JP6817014B2 - Antioxidants, fat and oil compositions containing antioxidants and oily foods containing them - Google Patents

Description

The present invention relates to an antioxidant, an oil / fat composition containing an antioxidant, and an oily food containing the same.

Fats and oils such as butter and margarine, cakes containing fats and oils, baked confectioneries such as biscuits, cookies and crackers, and fried foods such as potato chips and fried noodles have good taste due to the inclusion of fats and oils. On the other hand, deterioration of flavor over time has become a major problem. As the oxidation of fats and oils progresses, the taste, smell, texture, etc. of these oily foods also deteriorate.

From this point of view, many antioxidant treatments are applied to the fat and oil composition and the oily food containing the oil and fat composition. For example, a method of encapsulating an antioxidant in a container or packaging, a method of adding various antioxidants such as tocopherol, ascorbic acid, and a polyphenol compound to fats and oils are widely adopted (Non-Patent Document 1). Further, a method of adding an alkaline substance such as calcium carbonate or potassium carbonate to fats and oils is also adopted (Patent Documents 1 and 2).

However, the method described in Patent Document 1 is a method in which a carbonate of an alkaline earth metal such as calcium carbonate is added alone to fats and oils, and a satisfactory antioxidant capacity has not always been obtained. Similar to Patent Document 1, the method described in Patent Document 2 is also a method in which a carbonate of an alkali metal such as potassium carbonate is added alone to fats and oils, and a satisfactory antioxidant capacity has not always been obtained. ..

Therefore, an antioxidant containing a polyphenol compound typified by catechin contained in a tea extract and an alkaline substance in combination, or a two-part antioxidant containing a mixture A containing a polyphenol compound and a mixture B containing an alkaline agent. Etc. have been proposed (Patent Documents 3 and 4). In the antioxidant described in Patent Document 3, it has been proposed that a specific polyphenol compound such as tea extract and its components, tea catechin, epigallocatechin gallate, etc., and an emulsifier for food are used in combination as the polyphenol compound. ing. In the antioxidant product described in Patent Document 4, it has been proposed to use a coffee bean extract containing chlorogenic acid in addition to the tea extract as the mixture A containing the polyphenol compound.

JP-A-59-152998 JP 2015-57979 Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2000-21980 Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2008-156278 Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 6-65074 Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 6-248267 Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2008-92869

Introduction to edible oils and fats <Revised 2nd edition> Nihon Shokuhin Shimbun pp.201

However, in the antioxidants described in Patent Documents 3 and 4, the antioxidant ability of a tea extract and specific polyphenols as polyphenols, or a mixture of a coffee bean extract and an alkaline substance is examined. I was just doing it. Moreover, in any of Patent Documents 3 and 4, the use of the obtained antioxidant in edible fats and oils, fat and oil compositions, and oily foods using the same has not been studied at all. For this reason, conventional edible antioxidants have a problem that the effect of suppressing the oxidation of fats and oils is not always sufficient, and it has been desired to further improve the oxidative stability of fats and oils and foods using the same.

The present invention has been made in view of the above circumstances, and it is possible to improve the oxidative stability of an oil / fat composition and an oil-based food using the same as compared with the conventional one, and suppress oxidation for a long period of time. The challenge is to provide a safe antioxidant that can.

In order to solve the above problems, the present inventor is a kind of polyphenol compound, and dihydroquercetin (for example, patent) which is known to eliminate active oxygen in a living body and has an antioxidant ability. (See Documents 5 to 7).

Patent Documents 5 to 7 propose antioxidants applicable to foods using dihydroquercetin and its derivatives, rutin which is a precursor of quercetin and quercetin and its derivatives, but in any case, No studies have been conducted on the suppression of oxidation of fats and oils and the improvement of antioxidant capacity.

Therefore, the present inventor has been diligently studying the effect of improving the antioxidant capacity (oxidative stability) in an oil-fat composition containing an antioxidant and an antioxidant and an oil-based food containing the same using dihydroquercetin. As a result, by using dihydroquercetin in combination with alkaline substances (excluding food emulsifiers), antioxidants, fats and oils compositions containing antioxidants, and the antioxidant capacity of oily foods containing them (excluding food emulsifiers) We have found that (oxidation stability) is remarkably improved, and have completed the present invention.

The antioxidant of the present invention is characterized by the following points.
(1) It is characterized by containing dihydroquercetin and an alkaline substance (excluding a food emulsifier) as an additive component to an object that suppresses oxidation.
(2) The alkaline substance is preferably at least one of the group consisting of monovalent carboxylates and alkali metal salts.
The oil and fat composition of the present invention is characterized by the following points.
(3) It is characterized by containing the antioxidant according to the above invention (1) or (2) and fats and oils.
(4) It is preferable that the alkaline substance is at least one of the group consisting of monovalent carboxylates and alkali metal salts.
(5) In the above invention (3) or (4), the blending amount of the alkaline substance is preferably 20 to 2000 ppm with respect to oil.
The oily food of the present invention is characterized by the following points.
(6) It is characterized by containing the oil / fat composition according to any one of the above inventions (3) to (5).

According to the present invention, it is possible to improve the oxidative stability of an oil / fat composition and an oil-based food using the oil / fat composition as compared with the conventional case, and a safe antioxidant capable of suppressing oxidation for a long period of time is realized. ..

It is a graph which showed the synergistic effect of CDM prolongation by the combined use of 200ppm of dihydroquercetin and the alkaline substance which added different amounts.

The present invention will be described in detail below.

The antioxidant of the present invention is characterized by containing dihydroquercetin and an alkaline substance (excluding food emulsifiers) as an additive component to an object that suppresses oxidation.

Dihydroquercetin (DHQ), also called taxifolin, is a polyphenol compound that has one double bond on the C ring, a carbonyl group at the C ring 4 position, and a C ring 3 position. It is classified as flavonol because it has a structure in which hydroxyl groups are bonded. Dihydroquercetin is known to scavenge active oxygen in the living body and to have an antioxidant ability.

Examples of dihydrokercetin include dihydrokercetin, which is a synthetic product having a purity of 95% or more obtained by chemical synthesis, a high-purity synthetic product having a purity of 98% or more, and a mixture containing a synthetic product of dihydroquercetin. An extract obtained by extracting each part of a plant containing, such as leaves, flowers, seeds, stems, bark, roots, etc. with a solvent, and a high-purity (95% or more) obtained by purifying the extract. It is exemplified that a natural product and a mixture thereof are used.

Examples of the extraction method of dihydroquercetin from each part of the plant include an extraction method using an organic solvent, water or a mixed solvent thereof, a subcritical extraction method using carbon dioxide or water, a critical extraction method, and the like. ..

Examples of the solvent used for organic solvent extraction include water, ethanol, ethyl acetate, acetone, and a mixed solvent thereof from the viewpoint of safety and the like. If necessary, it is preferably considered that the obtained extract is further concentrated and purified by a method such as distillation or recrystallization.

When a plant extract containing dihydroquercetin is used, the purity of dihydroquercetin in the extract is preferably 50% by mass or more, more preferably 60% by mass or more, and more preferably 80% by mass or more. Is even more preferable. The upper limit of the purity of dihydroquercetin in the extract is 100% by mass.

In the fat and oil composition containing the antioxidant of the present invention and oil-based foods using the same, it is preferable to use a high-purity product as dihydroquercetin from the viewpoint of suppressing oxidation, and in particular, a high-purity product of a natural product. Is preferably considered. Further, from the above viewpoint, the blending amount of dihydroquercetin is preferably in the range of 1 to 5000 ppm with respect to oil, more preferably 2 to 5000 ppm from the viewpoint of antioxidant capacity, and the oily food is used. It is more preferably 2 to 2000 ppm from the viewpoint of flavor, hue and cost.

The alkaline substance used in the present invention is not particularly limited as long as it is permitted to be added to foods except for food emulsifiers and exhibits alkalinity. For example, alkali metal or alkaline earth metal water. Examples thereof include oxides, carbonates, organic acid salts, alkoxide compounds, fatty acid salts and the like. Specifically, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, potassium hydrogen carbonate, sodium methoxydo, sodium ethoxydo, calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium citrate, potassium citrate, sodium phosphate. , Potassium phosphate, sodium lactate, potassium lactate, sodium oleate, sodium acetate and the like are exemplified. These alkaline substances may be used alone or in combination of two or more. Considering the addition to oily foods, it is preferable to use a weak alkali because a strong alkali may cause hydrolysis of fats and oils.

Considering that such an alkaline substance is added to fats and oils, it is preferably considered to be at least one of the group consisting of monovalent carboxylates and alkali metal salts having good dispersibility in fats and oils. .. Further, since it is preferable that the alkaline substance is uniformly dispersed in the fat and oil, it is preferable to dissolve it in a solvent and use it as an alkaline solution.

Among alkaline substances, citrate and phosphate have low dispersibility in fats and oils, so it is considered that the effect cannot be obtained when they are added directly to fats and oils. When using such an alkaline substance having low dispersibility in fats and oils, 1) a method of dissolving the alkaline substance in water, contacting it with dihydrokercetin, and then drying it, or 2) a raw material for oily foods. Among them, a method of adding an alkaline substance to a raw material containing water, mixing it with an oil / fat composition containing dihydrokercetin, and cooking by heating can be applied. By applying such a method, the alkaline substance can be uniformly dispersed in the oily food, and a predetermined antioxidant ability (oxidative stability) can be exhibited.

Examples of the solvent that can be used for dissolving the alkaline substance include water and alcohols such as methanol and ethanol, and water is particularly preferably considered. These solvents may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

As a preferable concentration of the alkaline solution, for example, the range of 0.01 to 5 mol / L is exemplified.

The amount of such an alkaline substance added to the fat or oil is preferably 10 to 5000 ppm with respect to oil from the viewpoint of obtaining a sufficient effect of improving oxidative stability and the flavor of oil-based foods containing an antioxidant. When used in oily foods, it is more preferably 20 to 2000 ppm from the viewpoint that flavor deterioration due to free fatty acids does not occur.

By using dihydroquercetin in combination with an alkaline substance, a higher antioxidant capacity than the antioxidant capacity when dihydroquercetin alone or the alkaline substance alone is added is recognized, and the synergistic effect of dihydroquercetin and the alkaline substance is recognized. Is demonstrated. Therefore, the antioxidant of the present invention can improve the oxidative stability of the fat and oil composition and the oil-based food using the same as compared with the conventional one, can suppress the oxidation for a long period of time, and can be used as a food. Safe when ingested.

The antioxidant of the present invention is an antioxidant for foods, preferably an antioxidant for oil and fat compositions, and an antioxidant for oily foods. The antioxidant of the present invention may be blended in a fat or oil composition or an oily food containing the fat or oil composition, but is preferably contained in an edible fat or oil. The fat and oil composition containing the antioxidant of the present invention is a fat and oil with improved oxidative stability. Further, the oil-based food containing the oil-and-fat composition containing the antioxidant of the present invention is a food having improved oxidative stability.

The fats and oils containing the antioxidant of the present invention may be edible fats and oils, regardless of animal fats and oils and vegetable fats and oils, for example, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, cottonseed oil, safflower oil, corn oil, rice oil, olive oil and sesame oil. , Vegetable oils such as coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, soybean oil, fish oils such as tuna oil and sardine oil, animal oils such as lard, beef fat and milk fat, and these fractionated oils, ester-exchanged fats and oils, hardened oils and the like. ..

In addition, foods, especially oily foods containing fats and oils, include baked confectioneries such as cookies and biscuits (including crackers) cakes, steamed confectioneries such as bread, steamed bread, steamed cakes, Chinese buns, and steamed buns, rice confectionery, and rice confectionery. Fried confectionery such as donuts and churos, cold confectionery such as ice cream, cooked foods (snack confectionery such as potato chips, fried potatoes, croquettes, fried foods such as tempura, instant ramen and other fried noodles, okonomiyaki, roasted meat, etc. Examples include grilled foods, fried vegetables, fried foods such as grilled soba, meat such as sausages and hamburgers, and steamed foods. Of these, it is preferable to use it for foods including a step of heating fats and oils, for example, confectionery (cookies, biscuits, crackers, cakes, etc.), fried foods, fried foods, grilled foods, snack confectionery sprayed with fats and oils, rice confectionery, etc. It is more preferably used for baked confectioneries (cookies, biscuits, crackers, cakes, etc.) and fried foods (fried noodles, potato chips, etc.).

In order to obtain the effect of improving the oxidative stability in the present invention, a step of blending dihydroquercetin and an alkaline substance may be included in any step of the step of manufacturing the oily food.

For example, blending fats and oils, dihydroquercetin and alkaline substances individually, adding either dihydroquercetin or alkaline substances to fats and oils and blending either one individually, dihydroquercetin and alkaline substances in fats and oils Is exemplified. In the case of foods that include a heating process for fats and oils such as baked confectioneries and fried foods, dihydroquercetin and alkaline substances are contained in the fats and oils for kneading baked confectioneries and the fats and oils for cooking such as frying oil of fried foods. Is preferably added.

Also in these oily foods, the blending amount and blending ratio of dihydroquercetin and the alkaline substance are the same as in the case of the antioxidant.

As the fat and oil composition of the present invention, dihydroquercetin and an alkaline substance can be blended with the above-mentioned fat and oil. Examples of the method for producing the fat and oil composition include a method of dispersing an alkaline substance in a fat and oil in which dihydrokercetin is dispersed, a method of dispersing dihydroquercetin in a fat and oil in which an alkaline substance is dispersed, and a fat and oil in which dihydroquercetin is dispersed. A method of mixing the fat and oil in which an alkaline substance is dispersed, a method of dispersing a mixture of dihydrokercetin and an alkaline substance in the fat and oil, and the like are exemplified.

Further, in order to improve the dispersibility of dihydroquercetin, it can be blended by dispersing it in alcohol such as ethanol or alcohol preparation, or in water. When water is added, it is preferable to dehydrate and use it in consideration of long-term storage stability. Above all, from the viewpoint that the dispersibility of dihydroquercetin is further improved, a uniform fat and oil composition can be obtained, and the fat and oil can be used without dehydration treatment, dihydroquercetin dispersed in ethanol is added to the fat and oil in which an alkaline substance is dispersed. The method of blending is more preferably considered.

In the present invention, the fat and oil composition can be rapidly cooled and kneaded and used as a plastic fat and oil.

Further, an emulsion obtained by adding an aqueous phase to the above fat and oil composition can be rapidly cooled and kneaded to obtain a plastic fat and oil.

Examples of the form of the emulsion containing an aqueous phase include a water-in-oil type, an oil-in-water type, an oil-in-oil-in-oil type, and a water-in-oil-in-water type, and the content of the aqueous phase is preferably 0.6 to 40 mass. %, More preferably 2-35% by mass. As a form containing an aqueous phase, a water-in-oil type is preferable, and margarine is exemplified.

Further, shortening is also exemplified as a form in which fats and oils are made into plastic fats and oils.

The plastic fat and oil can be produced by a known method. For example, the oil phase containing the oil / fat composition of the present invention can be heated and rapidly cooled and kneaded with a cooling mixer such as a combinator, a perfector, a botator, or a nexus. In the form containing an aqueous phase, the oil phase containing the oil and fat composition of the present invention and the aqueous phase are appropriately heated, mixed and emulsified, and then cooled and mixed with a combinator, perfector, botator, nexus, etc. It can be rapidly cooled and kneaded by the machine. After quenching and kneading with a cooling mixer, aging (tempering) may be performed if necessary.

When added to a confectionery, the fat or oil composition of the present invention is added as a plastic fat or oil from the viewpoint of workability in manufacturing the confectionery and uniform dispersion in the confectionery, and the oxidative stability of the baked product does not vary. It is more preferable to do so.

The oil and fat composition of the present invention may be used in combination with a known antioxidant as long as it does not impair the effects of the present invention. As the antioxidant to be used in combination, natural and synthetic antioxidants can be used. For example, various tocopherols (α, β, γ, δ, etc.), L-ascorbic acid stearate, L-ascorbic acid palmitate, erythorbine. Examples thereof include sodium acid acid and catechins.

Perfume, pigment, silicone and the like can be added to the oil and fat composition of the present invention, if necessary.

Hereinafter, the present invention will be described in more detail based on the examples of the present invention, but the present invention is not limited to these examples.

<Experiment 1. Evaluation of oxidative stability when the amount of alkaline substance added is changed>
(Example 1)
After dissolving sodium acetate in palm oil so that the sodium acetate concentration becomes 0, 10, 20, 100, 200, 1000, 2000 ppm as an alkaline substance, dihydroquercetin (manufactured by Sakamoto Bio Co., Ltd., dihydroquercetin content 91.3) %) To 1% (w / v) ethanol solution was prepared, 2 mL was added to 100 g of palm oil and stirred to obtain a sample having a dihydroquercetin amount of 200 ppm with respect to oil. The CDM (hr) of palm oil alone, the CDM (hr) of palm oil supplemented with dihydroquercetin alone, and the CDM (hr) of the obtained sample were measured.

The measurement of CDM is a method for evaluating the oxidative stability of fats and oils, which is listed as an official method in the standard fats and oils analysis method and the American Oil Chemistry Association Law, and collects volatile decomposition products generated by the oxidation of fats and oils in pure water. Then, the conductivity is continuously measured, and the time until the bending point where the rate of change rises sharply is obtained. [CDM Test (Conductometric Determination Method: Lansimat Method] The CDM value was determined by the standard fat and oil analysis test method 2.5.1.2-1996 (edited by the Japan Oil Chemists' Society). Specifically, fats and oils heated to 120 ° C. The volatile decomposition products generated by oxidation were collected in water, and the time (hr) until the bending point where the conductivity of water changed rapidly was investigated. The higher the CDM value, the more stable the oxidation of fats and oils. Indicates that the sex is high.

In addition, the synergistic effect of dihydroquercetin and alkaline substances was calculated from the following formula.
{(CDM when dihydroquercetin and alkaline substance are used together)-(CDM of palm oil alone)}-{(CDM of dihydroquercetin)-(CDM of palm oil alone)}-{(CDM when alkaline substance is added)-( CDM of palm oil alone)} ... (1)

The results are shown in Table 1.

(Example 2)
The CDM (hr) of palm oil to which only dihydroquercetin was added and the CDM (hr) of the obtained sample were measured in the same manner as in Example 1 except that the alkaline substance was changed to sodium hydroxide (NaOH). .. In addition, the synergistic effect of dihydroquercetin and alkaline substances was calculated. The upper limit of the sodium hydroxide concentration was 1000 ppm. The results are shown in Table 2.

(Example 3)
The CDM (hr) of palm oil to which only dihydroquercetin was added and the CDM (hr) of the obtained sample were measured in the same manner as in Example 1 except that the alkaline substance was changed to sodium lactate. In addition, the synergistic effect of dihydroquercetin and alkaline substances was calculated. The results are shown in Table 3.

(Comparative Example 1)
The same as in Example 1 except that dihydroquercetin was changed to epigallocatechin gallate (manufactured by Tokyo Kasei Kogyo Co., Ltd., epigallocatechin gallate content 98.8%) and the amount of sodium acetate added was 500 ppm. , CDM (hr) of palm oil to which only epigallocatechin gallate was added, and CDM (hr) of the obtained sample were measured. In addition, the synergistic effect of epigallocatechin gallate and alkaline substances was calculated. The results are shown in Table 4.

(Comparative Example 2)
Except that dihydroquercetin was changed to chlorogenic acid 0.5 hydrate (manufactured by Wako Pure Chemical Industries, Ltd., chlorogenic acid 0.5 hydrate content 99.8%) and the amount of sodium acetate added was 500 ppm. In the same manner as in Example 1, the CDM (hr) of palm oil to which only chlorogenic acid 0.5 hydrate was added and the CDM (hr) of the obtained sample were measured. In addition, the synergistic effect of chlorogenic acid and alkaline substances was calculated. The results are shown in Table 5.

As shown in Table 1, when sodium acetate was used as the alkaline substance, the apparent CDM value continued to increase in a concentration-dependent manner, and the synergistic effect of sodium acetate and dihydroquercetin also showed the concentration of sodium acetate. It was confirmed that the CDM value increased in a dependent manner and the oxidative stability was improved.

As shown in Table 2, when sodium hydroxide was used as the alkaline substance, the apparent CDM value and the synergistic effect when sodium hydroxide and dihydroquercetin were used in combination were obtained in the same manner as when sodium acetate was used. It was confirmed that all of the shown CDM values increased in a concentration-dependent manner, and the oxidative stability was improved.

As shown in Table 3, when sodium lactate was used as the alkaline substance, it was confirmed that the apparent CDM value continued to increase in a concentration-dependent manner. On the other hand, regarding the value of CDM showing a synergistic effect when sodium lactate and dihydroquercetin were used in combination, no significant synergistic effect was observed, but it was confirmed that the oxidative stability was improved.

FIG. 1 shows a graph of the CDM value showing the synergistic effect when the above three kinds of alkaline substances and dihydroquercetin are used in combination.

As shown in FIG. 1, it was confirmed that when sodium acetate, sodium hydroxide or sodium lactate was added as an alkaline substance, the synergistic effect of CDM extension increased depending on the amount of addition.

On the other hand, as shown in Table 4, when epigallocatechin gallate was used instead of dihydroquercetin and used in combination with sodium acetate as an alkaline substance, no synergistic effect was observed, and it was confirmed that the CDM value decreased.

In addition, as shown in Table 5, when chlorogenic acid 0.5 hydrate was used instead of dihydroquercetin and used in combination with sodium acetate as an alkaline substance, no synergistic effect was observed and the CDM value was slightly reduced. It was confirmed that.

<Experiment 2. Evaluation of oxidative stability when the amount of dihydroquercetin added is changed>
Experiments on changes in oxidative stability when the amount of dihydroquercetin added to palm oil was changed. It was evaluated in the same manner as. Dihydroquercetin was added at 2, 20, 50, 200, 500, 2000 ppm. For the adjustment of dihydroquercetin, a 1% (w / v) ethanol solution was used as in Example 1. As an alkaline substance, sodium acetate was added so as to be 100 ppm. The results are shown in Table 6.

As shown in Table 6, as the amount of dihydroquercetin added increased, the value of CDM showing a synergistic effect when sodium acetate and dihydroquercetin were used in combination increased in a concentration-dependent manner, and the oxidative stability was improved. It was confirmed that there was.

<Experiment 3. Fly test using polyphenol compound and alkaline substance together>
Four kinds of frying oils having the compositions shown in Table 7 were prepared and subjected to a frying test.

That is, 1) palm oil only, 2) palm oil with 500 ppm of sodium acetate added as an alkaline substance, 3) palm oil with 200 ppm of dihydroquercetin added, 4) palm oil with 200 ppm of dihydroquercetin, alkaline. A substance added so as to be sodium acetate at 500 ppm was prepared, and frying oil was obtained. For the preparation of dihydroquercetin, a 1% (w / v) ethanol solution was used as in Example 1.

Potato chips were produced using the obtained frying oil, and their CDM (hr) was measured.

<Manufacturing of potato chips>
Raw potatoes sliced to a thickness of 0.5 mm were fried in frying oil heated to 180 ° C. for 2 minutes to obtain potato chips.

<CDM measurement>
The potato chips were finely crushed and the CDM of the potato chips was measured using 3 g. The results are shown in Table 7.

As shown in Table 7, potato chips produced using frying oil in which dihydroquercetin and sodium acetate as an alkaline substance are added and mixed with fats and oils produce only sodium acetate compared to potato chips produced using frying oil containing only fats and oils. The antioxidant capacity improved in the order of potato chips produced with added frying oil, potato chips produced with frying oil containing only dihydrokercetin, and potato chips produced with frying oil containing dihydrokercetin and an alkaline substance. It was confirmed that it would be extended.

Claims (5)

It is an antioxidant that can suppress the oxidation of fats and oils contained in fats and oils compositions or oily foods.
Antioxidants containing dihydroquercetin and alkaline substances (excluding food emulsifiers). The antioxidant according to claim 1, wherein the alkaline substance is at least one of the group consisting of a monovalent carboxylic acid salt and an alkali metal salt. An oil / fat composition containing the antioxidant according to claim 1 or 2 and the oil / fat .
The blending amount of the dihydroquercetin is 2 to 2000 ppm with respect to oil.
The blending amount of the alkaline substance is 10 to 2000 ppm with respect to oil. The oil / fat composition according to claim 3, wherein the alkaline substance is at least one of the group consisting of a monovalent carboxylate and an alkali metal salt. An oily food containing the oil / fat composition according to claim 3 or 4.

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