將兩個光子之力傳遞至包含兩個相同電子之線性組合的電子MO之總體以滿足中心力平衡。未配對電流密度之所得角動量及磁矩分別為

及波爾磁子

。 The parameters and magnetic energy of the spin magnetic moment attributable to H ₂ ( 1 / 4 ) The atomic model predicts the theoretical existence of low-energy hydrogen at or below that of atomic hydrogen

The energy state of the hydrogen atom in which the energy state exists. Similar to the case of molecular hydrogen, two low energy hydrogen atoms can react to form molecular low energy hydrogen. Based on theory, molecular low-energy hydrogen H ₂ (1/p) contains (i) two electrons bound to a minimum-energy, equipotential, prolate, two-dimensional current barrier containing molecular orbitals (MO); (ii) two electrons Piece

Nucleus, such as two protons long focal point of the ellipsoid; and (iii) the photon, wherein the state equation of each photon by photon excitation of different H ₂ Equation of state, in which the central field of photons rather than incrementing the integer The central prolate spheroid field is reduced to the reciprocal integer of the elementary charge at each nucleus centered on the focal point of the sphere, and the electrons of H ₂ (1/p) are superimposed on the same in the shell. The interaction of the integer low energy hydrogen state photonic electric field with each of MO, Electron 1 and Electron 2 produces a non-radiative radial monopole, making the state stable. In order to meet the requirements that each corresponding photon matches each electron current in direction and the electron angular momentum is

The boundary condition of , one half of electron 1 and one half of electron 2 can spin up and match the two photons of the two electrons on MO, and the other half of electron 1 can spin up and the other half of electron 2 can go down Spin so that one half of the current is paired and one half of the current is unpaired. Therefore, the spin of MO is

, where each arrow specifies an electron's spin vector. Two photons combining two electrons in the molecular low energy hydrogen state are phase locked to the electron current and cycle in opposite directions. Given the indivisibility of each electron and the condition that the MO contains two identical electrons, the force of the two photons is transferred to the population of the electronic MO comprising a linear combination of the two identical electrons to satisfy the central force balance. The resulting angular momentum and magnetic moment of the unpaired current densities are, respectively,

and Bohr magnetons

.

Molecular low-energy hydrogen is active for electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy due to its unpaired electrons. Furthermore, due to the unpaired electrons in a common molecular orbital with paired electrons, EPR spectroscopy is uniquely characterized and can identify molecular low energy hydrogen, as described in "Distinguishing Molecular Low Energy Hydrogen" by Hagen et al. "Distinguishing Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Signature of Molecular Hydrino", Nature , in progress.

The predicted EPR spectra were experimentally confirmed as shown in Hagen. Analysis by X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), Transmission Electron Spectroscopy (TEM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Time-of-Flight Secondary Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIM) , Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS) and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) identified a _{white polymeric compound as GaOOH:H 2} (1/4) to perform 9.820295 GHz EPR spectrum.

Briefly, GaOOH: H ₂ (1/4) is formed by the following manner: dissolve ₂ O ₃ and Ga gallium operating collected from the reaction in the 4 M KOH aqueous solution at the SunCell ^® - stainless steel (about 0.1 to 5% ) alloy, allowing fibers to grow and float to the surface where they are collected by filtration. The white fibers were not soluble in concentrated acids or bases, while the control GaOOH was soluble in concentrated acids or bases. No white fibers were formed in the control solution. The control GaOOH did not exhibit an EPR spectrum. The experimental EPR shown in Figures 33A-C was obtained by Prof. Fred Hagen, TU Delft, with a high sensitivity resonator at -28 dB microwave power and a modulation amplitude of 0.02 G variable to 0.1 G. The mean error between the EPR spectra and theory for the peak positions given in Table 4 is 0.097 G. As shown in Figures 33A-C, EPR spectra were replicated on two samples by Bruker (Bruker Scientific LLC, Billeria, MA) using two instruments.

These measured EPR signals match those predicted theoretically for low energy hydrogen. Specifically, the main peak observed at g=2.0045(5) can be assigned to a theoretical peak with a g-factor of 2.0046386. This main peak splits into a series of peak pairs, the members of which are separated by energies matching the E _{S / O} corresponding to each electron spin-orbit coupling quantum number m. The results confirm the spin-orbit coupling between the spin magnetic moment of the unpaired electron and the orbital diamagnetic moment induced in the paired electron alone or in combination with the rotational current motion around the semi-major molecular axis that causes the spin Reversal energy displacement of the magnetic moment. Further information matching spin-orbit splitting energy unilateral inclination theoretical predictions, wherein the transition corresponding to the magnetic flux due to the magnetic coupling during the _{U S /} OMag spin orbit, low field displacement observed to the increase of the quantum number m.

The EPR spectra recorded at different frequencies show that the peak assigned a g-factor of 2.0046386 remains at a constant g-factor. Furthermore, by fixing the peak value of the spin-orbit splitting energy relative to this true g-factor peak shift, the separation of the spin-orbit splitting energy independent of frequency as predicted is exactly maintained. GaOOH recorded in the Delft University: H ₂ (1/4) EPR spectra show significant narrow linewidth, due to the inclusion of this H ₂ (1/4) of the diluted capture molecules present GaOOH diamagnetic matrix of the cage. The structure of GaOOH:H ₂ (1/4) and _{the electronic state of H 2} (1/4) allow for the observation of unprecedented low splitting energies, which are between 1000 and 10,000 times smaller than the H-Lamm shift. For prediction of the spectral peaks integer EPR interval pattern similar to that demonstrated extremely low energy hydrogen ion hydride on the experimentally observed pattern, such as the Mills et al., Int J Hydrogen Energy 28 (2003) :.. 825, Mills et al. Cent Eur J Phys 8(2010):7, Mills et al. J Opt Mat 27(2004):181 and Mills et al. Res J Chem Env 12(2008):42, and WO 2020/0148709 ( See eg, as described in Figure 61), each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety - with the exception that the orbitals are atomic orbitals in these references.

An EPR spectrum was observed showing a main peak with a specified g-factor of 2.0046386 and a fine structure comprising spin-orbit with flux trajectory sub-splitting and spin-orbit magnetic energy splitting superimposed on a broad with a center approximately at the position of the main peak on the background features. It is observed that when the temperature is lowered to the low temperature range, the fine structure features widen into a continuum overlapping the broad background features, where the peaks assigned to the downfield members corresponding to the electron spin-orbit coupling quantum number m = 0.5 decrease with respect to temperature Less sensitive than the corresponding high field peaks. The same trend is also observed at increasing microwave power, where higher energy transitions saturate at higher power. Therefore, the peak assigned to the low-field member corresponding to the electron spin-orbit coupling quantum number m = 0.5 is selectively observed relative to the corresponding high-field peak. The higher sensitivity of the high-field peak to low temperature and microwave power is the exception, since it corresponds to the de-excitation of spin-orbit energy levels during spin-flip transitions, which require thermal excitation to fill. Therefore, the population decreases with temperature due to the reduction of thermal excitation sources, and the population is smaller than the unexcited population and is therefore more easily depleted by microwave power.

In addition, the GaOOH:H ₂ (1/4) sample was observed to contain two different morphologies and crystalline forms of GaOOH by TEM. The observed morphological aggregate crystals containing a hexagonal crystal structure are extremely sensitive to TEM electron beams, whereas rods with an orthorhombic crystal structure are not sensitive to electron beams. The morphology and crystal structure matching of the latter crystals does not include the morphology and crystal structure of the reference GaOOH for molecular low energy hydrogen. The hexagonal phase may be the source of the fine structure EPR spectrum, and the orthorhombic phase may be the source of the broad background EPR features. By cooling may, for example, microwave power is selectively trapped in the saturated eliminate the hexagonal crystal as the matrix H ₂ (1/4) of the observed EPR spectra of free gas near the class behavior. Any deviation from the theory can be attributed to the influence of GaOOH protons and water protons. And, orientation, and one or more interaction between H ₂ (1/4) of the matrix-matrix interactions magnetic field may cause some displacement.

Deuterium substitutions were performed to eliminate any EPR spectral lines as alternative assignments for mitotic lines. When H ₂ was replaced with D _2, since the release of the power generation system by at least 1/3. _{GaOOH: H 2 (1/4),} GaOOH: HD (1/4) of the deuterated analog as discussed below, as shown by the Raman spectroscopic analysis confirmed, wherein GaOOH: HD (1/4) also by in the plasma formed by the reaction using D ₂ O are formed. Deuterated analog form to a month 4 M potassium hydroxide, GaOOH contrast is formed in three world: H ₂ (1/4). The EPR spectrum of the deuterated analog shown in Figure 5 shows only singlet states without fine structure.

g factor and characteristic curves match GaOOH: wherein H ₂ (1/4) of the single-state curves, where in both cases, a singlet assigned to the orthorhombic phase. The XRD of the deuterated analogs matched the XRD of the hydrogen analogs, both containing gallium oxy(hydroxide) . TEM confirmed that the deuterated analog contained a 100% orthorhombic phase. The phase preference of deuterated analogs can be attributed to different low energy hydrogen concentrations and kinetic isotope effects that can also have reduced concentrations.

The unpaired electrons of molecular low energy hydrogen can induce non-zero or finite bulk magnetism, such as paramagnetism, superparamagnetism, and even ferromagnetism, when the magnetic moments of multiple low energy hydrogen molecules cooperatively interact. Also by ¹ H MAS nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum (NMR) was observed low magnetic energy attributable to the hydrogen of the molecule substrates showed high magnetic field displacement matrix peak (see the Mills et al. Int J Hydrogen Energy 39 (2014) ..: 11930, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), and observed superparamagnetism using a vibrating sample magnetometer to measure the magnetic susceptibility of compounds containing molecular low energy hydrogen.

Raman measurements by the magnetic dipole of the hydrogen product arising during operation SunCell ® and van der Waals force absorbing surface of the metal and metal ions in the crystal lattice and the sample-based Raman H ₂ (1/4) a Produced by: (i) high voltage electric detonation or Fe wire in an atmosphere containing water vapor; (ii) low voltage, high current electric detonation of hydrated silver pellets; (iii) ball milling or heating FeOOH and a hydrated alkali halide-hydroxide mixture; and (iv) maintaining a plasma reaction of atomic H with nascent HOH in a power generation system as described herein (see, eg, FIGS. 31A and 31B ) comprising molten gallium injection The molten gallium injector electrically shorts the two plasma electrodes to the molten gallium to maintain the arc current plasma state. Excess power over 300 kW was measured by water and molten metal bath calorimetry. A Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRAM Aramis Raman Spectrometer with (i) 785 nm laser, (ii) 442 nm laser and (iii) HeCd 325 nm laser in microscope mode at 40× magnification was used on these materials Raman spectra were recorded.

Nickel foil Raman samples were prepared by flowing a reaction mixture containing 2000 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm) H ₂ and 1 sccm O ₂ into one liter reaction volume SunCell ^{® shown in Figures 31A and 31B.} SunCell ^® comprises a 8-inch diameter, steel 4130 Cr-Mo Mo liners along the reactor chamber wall unit. SunCell ^® further comprising molten gallium in the reservoir, acting as an electrode and the counter electrode with respect to W vertically gallium electromagnetic pump of pumping, by maintaining a high current between the electrodes to maintain a low voltage, low energy plasma reaction of hydrogen high power ignition current, and by 0.75 inch OD Conflat flange of the current collector is directly connected to the top of the reaction chamber SunCell ^® unit flange glow discharge dissociation agent and the hydrogen recombination device. The glow discharge voltage is 260 V. The glow discharge current is 2 A. The operating pressure is 5.9 Torr. The gallium temperature was kept at 400°C under water bath cooling. The arc plasma was maintained at 26-27 V with an ignition current of 1300 A. For an input ignition power of 29 kW corresponding to a gain of 10, the solenoid pump rate is 100 g/s and the output power exceeds 300 kW. The nickel foil (1 x 1 x 0.1 cm) from which the Raman sample was prepared was placed in molten gallium. Reactions were run for 10 minutes and analyzed by Raman spectroscopy using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRAM Aramis Raman spectrometer with (i) a 785 nm laser and (ii) a 442 nm laser and a Horiba Jobin-Yvon Si CCD detector (model DU420A - OE-324) and 300 line/mm grating analysis foil, wipe the surface clean with a cloth.

旋轉躍遷；或 (ii)協同躍遷，包含

至

旋轉躍遷以及

至

自旋旋轉躍遷；或 (iii)最終旋轉量子數

及

及由獨立躍遷之總和給出的能量下之雙躍遷。Using Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with 785 nm laser in the gallium by immersed in the molten SunCell ^® prepared in the retention of a Raman spectrum obtained by plasma reaction a nickel foil 10 minutes (2500 cm ^{- 1} to 11,000 cm ^{- 1} ) are shown in Figures 35A-C. The energy E _{Raman of} all novel lines matches either: (i) Pure H ₂ (1/4) with spin-orbit coupling energy and flux linkage energy

rotational transitions; or (ii) cooperative transitions, including

to

spin transition and

to

spin spin transition; or (iii) final spin quantum number

and

and a double transition at an energy given by the sum of the independent transitions.

Using a Si CCD detector with a detection energy range of about 4000 cm ^{- 1} in combination with a 785 nm laser, where photon energy plus laser heating energy can excite rotational emission with an energy ceiling of ^{about 14,500 cm- 1 enables} Detects a collection of multi-order emission spectral lines that closely match the separation range of the 785 nm multi-order laser line within the spectral window. Laser multi-order lines were observed at the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th orders at the energies E _{Raman , order , m} of 6371, 8495, 9557, 10,193, 10,618 cm ^{- 1 (Fig. 35A-C).} ), where all 785 nm laser multi-order lines have a ^{photon energy of 12,742 cm - 1} (1.58 eV).

Sets of multi-order emission spectral lines assigned to specific spectral ranges corresponding to laser excitation energy ranges and detector ranges match members of one set with increasing wavenumbers to members of the next higher energy, higher order set A reduction in energy separation between and a reduction in pipeline strength between members of a given set (FIGS. 35A-C).

Silver has also been observed in the hydrated pellets allocated to Table 7B of H ₂ (1/4) rotation transition of the Raman peak, these hydrated silver pellets of a current of about 35,000 A and immersed in SunCell ^® gallium gallium in the Cr, Fe, and stainless steel foil knocking, as in the case where nickel foil, the Raman spectra after performing plasma reaction SunCell ^®. Depth-dependent Raman spectroscopy on a pure gallium sample shows that the intensity of the Raman peak decreases with depth and is only seen in the traces on the negatively polarized W electrode, confirming the surface and proximal space above the positive electrode Previous observations of low-energy hydrogen reactions occurring in the plasma at (in this case, positively polarized molten gallium). This is consistent with an increasing rate mechanism for recombining ions and electrons to reduce the space charge caused by energy transfer to the catalyst and its consequent ionization.

至

旋轉躍遷；(ii)協同躍遷，包含

至

旋轉躍遷以及

至

自旋旋轉躍遷；或(iii)最終旋轉量子數

及

之雙躍遷。在純、協同及雙躍遷中亦觀測到了對應自旋軌道耦合及磁通軌跡耦合。該等峰值匹配在先前拉曼實驗中量測之峰值，不同之處在於另外觀測到峰值之第二集合，相對於在鎳箔上所觀測到之集合位移150 cm^{- 1} (圖35A-C)。此有可能歸因於存在藉由XRD及TEM確認且為EPR中之兩個不同光譜的來源的GaOOH:H₂ (1/4)之兩個相。Energy generated by the collection and purification of the gallium SunCell ^® melted from the reaction product after the execution, also observed spectral characteristics H ₂ (1/4) of the reaction product as SunCell ^®. Specific, 10 minutes duration of plasma held in SunCell ^® performed, and the white polymeric compound _{(GaOOH: H 2 (1/4)} ) performed by the 4 M KOH aqueous solution from dissolving gallium collected SunCell ^® the Ga ₂ O ₃ and Ga - stainless steel alloy (about 0.1 to 5%) is formed, thereby allowing the fiber growth, and float to the surface thereof by collected by filtration. As shown in FIG. 36A in the Raman spectra (2200 cm ^{- 1} to 11,000 cm ^{- 1)} in GaOOH: obtained using Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS 785 nm laser spectrometer with H ₂ (1/4) a. All novel lines match either: (i) pure

to

rotational transitions; (ii) cooperative transitions, including

to

spin transition and

to

spin spin transition; or (iii) final spin quantum number

and

The double jump. Corresponding spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling are also observed in pure, cooperative and double transitions. These peaks match those measured in previous Raman experiments, except that a second set of peaks was additionally observed, shifted by 150 cm ^{- 1} relative to the set observed on the nickel foil (Fig. 35A-C) . This is possible due to the presence confirmation by XRD and TEM, and as a source of the EPR spectra of two different GaOOH: two H ₂ (1/4) of the phase.

Raman spectra were recorded on copper electrodes using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS with a 785 nm laser _{after ignition of 80 mg silver pellets containing 1 mol% H 2} O by applying 12 V 35,000 A with a spot welder current to achieve detonation. The peak optical power for EUV emission is 20 MW. Raman spectra (2200 cm ^{- 1} to 11,000 cm ^{- 1} ) are shown in Figure 36B.

The SunCell ^® HD (1/4) the product is formed by the following: every 30 seconds with a jet unit to the reaction chamber of 250 μl of D ₂ O in the propagation reaction SunCell ^®, the substitution _gas mixture as H ₂ O, and Source of atomic hydrogen and HOH catalysts. 10 minutes duration of plasma held in SunCell ^® performed, and the white polymeric compound (GaOOH: HD (1/4)) performed by the 4 M KOH aqueous solution from dissolving gallium Ga SunCell ^® collected ₂ O ₃ and gallium-stainless steel metal alloys (about 0.1 to 5%) were formed, allowing fibers to grow and float to the surface where they were collected by filtration.

旋轉躍遷； (ii)協同躍遷，包含

至

旋轉躍遷以及對應自旋軌道耦合能量下之

至

自旋旋轉躍遷； (iii)最終旋轉量子數

；

之雙躍遷。Using Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer and 785 nm laser GaOOH: HD (1/4) to obtain a Raman spectrum (2500 cm ^{- 1} to 11,000 cm ^{- 1)} (FIGS. 37A-C). Substitution with deuterium shifts the Raman peak significantly as evident by comparing the spectra of pure hydrogen molecular low energy hydrogen (FIGS. 35A-C) with the spectra of deuterated molecular low energy hydrogen shown in FIGS. 37A-C. In the latter case, the energies E _{Raman of} all novel lines match either: (i) Purity at spin-orbit coupling energies and flux linkage energies

rotational transitions; (ii) cooperative transitions, including

to

The spin transition and the corresponding spin-orbit coupling energy

to

spin spin transition; (iii) final spin quantum number

;

The double jump.

至

，

匹配。除樣本中不存在之H₂ 以外，歸因於峰值之高能量，不存在已知分配。另外，觀測到1801 cm^{- 1} 下之尖峰之相當大的強度增加。未在對照GaOOH之FTIR中觀測到此峰值。峰值匹配協同旋轉及自旋軌道躍遷

至

，

，

。4000至8500 cm^{- 1} 區域之較高敏感度尺度(圖38B)展示以下情況下之額外峰值：(i) 4899 cm^{- 1} ，其匹配協同旋轉及自旋軌道躍遷

至

，

，

；(ii) 5318 cm^-1 ，其匹配純旋轉及自旋軌道躍遷

至

，

；以及(iii) 6690 cm^-1 ，其匹配純旋轉及自旋軌道躍遷

至

，

，

。Infrared spectroscopy rotational transitions are disabled for symmetric diatomic molecules that do not have an electric dipole moment. However, since the low energy hydrogen molecule having a unique unpaired electrons, thus applying a magnetic field to the magnetic dipole excimer low energy to break the hydrogen of the means to permit the selection rule of H ₂ (1/4) a novel transition, the sample Except for the influence of the inherent magnetic field. Co-rotation and spin-orbit coupling are another mechanism for permitting otherwise disabled transitions. GaOOH:H ₂ (1/ 4) FTIR analysis was performed on solid sample pellets (GaOOH impregnated with hydrogen product generated from SunCell operations). The spectrum shown in Figure 38A shows that applying a magnetic field ^{produces an FTIR peak at 4164 cm- 1} , which is consistent with co-rotation and spin-orbit transitions

to

,

match. Except for the absence in the sample of H _2, due to the high energy of the peak, the absence of a known distribution. In addition, a considerable increase in intensity of the sharp peak ^{below 1801 cm- 1 was observed.} This peak was not observed in the FTIR of control GaOOH. Peak-matched co-rotation and spin-orbit transitions

to

,

,

. The higher sensitivity scale in the 4000 to 8500 cm ^{- 1} region (Fig. 38B) shows additional peaks at: (i) 4899 cm ^{- 1} , which matches co-rotation and spin-orbit transitions

to

,

,

; (ii) 5318 cm ^-1 , which matches pure spin and spin-orbit transitions

to

,

; and (iii) 6690 cm ^-1 , which matches pure spin and spin-orbit transitions

to

,

,

.

Investigate the influence of magnetic materials on the selection rules for observing molecular low-energy hydrogen rotational transitions involving interactions with free electrons. Raman samples containing solid mesh fibers were prepared by wire detonation of ultra-high purity Fe wire in a rectangular cubic Plexiglas chamber with a length of 46 cm and a width and height of 12.7 cm.

。高電壓DC電源供應器在閉合觸發器開關之前關閉。約4.5 kV之峰值電壓在5 kA之峰值電流下以高於約300μ s之阻尼諧波振盪器放電。在電線爆震之後約3至10分鐘內形成網狀纖維。自腔室底層及壁以及在置放在腔室中之Si晶圓上收集分析樣本。在40X放大率下在顯微鏡模式下使用Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRAM Aramis拉曼光譜儀以及HeCd 325 nm雷射或藉由785 nm雷射在網狀材料上記錄拉曼光譜。A 10.2 cm long, 0.25 mm diameter Fe wire (99.995%, Alfa Aesar #10937-G1) was mounted between two Mo poles with the Mo nut at a distance of 9 cm from the chamber bottom, with 35 kV DC the 15 kV power supply capacitor (Westinghouse model 5PH349001AAA, 55 μ F) corresponds to 557 J charged to about 4.5 kV, 12 V and the trigger switch and flower gap switch (Information Unlimited, model Trigatron10,3 kJ) for a circuit The wire from the capacitor closes to the inside of the chamber to detonate the wire. The detonation chamber contained air, including 20 Torr of water vapor controlled by a humidifier and a water vapor sensor. Water vapor acts as a HOH catalyst and a source of atomic H to form molecular low-energy hydrogen

. The high voltage DC power supply is turned off before closing the trigger switch. A peak voltage of about 4.5 kV is discharged with a damped harmonic oscillator above about 300 μs at a peak current of 5 kA. Reticulated fibers formed within about 3 to 10 minutes after wire detonation. Analytical samples were collected from the chamber floor and walls and on Si wafers placed in the chamber. Raman spectra were recorded on the mesh material using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRAM Aramis Raman spectrometer in microscope mode at 40X magnification with a HeCd 325 nm laser or by a 785 nm laser.

Raman spectra obtained using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer and a 785 nm laser on solid reticulated fibers are shown in Figs. Wire detonation preparation of ultra-high purity Fe wire. A series of periodic peaks were observed as shown in the 3420 cm ^{- 1} to 4850 cm ^{- 1 Raman spectral region (FIG. 39A).} By treatment with Fe web HCl: H ₂ (1/4) to confirm that the sample from the sample peak series. As shown in FIG. 39A, a sample of the iron oxide by oxygen (hydrogen) and ferric iron species formed FeCl ₃ H ₂ O and reacted, by acid treatment of the sample web Fe eliminate all pull Mann peak. Similarly, KCl also shows no peaks in this spectral range, further indicating that the periodic peaks are not due to etalons or other artifacts of the optics. The manufacturer, Horiba Instruments, Inc. confirmed that an infrared CCD detector (Horiba Aramis Raman Spectrometer with the following synaptic CCD camera model: 354308, S/N: MCD-1393BR-2612, 1024x256 CCD front-illuminated open electrodes) was front-illuminated, this The possibility of etalon artifacts is also excluded. Due to the unusually high energy, the transition could not be assigned to any previously known compound.

Example 11: water bath calorimetry (WBC) SunCells ^® independently of the power balance using the measured three experts molten metal bath and water bath calorimetry. Molten metal calorimetry testing was performed on four-inch cubic or six-inch spherical stainless steel plasma cells each incorporating the internal mass of liquid gallium or gallium alloy acting as a molten metal bath for retention in the plasma cell Calorimetric determination of the power balance of the plasma reaction. When electrical contact is made between the electrodes by electromagnetic pumping of molten metal from cathode to anode, the molten metal also acts as the cathode in the formation and operation of the very low voltage, high current plasma, while the tungsten electrode acts as the anode. Plasma is formed sccm O _2, or 3000 sccm H _2/50 sccm O ejection view 2000 sccm H _{2/20 2} of the set. The excess power in the range of 197 kW to 273 kW and the gain in the range of 2.3 to 2.8 times the power to maintain the hydrogen plasma reaction are given in Tables 17-18. No chemical changes were observed in the cell assembly as judged by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Power from the combustion _2/1% O ₂ source of fuel and a catalyst HOH H is negligible (16.5 W, 50 sccm O ₂ flow for) and occurs outside the battery. Therefore, the theoretical maximum excess power from conventional chemical reactions is zero.

Water bath calorimetry (WBC) can be a highly accurate method of energy measurement due to its inherent capability for complete capture and accurate verification of released energy. However, immersion of the SunCell ^® in a water bath significantly reduces its wall temperature relative to operation in air. The low energy hydrogen reaction rate increases with temperature, current density, and wall temperature, the latter of which promotes the permeability of polymeric low energy hydrogen across the wall to avoid product inhibition. To evaluate ^{the absolute output energy produced by SunCells ®} , while maintaining favorable operating conditions of high gallium and wall temperatures, the cells were operated suspended on the cable for the duration of the power generation phase, and then the cells were lowered to in a water bath. The thermal inventory of the entire submerged battery assembly is transferred to the water bath in the form of increased water temperature and steam generation. After the cell temperature equilibrated to the temperature of the water bath, the cell was lifted from the water bath, and the heat inventory increase of the water bath was quantified by recording the bath temperature rise and water lost to steam by measuring the water weight loss. A water bath calorimetry comprising a lever system with a counter balanced water tank and digital scale to accurately measure water loss to steam is shown in FIG. 40 .

These WBC tests also characterized cylindrical cells, each incorporating an internal mass of liquid gallium that served as a molten metal reservoir with corresponding heat sinks. Molten gallium also acts as the electrode in the formation and operation of an extremely low voltage, high current hydride reaction driven plasma during electrical contact between the electrodes by electromagnetic pump spray of molten metal from the reservoir to the W electrode, while The tungsten electrode acts as the counter electrode. Plasma formation depends on the injection of hydrogen and about 8% oxygen and the application of high current using a DC power supply at low voltage. The excess power in the range of 273 kW to 342 kW and the gain in the range of 3.9 to 4.7 times the power to maintain the hydrogen plasma reaction are given in Tables 4 to 8. No chemical changes were observed in the cell assembly as determined by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) performed on gallium after the reaction. Power from the combustion _2/8% O ₂ source of fuel and a catalyst HOH H traces of oxygen limited and subject to negligible. The input power from the EM pump power can also be ignored. Table 4. Dr. Mark Nansteel verification 273 kW of power, which is generated by using a low energy hydrogen plasma calorimetry molten metal bath held in the reaction SunCell ^®. duration ( s ) Input energy (kJ ) Output energy (kJ ) Input power (kW ) Output power (kW ) power gain Net Excess Power (kW ) 1.27 212.9 485.8 167.6 382.5 2.28 273 Table 5. Dr. Dr. Stephen Tse and Randy Booker verification 200 kW of power, which is made using a molten metal bath maintained at calorimetry low energy hydrogen plasma in the reaction SunCell ^®. duration ( s ) Input energy (kJ ) Output energy (kJ ) Input power (kW ) Output power (kW ) power gain Net Excess Power (kW ) 2.917 422.1 1058.1 144.7 362.8 2.51 218.1 5.055 554.7 1548.1 109.7 306.25 2.79 196.5 Table 6. Randy Booker Dr. verification 296 kW of power, which by using a water bath maintained at calorimetry low energy hydrogen plasma in the reaction SunCell ^®. duration ( s ) Input energy (kJ ) Output energy (kJ ) Input power (kW ) Output power (kW ) power gain Net Excess Power (kW ) 2.115 193 818.4 91.2 386.9 4.24 296 Table 7. Dr. Stephen Tse verification of up to 342 kW power, which by using a water bath maintained at calorimetry low energy hydrogen plasma in the reaction SunCell ^®. duration ( s ) Input energy (kJ ) Output energy (kJ ) Input power (kW ) Output power (kW ) power gain Net Excess Power (kW ) 2.115 192.95 915.35 91.2 432.8 4.74 341.6 Table 8. Dr. Mark Nansteel verification of up to 273 kW power, which by using a water bath maintained at calorimetry low energy hydrogen plasma SunCell ^® advanced in the tube-type reaction. The power density is a remarkable 5 MW/liter. duration ( s ) Input energy (kJ ) Output energy (kJ ) Input power (kW ) Output power (kW ) power gain Net Excess Power (kW ) 274.9 274.9 1080.2 93.2 366.2 3.93 273.0

Thermal tests were further performed on the cells immersed in the water bath using the weight of water lost to steam generation over the duration of the test to quantify the power balance. Each cell contained a cylindrical 4130 Cr-Mo steel reaction chamber measuring 20 cm ID, 14.3 cm height and 1.25 mm thick, with a cylindrical reservoir attached to a 5.4 cm height and 10.2 cm ID (containing 6 kg of gallium). The observed developed commercial scale, continuous quality and power density by changing the steam may flow to the power cell and the trace of H ₂ O and the temperature of the glow discharge reaction ₂ dissociates to control recombination. In particular, three variations of the basic cell design allow for testing these operating parameters. The cell walls were coated with a ceramic coating to prevent gallium alloy formation, and the cells were operated at about 200°C. Next, the reaction cell chamber was constructed by incorporating (i) an outer 1.27 cm thick, full-length carbon cylinder, (ii) a 1 mm thick, full-length Nb cylinder, and (ii) a 4 mm thick, 10.2 mm high W plate (with A hexagonal configuration) was modified by adding a concentric three-layer gasket to the plasma from the cell wall. The plate completely covers the area of intense plasma between the W molten metal injector electrode and the W opposing electrode. The liner acts as a thermal insulator to raise the gallium temperature above 400°C and also protect the walls from the stronger plasma observed.

The cell further comprises a spacer glow discharge cell by adding modified so that H ₂ gas is dissociated into atomic H Qieyi forming the primary HOH. The kinetically favorable high temperature reaction conditions observed when performing molten metal cells occur because there is no water cooling for these cells. Since a temperature of 1 eV corresponds to a gas temperature of 11,600 K, the equivalence of extremely high reaction mixture temperatures is achieved under water cooling conditions. The glow discharge cell consisted of a 3.8 cm diameter stainless steel tube with a length of 10.2 cm, which was bolted to the top of the reaction cell chamber at its base by a Conflat flange. The positive glow discharge electrode is a stainless steel rod powered by a high voltage feedthrough on top of the glow discharge cell and has the body grounded to act as the opposing electrode. A reaction gas mixture of 3000 sccm H ₂ and 1 sccm O ₂ flows through the top of the discharge cell and from the bottom into the reaction cell chamber.

The power generated due to the low energy hydrogen reaction doubled from an average of 26 kW to 55.5 kW, and the operating temperature increased from about 200°C to above 400°C. The power was further increased by operation of the glow discharge cell to activate the gaseous reactants, where the low energy hydrogen power was observed to be about twice as high as 93 kW as well. The results are given in Table 9. The combination of high temperature and glow discharge activation has a significant effect on excess power. Based on low-energy hydrogen theory, the results match expectations for catalytic chemical reactions between H and HOH catalysts. Table 9. Dr. Mark Nansteel validation of 93 kW power, by which the steam generated in the mass balance in the SunCell ^® held in the plasma reaction. Low energy hydrogen reactions are shown to be dependent on operating temperature and activation of gaseous reactants by glow discharge plasma. discharge Gallium temperature ( ℃ ) duration ( s ) Input energy (kJ ) Output energy (kJ ) Input power (kW ) Output power (kW ) power gain Net Excess Power (kW ) Yes 196 302 10,346 16,480 34.26 54.57 1.59 20.3 Yes 177 296 9341 18,708 31.56 63.20 2.00 31.7 no 458 167 6951 16,264 41.62 97.39 2.34 55.8 Yes 425 200 7800 26,392 39.00 131.96 3.38 93.0

藉由原子氫與3x27.2 eV之諧振能量受體、初生H₂ O之催化反應形成，其中藉由施加電弧電流以再結合由至因此電離之HOH之能量傳遞形成之離子及電子而大大提高反應速率。與金屬氧化物結合且在金屬及離子晶格中藉由凡得瓦爾力吸收之H₂ (1/4)係藉由以下產生：(i)在包含水蒸氣之大氣中的高電壓電爆震Fe電線；(ii)水合銀丸粒之低電壓、高電流電爆震；(iii)球磨研磨或加熱經水合之鹼鹵化物氫氧化物混合物；以及(iv)在包含熔融鎵噴射器之所謂的SunCell^® 中保持H及HOH之電漿反應，該熔融鎵噴射器使兩個電漿電極與熔融鎵電短路以保持電弧電流電漿狀態。藉由水及熔融金屬浴量熱法量測340 kW位準下之過量功率。藉由具有以下結果之多種分析方法分析預測包含分子低能量氫H₂ (1/4)產物之樣本。 Conclusion Low energy hydrogen and subsequent molecular low energy hydrogen

Formed by the catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen with a 3x27.2 eV resonant energy acceptor, nascent H ₂ O, which is greatly enhanced by applying an arc current to recombine ions and electrons formed by energy transfer to the thus ionized HOH reaction speed. And, in combination with a metal oxide and a metal ion in the crystal lattice by Van der Waals force H ₂ of the absorbent (1/4) lines generated by the following: (i) a high voltage of knock in an atmosphere comprising water vapor in Fe wire; (ii) low voltage, high current electrical detonation of hydrated silver pellets; (iii) ball milling or heating of hydrated alkali halide hydroxide mixtures; the holding of the plasma reactor H and HOH SunCell ^®, the molten gallium two plasma electrodes and an ejector molten gallium in order to maintain electrical short plasma arc current state. Excess power at 340 kW level was measured by water and molten metal bath calorimetry. By having the plurality of analysis results of predictive analysis sample comprising molecules of low energy hydrogen products of H ₂ (1/4).

歸因於歸因於磁能及自旋軌道耦合能量之組合位移為

。經量化自旋軌道分裂能量

及電子自旋軌道耦合量子數

下之高場峰值位置

為

。每一自旋軌道峰值位置處之整數系列峰值之間隔

為

及

，對於電子磁通軌跡量子數

。此等EPR結果首先在TU Delft下由Hagen博士觀測到。H ₂ (1/4) comprising a spectral analysis enables determination by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) This unique configuration of the electronic state of the hydrogen molecule unpaired electrons. In particular, the H ₂ (1/4) EPR spectrum contains a main peak with a g-factor of 2.0046386, which splits into a series of peak pairs in which members are coupled by their spin-orbit coupling energy as a function of the number of corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quanta separation. Unpaired electron magnetic moment based on H ₂ (1/4) of the diamagnetic susceptibility-induced magnetic moment unpaired electron anti H ₂ (1/4) of the molecular orbital. The corresponding magnetic moments of the intrinsic paired-unpaired current interactions and the magnetic moments due to relative rotational motion about the internuclear axis give rise to spin-orbit coupling energies. The EPR spectroscopy results confirm the spin-orbit coupling between the spin magnetic moment of the unpaired electron and the orbital dual magnetic moment induced by the unpaired electron in the paired electron by shifting the flip energy of the spin magnetic moment. The respective spin-orbit splitting peaks are further subdivided into a series of equally spaced peaks matching an integer flux trajectory energy as a function of the number of electron flux trajectory quanta corresponding to the number of angular momentum components involved in the transition. The evenly spaced series of sub-splitting peaks are assigned to the flux linkage in units of magnetic flux quantum h/2e during the coupling between paired and unpaired magnetic moments, while spin-flip transitions occur. Additionally, the spin-orbit splitting increases with the number of spin-orbit coupling quanta on the low-field side of a series of peak pairs due to the increased magnetic energy linked by the magnetic flux accumulated by the molecular orbitals. Low field peak position for EPR frequency of 9.820295 GHz

The combined displacement due to the magnetic energy and the spin-orbit coupling energy is

. Quantified spin-orbit splitting energy

and electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers

lower high field peak position

for

. interval between integer series of peaks at each spin-orbit peak position

for

and

, for the quantum number of the electron flux trajectory

. These EPR results were first observed by Dr. Hagen under TU Delft.

An integer of H ₂ (1/4) of the EPR spectra of peaks spaced electrode pattern similar to that observed in the spectrum of a periodic pattern of high resolution in the low-hydrogen hydride ion energy visible. Low energy hydrino hydride ions containing paired and unpaired electrons in common atomic orbitals also exhibit the phenomenon of flux linkages quantified in h/2e. Further, when the rotational H ₂ (1/4) of the energy level during the irradiation by the laser when the Raman spectroscopic analysis and by electron beams from the high energy electrons collide with H ₂ (1/4) of the excitation is observed to the same phenomenon. The anomaly is that EPR, Raman, and electron beam excitation spectra give the same information about the structure of molecular low-energy hydrogen in energy ranges that differ by _{the inverse of the H 2} (1/4) diamagnetic susceptibility coefficient: ^{1 / 7X10 - 7 = 1.4 ×} 10 6, wherein the activity of the diamagnetic orbital magnetic transition was induced by the rotational displacement during the rotation of the magnetic moment of the electron beam and the Raman excitation of orbital of a molecule of an active period of EPR.

之量化單位的磁通量。Josephson junctions, such as those of superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), are connected as magnetic flux quanta or flux trajectories

The quantified unit of magnetic flux.

The same behavior is predicted and observed for the connection of magnetic flux by low energy hydrogen hydride ions and molecular low energy hydrogen controlled by applying electromagnetic radiation of specific frequencies in the microwave to ultraviolet range. For a computer, such as a logic gate or a memory device operating at a low temperature of, and may be a single molecule smaller than the hydrogen molecule ⁴³ or even 64 times the temperature in the lower phase H ₂ (1/4) to enable low energy hydrogen species. Molecular low-energy hydrogen containing magnetic hydrogen molecules could also enable many other applications in other fields. Gas contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are but one example.

至

旋轉躍遷：

；(ii)包含

至

自旋旋轉躍遷下之

至

旋轉躍遷之協同躍遷：

；或(iii)最終旋轉量子數

及

之雙躍遷：

。在純、協同及雙躍遷中亦觀測到了對應自旋軌道耦合及磁通軌跡耦合。Specifically, exemplary Raman transitions rotate about a semi-minor axis perpendicular to the internuclear axis. The intrinsic electron spin angular momentum is aligned parallel or perpendicular to the corresponding molecular rotational angular momentum along the molecular rotational axis, and the co-rotation of spin currents occurs during molecular rotational transitions. The interaction of the intrinsic spin with the corresponding magnetic moment of the molecular rotation produces the spin-orbit coupling energy as a function of the spin-orbit quantum number. The Raman spectroscopy results confirmed the spin-orbit coupling between the spin-magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons and the orbital-magnetic moments due to molecular rotation. The energy of the rotational transition is shifted by such spin-orbit coupling energies as the number of corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quanta changes. Molecular rotational peaks displaced by spin-orbit energy are further displaced by flux linkage energies, where each energy corresponds to its electron flux trajectory quantum number, depending on the number of angular momentum components involved in the rotational transition. The observed sub-splitting or displacement of the Raman spectral peaks is distributed to the flux linkage in units of magnetic flux quantum h/2e during the spin-orbit coupling between the spin magnetic moment and the molecular rotational magnetic moment, while the rotational transition occurs. All novel lines match the following: (i) pure under spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling

to

Rotational transition:

; (ii) contains

to

under the spin transition

to

Cooperative transition of rotational transition:

; or (iii) the final rotational quantum number

and

The double jump:

. Corresponding spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling are also observed in pure, cooperative and double transitions.

及

自旋躍遷：

。十九條所觀測到之拉曼線與被稱作彌漫星際帶(DIB)之星際介質相關聯之不可分配天文線之彼等者匹配。藉由Hobbs列舉之向自旋軌道分裂及磁通軌跡子分裂下之H₂ (1/4)旋轉躍遷分配所有380個DIB匹配藉由Hobbs[L.M. Hobbs、D.G. York、T.P. Snow、T. Oka、J.A. Thorburn、M. Bishof、S.D. Friedman、B.J. McCall、B. Rachford、P. Sonnentrucker、D.E. Welty，HD 204827''之光譜中之彌漫星際帶之目錄，天體物理期刊，第680卷，第2期，(2008)，第1256-1270頁，http://dibdata.org/HD204827.pdf，https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/ 587930/pdf，其中之每一者特此以全文引用之方式併入]報告之彼等者。分子低能量氫旋轉躍遷能量覆蓋自紅外線至紫外線之廣泛範圍之頻率，其實現橫跨對應波長之分子雷射。In 12,250-15,000 cm ^{- 1} is observed in the region of low energy hydrogen complex compound GaOOH: H ₂ (1/4): predicted records of the _{H 2 O H 2 (1/4)} UV Raman peak, which was The complex water suppresses the strong fluorescence of the 325 nm laser. Grouped exposure to low energy hydrogen plasma reaction of nickel foil was observed H ₂ (1/4) UV Raman peak. Cooperative pure spin transitions under all novel line-matched spin-orbit coupling and flux chain splitting

and

Spin transition:

. The nineteen observed Raman lines match those of the non-distributable astronomical lines associated with the interstellar medium known as the diffuse interstellar belt (DIB). _{All 380 DIBs were assigned by Hobbs to the H 2} (1/4) spin transition under spin-orbit splitting and flux-track splitting as enumerated by Hobbs [LM Hobbs, DG York, TP Snow, T. Oka, JA Thorburn, M. Bishof, SD Friedman, BJ McCall, B. Rachford, P. Sonnentrucker, DE Welty, Catalogue of Diffuse Interstellar Belts in the Spectrum of HD 204827'', Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 680, No. 2, (2008), pp. 1256-1270, http://dibdata.org/HD204827.pdf, https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/587930/pdf, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety by way of incorporation] of those in the report. Molecular low-energy hydrogen rotational transition energy covers a wide range of frequencies from infrared to ultraviolet, enabling molecular lasers across the corresponding wavelengths.

至

旋轉躍遷：

；(ii)包含

至

自旋旋轉躍遷下之

至

旋轉躍遷之協同躍遷：

；或(iii)最終旋轉量子數

；

之雙躍遷：

。在純及協同躍遷兩者中亦觀測到了對應自旋軌道耦合及磁通耦合。Depending on the rotational energy of reduced mass, which is substituted with a low molecular energy of hydrogen H ₂ (1/4) of the proton to form a deuteron change 3/4 times HD (1/4). HD (1/4) of the rotational energy of Raman spectroscopy with respect to the displacement of the rotational energy of H ₂ (1/4) of the as predicted. All novel lines match the following: (i) pure HD(1/4) under spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling

to

Rotational transition:

; (ii) contains

to

under the spin transition

to

Cooperative transition of rotational transition:

; or (iii) the final rotational quantum number

;

The double jump:

. Corresponding spin-orbit coupling and magnetic flux coupling are also observed in both pure and cooperative transitions.

至

振動躍遷，其中一系列旋轉躍遷對應於H₂ (1/4) P分支。光譜擬合良好匹配

；

，其中0.515 eV及0.01509 eV分別為普通分子氫之振動及旋轉能量。另外，觀測到匹配亦藉由拉曼光譜分析觀測到之旋轉自旋軌道分裂能量的小型衛星線。旋轉自旋軌道分裂能量間隔匹配

，其中1.5涉及

及

分裂。Similarly acts as a cage consisting of substantially gas of the EPR spectrum of the lattice provides no interaction GaOOH the trapped low-energy hydrogen molecules where H ₂ (1/4), the rare gas mixture H ₂ (1/4) environment to observe vibrational rotation spectroscopy. _{The H 2} (1/4) noble gas mixture irradiated with high energy electrons of the electron beam exhibits equal 0.25 eV spaced line emission in the ultraviolet (150 nm to 180 nm) region with a cutoff of 8.25 eV, which matches H ₂ ( 1/4)

to

Vibrational transitions, where a series of rotational transitions correspond to the H ₂ (1/4) P branch. Spectral fit is a good match

;

, where 0.515 eV and 0.01509 eV are the vibrational and rotational energies of ordinary molecular hydrogen, respectively. In addition, small satellite lines matching the spin-spin-orbit splitting energy observed by Raman spectroscopy were also observed. Spin-Spin-Orbit Splitting Energy Spacing Matching

, of which 1.5 involves

and

Split.

至

振動躍遷之光譜發射。旋轉峰值匹配自由轉子之彼等旋轉峰值，而振動能歸因於H₂ (1/4)振動與KCl基質之相互作用而因有效質量之增加而位移。光譜擬合良好匹配

；

，包含以0.25 eV間隔之峰值。H₂ (1/4)振動能移之相對量值匹配由KCl中捕集之普通H₂ 引起的對振轉光譜之相對效應。 _{The H 2} (1/4) P branch rotational transition was also observed by electron beam excitation _{of H 2} (1/4) trapped in KCl crystalline matrix.

to

Spectral emission of vibrational transitions. Peak matching their free rotation of rotor rotation peak, attributable to the interaction of the vibration and the vibration of KCl matrix H ₂ (1/4) and by increasing the effective mass of the displaced. Spectral fit is a good match

;

, containing peaks spaced at 0.25 eV intervals. H ₂ (1/4) of the relative magnitude of the vibration can be shifted to match the relative effect of common-vibrational spectrum of the KCl in H ₂ trap caused.

；

給出且包含0.25 eV能量間隔旋轉躍遷峰值下之基質位移

至

旋轉躍遷。Using Raman spectroscopy and high-energy lasers, a series of 1000 cm ^{- 1 (0.1234 eV) equally spaced Raman peaks were observed in the 8000 cm- 1} to 18,000 cm ^{- 1} region, where the Raman spectra were converted into fluorescent or photoluminescence light emission spectrum match to expose the electron beam KCl matrix corresponding to H ₂ (1/4) of the excitation emission spectra of H ₂ (1/4) rotation of the second order vibration spectrum, consisting of

;

gives and includes the matrix displacement at the peak of the rotational transition at 0.25 eV energy interval

to

spin transition.

H ₂ (1/4) of the infrared transition because it does not have the symmetry of electric dipole moments is disabled. However, the observed magnetic field is applied by a magnetic field in addition to the inherent coupling to H ₂ (1/4) of a magnetic dipole aligned molecules rotate to permit infrared excitation. Coupling with spin-orbit transitions also allows transitions.

By X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) comprising observed H ₂ (1/4) by the total energy of 496 eV corresponding to the sample of the H ₂ (1/4) of Compton (Compton) effects allowed Double ionization due to the reaction of H and HOH under incorporation in the crystalline inorganic and metallic lattices.

Further observed by gas chromatographic H ₂ (1/4), to show the migration rate from the low energy of the hydrogen gas generation reaction is faster than any of the known gas migration rate, taking into account the hydrogen and helium has the fastest previously The migration rate and corresponding minimum residence time are known. Molecular low-energy hydrogen acts as a refrigerant, a gaseous heat transfer agent, and a buoyant agent.

Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy records extreme ultraviolet continuum radiation with a 10.1 nm cutoff corresponding to the transition H to H (1/4) of the low energy hydrogen reaction catalyzed by the HOH catalyst.

MAS NMR of molecular low energy hydrogen trapped in a proton matrix represents a means to exploit the unique magnetic properties of molecular low energy hydrogen for identification via its interaction with the matrix. A unique consideration for NMR spectroscopy is the possible molecular low energy hydrogen quantum state. Magic angle spinning proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ⁽¹ H MAS NMR) recording substrate -4 ppm water peak to the high field region of -5 ppm, the hydrogen molecule is not a low energy of electron and resultant magnetic moment feature matching.

Molecular low-energy hydrogen can produce bulk magnetism, such as paramagnetism, superparamagnetism, and even ferromagnetism, when the magnetic moments of multiple low-energy hydrogen molecules cooperatively interact. Superparamagnetism was observed using a vibrating sample magnetometer to measure the magnetic susceptibility of compounds containing molecular low energy hydrogen.

及

之獨特觀測結果確認，其中n為整數，其藉由使K₂ CO₃ 及KOH曝露於分子低能量氫氣體源及執行飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ToF-SIMS)及電噴灑飛行時間次級離子質譜分析(ESI-ToF)，且氫含量藉由其他分析技術識別為H₂ (1/4)。除無機聚合物以外，諸如

，ToF-SIMS光譜展示強

峰值，歸因於低能量氫氫化物離子之穩定性。The complexation of H ₂ (1/4) gas with inorganic compounds containing oxygen anions, such as K ₂ CO ₃ and KOH, is via M+2 polymer units such as

and

The unique observations confirmed that, where n is an integer, so that by K ₂ CO ₃ and KOH exposure to low energy hydrogen molecular source and execution time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) and electron spray time-of- flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF), and the hydrogen content by other analytical techniques identified as H ₂ (1/4). In addition to inorganic polymers, such as

, ToF-SIMS spectra show strong

The peaks are attributed to the stability of low-energy hydrogen hydride ions.

HPLC shows that inorganic low energy hydrogen compounds behave similarly to organic molecules, as evidenced by chromatographic peaks on an organic molecular matrix column segmented into inorganic ions.

Wherein the reaction of the low-energy high hydrogen energetics and power of release demonstrated by the following: (i) comprising plasma and a catalyst or H HOH H atoms (such as argon -H _2, H ₂ and H ₂ O vapor plasma) was Anomalous Doppler line broadening of H Balmer lines over 100 eV; (ii) H excited state line reversal; (iii) Anomalous H plasma afterglow duration; (iv) shock wave propagation velocity and The corresponding pressure equivalent to about 10 times more moles of gunpowder at only about 1% power of the shock wave; (v) up to 20 MW of optical power; and (vi) low energy hydrogen solid fuel, low energy hydrogen electrochemical cells and SunCell ^® Calorimetry, the latter of which is validated at a power level of 340,000 W. The H-inversion, optical, and shock effects of low-energy hydrogen reactions have practical applications for atomic hydrogen lasers, high-power light sources in EUV, and other spectral regions, and novel higher-power and insensitive high-energy materials, respectively. The power balance is measured by the change in the thermal inventory of the water bath. In operation of the power by almost a melting point limits the duration SunCell ^® after assembly of the heat transfer SunCell ^® to the water bath, and water and by measuring the weight loss to the loss of water vapor by recording the bath temperature was increased And quantify the increase in the heat inventory of the water bath. The SunCell ^{® was} fitted to operate continuously with water bath cooling and demonstrated continuous excess power due to low energy hydrogen reactions at the 100,000 W level.

These analytical tests confirm the existence of low-energy hydrogen, ie, a smaller, more stable form of hydrogen formed by releasing power at power densities exceeding those of other known power sources. Bright Power is developing a proprietary SunCell ^® to take advantage of this green power source, initially for thermal applications and then for electrical applications. High-energy plasma formed by the reaction of low-energy hydrogen enables novel direct power conversion techniques in addition to the well-known Rankine, Brayton and Stirling cycles. A novel magnetohydrodynamic cycle has the potential to generate electrical power with over 90% efficiency at a power density of 23 MW/liter [R. Mills, MW Nansteel, "Oxygen and Silver Nanoparticle Aerosol Magnetohydrodynamic Power Cycle" Power Cycle)", Journal of Aerospace Engineering Technology, Vol. 8, No. 2, No. 216, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety].

Since various changes could be made in the above subject matter without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention, it is intended that all subject matter contained in the above description or defined in the scope of the appended claims should be construed as a description of the invention Sexual and Descriptive Themes. Many modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. Accordingly, this specification is intended to cover all such alternatives, modifications and variations that fall within the scope of the appended claims.

All documents cited or referenced herein and all documents cited or referenced in documents cited herein, together with any manufacturer's instructions, descriptions, product specifications, and references herein or incorporated by reference Product sheets of any product in any document incorporated herein are hereby incorporated by reference and may be employed in the practice of the present invention.

5c: Reservoir 5q: Nozzle 5qa: inlet riser 5qa1: Entry screen 5k2: Solenoid Pump Bus Bar 5k4: Magnet 5k6: EM pump tubing 5kk:EM pump 5kk1: Bottom plate 5b3: Unit chamber 5b4: PV window 5c1: base 5c2: Electrically insulating sheath 5c1a: drip edge 5k2a1: Ignition Reservoir Bus Bar 5k17: Reservoir Flange 5k18: Cooling circuit 5b31: Reaction unit chamber 5b31a: Pad 5k61: Molten Metal Injector 8: Opposite electrode 10: Bus bar 10a1: Ignition bus bar 26a: Photovoltaic (PV) converters 301: MHD Bus Bar Feed Through Flange 302: Cathode 303: Anode 304: MHD electrodes 305: Support 305a: Leads 306a: MHD Magnet Housing 307: MHD Nozzle / Aggregation - Bifurcated Nozzle or MHD Nozzle Section 308: Generator Channel/MHD Channel/MHD Expansion or Generation Section 309: MHD Condensing Section 310: MHD return pipe 311: Return to the accumulator 312: Return to EM pump 313: Return EM pump tubing 400:EM Pump 401: Primary Transformer Winding 401a: EM Pump Transformer Winding Circuit 402: EM Pump Transformer Yoke 403: AC Electromagnet 403a: AC Electromagnet 403b: AC Electromagnet 403c: EM Pump Solenoid Circuit or Assembly 404: EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404a: EM Pump Electromagnetic Yoke 404b: EM Pump Electromagnetic Yoke 405: EM Pump Tubing Section 406: EM pump current loop return section 409a: Reservoir Bottom Plate 409c: EM pump assembly slide 409d: Casing Reservoir 409e: Casing Reservoir Flange 409f: Plug-in Reservoir 409g: Plug-in Reservoir Flange 409h: Gas port 410: Induction ignition transformer assembly 411: Induction ignition transformer winding 412: Induction ignition transformer yoke 414: Reservoir 414a: Reservoir Jumper Cable 415: SunCell® Heater 416: EM pump reservoir line 417: EM pump injection line 418: Structural Supports 419: Control line 420: Heat shield 500: System 501: Trigger the spark gap switch 502: 12 V electrical switch 503: High Voltage DC Power Supply 504: Ground Connection 505: High Voltage Capacitor 506: Metal Wire 507: Chamber 710: Gas injection pipe 711: Reservoir Vacuum Tube 712: Thermocouple Port 801: Tube 801a: Catheter Liner 802: Manifold or cover 803: Heat Exchanger Inlet Line 803a: Heat Exchanger Inlet Manifold 803b: Heat Exchanger Inlet Line 803c: Welded inlet line 804: Heat Exchanger Outlet Line 804a: Heat Exchanger Outlet Manifold 804b: Heat Exchanger Outlet Line 804c: Welded outlet line 805: Dispenser 806: Shell 806a: Shell 807: External coolant inlet 808: External coolant outlet 809: Separator 810: Gallium Circulating EM Pump 811: External Coolant Blower 812: SunCell® 813: Heat Exchanger 900: Exemplary Discharged Battery 901: Stainless Steel Vessel or Glow Discharge Plasma Chamber 902: Conflat Flange 903: Paired top plate 904: High Voltage Feedthrough 905: Internal tungsten rod electrode 906: Gas inlet 907: Bottom Plate 909: Inlet water cooling line 910: Outlet water cooling line 911: Connector

且

。在純、協同及雙躍遷中亦觀測到了對應自旋軌道耦合及磁通軌跡耦合。 圖36A為使用Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS光譜儀與785 nm雷射在GaOOH:H₂ (1/4)上獲得之拉曼光譜(2200 cm^{- 1} 至11,000 cm^{- 1} )，其展示H₂ (1/4)旋轉躍遷與自旋軌道耦合及磁通鏈位移。圖36B為在爆震後使用Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS光譜儀與785 nm雷射在銀丸粒電極上獲得之拉曼光譜(2500 cm^{- 1} 至11,000 cm^{- 1} )，其展示H₂ (1/4)旋轉躍遷與自旋軌道耦合及磁通鏈位移。 圖37A至圖37C展示使用Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS光譜儀與785 nm雷射在GaOOH:HD(1/4)上獲得之拉曼光譜。A. 2500 cm^-1 至11,000 cm^-1 區。B. 6000 cm^-1 至11,000 cm^-1 區。C. 8000 cm^-1 至11,000 cm^-1 區。所有新穎線匹配以下各者中之彼等：(i)純HD(1/4)

至

旋轉躍遷，(ii)包含

至

旋轉躍遷與

至

自旋旋轉躍遷之協同躍遷，或(iii)雙躍遷，最終旋轉量子數

；

。在純及協同躍遷兩者中亦觀測到了對應自旋軌道耦合及磁通軌跡耦合。 圖38A為FTIR光譜(200-8200 cm^{- 1} )，其展示磁場之施加對GaOOH:H₂ (1/4)上記錄之FTIR光譜(200 cm^{- 1} 至8000 cm^{- 1} )的影響。磁場之施加在4164 cm^{- 1} 處產生FTIR峰值，其與協同旋轉及自旋軌道躍遷

至

，

精確匹配。觀測到1801 cm^{- 1} 處之峰值的強度增大，其匹配協同旋轉及自旋軌道躍遷

至

，

，

。 圖38B為GaOOH:H₂ (1/4)上記錄之FTIR光譜(4000-8500 cm^{- 1} )，其展示4899 cm^{- 1} 、5318 cm^{- 1} 及6690 cm^{- 1} 處具有匹配H₂ (1/4)旋轉及自旋軌道躍遷之極高能量的額外峰值。 圖39A展示使用Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS光譜儀與785 nm雷射在固體網狀纖維(Fe網狀物)上獲得之拉曼光譜(3420 cm^{- 1} 至4850 cm^{- 1} )，該等固體網狀纖維係藉由在保持有20托之水蒸汽的空氣中使超高純度Fe電線發生電線爆震而製備，該光譜展示

協同旋轉及自旋軌道躍遷

至

，

且

期間分配給磁通鏈的週期性系列峰值。 圖39B為使用Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS光譜儀與785 nm雷射獲得之拉曼光譜(3420 cm^{- 1} 至4850 cm^{- 1} )，其展示圖15之所有拉曼峰值藉由用HCl對Fe網狀物:H₂ (1/4)進行酸處理而消除。 圖40為用於量測本發明之電力系統之操作的水浴量熱系統之示意圖。The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter assembly (cathode, anode, insulator and busbar feedthrough flange) according to an embodiment of the present invention. 2-3 are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including dual EM pump ejectors as liquid electrodes showing tilted reservoirs and magnetohydrodynamics including a pair of MHD return EM pumps, according to embodiments of the present invention (MHD) converter. 4 is a schematic diagram of a single-stage induction jet EM pump according to an embodiment of the present invention. 5 is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator including dual EM pump ejectors as liquid electrodes showing a tilted reservoir, spherical reaction cell chamber, straight magnetic fluid, according to an embodiment of the present invention Power (MHD) passage, gas addition housing and single stage induction EM pump for injection and single stage induction or DC conduction MHD back to EM pump. 6 is a schematic diagram of a two-stage induction EM pump, with the first stage acting as an MHD return EM pump and the second acting as a jet EM pump, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 7 is a schematic diagram of a two-stage induction EM pump, wherein the first stage acts as an MHD return EM pump and the second stage acts as a jet EM pump, wherein the Lorentz pump pumping is more optimized. 8 is a schematic diagram of an inductive ignition system according to an embodiment of the present invention. 9-10 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator including dual EM pump ejectors as liquid electrodes showing a tilted reservoir, spherical reaction cell chamber, Straight magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channels, gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return (each with a forced air cooling system) and induction ignition system. 11 is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator including dual EM pump ejectors as liquid electrodes showing inclined reservoir, spherical reaction cell chamber, straight magnetic fluid, according to an embodiment of the present invention Power (MHD) passage, gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pump for both injection and MHD return (each with forced air cooling system), induction ignition system and in EM pump tubing, reservoir, reaction Inductively coupled heating antenna on unit chamber and MHD return line. 12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator including dual EM pump ejectors as liquid electrodes showing inclined reservoirs, spherical reaction cell chambers, Straight magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channels, gas addition housing, two stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return (each with an air cooling system) and induction ignition system. 20 is a schematic diagram showing an exemplary helical fired heater of SunCell® and a fired heater including a series of annular rings, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 21 is a schematic diagram showing an electrolyzer according to an embodiment of the present invention. 22 is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing a sloped reservoir and including a pair of MHD return EM pumps and a pair of MHD return air pumps or Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converters for compressors. 23 is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® thermal generator including an injector reservoir as a liquid electrode and a single EM pump injector in an inverted base, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 24-26 are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® heat generator including an injector reservoir as a liquid electrode and a single EM pump injector in a partially inverted base and to suppress Metallized wedge-shaped reaction cell chamber for PV windows. 27 is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® thermal generator including an injector reservoir as a liquid electrode, a single EM pump injector in a partially inverted base, an induction ignition system, and a PV window, according to an embodiment of the present invention . Figure 28 is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® heat generator comprising a lined cube-shaped reaction cell chamber, and an injector reservoir as a liquid electrode and a single EM in an inverted base, according to an embodiment of the present invention Pump injector. 29A is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® heat generator including an hourglass shaped reaction cell chamber liner, and a sparger reservoir as a liquid electrode and a single EM pump sparge in an inverted base, according to an embodiment of the present invention device. 29B is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® thermal generator including an injector reservoir as an electrode and a single EM pump injector in an inverted base, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 29C is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® heat generator including an injector reservoir as an electrode and a single EM pump injector in an inverted base, wherein the EM pump tube comprises a paragallium alloy, according to an embodiment of the present invention An assembly of parts that are resistant to at least one of formation and oxidation. 29D-29H are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® pumped molten metal-air heat exchanger in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 30A-30B are schematic diagrams of a ceramic SunCell® generator including dual reservoirs and a DC EM pump injector as liquid electrodes with joints to form reaction cell chambers, according to embodiments of the present invention. reservoir. Figures 31A-31C are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® low energy hydrogen generator comprising at least one electromagnetic pump injector and electrode in the injector reservoir electrode, at least one vertically aligned opposing electrode, and connected to a top protrusion edge to form a HOH catalyst and a glow discharge cell of atomic H. A. External view of one electrode pair embodiment. B. Cross-sectional view of one electrode pair embodiment. C. Cross-sectional view of two electrode pair embodiments. 32 is a schematic diagram of a low energy hydrogen reaction cell chamber including means for detonating wires to serve as at least one of the reactant sources, and for propagating the low energy hydrogen reaction to form a relatively low energy hydrogen reaction, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Low energy hydrogen species, such as building blocks of molecular low energy hydrogen. Figure 33 shows the system operating power from GaOOH collected: H ₂ (1/4) the EPR spectra measured. EPR spectra have been replicated by Bruker using two tools for two samples. (A) EMXnano profile. (B) EMXplus information. (C) Expansion of EMXplus data in 3503 G-3508 G area. Figure 34 shows the EPR spectrum of the GaOOH:HD(1/4) (3464.65 G - 3564.65 G) region. Figures 35A-35C show Raman spectra obtained using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser on a Ni foil by immersion in SunCell's reaction kept in a low energy hydrogen plasma for 10 minutes Prepared by melting gallium. (A) 2500 cm ^-1 to 11,000 cm ^-1 zone. (B) 8500 cm ^-1 to 11,000 cm ^-1 zone. (C) 6000 cm ^-1 to 11,000 cm ^-1 zone. All the novel line matching of their respective who: (i) pure H ₂ (1/4) J = 0 to J '= 2,3 rotational transition, (ii) contains J = 0 to J' = 1,2 Co-transitions of spin transitions and J = 0 to J = 1 spin spin transitions, or (iii) double transitions, the final spin quantum number

and

. Corresponding spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling are also observed in pure, cooperative and double transitions. Figure 36A is a Raman spectrum (2200 cm ^{- 1} to 11,000 cm ^{- 1} _{) obtained on GaOOH:H 2} (1/4) using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser showing H ₂ (1/ 4) Rotation transition and spin-orbit coupling and magnetic flux chain displacement. FIG. 36B using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with 785 nm laser after knocking on the obtained silver electrode pellet Raman spectroscopy (2500 cm ^{- 1} to 11,000 cm ^{- 1),} which shows H ₂ (1/4 ) spin transition and spin-orbit coupling and flux linkage displacement. 37A-37C show Raman spectra obtained on GaOOH:HD (1/4) using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser. A. 2500 cm ^-1 to 11,000 cm ^-1 zone. B. 6000 cm ^-1 to 11,000 cm ^-1 zone. C. 8000 cm ^-1 to 11,000 cm ^-1 zone. All novel lines match one of the following: (i) Pure HD (1/4)

to

rotational transition, (ii) contains

to

rotational transition and

to

Co-transition of spin-spin transition, or (iii) double transition, final spin quantum number

;

. Corresponding spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling are also observed in both pure and cooperative transitions. FIG 38A is a FTIR spectrum (200-8200 cm ^{- 1),} showing the application of a magnetic field to GaOOH: H ₂ (1/4) of the recording on an FTIR spectrum (200 cm ^{- 1 - 1} to 8000 cm) effects. The application of a magnetic field ^{produces an FTIR peak at 4164 cm- 1} , which is associated with co-rotation and spin-orbit transitions

to

,

Exact match. An increase in the intensity of the peak at 1801 cm ^{- 1} is observed, which matches the co-rotation and spin-orbit transitions

to

,

,

. FIG 38B is _{GaOOH: H 2 (1/4) FTIR} (4000-8500 cm - 1) recording the spectra, showing ^{4899 cm - 1, 5318 cm -} 1 and 6690 cm ^{- 1} has the matched H ₂ (1 / 4) Extra peaks at very high energies for spin and spin-orbit transitions. ^{Figure 39A shows Raman spectra (3420 cm- 1} to 4850 cm ^{- 1} ) obtained on solid mesh fibers (Fe mesh) using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser, the solid mesh fibers It is prepared by wire detonation of ultra-high purity Fe wire in air maintained with 20 Torr of water vapor, the spectrum shows

Co-rotation and spin-orbit transitions

to

,

and

Periodic series of peaks assigned to the flux linkage during the period. ^{Figure 39B is a Raman spectrum (3420 cm- 1} to 4850 cm ^{- 1} ) obtained using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser, which shows all the Raman peaks of Figure 15 by using HCl on the Fe network : H ₂ (1/4) was eliminated by acid treatment. Figure 40 is a schematic diagram of a water bath calorimetry system used to measure the operation of the power system of the present invention.

803c: Welded inlet line

804c: Welded outlet line

806a: Shell

807: External coolant inlet

808: External coolant outlet

810: Gallium Circulating EM Pump

813: Heat Exchanger

Claims (78)

A power generation system comprising: a.) at least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, the at least one vessel containing the reaction chamber; b) two electrodes structured to allow molten metal to flow therebetween to complete the circuit; c) a power supply connected to the two electrodes to apply current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; d) a plasma generating unit (eg, glow discharge unit) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein the effluent of the plasma generating unit is directed to the electrical circuit (eg, the molten metal, anode, cathode , electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir); wherein upon application of current across the circuit, the effluent of the plasma generating unit undergoes a reaction to generate a second plasma and a reaction product; and e) A power adapter structured to convert and/or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal and/or electrical energy. The power generation system of claim 1, wherein the gas in the plasma generating unit comprises a mixture of hydrogen (H ₂ ) and oxygen (O ₂ ). The power generation system of claim 2, wherein the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is 0.01% to 50% (eg, 0.1% to 20%, 0.1% to 15%, etc.). The power generation system of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the molten metal is gallium. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the reaction products have at least one spectral signature as described herein (eg, those described in Example 10). 5. The power generation system of any one of claims 1 to 5, wherein the second plasma is formed in a reaction unit, and a wall of the reaction unit includes a lining having increased resistance to alloying with the molten metal, and The liner and the walls of the reaction unit are highly permeable to the reaction products (eg, stainless steel, such as 347 SS, such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Niobium and Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%)). The power generation system of claim 6, wherein the lining is made of a crystalline material (eg, SiC, BN, quartz) and/or a refractory metal such as at least one of Nb, Ta, Mo, or W. The power generation system of any one of claims 1 to 7, wherein the second plasma is formed in a reaction unit, wherein the walls of the reaction unit chamber comprise a first section and a second section, The first section is made of stainless steel, such as 347 SS, such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium and Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%) composition; the second section comprises a different refractory metal than the metal in the first section; Wherein the joints between dissimilar metals are formed by laminated materials (eg, ceramics such as BN). A power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, comprising: at least one container capable of maintaining sub-atmospheric pressure; reactants capable of undergoing reactions that generate sufficient energy to form a plasma in the vessel, the reactants comprising: a) A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, and/or water vapor, and/or A mixture of hydrogen and water vapor; b) molten metal; a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant into the vessel; a vacuum pump for maintaining the pressure in the vessel below atmospheric pressure as one or more reactants flow into the vessel; A molten metal injector system comprising at least one reservoir containing some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system structured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir and provide a flow of molten metal through an injector tube (eg, one or more electromagnetic pumps), and at least one non-ejector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply electrical power to at least one molten metal stream to ignite the reaction when the hydrogen and/or oxygen and/or water vapor flows into the vessel; A reactant supply system for replenishing the reactants consumed in the reaction; A power converter or output system for converting a portion of the energy generated by the reaction (eg, light, plasma jet and/or heat output from the plasma) into electrical and/or thermal power. The power system of claim 9, further comprising a gas mixer for mixing the hydrogen with the oxygen and/or water molecules, and a hydrogen-oxygen recombiner and/or a hydrogen dissociator. The power system of claim 10, wherein the oxyhydrogen recombiner comprises a plasma cell. The power system of claim 11, wherein the plasma cell includes a central positive electrode and a grounded tube opposite electrode, wherein a voltage (eg, a voltage in the range of 50 V to 1000 V) is applied across the electrodes to induce self- The hydrogen (H ₂ ) and oxygen (O ₂ ) gas mixture forms a plasma. The power system of claim 10, wherein the oxyhydrogen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material. The power system of any one of claims 1 or 11 to 13, wherein the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generating unit to generate the first plasma comprises a non-stoichiometric H ₂ /O ₂ mixture (eg, in the mixtures mole percentage, having less than 1/3 O ₂ mole% or from 0.01 to 30% or from 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% of H ₂ O is ₂ /O ₂ mixture), which flows through the plasma cell (eg, glow discharge cell) to produce a reaction mixture capable of proceeding the reaction with sufficient exotherm to produce the second plasma. The power system of claim 14, wherein the non-stoichiometric H ₂ /O ₂ mixture is glow-discharged to produce an _{effluent of atomic hydrogen and nascent H 2} O (eg, water at a concentration and with an amount sufficient to prevent hydrogen bond formation) a mixture of energy); a glow discharge effluent is directed into a reaction chamber, where an ignition current is supplied between two electrodes (eg, with molten metal passing therethrough), and where the effluent is connected to a biased molten metal (eg, , gallium) interacts, the reaction between the nascent water and the atomic hydrogen is induced, for example, when an arc current is formed. The power system of claim 15, wherein at least one of the reaction chamber and the reservoir includes at least one refractory lining resistant to alloying with the molten metal. The power system of claim 16, wherein the inner wall of the reaction chamber comprises a ceramic coating, a carbon lining lined with W, Nb or Mo lining, a W plate lined. The power system of 16 or 17, wherein the reservoir comprises a carbon lining and carbon is covered by the molten metal contained therein. The power system of any one of claims 15 to 18, wherein the reaction chamber walls comprise a material that is highly permeable to reaction product gases. The power system of claim 16, wherein the reaction chamber wall comprises at least one of stainless steel (eg, Mo-Cr stainless steel), niobium, molybdenum, or tungsten. A power system that includes a.) a vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, the vessel comprising the reaction chamber; b) a plurality of electrode pairs, each pair comprising electrodes structured to allow molten metal to flow therebetween to complete an electrical circuit; c) a power supply connected to the two electrodes to apply current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; d) a plasma generating unit (eg, glow discharge unit) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein the effluent of the plasma generating unit is directed to the electrical circuit (eg, the molten metal, anode, cathode , electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir); wherein upon application of current across the circuit, the effluent of the plasma generating unit undergoes a reaction to generate a second plasma and a reaction product; and e) a power adapter structured to convert and/or transfer the energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal and/or electrical energy; wherein at least one of the reaction products (eg, intermediates, final products) has at least one spectral feature as described herein (eg, as shown in Example 10). The power system of any one of claims 1 to 21, wherein an inert gas (eg, argon) is injected into the vessel. The power system of any one of claims 9 to 22, further comprising a micro-sprinkler structured to spray water into the vessel (eg, to generate water vapor comprising water that may be, for example, hydrogen-bonded) or plasma with non-nascent water vapor). The power system of any one of claims 9 to 23, wherein the molten metal injection system further comprises electrodes in the molten metal reservoir and the non-injected molten metal reservoir; and the ignition system comprises a means for injecting the injector and non-injector reservoir electrodes supply a source of electrical power or ignition current of relative voltage; wherein the electrical power source supplies current and power flow through the molten metal stream to cause the reaction of the reactants to form a plasma inside the vessel . The power system of any one of claims 9 to 24, wherein the molten metal pump system comprises or is one or more electromagnetic pumps, and each electromagnetic pump comprises one of the following types: a) DC or AC conductivity type comprising a source of DC or AC current supplied to the molten metal via electrodes and a source of constant or in-phase alternating vector crossed magnetic fields, or b) Inductive type, which comprises a source of alternating magnetic field through a short circuit of molten metal, which induces an alternating current in the metal; and a source of in-phase alternating vector crossed magnetic field. The power system of claim 25, wherein the constant or in-phase alternating vector cross magnetic field source is at least one permanent or electromagnet. The power system of any one of claims 9 to 26, wherein the molten metal pump system (or the electromagnetic pump of the molten metal pump system) comprises a pump tube comprising or lined with a material resistant to gallium alloy formation. The power system of claim 27, wherein the material or lining comprises W, Mo, Ta, BN, carbon, quartz, SiC, or another ceramic. The power system of claim 1 wherein the injector reservoir includes electrodes in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector reservoir includes electrodes in contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system. The power system of any one of claims 9 to 29, wherein the non-injector reservoir is aligned above the injector (eg, vertically aligned with the injector), and the injector is structured to produce orienting the molten metal stream toward the non-injector reservoir such that molten metal from the molten metal stream can collect in the reservoir and the molten metal stream is in electrical contact with the non-injector reservoir electrode; and wherein the molten metal Metal collects on the non-injector reservoir electrode. The power system of any one of claims 9 to 30, wherein the molten metal reacts with water to form atomic hydrogen (eg, during operation). The power system of any one of claims 1 to 31, wherein the molten metal is gallium, and the power system further comprises a gallium regeneration system for regenerating gallium from gallium oxide (eg, gallium oxide produced in the reaction). The power system of any one of claims 1 to 32, wherein the reaction chamber pressure is maintained below 25 Torr by the vacuum pump. The power system of any one of claims 1 to 33, further comprising a condenser to condense and return molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor to the reaction unit chamber. The power system of claim 34, further comprising a vacuum line, wherein the condenser includes a section of the vacuum line from the reaction unit chamber to the vacuum pump vertical relative to the reaction unit chamber, and includes a high inertness surface area filler material that condenses and returns the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapors to the reaction unit chamber while allowing the vacuum pump to maintain vacuum pressure in the reaction unit chamber. The power system of any one of claims 1 to 36, wherein the container includes a light-transmitting photovoltaic (PV) window that transmits light from the interior of the container to a photovoltaic converter, and the container geometry and includes a spin At least one of at least one stopper of the window. The power system of claim 36, wherein a positive firing electrode (eg, a top firing electrode, an electrode displaced above another electrode) is closer to the window (eg, than a negative firing electrode), and the positive electrode passes through the The photovoltaics emit black body radiation towards the photovoltaic converter. The power system of any one of claims 1 to 37, wherein the power converter or output system is a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the magnetohydrodynamic converter comprising a nozzle connected to the container, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, an electrode, Magnets, metal collection system, metal recirculation system, heat exchanger and optional gas recirculation system. The power system of any one of claims 9 to 38, wherein the molten metal pump system includes a first-stage electromagnetic pump and a second-stage electromagnetic pump, wherein the first stage includes a pump for a metal recirculation system, and the The second stage contains the pump of the metal injector system. The power system of any one of claims 1 to 39, further comprising a heat exchanger comprising (i) a plate type, (ii) a block-in-shell type, (iii) a SiC annular groove type, (iv) ) SiC combination type and (v) one of shell and tube heat exchangers. The power system of claim 40, further wherein the shell and tube heat exchanger comprises conduits, manifolds, distributors, heat exchanger inlet lines, heat exchanger outlet lines, enclosures, external coolant inlets, external coolant outlets, baffles, at least one pump to recirculate hot molten metal from the reservoir through the heat exchanger and return cold molten metal to the reservoir, and one or more water pumps and water coolant or a or more air blowers and air coolant for flowing cold coolant through the external coolant inlet and the housing, wherein the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exits the external cooling agent export. The power system of claim 41, wherein the shell and tube heat exchanger comprises conduits, manifolds, distributors, heat exchanger inlet lines, and heat exchanger outlet lines, the outlet lines comprising lined carbon and independent of the conduits, Manifold, distributor, heat exchanger inlet line, heat exchanger outlet line, housing, external coolant inlet, external coolant outlet, and baffle extensions comprising stainless steel. The power system of claim 41 or 42, wherein the external coolant of the heat exchanger comprises air, and air from a micro-turbo compressor or micro-turbo regenerator forces cool air through the external coolant inlet and housing, wherein the The coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exits the external coolant outlet, and the hot coolant output from the external coolant outlet flows into a microturbine to convert thermal power into electricity. The power system of any one of claims 1 to 43, wherein the reaction produces a hydrogen product characterized by one or more of: a) a molecular hydrogen product H ₂ (eg, H ₂ (1/p) (p is greater than 1 and less than or equal to the integer 137), comprising unpaired electrons), that generates electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy signal; b) having a molecular EPR spectrum of the hydrogen product H ₂ (e.g., H ₂ (1/4)), the EPR spectrum contains a main peak with a g-factor of 2.0046386, which is optionally split into a series of paired peaks, the members of which are separated by spin-orbit coupling energies, which spin-orbit coupling energies corresponding function of the number of electron quantum spin-orbit coupling, wherein (i) an unpaired electron magnetic moment based on H ₂ (1/4) of the unpaired electron in the diamagnetic susceptibility of H ₂ (1/4) of molecular orbital induce trans the magnetic moments; (ii) the corresponding magnetic moments of the intrinsic paired-unpaired current interactions and the magnetic moments due to relative rotational motion around the internuclear axis to generate these spin-orbit coupling energies; (iii) split each spin-orbit The peaks are further subdivided into a series of equally spaced peaks matching one of the integer flux track energies as a function of the electron flux track quantum number corresponding to the number of angular momentum components involved in the transition, and (iv ) Additionally, since the magnetic energy increases with the flux linkage accumulated by the molecular orbital, the spin-orbit splitting increases with the spin-orbit coupling quantum number on the low-field side of the series of paired peaks; c) For a period of 9.820295 GHz EPR frequency, (i) low-field peak position due to combined displacement caused _{by the magnetic energy and the spin-orbit coupling energy of H 2 (1/4)}

for

; (ii) has a quantized spin-orbit splitting energy

and electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers

high field peak position

for

, and (iii) for the electron flux trajectory quantum number

, the interval of an integer series of peaks at each spin-orbit peak position

for

and

d) The hydride ion H ⁻ (eg, H ⁻ (1/p)), which contains paired and unpaired electrons in a common atomic orbital, which are analyzed by high-resolution visible light spectroscopy in the range of 400 to 410 nm. The quantified units of h/2e observed at H ⁻ (1/2) exhibit the flux linkage; e) the flux linkage at _{the rotational energy level at H 2} (1/4) by lightning during Raman spectroscopy analysis when the incident radiation and by high energy electron beams from electron collisions with H ₂ (1/4) of the excited observed quantization unit h / 2e of the units; F) a low energy hydrogen molecules (e.g., H ₂ ( 1/p)), which has a Raman spectral transition due to the spin-orbit coupling between the spin magnetic moment of the unpaired electron and the orbital magnetic moment due to molecular rotation, where (i) the energy of the spin transition is determined by such The spin-orbit coupling energy is shifted as a function of the corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers; (ii) the molecular rotation peaks shifted by the spin-orbit energy are further shifted by the flux linkage energy, where each energy corresponds to its The quantum number of electron flux trajectories, depending on the number of angular momentum components involved in the rotational transition, and (iii) the observed sub-splitting or displacement of the Raman spectral peak due to spin magnetic moment and molecular rotation the magnetic flux quantum h during the spin-orbit coupling between the magnetic moment / 2e is the unit of magnetic flux, while the rotary transition occurs; G) having a transition of the Raman spectrum H ₂ (1/4), which comprises (i) Pure with spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling

to

Rotational transition:

, (ii) contains

to

rotational transition and

to

Synergistic transition of spin spin transition:

, or (iii) double transition, the final spin quantum number

and

:

, where the corresponding spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling are also observed in these pure, cooperative, and double transitions; h)H ₂ (1/4) UV Raman peaks (eg, as in the composite GaOOH:H ₂ ( 1/4): _{Recorded on H 2} O and Ni foils exposed to the reactive plasma observed in the 12,250 to 15,000 cm ^{− 1} region with line matching in concert with pure rotational transitions

and

Spin transition and spin-orbit coupling and flux chain splitting:

; Rotational energy (1/4) of the Raman spectra I) HD with respect to H ₂ (1/4) of the rotational displacement energy ¾ times; J) such that the HD (1/4) of the rotational energy of the Raman spectrum to match the following Those: (i) Pure HD(1/4) with spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling

to

Rotational transition:

, (ii) including such

to

rotational transitions and such

to

These co-transitions of spin-spin transitions:

, or (iii) the double transition, which ultimately rotates the quantum number

;

:

, where spin-orbit coupling and flux-track coupling are also observed in both the pure and cooperative transitions; k) H ₂ (1/4)-noble gas mixture irradiated with high-energy electrons of an electron beam in the ultraviolet ( 150 to 180 nm) in the region of 0.25 eV spectral line display interval equal emission having a cutoff value of 8.25 eV at the cutoff value matches H ₂ (1/4)

to

Vibrational transition, wherein the transition corresponding to the rotation range of H ₂ (1/4) P branch, wherein (i) spectral fitting well matched

;

; where 0.515 eV and 0.01509 eV are the vibrational and rotational energies of ordinary molecular hydrogen, respectively; (ii) a small satellite line was observed matching the rotational spin-orbit splitting energy also observed by Raman spectroscopy, and (iii) the rotational Spin-orbit splitting energy spacing matching

, of which 1.5 involves

and

_{split; l) The H 2} (1/4) P branch rotational transition was observed by electron beam excitation _{of H 2} (1/4) trapped in the KCl crystalline matrix with

to

The vibration spectral emission transition, wherein (i) those consisting of a rotor rotating Peak matching of the peak; (ii) because the effective mass of the vibration of the vibration can be increased H ₂ (1/4) of the interaction matrix of the KCl by and shift; (iii) the spectral fit matches well

;

Which contains 0.25 eV peak interval, and (iv) H ₂ (1/4) of the vibrational energy shift relative magnitude of the normal trap matching KCl H ₂ in the relative effect of vibration caused by rotation of the spectrum; m) The Raman spectrum with a HeCd energy laser exhibits a series of 1000 cm ^{- 1 (0.1234 eV) isoenergies in the 8000 cm- 1} to 18,000 cm ^{- 1} region, where the Raman spectrum is converted to fluorescence or light the photoluminescence spectrum matched as disclosed KCl matrix corresponding to H ₂ (1/4) of an electron beam excitation emission spectrum of H ₂ (1/4) rotation of the second order vibration spectrum, consisting of

;

gives and includes the matrix displacement at the peak of the rotational transition at 0.25 eV energy interval

to

Rotational transitions; n) _{Infrared rotational transitions of H 2} (1/4) are observed in the energy range ^{above 4400 cm − 1} , where in addition to the intrinsic magnetic field, the intensity increases with applied magnetic field, and rotational transitions are also observed _{Coupling with spin-orbit transitions; o) allowed double ionization of H 2} (1/4) by Compton effect corresponding to a total energy of 496 eV observed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS); p) observed by gas chromatography to H ₂ (1/4), taking into hydrogen gas and helium gas having the fastest rate of migration of previously known and the corresponding minimum residence time, showing the migration rate faster than any known gases q) Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopic analysis recorded an EUV continuum with a 10.1 nm cutoff (eg, as corresponding to the transition from H to H(1/4) in a low-energy hydrogen reaction catalyzed by a nascent HOH catalyst) Radiation; r) Proton Magic Angle Spin Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy ( ¹ H MAS NMR) recording high-field matrix water peaks in the -4 ppm to -5 ppm region; s) When the magnetic moments of the plurality of hydrogen product molecules cooperate cooperatively On interactions, bulk magnetism such as paramagnetism, superparamagnetism, and even ferromagnetism, where superparamagnetism (eg, as observed using a vibrating sample magnetometer to measure the magnetic susceptibility of a compound containing a reaction product); t) record K to exposure to such molecules derived from the reaction product gas source ₂ CO ₃ and of the time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) on the time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry KOH analysis (ESI-ToF) and Electrospray which By unique observations of M+2 multimeric units (eg,

and

, where n is an integer) and the density due to the stability of hydride ions

The reaction product shows a peak (e.g., H ₂ (1/4) gas) to a composite comprising an inorganic oxygen compound anions, and u) the reaction product of hydrogen molecules behave as a core composition of organic molecules, such as by segmented into inorganic As evidenced by the chromatographic peaks on the ionic organic molecular matrix column. The power system of any one of claims 1 to 44, wherein the reaction produces an energetic signature characterized by one or more of: (i) in a plasma comprising H atoms and nascent HOH or H-based catalysts , such as _{anomalous Doppler line broadening with H Barmer a-lines over 100 eV in argon-H 2} , H ₂ and H ₂ O vapor plasmas, (ii) H excited state line reversal, (iii) Anomalous H plasma afterglow duration, (iv) shock wave propagation velocity and corresponding pressure equivalent to about 10 times more molar powder, of which only about 1% of the power is coupled to the shock wave, (v) from 10 μl hydration Optical power of silver pellets up to 20 MW, and (vi) Calorimetry of a power system as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 44, wherein the latter is verified at a power level of 340,000 W. An electrode system comprising: a) The first electrode and the second electrode; b) a stream of molten metal (eg, molten silver, molten gallium) in electrical contact with the first electrode and the second electrode; c) a circulation system comprising a pump to draw the molten metal from a reservoir and deliver it through a conduit (eg, pipe) to generate the flow of the molten metal exiting the conduit; d) a power source structured to provide a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode; wherein the molten metal stream is in contact with the first electrode and the second electrode simultaneously to generate an electrical current between the electrodes. A circuit comprising: a) heating means for producing molten metal; b) pumping means for transporting the molten metal from a reservoir through a conduit to generate the flow of the molten metal exiting the conduit; c) a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with a power supply for generating a potential difference across the first electrode and the second electrode; Wherein the molten metal stream contacts both the first electrode and the second electrode to create an electrical circuit between the first electrode and the second electrode. In a circuit including a first electrode and a second electrode, the modification includes flowing molten metal through the electrodes to allow current to flow therebetween. A system for generating plasma comprising: a) a molten metal injector system constructed to produce a stream of molten metal from a metal reservoir; b) an electrode system for inducing a current to flow through the molten metal stream; c) At least one of the following: (i) a water spray system structured to contact a metered volume of water with molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form a portion of the metal oxides and hydrogen, (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen and oxygen, and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen and water vapor, and d) a power supply which is constructed to supply the current; wherein the plasma is generated when current is supplied via the metal flow. The system of claim 21, further comprising: a) a pumping system structured to deliver metal collected after the generation of the plasma to the metal reservoir; and b) a metal regeneration system structured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide to the metal; wherein the metal regeneration system comprises an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte; wherein an electrical bias is supplied to the anode and cathode to convert the metal oxide into the metal; Wherein the metal regenerated in the metal regeneration system is passed to the pumping system. A system for generating plasma comprising: a) two electrodes structured to allow molten metal to flow therebetween to complete the circuit; b) a power supply connected to the two electrodes to apply current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; c) a recombiner unit (eg, glow discharge unit) for inducing formation of nascent water and atomic hydrogen from gases; wherein the effluent of the recombiner is directed to the electrical circuit (eg, the molten metal, anode, cathode , electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir); Wherein when a current is applied across the circuit, the effluent of the recombiner unit undergoes a reaction to generate plasma. The system of claim 51, wherein the system is used to generate heat from the plasma. The system of claim 51, wherein the system is used to generate light from the plasma. The system of any one of claims 1 to 50, comprising a mesh network comprising a plurality of power system transmitter-receiver nodes transmitting and receiving electromagnetic signals in at least one frequency band, the frequency band The frequency can be high frequency due to the ability to locate nodes locally with short separation distances, where the frequency can be in the range of about 0.1 GHz to 500 GHz, 1 GHz to 250 GHz, 1 GHz to 100 GHz, 1 GHz to 50 GHz and In at least one range from 1 GHz to 25 GHz. A superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) or SQUID-type electronic component comprising at least one low-energy hydrogen species

and

(or species having spectral signatures matching those species), and at least one of an input current and input voltage circuit and an output current and output voltage circuit for at least one of: sensing and changing The magnetic linkage state of at least one of low energy hydride ions and molecular low energy hydrogen. The electronic component of claim 55, wherein the circuits comprise AC resonant circuits, and the AC resonant circuits comprise radio frequency RLC circuits. The electronic components of claim 55, wherein the SQUID or SQUID-type electronic components further comprise at least one source of electromagnetic radiation (eg, a source of at least one of microwave, infrared, visible or ultraviolet radiation) to induce, eg, in a sample magnetic field. A SQUID or SQUID-type electronic component as claimed in claim 57, wherein the radiation source comprises a laser or microwave generator. A SQUID or SQUID-type electronic component as claimed in claim 58, wherein the laser radiation is applied in a focused manner by means of lenses or optical fibers. The SQUID or SQUID-type electronic component of any one of claims 55 to 59, wherein the SQUID and SQUID-type electronic component further comprises a magnetic field source applied to at least one of the low-energy hydride ion and the molecular low-energy hydrogen. The SQUID or SQUID-type electronic component of claim 60, wherein the magnetic field may be tunable. The SQUID or SQUID-type electronic component of claim 61, wherein the tunability of at least one of the radiation source and the magnetic field enables selective and controlled resonance between the electromagnetic radiation source and the magnetic field. A SQUID or SQUID-type electronic component as claimed in any one of claims 55 to 62, comprising computer logic gates, memory elements and other electronic measurement or actuator devices, such as magnetometers, sensors, operating at high temperatures and switch. A superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID-), comprising: electrically connected to the superconducting loop of the at least two Josephson junctions, wherein the Josephson junction comprising a hydrogen active species H EPR of _2. The requested item of SQUID 64, wherein the hydrogen species is MOOH: H _2, where M is a metal (e.g., Ag, Ga). A method that includes: a) electrically biasing the molten metal; b) Directing the effluent of a plasma generating cell (eg, a glow discharge cell) to interact with the biased molten metal and induce the formation of a plasma. The method according to item 66 of the request, wherein the plasma generating unit of the effluent of the hydrogen produced by the cell through the plasma during operation (H ₂₎ and oxygen (O ₂₎ gas mixture generator. Gaseous heat transfer and buoyancy agents comprising molecular low energy hydrogen (eg, species with spectral characteristics matching molecular low energy hydrogen). An MRI gas contrast agent comprising molecular low energy hydrogen (eg, a species with spectral signatures matching the molecular low energy hydrogen). A low-energy hydrogen molecular gas laser comprising molecular low-energy hydrogen gas (H ₂ (1/p) p =2,3,4,5,...,137) (eg, having spectral characteristics matching molecular low-energy hydrogen species), a laser cavity containing the molecular low-energy hydrogen gas, an excitation source for the rotational energy level of the molecular low-energy hydrogen gas, and laser optics. The laser of claim 70, wherein the laser optics comprise mirrors at the ends of the cavity comprising molecular low energy hydrogen gas in an excited rotational state, and one of the mirrors One is translucent to allow laser light to be emitted from the cavity. The laser of claim 70 or 71, wherein the excitation source comprises at least one of: laser, flash lamp, gas discharge system (eg, glow, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively coupled RF, capacitively coupled RF or other plasma discharge systems). The laser of any one of claims 70 to 72, further comprising an external or internal field source (eg, an electric or magnetic field source) such that at least one desired molecular low energy hydrogen rotational energy level is filled, wherein the energy level comprises At least one of the desired spin-orbit and flux linkage energy shift. The laser of any one of claims 70 to 73, wherein the laser transition occurs between an inversion population of the selected rotational state and a less filled lower energy inversion population. The laser of any one of claims 70 to 73, wherein the laser cavity, optics, excitation source, and external field source are selected to achieve a desired inversion population and a lower energy state for a desired less filling stimulated emission. The laser of claim 75, comprising a solid-state laser medium. The laser of claim 76, wherein the solid laser medium comprises molecular low energy hydrogen trapped in a solid matrix, wherein the low energy hydrogen molecules can be free rotors and the solid medium replaces the gas of the molecular low energy hydrogen gas laser cavity. The laser of claim 77, wherein the solid laser medium comprises at least one of the following: GaOOH:H ₂ (1/4), KCl:H ₂ (1/4) and a low molecular weight hydrogen energy of silicon (e.g., Si _{(crystalline): H 2 (1/4))} ( or with a spectral characteristic of the species).

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