GB2520775A

GB2520775A - Multifunctional reactor

Info

Publication number: GB2520775A
Application number: GB1321253.5A
Authority: GB
Inventors: David Dorab Jamshed Antia
Original assignee: DCA CONSULTANTS Ltd
Current assignee: DCA CONSULTANTS Ltd
Priority date: 2013-12-02
Filing date: 2013-12-02
Publication date: 2015-06-03
Also published as: GB201321253D0

Abstract

A multifunctional, adiabatic static diffusion reactor 15 comprises one or more vessels containing water. The at least one vessel comprises one or more gas distributors 8 fed by one or more gas feed conduits 6, wherein the cross-sectional area of the apertures of the gas distributors is less than 30% of the internal cross-sectional area of the reactor. The reactor also contains one or more static bodies of zero valent metals 10 (ZVM). The reactor is provided with one or more inflow conduits 11 for the addition of water to the reactor and one or more water outflow conduits 12 to allow water to be removed from the reactor. The at least one gas distributor is positioned to ensure that flowing water within the reactor is not drawn through the ZVM. The reactor incorporates an electrochemical, redox, and catalytic process. The reactor is able to: (i) remove, or partially remove, volatile organic compounds, cations and anions from water: (ii) process gas by removing, or partially removing, or adding, one or more of CO, CO2, CH4, CxHy, H2, H2S, O2 and iii) manufacture a solid product which can be used for water treatment.

Description

MULTIFUNCTIONAL REACTOR

DOCUMENTS CITED

1. Pourbaix, M., 1974, Atlas of electrochemical equilibria in aqueous solutions, NACE International, Houston 2. Wilkin, R.T.; McNeil, M.S., 2003, Laboratory evaluation of zero-valent iron to treat water impacted by acid mine drainage. Che,nosphere, 53, 715-725 3. Ebbing, D.D.; Gammon, S.D., 2005, General Chemistry, Houghton, 6th Edition 4. Junyapoon, S., 2005, Use of zero valent iron for waste water treatment. KA'IITL Sci. Tech. 1, 5, 287-595.

5. Takeno, N., 2005, Atlas of Eh-pFl diagrams. Geological Survey of Japan Open File Report No. 419. 287 p. 6. Misstear, B.; Banks, 0.; Clark, L., 2006, Water wells and boreholes, Wiley 7. Antia, D.L).J., 2010, Sustainable zero-valent metal (ZVM) water treatment associated with difibsion, infiltration, abstraction and recircutation. Sustainability, 2, 2988-3073 8. Fronczyk, I.; Pawluk, K.: Michniak, M.. 2010, Application of permeable reactive barriers near roads for chloride ions removal. Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. -SGGW Land Reclam., 42, 249-259.

9. Antia, D.D.J., 2011, Modification of aquifer pore water by static difflision using nano-zero-valent metals. Water, 3,79.

10. Antia, D.D.J., 201 ib, Hydrocarbon Formation in Immature Sediments. Advances in Petroleum Exploration and Development, I, 1-13 Ii, Chen, K-F.; Liu, S.; Zhang, W-X., 2011, Renewable hydrogen generation by bimetallic zero valent iron nano particles.

Chemical Engineering Journal, 170, 562-567 12. Fronczyk, J.; Pawlulc, K.; Garbulewski, K., 2012, Multilayer PRBs -Effective technology for protection of the groundwater environment in traffic infrastructures. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 28, 67-72

FIELD OF INVENTION

The invention is a multifunctional, diabatic, static diffusion reactor (15) containing zero valent metals (ZVM) and a liquid fluid (e.g. water) which incorporates an electrochemical, redox, and catalytic process. The reactor (15) is used for the treatment of liquids (e.g. water), gas, hydrocarbons including processing of gas to manufacture gaseous products, manufacture of solid water treatment products (including catalysts), manufacture of a liquid initiator for solid water treatment products, manufacture of liquid products, manufacture of treated water.

The reactor (15) is able to (i) adjust the pH of water, adjust the Eli of water, adjust the electrical conductivity (EC) of water; (ii) remove or partially remove a. cations from water including one or more of As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, 1', 5, Si, Sr, Zn; b. anions from water including one or more of Cl, F, N(N03), N(N02), S(S04), P(P04; c. organic compounds from water including one or more of: methanol, ethanol, propanol, furfural alcohol, glycerol, propyne, propene, propane, butane, butene, pentane, pentene, hexane, hexene, heptane, heptene, octane, octene, nonane, nonene, methanoic (formic) acid, acetic acid, butyric acid, propanoic acid, nonanoic acid, decanoic acid, phenolic compounds, I -(4--hydrox-3-methoxyphenyl)-2propanone, flirfiural, fluranone, methyl flifliral, methyl furanone, toluene, cyclohexanone, pyranose, hydroxymethylcyclobutanone, methoxycresol, resorcinol, methylpyrocatchechol, vanillin, acetovanillone, phenols, polyphenols, Ilavonoid radicals, phenoxy radicals; d. oil, hydrocarbons, from water; e. NaG and KCI from water; f components from a flowing gas including one or more of CO. C02, CR4, 112, fl2S, 02; x=>0, r>O; (iii) add components to a flowing gas including one or more of CO, C02, CR4, CH H2; x>0, y>0; (iv) undertake one or more processes to:-a remove carbon oxides from a feed gas; b. manufacture a synthesis gas containing N2: CO: 1-12; c. manufacture a synthesis gas containing N2: 112; d. manufacture a fuel gas containing N2: 112: CH; x=>-O, y=>0; (v) manufacture one or more of the following: a Stober n-silica spheres and n-silicon spheres; b. resorcinol-formaldehyde nanospheres and n-carbon spheres; C. catalysts; d. one or more species of n-Fe°, n-FexOr n-FeOH2, n-FeO2H, n-Fe(OH), ; x=>0, y=>0, z=>0; e. polymers and polymeric substances including polyviaylpyrolidone (PVP); (vi) alter gaseous and liquid hydrocarbon compositions; (vii) process hypersaline reject water (reject briae, reject water) from desalination plants (reverse osmosis, distillation, membrane, etc.); (viii) process flowback water (and associated water) associated with shale oil, shale gas and water associated with oil and gas production; (ix) undertake aqueous phase synthesis of hydrocarbons from gas containing Co + 1-1.

The reactor (15) is operated isothermally, or non-isothermally, or under isopressure conditions, or non-isopressure conditions, or a combination thereof. The reactor (15) is operated with an intermittent, or episodic, or periodic, or variable, or continuous, or static gas charge [<I hPato 22 MPa].

Definitions: 1. ZVM = zero valent metal; 2. ZYM 1P is the solid product manufactured in an aqueous environment within the reactor (15) from ZVM (10); 3. ZVM TPG is the solid product manufactured in a gaseous enviromnent within the reactor (15) from ZVM (0); 4. ZVM TPGL is the liquid product manufactured in an aqueous environment within the reactor (15) from ZVM TPG; 5. ZVM (10) can be totally replaced, or partially replaced, in the reactor (15) by one or more of ZVM TP and ZVM TPG; 6. A diabatic process requires an energy transfer (e.g. temperature) between the reactor (15) and the external environment (or vice versa); 7. A vessel is defined as a water body held in one or more of a hollow container (or receptacle), storage chamber, cistern, tank, tube, pipe, reactor, conduit, reservoir, pond, lake, aquifer, groundwater mound; & water is defined as an ionic liquid (which can be water [1120, D20, T2O, lr1,O, {x »= 0; y »= 0)] ), or an ionic liquid which is miscible with water, or an ionic liquid which is soluble in water, or a combination thereof; 9. space velocity is a measure of the feed water flow rate, per unit volume/weight of water in the reactor [or per unit volume/weight of ZVM in the reactor], per unit time. Reactor size (per unit volume of water treated) is reduced by increasing space velocity.

BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION

ZVM (Fe°, Al°, Cu°) are highly efficient water treatment agents and can remove a wide variety of organic and inorganic cations and anions from water (e.g. Junyapoon, 2005; Antia, 2010; 2011). They can also disinfect water by removing, or immobilising, micro biota (e.g. Antia, 2010). ZVM are capable of removing (or reducing, or altering) the concentration in water of one or more of: 1. Anions of the form MON; (e.g. M = suiphates/suiphites, nitrates/nitrites, carbonic acids, bicarbonates, carbonates, phosphates, chlorates, bromates, etc.), organic anions, halogenated ions (and molecules); 2. Metal cadons (e.g. Ag, Al, Au, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, C; Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ge, Hf, Hg, In, K, La, Li, Md, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Ni, Pd, Po, Pt, Rb, Re, Rh, Ru, 5; Ta, Tc, Te, Th, Ti, TI, 13, V, W, Zn, Zr) held in a monoatomic or polyatomic form; 3. Calions and anions present as hydroxides, hydrides, peroxides, and oxides associated with one or more of organics, Ac, Ag, Al, Am, As. Au, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Cm, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, H Fig, Ho, In, Ir, La, Lu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Nb, Nd, Ni, Np, Os, Pa, Po, Pr, Pt, Pu, Re, Rh, Ru, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Th, Tc, Ta, Th, Ti, TI, Tm, U, V, Y, Yb, Zn, Zr held in a monoatomic or polyatomic form; 4. NItrogenous compounds: including azo dyes, atrazine, cyclonite/hexogen (RDX), dinitrotoluene (DNT).

nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), nitrocellulose, tetramethylenetetranitramine (HMX), trinitrotoluene (ml), disinfection by-products (DUP's), fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, flmgicides, ammonium ions ((NIQ) and nitrogen containing ions; 5. Organic compounds: including but not limited to carbonyls, halogeas, and hydrocarbons, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), aromatics, hormonal pollutants; 6. Microbi ole; 7. Gases: including: H2S, 02, CO2, CO, H,, hydrocarbons, CI, Br, I, F; Ht IT and hydrogen containing ions; 8. Halides: including: NaC1, KCI, NaBr, Na!, K!, NaF.

Desalination Desalination of water is currently commercialiy undertaken using a physical process, either I. thcrmal/vacuum distillation, or 2. a form of membrane separation (e.g. reverse osmosis (RO)).

Other desalination methods include eleetrodialysis, capacitive deionisation, freezing, membrane distillation and solar humidification. These processes require a substantial external energy source and result in 30-60% of the feed water forming a hyper-saline waste product. There is therefore a requirement for a desalination process which can desalinate (or partially desalinate) water, without producing a hyper-saline waste product and without requiring substantial quantities of energy.

Us 7635236 B2 (2006) demonstrated that Cr ions can be adsorbed onto Fe° surfaces and could inhibit the rate of perchiorate removal.

Antia (2010; 201 lb) discovered that a ZVM-clay mixture ([90 g Fe° + 106 g Ca-montmorillonitel U', [90 g Fe° + 14 g Cu° +23 g A]° + 106 g Ca-montmorillonite] U') can reduce the Electrical Conductivity (EC) of saline water (0.9 g NaCI U' (1.8 mScm')) by 0.3 -0.9 mScm', indicating removal of 20-40% of the NaCI (0.18 -0.36 g NaCI U') over too days. A control experiment: (Antis, 2011) established that ZYM ([90 g Fe°] U' could reduce EC by 0.026 mScnf' over 60 days and ZVM [90 g Fe° + 14 g Cu° + 23 gAl°] U' resulted in an increase in EC of 0.296 mScm' over 60 days (i.e. no effective net desalination occurred, where the feed water contained about I g NaCI U'). Fee particle size = 44,000-66,000 nm.

Fronczyk et al. (2010) discovered that 45,000-100,000 mn Fe° particles (50 g U') could reduce the CF concentration of saline water (snow treated with salt during road clearing operations) over 48 hours from 1.5 g U' to 1.0 g U', while increasing the electrical conductivity (EC) from 3.658 to 4.54 mScm', and pH from 6.47-8.48 to 9.59-9.68 (at 15-20 C). A subsequent study by Fronczylc et al. (2012) established, using Fe0 particles (20 g U'), a C1 reduction of 5% over 24 hours where the water had an initial cr concentration of 150-250mg L. These studies established relatively low levels of NaCIIKCI removal associated with Fe° (zero valent iron).

Hydrogen Production Hydrogen is currently commercially manuthctured using steam reforming, dry reforming, partial oxidation, electrolysis and thermolysis. Hydrogen generation rates associated with Fe0 include 0.005 -0.01 in3 H2 hr' 1' Fe° (particle size 2,000-5,000 run) and a rate of 0.17-16.7 m3 H2 hf' t1 Fe° (particle size 60 nm) at 25 C (Chen et al. 2011). There is a requirement for a process which can manufacture a hydrogen gas product without requiring substantial quantities of energy.

BASIC BACKGROUNIJ CONCEPTS USED IN THE INVENTION

Total Dissolved Solids, TDS (g L') Pollutants are present as dissolved solids (ions) in water. If a pollutant ion is a significant component of the TDS, then its removal will be reflected by a decrease in measured water electrical conductivity (EC), as 1DS (g U1) = EC (mScm') x Fi. Fi = 0.5 -0.55 for NaCI; Fi 0.64-0.75 for other ions (Misstear et al., 2006).

As a general guide, EC increases with increasing temperature and increasing molar concentration. Non-limiting exceptions include: (i) decreasing alcohol content (e.g. ethanol) can increase EC; (ii) acids (e.g. F12S04. HNO3, FhI'04, CXHYOOH) and organic carbonates (e.g. liPF6 + Propylene carbonate + diethyl carbonate) show an initial increase in EC as the molar concentration increases followed by a decline to 0 mScm' as the molar concentration continues to increase.

Reaction Order, Rate Constants and Reaction Roles The reaction rate = k[pollutant ion concentration]tm (k = rate constant = [A]exp(-E/RT); R = gas constant; T = temperature, K; in = reaction order; E, activation energy; EM = pre-exponential thctor (frequency factor)) (Ebbing & Gammon, 2005). For many ZVM related reniediation reactions m approximates to 1.0 (e.g. Wilkin & McNeil, 2003).

koMe,.aYdPa; a = up,. and k,,P as = effective surface area (m2 g' Fe); k,, = nonualized rate constant, 1obse,wd -observed rate constant; Pm = mass concentration of Fe g U' (Wilkin & McNeil, 2003). Reactivity, r, = k,, a= k, k,, /ç, are referenced to a unit time (second, day, etc.).

Eli and p11 Eh = 2.3 RT/F -Log,,[ei; pH -Logjo[1f] (Pourbaix, 1974; Ebbing & Gammon, 2005; Miastear at al., 2006); F = Faraday constant; n = stoichiometric number of electrons transferred in the reaction; AL° = redox potential under standard conditions (STP) = AG°/(nF); AG° Gibbs free energy under standard conditions. Eh AGI(nF); AG = Observed Gibbs free energy; Ph = observed redox potential (also termed ORP [oxidation reduction potential]).

Reaction Quotient, LA, pH andAqueous Equilibrium Ion Adduct Reactions Changing one or more of Rh, pH, temperature [1'], and gas partial pressure, will result in a change in the reaction quotient (Q).

Ionic, redox (electrochemical) reactions in water (7) (including equilibrium reactions) take the generic form a(A] + cl-t + ne = b[B], where Q = ([B]Y([A]a [}flC); ([A] = reactants; [B] = products) and Eh = AE°-RT/nF ln(Q] (Pourbaix, 1974; Ebbing & Gammon, 2005).

The prior art redox (Eh-pI-1) relationships (e.g. Pourbaix, 1974; Takeno, 2005; Ebbing & Gammon, 2005) do not predict the observed removal (Tables 2 to 23) of Cl', H, F, K, Na4, C,j-I,O, Sr2', Ca2, Ba2, flfl+, pfl+ p(pQ4)fl' Sit, 5", S042.

Experimental Analysis Equipment Used in the Kramples (Figures Ia -lOf): I. Eh, p1'!, BC, T: Equipment manufactured by Manna Instruments, Extech Instruments, HM-Digital, Oakton; 2. BC, 01W (Eh) and pH standards manufactured by Hanna Instruments, 1114-Digital, Milwaukee; 3. Gas chromatography of gas (700): TCD [thermal conductivity detector] GC manufactured by SRI Instruments mc; 4. Gas standards (CO, C02, H2, CM,,, N2) manufactured by BOC/Linde; 5. Temperature controllers: Digisense, Ariston; 6. Water Heaters; Fischer Instruments, Ariston; 7. Gas flow controllers: Cole-Parmer; 8. Pumps: Wilco; 9. OCMS analyses of organic acids in pyroligneous acid feedstock (7); 10. Liquid Chromatography (Dionex Ion Chromatography) analyses of anions in water (7); 11. Spectrometry (Thermo Icap 6500 Spectrometer) analyses of cations in water (7); 12. Laser 3533 digital multimeter.

Water (7) samples were analysed for specific cations and anions and relative abundances were determined against specific standards. Other canons and anions present in the water (7) were not identified and their abundances were not quantified.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

1. Figure Ia. Schematic drawing of the simplest embodiment of the reactor (15). Arrows indicate directions of fluid flow.

2. Figure ib: Schematic drawing of the structure of the reactor (15) where the reactor (15) is constructed from two or more vessels (1), (4) connected by conduits (2), (3).

3. Figure ic Schematic drawing of the reactor (15) incorporating abaffle (850).

4. Figure 1 d. Schematic drawing of the reactor (15) incorporating a number of compartments created by baffles (850).

5. Figure 1 e: Schematic drawing of the reactor (15) showing water flow pattems where the apertures of the gas distributor(s) (8) occupy a small part of the cross sectional area of the gas bubbling volume (4).

6. Figure If: Schematic drawing of the structure of the reactor (15) illustrating the presence of a separate gas-water contact (852) in the water storage volume (I).

7, Figure Ig: Schematic drawing of the structure of the reactor (15) demonstrating locations where ZVM may be present.

8, Figure 1 h: Schematic drawing showing a number of different types of module (951) and cartridges (922) containing ZVM attached to a manifold (900).

9. Figure Ii: Schematic drawing of a module structure which can be used to create ZVM TPG, or reduce ZVM, or reduce ZVM IF, or reduce ZVM TPG, where gas can be allowed to flow directly through (or into) one or more of ZVM, ZVM IF, ZVM TPG.

10. Figure lj. Schematic drawing of the simplest embodiment of the reactor (15) when the water (7) contains an immiscible lower density liquid such as oil (555), a water-immiscible liquid contact (556) and an immiscible liquid-gas contact (557). Separate conduits (11), (12) may be used to add and remove the different liquids.

11. Figure 1k Schematic drawing of the simplest embodiment of the reactor (IS) when the water (7) contains: (i) an immiscible lower density liquid such as oil (555), a water-immiscible liquid contact (556) and an inuniscible liquid-gas contact (557), (ii) an immiscible higher density liquid such as oil (558), a water-immiscible liquid contact (560) and an immiscible liquid-ZVM contact (559).

12. Figure II. Schematic drawing showing two reactors (15) arranged to allow the feed gas to pass through the reactors (15) sequentially.

13. Figure Im. Schematic drawing showing a reactor (15) structured to allow the product gas to pass sequentially into one or more downstream reactor(s) (20).

14. Figure In: Schematic process flow drawing indicating the main elements, modules, and optional elements associated with the reactor (15).

15. Figure 10: Schematic drawing showing heat exchangers on Reactors (tS), (20).

16. Figure I p: Schematic drawing illustrating the structure of a simple shell and tube heat exchanger.

17. Figure I q: Example process flow diagram showing reactor (15) operation where a heating module (1600) provides heat to a heat exchanger (701).

18. Figure Ir: Example process flow diagram showing reactor (15) operation where a heating module (1600) provides heat to a heat exchanger (701). The process flow diagram shows an example construction incorporating one or more filters/separators (1700), (1701).

19. Figure Is: Schematic examples of cartridge (901), (902), (922) structure: a. Figure 1 sA: Schematically illustrates cartridge structures: Cartridge [or pellet] (901) is placed in the reactor (IS); Cartridge (902) is attached to the reactor (15); Cartridge (922) is attached to a manifold (900): Each cartridge contains one or more of ZVM (10), ZVM TP, and ZYM TPO; b. Figure 1 sB: Schematically illustrates cross sections through an open ended pellet (900) containing one or more of ZVM (10), ZVM TI', and ZVM TPCl; c. Figure 1 sC: Schematically illustrates cross sections through a sealed pellet (900) containing one or more permeable surfaces and one or more of ZVM (10), ZVM TP, and ZVM TPG.

20. Figure 2a. Reactor (15) Example operation of a heat exchanger [lIE] (701) attached to conduit (3). Temperature vs. time.

21. Figure 2b: Reactor (15): Example EC vs. Time.

22. Figure 2c: Reactor (15): Example p11 vs. Time.

23. Figure 2d: Reactor (15): Example Eh vs. Time.

24. Figure 2e: Reactor (15): Example Eh vs. pH.

25. Figure 2f: Reactor (15): Example pH vs. EC.

26. Figure 2g: Reactor (15): Example Eb vs. EC.

27. Figure 2h: Reactor (15): Example Temperature vs. Time.

28, Figure 3a. Example showing cumulative hydrogen production: reactor (15). The cumulative amount of hydrogen present in the feed gas is shown for comparison. Feed gas in conduit (6) contains u2 + CO + CO2 ± Cl4 + N2. ZVM (10) concentration = 4.2 M U'; Feed water (7) salinity 0.46-0.48 M U'; Temperature varied between 0 C and 35 C. 29. Figure 3 b. Example showing cumulative hydrogen production: reactor (20). The cumulative amount of hydrogen present in the feed gas entering reactor (IS) is shown for comparison. Feed gas in conduit (6) for reactor (IS) contains 12 + CO + CO2 + Cl-I4 + N2. ZVM (10) concentration in reactor (15) = 4.2 ML-'; Feed water (7) salinity in reactor (20) 0.46-0.48 M U'.

30. Figure 3c. Example showing cumulative hydrogen production: reactor (15). The feed gas in conduit (6) contains 20% CO2 + 80% N2. Temperature varied between -7 C and 105 C. 31. Figure 3d. Example showing cumulative hydrogen production: reactor (20). The feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N2. Temperature varied between -7 C and 105 C, 32. Figure 3e: Example showing the rate of CO production in reactor (15). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N2.

33. Figure 3f: Example showing the rate of CO production in reactor (20). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 ÷ N2.

34. Figure 3g: Example showing the rate of CH4 production in reactor (15). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N2.

35. Figure 3h: Example showing the rate of Cl-I.4 production in reactor (20). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO, + N2.

36. Figure 31: Example showing the rate of F!, production in reactor (15). Temperature varied between -45 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N,.

37. Figure 3]: Example showing the rate of F!, production in reactor (20). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N,.

38. Figure 3k: Example showing the 112: N, ratio in the product gas from reactor (15). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N2.

39. Figure 31: Example showing the H2: N2 ratio in the product gas from reactor (20). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N2.

40. Figure 3m: Example showing the H2: CO ratio in the product gas from reactor (15). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N2.

41. Figure 3n Example showing the H2: CO ratio in the product gas from reactor (20). Temperature varied between -15 C and 15 C; the feed gas in conduit (6) reactor (15) contains CO2 + N,.

42. Figure 3o. Example cumulative CO2 removal vs. time. The cumulative amount of CO2 in the feed gas is shown for comparison. [4.5 M ZVM (10) L4 water. ZYM (10) held in a container (902) attached to the reactor (15), Operating Temperature -7-105 C; Feed gas 20% CO2 + 80% N2.

43. Figure 3p. Example cumulative CO2 removal vs. time. The cumulative amount of CO2 in the feed gas is shown for comparison. [32 g ZVM (10) U' water. ZVM (10) held in a container (902) attached to the reactor (15), Operating Temperature 11 C; Feed gas = 20% CO2 + 80% N2.

44. Figure 3q. Example cumulative CO2 removal vs. time. The cumulative amount of CO2 in the feed gas is shown for comparison. ZVM (10) placed in vessel (1), Operating Temperature = 0-25 C; Feed gas = H, + CU4 + CO + CO2 + N,. Hours on line = period when a gas entered the reactor (15) through conduit (6) and the distributor (8).

45. Figure 3r. Example cumulative CO removal vs. time. The cumulative amount of CO in the feed gas is shown for comparison.

ZVM (10) placed in vessel (1), Operating Temperature = 0-25 C; Feed gas = H, + Cl-I.4 + CO 4-CO2 + N2.

46. Figure 3s. Example cumulative CH4 removal vs. time. The cumulative amount of Cl-I4 in the feed gas is shown for comparison.

ZVM (10) placed in vessel (1), Operating Temperature = 0-25 C; Feed gas = H2 + Cl-I4 + CO + CO2 ÷ N2.

47. Figure 3t. Example removal (and production) of CO, + CO + CI-I. from the feed gas, Reactor (15). ZVM (10) placed in vessel (t), Operating Temperature 0-25 C; Feed gas = H + CFI4 ÷ CO + CO2 + 48. Figure 3u. Example removal (and production) of CO2 ÷ CO + CH4 from the feed gas, Reactor (20). Operating Temperature 0 -25 C; Feed gas = H, + CM4 + CO ÷ CO2 ± N2.

49. Figure 4a: Example CO Removal vs. CU.4 removal; negative removal rates indicate production of the gas: Operating Temperature = 0-25 C; Feed gas = 2 + CI-I. + CO + CO2 + N2.

50. Figure 4b: Example CO2 Removal vs. CH4 removal; negative removal rates indicate production of the gas: Operating Temperature = 0-25 C; Feed gas = Fl, + CH4 + CO + CO2 ± N,.

51. Figure 4c: Example CO2 Removal vs. CO removal; negative removal rates indicate production of the gas: Operating Temperature = 0-25 C; Feed gas = 1-1, + Cl-I4 + CO + CO2 + N2, 52. Figure Sd: Example CO, Removal vs. 112 production; negative removal rates indicate production of the gas: Operating Temperature 0-25 C; Feed gas 112 + CFI4 + CO + CO, + N,.

53. Figure 4e: Example CO Removal vs. 1I2 production; negative removal rates indicate production of the gas: Operating Temperature =0-25 C; Feed gas =112+ CT-L + CO + CO2 + N2.

54. Figure 4f: Examp]e CU4 Removal vs. 112 production; negative removal rates indicate production of the gas: Operating Temperature = 0-25 C; Feed gas = 112 + CH4 + CO + CO2 + N2.

55. Figure 4g: lCD CC Example illustrating presence of C2H, in product gas: Operating Temperature <20 C; Feed gas = H2 + CR4 -4-CO + CO2 + N2.

56. Figure 4h: lCD (IC Exampic illustrating presence of C2H in product gas: Operating Temperature <20 C; Feed gas = CO2 ± N2.

57. Figure 4i: TCD CC Example illustrating presence of Fl2 in product gas: Illustrated N2 content in product gas is 2.5% Illustrated H content in product gas is 97.5%; Operating Temperature = 8-12 C; Feed gas = air [02 ± N2].

58. Figure 5a: Example change in reactor (15) gas body (700) composition over 24 days. Reactor (15) contains ZVM (10) and gasoline (555). Feed gas = air.

59. Figure Sb: Example change in reactor (15) gas body (700) composition over 22 days. Reactor (15) contains ZVM (10) and gasoline (555). Feed gas = air.

60. Figure Sc: Example change in reactor (IS) gas body (700) composition over 22 days. Reactor (15) contains ZVM (10) and gasoline (555). Feed gas air.

61. Figure Sd: Example change in reactor (15) nitrogen gas proportions in the product gas observed in conduit (9). Feed gas in conduit (6) = N2 + CO2.

62. Figure 5e: Example change in reactor (15) nitrogen gas proportions in the product gas observed in conduit (9). Feed gas in conduit (6) = H2 + CR4 + CO + CO2 + N2. Temperature = <25C.

63. Figure Sf: Example 112:N2 ratio in the product gas as a firnction of time: Operating Temperature = <20 C; Feed gas = CO2 + N2.

64. Figure Sg: Examp'e II2 gas production rates as a fimction of time normalised to unit water volumes: Operating Temperature <20 C; Feed gas = CO2 + N2.

65. Figure 5h: Example 1-12 gas production rates as a function of time normalised to I kg unit weight of Fe° present in the ZVM (10): Operating Temperature = <20 C; Feed gas = CO2 + N2; 2g H2 = 22.41 L 112.

66. Figure Si: Example H2 + hydrocarbon product fuel gas composition.

67. Figure óa: Example Eh vs. Time.

68. Figure 6b: Example pH vs. Time.

69 Figure 6c: Example Eh vs. pH.

Figure 6d: Reactor (15): Example water salinity vs. ph.

71. Figure 6e: Example Eh vs. Time.

72. Figure 6f: Example pH vs. Time.

73. Figure 6g: Example Eh vs. pH.

74. Figure Oh: Example EC vs. time.

75. Figure 6i: Example Eh vs. Time.

76. Figure 6]: Example pH vs. Time.

77. Figure 6k: Example Eh vs. pH.

78. Figure 61: Example EC vs. time. ZVM (10) removed after 75 days operation.

79. Figure la: Example EC changes associated with remediation of water enriched in carbonyls over 22 days. Molar concentration M L1, F = Feed water: B = Product water (7) with Gasoline (555) in the feed water (7). C =Product water (7) without Gasoline (555) in feed water (7). Feed water' (7) organic composition: 9.50% glycerol, 39.17% toluene, 8.47% acetic acid, 1.04% 1 -hydroxy-2-propanone, 1.54% 1.(4-hydrox-3-methoxyphenyl)2propanone, 1.33% furanone, 1.08% cyclohexanone, 2.94% methyl fufural, 1.08% methyl fliranone, 1.99% phenolic compounds, 11.01% hexanoic acid, 20.85% others (including heptane, pyranose): Feed Water (7): Eh 0.271 V, pH 2.03, PC = 16.57 mScni'. Feed gas = air. Water (7): Gasoline (555) ratio (when present) = 5:1. Temperature = -7 C to 12 C. ZVM (10) = 340 g U'. 85 % of the gasoline is removed over 56 days.

Product water after 22 days (without gasoline present): Ph = -0.043 V, pH = 3.87: Product gas = 2.23% Co2 + 27.70% H2 + 70.07% N2. Product water after 22 days (with gasoline present): Ph = -0.135 V, pH 5.23: Product gas = 1.32% H + 92.93% N2 + 5.75% hydrocarbons.

80. Figure 7b: Example PC changes associated with remediation of water enriched in carbonyls over 22 days. Molar concentration = M U'. F = Feed water: B = Product water (7) with Gasoline (555) in the feed water (7). C = Product water (7) without Gasoline (555) in feed water (7). The feed water's (7) organic composition is: 36.49% acetic acid, 9.75% propanoic acid, 0.49% butyric acid, 0.58% l-(4-hydrox-3-methoxyphenyl)-2propanone, 5.12% fijrftiral, 3.97% fliranone, 0.35% furfisral alcohol. 0.9 1% methyl friftiral, 6.84% methyL furanone, 23.85% phenolic compounds (including methyl phenol). 1.43% nonanoic acid, 10.22% others (including methoxycresol, methylpyrocatechol): Feed Water (7): Eh = 0.086 V. pH = 2.30, PC = 3.74 mScm'. Feed gas air. Water (7): Gasoline (555) ratio (when present) = 5:1. Temperature = -7 C to 12 C. ZVM (10) = 520 g U. 90% of the gasoline is removed over 56 days. Product water after 22 days (without gasoline present): Eh -0.204 V, pH = 3.41: Product gas = 1.77% CO2 + 53.45% H2 ± 44.78% N2. Product water after 22 days (with gasoline present): Ph = -0.083 V, pH = 4.64: Product gas = 0.65% CO2 + 48.62% H2 + 41.48% N2 + 9.25% hydrocarbons.

SI. Figure 7c: Example change in gasoline composition.

82. Figure 7d: Example change in gasoline composition.

83. Figure 7e: Example change in gasoline composition.

84. Figure 7f: Example change in gasoline composition.

85. Figure 7g: Example change in gasoline composition.

86. Figure 7h: Example comparison of oil IC3 -C9] densities after 16 days. Lxi to Ex6 are different examples of oil (gasoline) alteration.

87. Figure 7i: Example comparison of oil product volumeloil feed volume after 16 days. Exl to Ex6 are different examples of oil (gasoline) alteration.

88. Figure 7]: Example comparison of the relative number of carbon atoms present as C3 -C9 hydrocarbons after 16 days. ExI to Ex6 are different examples of oil (gasoline) alteration.

89. Figure 8a: ZVM TP Powders: Example Ph vs. Time. PSI to PS4 are separate water bodies containing ZVM TP powders.

Temperature = -10 C to 20 C. Gas (700) = air. ZVM TP 30-65 g U'.

90. Figure Sb: ZVM TP Powders: Example pH vs. Time.

91. Figure Sc: ZVM TI' Powders: Example Eh vs. pH.

92. Figure 8d: ZVM TI' Powders: Example PC vs. time.

93. Figure 8e: ZVM TI' Ca sheathed pellets: Example Ph vs. Time. STI a to STIJ are separate water bodies containing ZVM TI' Cu sheathed pellets. Temperature -10 C to 20 C. Gas (700) = air. ZVM TP = 18.3-32 g U'.

94. Figure 8f: ZVM TP Cu sheathed pellets: Example pH vs. Time.

95. Figure 8g: ZVM TI' Cu sheathed pellets: Example Eh vs. pH.

96. Figure 8h: ZVM TI' Cu sheathed pellets: Example PC vs. time.

97. Figure 8i: ZVM TPG Cu sheathed pellets: Example Ph vs. Time.

98. Figure 8j: ZVM TPG Cu sheathed pellets: Example pH vs. Time.

99. Figure 8k: ZVM TIN) Cu sheathed pellets: Example Eh vs. pH.

tOO. Figure 81: ZVM TPG Cu sheathed pellets: Example EC vs. time.

101. Figure 9a: ZVM TI': Current vs. voltage; Example ETI, ET2.

102. Figure 9h: ZVM TI': Current vs. time; Example ETI, ET2.

103. Figure 9c: ZVM TI': Voltage vs. time; Example ET1, ET2.

104. Figure 9d: Reactor (15). Example water (7) temperatures vs. air temperatures in an unheated reactor (IS).

105. Figure 9e: Reactor (15), Example relationship between water (7) temperatures and hydrogen content of the product gas in an unheated reactor (15).

106. Figure 9f: Reactor (15), Example relationship between [water (7) temperature -air temperature] and hydrogen content of the product gas in an unheated reactor (15).

107. Figure 9g: Reactor (15): Example current and voltage variation over a 48 hr period.

108. Figure 9h: Example relationship between current and voltage.

109. Figurc lOa: ZVM TI': ZVM TI' amount vs. BC decrease over 4 hours.

110. Figure lOb: ZVM TP: EC of feed water vs. EC decrease over 4 hours.

111. Figure lOG: ZVM TP: EC of feed water vs. EC decrease over 30 days.

112. Figure lOd: Reactor (15); p1-I vs time while the gas feed is a mixture of 20% CO2 ÷ 80%N2. ZVM (10) = 32 g U'; Temperature = 9.6 -10.6 C; Gas flow 0.11 L hr' U' H20.

113. Figure lOe: Reactor (15); Eli vs time while the gas feed is a mixture of CO2 + N2.

114. Figure lOf: Reactor (15); Eh vs pH while the gas feed is a mixture of CO2 + N2.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention is a multiflinctional, diabatic, static diffusion reactor (15) which incorporates an electrochemical, reduction-oxidation (redox) process. The reactor (15) contains water (7) and one or more ZVM (10) bodies. The reactor (15) uses a gas flow to create a fluid circulation in the water body (7). The reactor (15) is designed to overcome specific operating problems associated with prior art diffusion, fixed bed and fluidisation reactors which are operated with a charge of water and ZVM.

PRIOR ART DIFFUSION REACTOR PROBLEMS

In a prior art difll,sion reactor, a static water body overlies a static ZVM body. Air may be present above the water body. Feed water enters (and exits) the reactor through the water body. The water body is static and contains no circulation. Feed water is not allowed to flow through the static ZVTVI body. The principal flow mechanism in the water body is chemical diffusion between the ZVM and water body, and chemical diffusion between the air and the water body.

In a prior art diffusion reactor there is a slowly changing, chemical gradient between the air, water body and the ZVM, and a heterogeneous water body where Eb and p1-I vary across the water body. The change in chemical gradient with time across the ZVM-water body boundary, and across the water-air boundary is uncontrolled. This results in a very low space velocity being re,1uired to achieve a specific treatment level (Antia, 2010; 2011).

The reactor (15) overcomes these problems by providing a mechanism to control the diffusion gradients and chemistry of the water while increasing the homogeneity of the water. These features allow the space velocity required to treat a specific volume of water to be increased.

The reactor (15) differs from the prior art diffusion reactors by incorporating a gas source, within the water body, which is designed to create a circulation pattern in the water body where the circulating water does not pass directly through the ZVM body. This circulation pattern allows retention of diffusion as the pritna'y interaction mechanism between the water and ZYM, while creating:-I. a homogeneous water composition (Eh, p1-I, BC); 2. a mechanism to control the Eli, pH and BC of the water body; 3. a high level of control on the nature of the chemical gradient between the water body and ZVM; 4. a high level of control on the nature of the chemical gradient between the gas body and ZVM; 5. a high level of control on the distribution of temperature within the water body when a heat exchanger is only applied to part of the reactor (15); 6. a mechanism for controlling the fluidisation of nano-particles, colloids, precipitants, etc. in the water body, and allowing in line separators to be used to extract nano-particles, colloids and precipitants from the circulating water body as required; 7. a reaction environment where the diffusion reactor can include active entrained nano-particles and colloidal hydroxides/peroxides in the water body which act as nuclei for cation and anion removal from the water.

PRIOR ART FIXED EED REACTOR PROBLEMS

In a prior art fixed bed reactor, the reactor receives a continuous feed of water, where all the feed water flows through all of the ZVM bed (e.g. A.ntia, 2010). A membrane or another method of retention may be used to prevent the flowing water eroding the ZVM bed, and to prevent part of the ZVM leaving the reactor with the product water. Macropore development within the ZYM bed can result in the majority of the feedwater by-passing the ZVM and remaining effectively untreated. Operation of fixed bed reactors result in oxidation of the ZVM bed over a short time period (e.g. <60 days), thereby requiring its replacement for continued remediation (Antia, 2010).

This reactor (15) overcomes the oxidation problem by requiring that the ZVM is placed outside the principal path of water circulation within the reactor (15).

Macropores in the ZVM bed of a fixed bed reactor, result in a decrease in effective remediation. In the reactor (15), macropores develop in the ZVM body during the ejection of fluids, ions, and particles into the water body. Their development enhances the rate of water remediation by facilitating an interchange of fluids between the water body and ZVM body.

PRIOR ART FLULDISED BED REACTOR PROBLEMS

In a prior art fluidised hed reactor, the ZVM particle size/weight (fluid density and fluid flow rate) is maintained to ensure that all of the ZVM is fluidised by one or more of a gas, or water, flowing through the reactor, or a stirring mechanism, or a vibration mechanism. All of the feed water passes through all of the fluidised ZVM body. Operation of fluidised bed reactors result in oxidation of the ZVM bed over a short time period (e.g. <60 days), thereby requiring its replacement for continued remediation.

Unlike a prior art fluidised bed reactor, the reactor (15) does not allow all of the feed water to pass through all of the ZVM body (10), or the ZVM body (10) to become fUlly fluidised. However, the reactor (15) is allowed to contain some ZVM which can become entrained (fluidised) in the circulating water, and does allow precipitated (and colloidal) products (formed in the water, and from the ZVM) to be entrained (fluidised) in the water. This feature of the reactor (15) is an important deviation from the prior art as it allows:-I. the reactor (15) to contain two or more ZVM bodies where each ZVM body performs a different chemical remediation function. For example, a. a static large particle (e.g. >20,000 nm) body of ZVM may be used to define the Eh and pH of the water body (7), principally by diffusion; b. an entrained (fluidised) small particle (e.g. 0.2-100 nm) body of ZVM (entrained in the circulating water) may be used to catalytically remove specific components, or act as nuclei for crystal growth for ion removal from the water (7), or undertake specific catalytic reactions; c. one or more static bodies of ZVM (10) may be used to manufacture one or more of ZVM TP, ZVM TPG or to focus on removaL of specific contaminants; 2. the reactor (15) to maximise the rate of cation and anion pollutant removal from the water by providing [in the water body (7)) nano-nuclei and surfhces for cation and anion precipitants to ciystalise on. The shape of the crystallites can be a ifinction of temperature. The size of the crystallites increases with treatment time.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The various construction elements (including optional elements) associated with the reactor (15) are schematically illustrated in Figures 1 a to is. Arrows are used on the diagrams to schematically represent the principal fluid flow directions present in the reactor (15).

REACTOR (15): FLUID FLOW DIRECTION NOTATION ON ThE SChEMATIC DRAWINGS The reactor (15) is constructed from one (Figure Ia) or more vessels (Figure Ib) containing water (7). hi this specification the arrows, and notations [A], [B], [C] and [D], are used on the schematic drawings to identi1' the principal directions of fluid flow within a vessel (e.g. (4) Figure Ia). or the principal directions of fluid flow represented by a specific vessel (4), (1), or conduit (2), (3), when a gas is fed into the reactor (15) (e.g. Figure Ib). Diffusion flows between the water body (7) and ZVM (10) are provided with the notation (774). Diffusion flows include water, gases, particles and ions which are periodically ejected from the ZVM (10) into the water.

Arrows are also used on the schematic drawings to indicate the principal direction of fluid flow associated with specific conduits (6), (9), (11), (12) which add, or remove, fluids from the reactor (15).

I. The notation [A] represents areas (or regions) of the reactor (15) where the net water flow direction is downward; 2. The notation [B] represents areas (or regions) of the reactor (15) where the net water flow direction is lateral from an area (or region) where the net flow is downward to an area (or region) where the net flow is upward; 3. The notation [C] represents areas (or regions) of the reactor (15) where the net water flow direction is upward; 4. The notation [D] represents areas (or regions) of the reactor (15) where the net water flow direction is lateral from an area (or region) where the net flow is upward to an area (or region) where the net flow is downward.

REACTOR (15): STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS: GAS FEED AND DISCHARGE The reactor (15) is constructed from one or more vessels where at least one vessel [a gas bubbling vessel] (4) contains (Figure 1 a, I b): I) one or more gas distributors (8) (Figure Ia; Ib) fed by one or more gas feed conduits (6) (Figure la; lb); and 2) a gas-water contact (5) (Figure lalb); and 3) a gas body (700) (Figure la; Ib); the gas body (700) overlies the gas-water contact (5); and 4) one or more gas discharge conduits (9) (Figure Ia; 1 b); which remove gas contained in the gas body (700) from the reactor (15); and 5) the cross-sectional area of the apertures of the gas distributors (8) is less than 30% of the internal cross-sectional area of the reactor; In the preferred embodiments the apertures of the gas distributors (8) are less than 10% of the internal cross-sectional area of the reactor (15); and 6) one or more valves (40) (Figure 1a4 lb) are present on the gas feed conduits (6); the valves (40) control the gas flow rate into the reactor (15); and 7) one or more valves (40) (Figure la; Ib) are present on the gas discharge conduits (9); the valves (40) control the gas flow rate out of the reactor (15), and can be used to control the pressure of the gas body (700).

REACTOR (15): ZVM: DIFFUSION OPERATION The reactor (15) contains zero valent metals [ZVMJ (10) (Figure Ia, Ib): 1) water diffuses (774) into and out of the ZVM (10) from the water body (7); and 2) ions diffuse (774) into and out of the ZVM (10) from the water body (7); and 3) gas diffuses (774) into and out of the ZVM (10) from the water body (7); and 4) one or more of gas (e.g. Hi), water, ZVM (10) particles, dissolved ZVM (10) and ions are ejected (774) from the ZVM (10) into the water body (7).

REACTOR (15): WATER ADDITION AND REMOVAL The reactor (15) contains a mechanism (Figure Ia, lb) which allows water (7) to be added to the reactor (15) and water (7) to be removed from the reactor (15), where: (1) one or more water inflow conduits (11) (Figure Ia, Ib) allow water to be added to the reactor (IS); and (2) one or more water outflow conduits (12) (Figure Ia, Ib) allow water to be removed from the reactor (15); and (3) the water inflow conduits (11) and water outflow conduits (12) are positioned (Figure Ia, lb) to ensure that water (7) entering and leaving the reactor (15) is not drawn through the [ZVM] (10); and (4) one or more valves (213) (Figure Ia, Ib) are present on the water feed conduits (II); the valves (213) control the water flow rate into the reactor (iS); and (5) one or more valves (213) (Figure la, ib) are present on the water outflow conduits (12); the valves (213) control the water flow rate out of the reactor (15) and may control the elevation of the gas-water contact(s) (5).

REACTOR (15): GAS DISTRIBUTOR POSITIONING Each reactor (15) contains (Figure Ia, lb) one or more gas distributors (8) where: I) the gas distributors (8) are positioned (Figure la, ib) to ensure that gas entering and leaving the reactor (15)is not drawn through the [ZVMI (10); and 2) the gas distributors (8) are positioned (Figure in, Ib) to ensure that flowing water (7) within the reactor (IS) is not drawn through the [ZVM] (10) as part of the reactors (IS) water circulation pattern; and 3) the gas flow from the gas distributor(s) (8) (Figure Ia, Ib) drives a circulation pattern within the water body (7). where water (7) rises with the flowing gas.

REACTOR (15): ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS WHEN THE REACTOR (15)IS CONSTRUCTED FROM A SINGLE

VESSEL

The reactor (15) can be constructed from a single vessel (Figure Ia). or two or more vessels (Figureib). When the reactor (15) is constructed from a single vessel (Figure la) then the gas flow from the gas distributor(s) (8) drives a circulation pattern within the water (7) where the reactor (15) contains: 1) a rising water mass [notation [C] (Figure Ia)]; the rising water mass rises with the gas bubbles; and 2) a descending water mass [notation [A] (Figure Ia)]; and 3) a body of water which moves laterally from the rising water mass [C] to the descending water mass [A] [notation [D] (Figure Ia)]; and 4) a body of water which moves laterally from the descending water mass [A] to the rising water mass [C] [notation [B] (Figure La)]; and 5) removable (or mobile, or adjustable, or permanent) barnes (containing upper and lower conduitslopeningslperforations)(850) (Figure Ic. I d), when present, formalise the division between the principal upward flowing water body [C] and the principal downward flowing water body [Al.

REACTOR (15): ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS WHEN THE REACTOR (15) Is CONSTRUCTED FROM TWO OR MORE

VESSELS

When the reactor (15) is constructed from more than one vessel (Figure ib), the gas flow from the gas distributor(s) (8) drives a circulation pattern where water (7) rises with the flowing gas and is progressively circulated around the reactor (15) before returning to the gas bubbling vessel (4). The reactor (l5)is constructed to contain: I) one or more [gas bubbling vesselsl (4) (Figure Ib) and one or more [water storage vesselsi (I) (Figure ib), connected by one or more upper conduits (2) (Figure Ib) and one or more lower conduits (3) (Figure lb); and a) the [gas bubbling vessels] (4) contain principally upwardly flowing water volumes (notation [C] Figure Ib); and b) the [water storage vessels] (1) contain principally downward flowing water volumes (notation [A] Figure ib); and c) when the [gas bubbling vessels] (4) are constructed to contain slack water they will contain some downward flowing water volumes (notation [A]. Figure Ic) and some laterally flowing water (notation [B] and notation [D] (Figure le)).

REACTOR (15): GAS BUBBLING VESSELS (4)-WHEN THE REACTOR (15)15 CONSTRUCTED FROM TWO OR

MORE VESSELS

Each [gas bubbling vessell (4) contains a gas body (700) and a gas-water contact (5) (Figure lb); and I) each [gas bubbling vessel] (4) has one or more upper conduits (2) (located at an elevation which is below the gas-water contact (5)) (Figure Ib); where a) the upper conduits (2) are used to laterally transport, or circulate, (notation [Dl Figure Ib) upwardly flowing water (notation [C], Figure 1 b)) from the [gas bubbling vessel] (4) to one or more [water storage vessels] (1) (Figure I b); and b) the upper conduits (2) are positioned to ensure that water (7) is not drawn through the [ZVM] (10) (e.g. Figure 1 b); and 2) each [gas bubbling vessel] (4) has one or more lower conduits (3) (located at an elevation which is below the gas-water contact (5) and below the upper conduit(s)) (2) (Figure ib); where a) one or more lower conduit(s) (3) are located at an elevation above the gas distributor(s) (8), or below the gas distributor(s) (8), or a combination thereof (e.g. Figure lb); and b) the lower conduits (3) are used to transport water (7) from one or more [water storage vessels] (1) to one or more [gas bubbling vessels] (4) (Figure Ib); and c) the lower conduits (3) are positioned to ensure that the circulating water (7) is not drawn through the [ZVNfl (10) (Figure I b).

REACTOR (15): WATER STORAGE VESSELS (1)-WHEN THE REACTOR (15)IS CONSTRUCTED FROM TWO OR

MORE VESSELS

Each [water storage vessel] (I) contains one or more water inflow conduits (2) which receive water (7) (directly or indirectly) discharged from a [gas bubbling vessel] (4) (Figure Ib); where 1) each [water storage vessel] (1) contains one or more water outflow conduits (3) which (directly or indirectly) return water (7) to a [gas bubbling vessel] (4) (Figure Ib); and 2) a [water storage vessel] (1) can be constructed and operated (Figure If) to contain a gas body (851) and a gas-water contact (852); One or more optional conduits (853) controlled by one or more optional valves (40) can be used to allow gas to leave the reactor (15), or enter the gas body (851); the gas body (851) can include gas components discharged from one or more of the water body (7) and ZVM (10). In some embodiments a gas body (851) will form during reactor (15) operation. Conduit (853) can be optionally connected to conduit (9).

REACTOR (15); CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS -MAXIMUM ELEVATION OF GAS-WATER CONTACT A mechanism is present (or a method is used) to limit, or control, the maximum elevation of the gas-water contact (s) (5) when the reactor (15) is filled with water (7): I) in some embodiments (e.g. Figure Ib) the mechanism is one or more overflow [or limit] drains/conduits (1500) controlled by one or more valves (213) located on one or more of conduits (2), (3), vessels (1), (4); 2) in some embodiments, (e.g. Figure la) a conduit (12) is used to control the initial position of the gas-water contact (s) (5), (852) when the reactor (15) is filled with water (7).

REACTOR (15): CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS -MINIMUM ELEVATION OF GAS-WATER CONTACT A mechanism can be present (or a method can be used) to limit, or control, the minimum elevation of the gas-water contact (s) ((5) (Figure Ib), (852) (Figure If)) during reactor (15) operation (e.g. controlled addition of makeup water through conduits (11), (1500) (Figure Ib)). When the gas-water contact (5) elevation reduces below the elevation of the conduit (2), the principal circulating water body (7) is confined to the [gas bubbling vessels] (4), and the principal flow mechanism (in the water body (7)) between the [water storage vessels] (1) and the [gas bubbling vesselsJ (4) via conduits (3) is by diffusion.

REACTOR (15): OPERATION ELEMENTS -FLOW MECHANISM WHEN GAS FLOW IS SWITCH OFF When the reactor (15) is constructed from more than one vessel (Figure 1 b) and is operated with no gas discharge through the distributor (8) [and optional circulation pumps (933) (Figure ln) are either absent, or switched 0111: 1. the principal flow mechanism (in the water body (7)) between the [water storage vessels] (1) and the [gas bubbling vessels] (4) via conduits (2), (3) is difl'usion; 2. the principal flow mechanism between the water body (7) and gas body (700) is diffusion.

When the reactor (15) is constructed from a single vessel (Figure Ia) and is operated with no gas discharge through the distributor (8), the principal flow mechanisms (in the water body (7)) are diffusion between the water body (7) and ZVM (10) and between the water body (7) and gas body (700).

REACTOR (15): OPERATION ELEMENTS -FEED GAS FLOW RATES The reactor (15) is operated with a constant gas flow, or a variable gas flow, or an intermittent gas flow, or an episodic gas flow, or no gas flow (following an initial charge), or a combination thereof REACTOR (IS): OPERATION ELEMENTS -FEED WATER FLOW RATES The reactor (15) is operated with a constant water flow, or a variable water flow, or an intermittent water flow, or an episodic water flow, or no water flow (following an initial charge), or a combination thereof. Makeup water can be added to the reactor (15) as required.

REACTOR (15); ACCESS FOR MAINTENANCE The reactor (15) (optionally) contains one or more access point(s) to allow one or more of the conduits (2), (3), water storage vessel(s) (I) and gas bubbling vessel(s) (4) to be drained, cleaned, and maintained.

REACTOR (15): OPERATING TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES, The reactor (15) is operated with a gas pressure (relative to atmospheric pressure) of-b bar (-1 MPa) to 220 bar (22 MPa) and a water body (7) temperature within the range -70 C (203 K) to 374 C (647 K)); where I) the majority of the water body (7) is maintained in a liquid phase, or a solid phase, or a combination thereof; 2) temperatures and pressures can be constant, or can be varied with time; 3) different temperatures can be present in different parts of the reactor (15).

REACTOR (15): DIABATIC OPERATION The reactor (15) exchanges heat with the external environment, and I) during reactor (15) operation: a) the water (7) temperatures are maintained at a constant temperature, at any given time, throughout the reactor (15), or different temperatures are present in the water (7) in different parts of the reactor (15) at any given time, or a combination thereof; and b) the water (7) temperatures remain constant with time, or are varied with time, or are maintained at a constant temperature before being varied with time, or vice versa; and c) the temperature of the ZVM (10) can be higher than, or lower than, or the same as the temperature in all or part of the water (7); and d) the temperature of the gas bodies (700), (851) can be higher than, or lower than, or the same as the temperature in all or part of the water (7); and 2) the reactor walls over all, or part, of the reactor (15) act as heat exchange surthces; and 3) none, all, or part, of the reactor (15) is insulated.

REACTOR (15): ZVM PARTICLE SIZE AND OPERATING REQUIREMENTS The reactor (15) requires separate feeds of ZVM (10), water (7) and gas where: i) the reactor (15) is constructed to allow ZVM (10) to be added to the reactor (15), or removed from the reactor (15), when it is otiline (and optionally when it is online); and ii) all or part of the ZVM (10) can be replaced, or substituted, by one or more of ZVM TP and ZVM TPG. ZVM IV includes entrained nano-particles and colloids which form in the water (7); and iii) the particle size for all ZVM (10) components is between 0.01 nm and 200 mm, with the exception of metal wool components [where a strand of wool can exceed I in in length provided its diameter is <1 mm]. bales of metal wool, and support structures containing (or impregnated with) ZVM, Their dimensions can exceed 200 mm x 200 mm x 200 mm; and (1) the reactor (15) can be operated with more than one feed of ZVM (10); and each ZVM (10) feed can have different particle sizes and different compositions; and (2) the reactor (15) is operated with one or more static bodies of ZVM (10); and (3) the reactor (15) can be operated with one or more static bodies of ZVM (10) and entrained (or fluidised) ZVM (10) contained within the water body (10), where the static bodies of ZVM (10) and entrained (or fluidised) ZVM (10) can have: (a) the same particle size, or different particle sizes; and (b) the same composition, or different compositions; and part of the static body of ZVM (10) has become entrained in the water body (7), or the reactor (15) contains one or more static bodies of ZVM (10) (part of which may be entrained in the water body (7)) and one or more separate ZVM (10) bodies which are designed to become entrained within a circulating water body (7); or a combination thereof.

REACTOR (15): ZVM PLACEMENT WITHIN THE REACTOR (15) The ZVM (10) is present (Figure ig) within the body of the reactor (15) (Figure 1; ib), or in one or more of cartridges or modules (which are either attached to the reactor (15), or attached to a manifold (900)), or a combination thereof REACTOR (15): PLACEMENT OF PARTICULATE ZVM (10) WITHIN THE GAS BUBBLING VESSEL (4) Particulate ZVM (10) can be placed in any part of the reactor (15) where circulating water will not flow directly through the ZYM (10) and gas discharged from the gas distributors (8) will not flow directly through the ZVM (10). The particulate ZVM (10) can be placed in a gas bubbling vessel (4) (Figure la), or a water storage vessel (1) (Figure ib), or a combination thereof A particulate ZVM (10) body located in the gas bubbling vessel (4) is placed at an elevation which is below the elevation of the gas distributor (8) (e.g. Figure Ia). The ZVM-water contact (801) (e.g. Figure Ia) of the static ZVM (10) body is also below the elevation of the gas distributor (8).

REACTOR (15): ZYM PLACEMENT WITHIN REACTOR (15) IN ONE OR MORE CARTRIDGES A cartridge is a hollow container which has been filled, or has been partially filled, with one or more of ZVM (10), ZVM TP and ZVM TPG (Figure Is). Each cartridge has at least one opening, or permeable surface, which allows water (7) contained in the reactor (15) to enter the cartridge (Figure Is). A cartridge can be constructed as a sheathed pellet (e.g. a cylindrical tube (or container) with open or sealed ends) (Figure Is). Cartridges placed in the reactor (15) are given the notation (901) (Figure Ig).

Cartridges which are attached to the reactor (15) are given the notation (902) (Figure 1 g). Cartridges which are attached to a manifold (900) are given the notation (922) (Figure 1 b). Cartridges which form part of a module (951) are given the notation (922) (Figure lh).

Cartridges (901), (902), when present are placed in the reactor (IS), or are attached to one or more parts of the reactor (15) (Figure Ig); and I) cartridges (901). (902) containing ZVM (10) which are designed to manufacture ZVM IF (or treat water (7)) are attached to (or placed in, or a combination thereof) one or more of conduits (2), (3) and vessels (1), (4) at an elevation which is below the initial gas-water contact(s) (5). (852); and 2) cartridges (901), (902) containing ZVM (10) which are designed to manufacture ZVM TIN) are attached to (or placed in, or a combination thereof) one or more of conduits (2), (3) and vessels (I), (4) at an elevation which is above the initial gas-water contact(s) (5), (852), or are attached to (or placed in, or a combination thereof) one or more of conduits (6), (9).

Permeable containers/cartridges!pellets (901) containing ZVM (10), are positioned to ensure that circulating water and circulating gas do not flow directly through the ZVM (10). Pellets can be sheathed. Sheathed pellets (or capsules) can be constructed as open ended structures. Sheathed pellets can have a permeable sheath, or an impermeable sheath, or a combination thereof.

REACTOR (15): ZVM PLACEMENT WITHIN REACTOR (15) IN ONE OR MORE MANIFOLDS A manifold (900) is a conduit (Figure Ig, lh, li) which is attached to one or more parts of the reactor (15).

Manifolds (900) containing ZVM (10) which are designed to manufacture ZVM IF (or treat water (7)) are attached to one or more of conduits (2), (3) and vessels (I), (4) at an elevation which is below the initial gas-water contact(s) (5), (852).

Manifolds (900) containing ZVM (10) which are designed to manufacture ZVM TPG (or treat gas (700)) are attached to one or more of conduits (2), (3) and vessels (1), (4) at an elevation which is above the initial gas-water contact(s) (5), (852), or are attached to (or placed in, or a combination thereof) one or more of conduits (6), (9).

The manifold (900) can be used to reduce one or more of ZVM, ZVM TP, ZVM TPG when the feed gas contains one or more of H2, CR1, C,H, CO. NH3, or the ZVM (10) generates one or more of 112, Cl-I4, Cj-1,,, CO. Nil3 within the manifold (900). or a combination thereof.

The manifold (900) can be used to undertake chemisorption, or passivation, of one or more of ZVM, ZVM TI', ZVM T1'C3 when the feed gas contains one or more of 02, Cl-I4, Cjl, CO. Nil3, CO2.

REACTOR (15): MANIFOLD CONSTRUCTION A manifold (900) is attached to a single reactor (15), or the manifold (900) is attached to two or more reactors (15), or two or more parts of the same reactor (15), or a combination thereof; (Figure lh). One or more isolation valves (923) are present on the manifold (900). The isolation valves (923) (Figure lh) control fluid movement between the reactor (15) and the manifold (900).

One or more modules (951). cartridges (922) containing ZVM (10) are attached to a manifold (900) (Figure lh). A module (951) is a unit containing one or more cartridges (922) containing ZVM (10) (Figure Ih, Ii).

Each module (951), cartridge (922) is structured with, or without, one or more access points (Figure 1 h, Ii). The access points allow ZVM (10). or water (7), or another fluid to enter into, or be removed from, the container/cartridg&vessel/conduit (922). The access point(s), when present, are covered/seaLed with a plug/blanking plate (950), or a conduit/drain (925) controlled by one or more valves (924).

One or more valves (923) are optionally present to isolate the modules (951), cartridges (922) from the manifold (900) (Figure lh, Ii). The manifold (900) may contain: I. one or more fluid entry/drain conduits (925) controlled by one or more valves (924) (Figure lh); and 2. one or more fluid (e.g. gas, cleaning fluid, etc) discharge conduits (927) control]ed by one or more valves (926) (Figure lh).

One or more isolation valves (923) are positioned to allow the modules (951) and containers (922) to be changed while the reactor (15) is in operation, or contains water (7), or contains gas (700) (Figure lh).

REACTOR (15): OPERATION OF A MANIFOLD Manifolds (900) allow the reactor (15) to treat/process water (7) and process gas. The rcactor (15) can usc onc or morc manifolds (900) to manufacture: 1. ZVM TPG (e.g. Figure lh, ii) by connection of the manifold (900)10 one or more of conduits (6). (9), or to one or more of vessels (1), (4) [where the manifold (900) is connected to the vessel (1), (4) at an elevation which is above the gas-water contact (5), (852)], or a combination thereof; 2. ZVM T1'GL by connection of the manifold (900) (Figure lh) to one or more of conduits (2). (3), vessels (1), (4) when the modules (951), cartridges (922) contain ZVM TPG at an elevation which is below the gas-water contact(S), (852) (Figure Ia -If); 3. ZVM TP by connection of the manifold (900) to one or more of conduits (2), (3), vessels (1), (4) when the modules (951), cartridges (922) contain ZVM (10) (Figure Ih); 4. reduced ZVM (10), or ZVM TP, by connection of the manifold (900) to one or more of conduits (6), (9) when the cartridges (922) contain ZVM (10) or ZVM TP, and the conduits (6), (9) contain a reducing gas selected from one or more of CO. 1-12, Cl4, Cj-I, Nil4 (Figure Ib, Ii); 5. high pressure hydrogen (<22 MPa) from water (7), when the manifold (900) is connected to one or more of conduits (2), (3).

vessels (I), (4), and a. the modules (951), cartridges (922) contain ZVM (10), and b. the valves (40) on conduits (6), (9) are closed (Figure la, Ib), or are used to control the rate of product gas (12) discharge through conduit (9), and c. the temperature of the ZVM (10) and water (7) contained in the cartridge (922) or module (951) is raised to between 0 C (273 K) and 374 C (647 K), and d. the valve (40) on conduit (9) (Figure Ia, I b) is opened to release the high pressure H2 (g). The reactor (15) or gas (700) temperature can be lowered to less than 100 C prior to opening valve (40) on conduit (9), and e. passage of a reducing gas through the reactor (15) will reduce mFeO1-I and allow the hydrogen generation cycle to be repeated.

REACTOR (15): ZYM (10) COMPOSITION The ZVM (10) must contain Fe°. The ZVM (10) is constructed from three components, p[ZVM] + q[ion adducts] + r[other rnaterialj; where [p+ q+rJ =lOOwt%; and l0Owt%»= [p]»=5 wt%; 95wt%»=[q] »=Owt%; 95 wt%»=[r]»=Owt%; where 1) pIZVMI aFe° + bCu° -4-cAl° + d[Other metals, metalloids, non-metals]; subject to: 100 wt% a [a] aS wt%; 95 wt% »= [b] »=0 wt%; 95 wt%? [c] »=0 wt%; 20 wt% a [d] »=O wt%; [a+b+c+d] =100 wt%; d = one or more of Ag, Au, As, Ba, Be, Hi, C, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Ga, Ge, H± Hg, In, Ir, K, La, Li, Md, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Ni, Pb, Pd, Po, Pt, Rb, Re, Rh, Ru, Sc, Sr, Ta, Tc, Te, Th, Ti, TI, U, V, W, Zn, Zr. Many commercially available aFe° + bCu° + cAl° powders and particles also contain a small amount of one or more of other metal cations, carbon, Si, 0, and other elements. These components, when present, form part of aFe0 + bCu° + cAl°. The ZVM (Fe°) particles can optionally be constructed from one or more of compact iron particles, a composite iron matrix, porous/permeable iron, or porous/permeable iron composites, or porous/permeable particles, or a combination thereof; 2) q[ion ariducts]: one or more oxides, hydroxides, peroxides, halides, perchlorates, phosphates, sulphates, sulphides, nitrates, carbonates, bicarbonates of Ac, Ag, Al, Am, As, Au, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Cm, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, If, Hg, Ho, In, Ir, K, La, Li, Lu, Md, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Nd, Ni, Np, Os, Pa, Pb, Pr, Pu, Po, Re, Rb, Rh, Ru, Sb, Sc, Sr, Ta, Th, Tc, Te, Tb, TI, Tm, U, V. W, Y, Th, Zn, Zr, including polyoxometalates (POM's); 3) r[other material]: one or more of clays, quartz, organic chemicals, coal, carbon, sand, silica gel, silicates, zeolites, ion exchange mnterial.

REACTOR (15): pIZYMI SUPPORT When the p[ZVM] particles are placed on a support (or crystallised onto/into a support) the weight of p[ZVMI present is calculated to mclude the weight of the support. The p[ZVM] particles can be unsupported. For example, if the ZVM (10) comprises 90% r[Other Material] + 5% q[ion adducts] + 5% p[ZVM], the 5% p[ZVM] can be constructed as particles having the composition Fe,Support,,, where the weight ratio of Fe, to Support is greater than 0.5 wt % Fe°: 99.5 wt % Support.

Suitable solid support materials include, but are not limited to: diatomite, silica, silicates, polystyrene, polymers, resin polymers, resins, plastics, kieselguhr, organic/inorganic membranes, carbon nanotubes (CNT's), carbon nanofibres, fullerines, conductive oxides (e.g. Ti, Sn, W oxides, etc.) CaCO3, MgCO3, carbides (Fe, W, Ni, Co. Cu, Al, etc.), sulphur, sulphur oxides, sulphides, charcoal, coal, graphite, carbon black, carbides, oxides, carbonates, clays, alumina (A1203), ceramic (monoliths, membranes), BaSO4, metals, zeolites. Suitable soluble, or semi-soluble, or hygroscopic support material include, but are not limited to: polyamines, dicyandiarnide resins (DMD), polyaciylaminides, resin amines, hydrogels, polyvinylpyrolidone (PVP), glycerol, montmorillonite, clays, soluble polymers, cellulose, nylon, polycarbonate, magnesium chloride, titanium chloride, aluminum chloride, etc. REACTOR (15): ZYM (19) CORROSION PRODUCTS n-FeOOH (and n-FeOFI2) crystallites formed in the water (7) will crystallize in the water (7) and on any suitable support in the water (7). Placement of soluble (or insoluble) support material in the reactor, or water storage vessel used to rest the water during crystallization, or a combination thereof, allows the reactor (15) to produce ZVM (and ZVM TP) which can be used for a variety of processes. The n-FeOOH crystallites incorporate other cations (and some anions) present in the water, and added to the water by the ZVM (10).

REACTOR (15): ZYM (10), ZVM TP, ZVM TPG ZVM (10) can be replaced, or partially replaced, in the reactor (15) by one or more of ZVM TP and ZVM TPG. The reactor (15) is operated with one or more of continuous, discontinuous, variable, episodic, periodic feeds of ZVM (10), and one or more of continuous, discontinuous, variable, episodic, periodic removal of product ZVM TP, product ZVM TPG and product ZVM TPGL.

REACTOR (15): FEED GAS COMPOSITION The feed gas is derived from any source and contains one or more of air, hydrocarbons, organic chemicals, 112, FI2S, N2, C02, CO.

02, 03, NH3, air, SO2, SO3, NO2, NO,,, N,,O1, Br2, Cl2, 12, F2. The feed gas can contain other gas species. The feed gas can include product gas from conduit (9) which is recycled to conduit (6).

REACTOR (15): FEED WATER COMPOSITION The feed water is derived from any source. The water composition limits for the feed water (as H20) are p1-I = -2 to 20; Eh +1.0 V to -1.0 V; EC 0 to >1400 mScm' (TDS = 0 ->1000 g L').

Ion adducts [such as Fe[Halogen],,, or M[Halogen],,, M[SXOY]Z, M[NXO]Z, M[P,,0],, MNXHY]Z, organic compounds, etc.] can be added to the water, or can be present in the water. M one or more of Ag, Au, As, Ba, Be, Bi, C, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Ga, Ge, Hf, Hg, In, Ir, K, La, Li, Md, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Ni, Pb, Pd, Po, Pt, Rb, Re, Rh, Ru, Sc, Sr, Ta, Tc, Te, Th, Ti, TI, U, V. W, Zn, Zr. Chemicals can be added to the water (7). Reagents and catalysts can optionally be added to the water (7) to assist with water treatment nano-ZVM (n-ZVM) particles present in the water (7) will act as remediationlreduction agents within the water (7). The reactor (15) can be used to undertake Fenton reactions and Fenton like reactions in the water when one or more of H202, or O,,, or H02 is present. Chemisorption of CO gas [or another gas] of' the n-ZVM entrained in the water (7) (and ZVM (10)) is achieved by bubbling CO gas [or another gas, e.g. 2, 0, air, CO,,, SO,,, N,,O, NH3, CF!4. cu, etc.] through the distributor (8).

In some embodiments the reactor (15) will rinse (or wash), or reduce, or treat/process one or more of precipitated products, ZVM (10), ZVM TP, ZVM TPG, within the reactor (15) using liquids which do not contain water.

REACTOR (15): GAS-WATER CONTACT A simple gas-water contact (5) (Figure in) will, when the water (7) contains one or more less dense immiscible liquids (e.g. hydrocarbons) (555), be replaced by a composite gas-water contact comprising an immiscible liquid (555), separated from the water (7) by a water-immiscible liquid contact (556), and separated from the gas (700) by a gas-immiscible liquid contact (557) (e.g. Figure lj).

When an immiscible liquid (558) is present which is denser than the water (7) (e.g. Figure 1k), or a lighter immiscible liquid (555) becomes denser than the water (7) during treatment (i.e. is transformed from a light immiscible liquid (555) to a denser immiscible liquid (558)), the denser liquid can settle on the ZVM-water contact (801) (Figure Ia), and may percolate into the ZVM (16) body.

The reactor (15) can contain more than one immiscible liquid (555) which has a lower density than water (7). The reactor (15) can contain more than one immiscible liquid (558) which has a higher density than water (7). An immiscible liquid with a similar density to the water (7) can become suspended within the water column (7).

All references to a gas-water contact (5) in this specification refer to: I. a simple gas-water contact (5) where no immiscible liquid (555) is present, and 2. a complex gas-water contact(S) where an immiscible liquid (555) is present over part, or all, of the upper surface of the water (7).

Layers of ZVM/ZVM TP (10) can accumulate at the contacts: IGas (700): water (7)](5) (Figure Ia); [water (7): Tow density immiscible liquid (555)] (556) (Figure lj). [gas (700): low density immiscible liquid (555)] (557) (Figure 1k), [water (7): high density immiscible liquid (55S) (560) (Figure 1k). and [ZVM (10): high density immiscible liquid (558)] (559) (Figure 1k).

REACTOR (15): MULTIPLE REACTORS Multiplc rcactors (15) are operated independently, or in series, or in parallel, or a combination thereof (e.g. Figure 11). Gas is removed (or added) to the conduits (6), (9) through one or more optional conduits (31) located between the reactors (15) (Figure II). Placing one or more conduits (30) linking the reactor(s) (15) at an elevation which is below the elevation of the gas-water contacts (5), cnn reduce the feed gas pressure in the upstream conduit (6) which is required to allow gas to flow through the water bodies (7) in each reactor (15) and discharge as product gas through the downstream conduit (9) (Figure II).

REACTORS (20): REACTORS WHICH DO NOT CONTAIN ZVM A reactor (15) which is constructed without ZVM (10), and receives a gas feed, either directly. or indirectly, through conduit (6) from the conduit (9) of one or more reactors (IS) containing ZVM (10), is termed reactor (20). Figure lm illustrates a reactor (20) positioned downstream of a reactor (15).

REACTORS (15): REACTORS WhERE ZVM (10) HAS BEEN REMOVED A reactor (15) constructed and operated with ZVM (10) where the water treatment/processing operation is continued following disconnectionlremoval of a ZVM (10) containing cartridge (922), or module (951), or manifold (900) (Figure ih) is termed a reactor (IS).

MODULAR REACTORS

The reactor (15) can be constructed as a single unit (e.g. Figure Ia, Ib), or a series of independent reactors (15), (20) linked by gas conduits (6), (9) [without conduit (30)], or a series of independent reactors (15), (20) linked by gas conduits (6), (9) and water filled conduits (30) (e.g. Figure 11, Im), or as a series of interlinked modules, which can incorporate existing infrastructure (e.g. water tanks, ponds, etc.) (e.g. Figure In), or as a series of interlinked transportable modules, or a combination thereof.

Figure In demonstrates the following example modular structure: I) A module(s) (951) attached to a water storage module (960) by a manifold (900); 2) the water storage module (960) receives fresh water charge through one or more conduits (11) from a water source module (961), and receives circulating water through conduit (2) and discharges circulating water through conduit (3). The water storage module (960) contains one or more water storage vessels (1); 3) the water source module(s)(961) contains one or more water bodies (929) requiring treatment. An optional pump (928) may be required to transfer water from the water body (929) to the water storage module (960) through conduit (11); 4) the first energy transfer module (962), when present, receives water from the water storage module (960) through conduit (3).

This module (962) contains one or more of optional heat exchangers (701) and can contain one or more optional pumps (933); 5) the gas bubbling module (963) receives water from the energy transfer module (962) through conduit (3). This module (963) contains one or more gas bubbling vessels (4); 6) the second energy transfer module (964), when present, contains one or more of optional heat exchangers (702), and can contain one or more optional pumps (933). The pump(s) (933) may be required to transfer water through conduit (2) to the water storage module (960), or via conduit (12) to one or more of the water source module (961) and a separate finished water destination module (965); 7) the finished water destination module (965) can contain one or more one or more optional water storage units (930); 8) gas feed module: The gas feed (6) and gas discharge (9) conduits may contain one or more optional heat exchangers (931), and may be fed by an optional pressured gas storage unit (932) which receives compressed gas via an optional compressor/blower (934) or from another pressurised gas source.

Optional drain conduits (915) controlled by one or more optional valves (924) are suitably located to allow for access and maintenance.

REACTOR (15): HEAT EXCHANGERS Heat exchangers (Figures In, I o) can be used to add, or remove, heat from all or part of the reactor (15), or a combination thereof.

For example:

1) heat exchangers (701). (702) can be placed on (or in) one or more of conduits (2), (3) (e.g. Figures in, lo). In this specification heat exchangers placed on conduit (2) are given the notation (702) and heat exchangers placed on conduit (3) are given the notation (701) (e.g. Figure lo); 2) heat exchangers can be placed on (or in) one or more vessels (1), (4), (929), (930), manifolds (900), modules (951), containers/cartridges (902), (922); 3) heat exchangers (931) can be placed (Figure In) on the gas feed conduit (6) to deliver gas at a temperature which is greater than, or less than the temperature of the water (7). This flexibility allows the reactor (15) to undertake temperature dependent water treatment operations and to fluctuate temperatures to assist in the removal of ions; 4) any suitable type of heat exchanger can be used. One or more different types of heat exchanger can be present.

REACTOR (15): TREATMENT TYPE Water enters the reactor (15) for: batch treatment, continuous treatment, and as makeup feedstock, or a combination thereof REACTOR (15): FOAMING AND WATER SLUGS The gas-water contact(S) in the gas bubbling vessels (4) can develop a foam like structure, and in some embodiments slugs of water (7) may leave the reactor (15) with the gas in conduit (9). A gas-water separator (50) can be used to extract water contained in the gas discharged through conduit (9) (Figure 1 o). The recovered water can be returned to the reactor (15) through one or more conduits (51), controlled by one or more valves (52). The water depleted product gas is discharged from the separator (50) through one or more conduits (60). controlled by one or more valves (61).

REACTOR (15): ENTRAINED ZVM, PARTICLES AND COLLOIDS IN THE WATER Entrained (fluidised) ZVM (10) and colloids, when present in the water body (7), result from one or more of: a) ejection of fluid + particle + ion ejection + dissolved ZVM + gas bubbles (e.g. 1i) (774) from the ZYM (10) across the ZVM-water contact (801) into the water body (7) (Figure Ia); Fluids, ions and particles exchanged between the water body (7) and ZVM (10) are given the notation (774) (Figure 1 a); b) precipitation of ions and agglomeration of nano-particles to form larger particles within the water body (7); c) scouring of the ZYM-water contact (801) by thc circulating water (7) (Figures In, lb) resulting in entrainment of ZVM (10) and ZVM corrosion products (e.g. Fe(OH),, FeO, FeOOH) which have formed on (or have settled on) the ZVM-water contact (801). Scouring and settlement on the ZVM-water contact (801) may result in movement and gravity sorting of some ZVM particles. This situation cannot occur in a prior art difThsion reactor; d) small particle size ZVM (10) and ZVM TP placed in the reactor (15), or added to the reactor (15) with the water (7) or as a slurry. Some or all of the small particles can become entrained in the circulating water (7) within the reactor (15). These particles treat the water while the small particles are entraineWtluidised. This situation cannot occur in a prior art diffusion reactor.

REACTOR (15): EJECTION OF FLUIDS AND ZVM INTO THE WATER Ejection of fluids and particles from the ZVM (10) and settlement of particles (including precipitated products) from the water (7) can result in the development of density stratification of the ZYM (10) and the development of laminae within all or part of the ZVM (10) body. Settlement of particles (including precipitated products) from the water (7) can result in accumulations of ZVM (10) and ZVM TP developing within the reactor (15). Fluid ejection can result in the development of a macropore network within the ZVM (10) body.

Ejection of fluids, particles, ions and nano-particles from the ZVM (10) will result in the water body (7) containing entrained (fluidised, or suspended) nano-ZVM (10). The water circulation pattern in the reactor (15) created by gas discharge into the water (7), maximises the time spent by the particles in an entrained (fluidised) state.

REACTOR (15): IMPACT OF ENTRAINED PARTICLES ON WATER REMEDIATION The entrained (fluidised) particles act as nuclei, or collection points, for the removal of cations and anions from the water. This feature of the reactor's (15) operation allows for faster and more efficient pollutant removal, than is possible in a prior art diffusion reactor.

The presence of one or more of entrained nano-ZVM (10) and nano-ZVM TI' in the water body (7) can allow the water Eh, pH, EC and cation/anion concentrations to continue to change in the water body (7) following removal of the ZYM body (10). Unlike the prior art, this feature of the reactor (15) can allow a Z\TM (10) body to be attached to the reactor (15) for a short period, before being removed for use elsewhere. The ZVM (10) and ZVM TI' entrained in the water body (7) continue to operate to remediate the water. Entrained nano particles present in stored product water may continue to alter the Eh, pH and EC of the product water over time.

REACTOR (15): EJECTION OF FLUIDS FROM ZVM TO TIlE GAS-WATER CONTACT In a ditThsion reactor, fluids (water, gas, particles, ions) are periodically ejected from the ZVM body into the water. The ejected particles can reach the gas-water contact (5) and can fonn a layer of particulate matter along the gas-water contact (5). Rising gas bubbles can eject particulate matter into one or more of the gas bodies (700) (851).

REACTOR (15): SETTLEMENT OF PARTICLES ON THE ZVM-WATER CONTACT Settlement of the entrained particles (together with precipitants) can result in the formation of a laminated ZVM-water contact (or zone) (801) overtime. This laminated zone separates the water body (7) from the static ZYM body (10). Diagenetic nodules (and layers) of one or more of FeOOH and Fe(OH) can develop in both the laminated zone (801) and the ZVM body (10).

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

The reactor (15) is constructed from any suitable material (or combination of suitable materials).

HEAT EXCHANGERS

Direct, or indirect, heat exchangers can be placed on any part of the reactor (15) (including containers, manifolds and modules containing ZVM (10)). Indirect heat exchangers can use a heating jacket containing a circulating heating/cooling fluid (e.g. a shell and tube heat exchanger).

REACTOR (15): HEAT EXCHANGERS WHICH CAN ALSO SERVE AS WATER FEED CONI)UITS (11) In some embodiments an indirect heat exchanger may also serve as a conduit (11) where the feed water is heated prior to entry into the reactor (15). A schematic example construction of an indirect shell and tube heat exchanger incorporating a valve (1207) which allows heating water in the shell (1200) to pass into conduit (3) of the reactor (15) is illustrated in Figure lp. In this example the valve (1207), when open, acts as a conduit (11) which allows water to pass from the shell (1200) into conduit (13).

Figure ip [A] schematically illustrates the main elements of a shell and tube heat exchanger constructed from a number of shells (1200), containing: a) access points (1204) (Figure lp) to allow access for drainage, venting and maintenance; b) a heating/cooling fluid entry conduit (1201) (Figure lp); c) a heating/cooling fluid exit conduit (1202) (Figure Ip); d) the fluid entiy and exit conduits (1201. 1202) (Figure Ip) are connected to a feed and return heating module (1600) (e.g. Figure lq) at connection points (1206) (Figure ip); When the heat exchanger (701) contains more than one shell (1200), fluid can optionally be transferred from one shell to another through optional connecting conduits (1203) (Figure Ip); The tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers are constructed as part of conduit (3) (Figure Ip). The heat exchanger entry, and exit, parts of conduits (3) are connected to the principal parts of conduit (3) at connection points (1206) (Figure lp). Optional access points (1205) for maintenance maybe present (Figure Ip). The notation (1206) is used to identi' locations where conduits (3), (1201), and (1202) connect to the heat exchanger.

Figure 1 pIB] schematically illustrates a longitudinal cross section through a simple shell and tube heat exchanger containing a single tube (conduit (3)) and one or more optional valves (1207) which can be used to allow water in the shell (1208) to enter the water body (7) contained in conduit (3).

Figures lp[C] and lp[D] schematically illustrate simple shell and tube heat exchangers fed by conduit (3) which are constructed with (Figure lp[C]), or without (Figure lp[D]) the maintenance access points (1204). Conduit (3) may be present as one or more tubes within the heat exchanger.

REACTOR (15): HEAT EXCHANGE MODULE (1600) Figure In schematically demonstrates that the heat exchangers (701), (702) can be contained in one or more modules (962), (964).

When the heat exchangers (701). (702) are indirect heat exchangers (i.e. receive a heating/cooling fluid from another source), they form part of an indirect heating module (1600) (Figure 1 q).

The optional heating module (1600) (e.g. Figure lq) transfers heat to the reactor (15) using a heat exchanger containing a circulating heating fluid, fed by inflow and outflow conduits (1201), (1202). The circulating heating fluid is heated by a thermostatically controlled direct heat exchanger (1505), where the temperature of the circulating fluid is set by a target temperature, an upper limit temperature, and a lower limit temperature. A pump (1506) is used to circulate fluid between the direct heat exchanger (1505) and the indirect heat exchanger (701) (e.g. Figure lq).

REACTOR (15): GAS FEED MODULE A gas feed can be from any source. A gas feed module (1601) provides a gas to the reactor (15) at the required pressure and flow rate. A schematic example of a gas feed module structure is provided in Figure lq, where a compressor (934) is optionally used to raise the gas pressure to the required level. The pressurised gas is optionally stored in a gas storage tank (932). (las pressure (1503) and flow (1502) meters are used to control the gas flow rate entering the reactor (15) through the distributor (8). Optional gas sample points (1501) are placed on conduits (6), (9).

REACTOR (15): REMOVAL OF PARTICULATE MATERIAL FROM THE WATER (7) The circulating water flow allows one or more in line filters (magnetic and hydrocyclonic, or another type of filter/separator) to be placed on/in one or more of conduits (2), (3), (9), (12), (1500), manifolds (900), vessels (1), (4) to recover one or more of magnetic and non-magnetic particles from the water/gas.

Figure Ir provides an example where: L an optional filter/separator (1700) has been placed on conduit (2); 2. an optional filter/separator (1700) has been placed on conduit (12); 3. an optional filter/separator (1700) has been placed on conduit (9); 4. an optional filter/separator (1701) has been placed on conduit (2); This filter (1701) can be placed on line, or taken off line, while the reactor (15) is in operation. This allows the reactor (15) to be operated to allow periodic removal of entrained particles and nano/micro product precipitants.

One or more in line filters/separators can optionally be placed on one or more of the fluid feed conduits (6), (11). Valves (40), (213) may be present to allow isolated access to the filter/separator (1700), (1701) for maintenance, or to periodically direct the water/gas flow to the separator (1700), (1701).

REACTOR (15): WATER CIRCULATION PATTERN IN THE REACTOR (15) An example multiple vessel reactor (15), incorporating a heating module (1600) and a gas feed module (1601) (Figure lq) can be used to demonstrate the water circulation patterns in the reactor (15), where: 1. feed and makeup water is provided via a water storage tank (929); 2. access points (1504) are placed on the vessels (1), (4).

Operating the reactor from a cold start (e.g. ambient temperatures) where the feed gas in conduit (6)is fed into the reactor (15) at ambient temperatures (Figure 2a) demonstrated: 1. a stable feed gas temperature in conduit (6); 2. a rapid rise in water (7) temperature within the reactor (15) [Figure 2a, Zone [A]] until the required temperature was reached. The reactor (15) was then operated under stable operating conditions [Figure 2a, Zone [B]]. Switching off the pump (1506) and direct heat exchanger (1505) resulted in a gradual cooling of the water (7) [Figure 2a, Zone [C]].

During the period of stable temperature operation [Figure 2a, Zone [B]], the temperature distributions demonstrate that: 1. water (7) heated in conduit (3) is circulated from conduit (3) to vessel (4), and then to conduit (2), and then to vessel (1), before returning to conduit (3); and 2. the circulating water (7) does not circulate through the container (902), and the small temperature rise in the container (902) demonstrates that a diffusion flow occurs between the container (902) and the main circulating water body (7).

PRODUCTS

The reactor (15) is used to make one or more products. These products are one or more of liquid, solid, and gaseous products. It was also discovered (e.g. Figure 2a) that the reactor (15) can be operated as a heat transfer unit where heat (or a cooling fluid) can be transferred (in water (7)) from a lower cLevation to a higher elevation (and vice versa) without requiring that the water (7) is pumped from a lower elevation to a higher elevation. The higher elevation can be <I m to >5000 m above the lower elevation.

DEMONSTRATION OF OPERATION OF A REACTOR (15) INCORPORATING A HEAT EXCHANGER (101) An example multiple vessel reactor (15), incorporating a heating module (1600) and a gas feed module (1601) (Figure lq) operation is as follows: The saline feed water was constructed by adding salt (NaCI) to fresh water: 1. Water Feed: a. Batch 1: Eli = 0.277 V; pl-1 = 7.84; EC 0.272 mScnf + 2.5 g NaCI L1; b. Batch 2: Eli = 0.188 V; pH 7.08; EC 0.239 mScnf' + 2.5 cm3 NaCI U']; 2. Saline water properties in Conduit (12) (after 19 to 24 minutes in the reactor (15)) are: a. Batch 1: Eli = 0.272 V; pH = 7.73; EC = 9.03 mScm" (HM-Digital meter): EC = 10.53 mScnf' (Extech meter): h. Batch 2: Eli 0.188 V; pH =7.40; EC = 12.80 mScm (FIM-Digital meter): EC = 14.74 mScni' (Extech meter)].

Gas feed: gas = air, supplied at a variable rate of 0 -28.5 niL m1 U1, when the pump (1506) and direct heat exchanger (1505) were switched on. At all other times, the gas flow through conduit (6) was switched off.

ZVM (JO) is placed in a container (902). ZTM (10) includes: n-Fe0 (44,000-66,000 nm particle size; 28 g U1) + one or more other ZVM (10) components (44,000 -66,000 nm particle size; 4 g U'); Water Batch I was removed from the Reactor (15) following treatment (4280 minutes) and replaced by Batch 2. Residual water (7) from Batch I was retained in the ZVM (10), container (902).

OFERATING RESULTS

Operating Observations: 1. EC vs. time: Measurements taken using a HIvI-Digital meter calibrated at 10.7 and 2.0 mScnf'] and an Extech meter calibrated at [1.413 and 12.88 mScni']; (Figure 2b); 2. pH [HM-Digital meter calibrated at pH = 7] vs. time; (Figure 2c); 3. Eh [HM-Digital meter calibrated at Eh = 0.093 V] vs. time; (Figure 2d); 4. Eh Vs. PH; (Figure 2e); 5. pH vs. EC; (Figure 2fl; 6. Eli vs. EC; (Figure 2g): 7. Temperature vs. time; (Figure 2h); Air is supplied at ambient temperatures through conduit (6). The reactor was operated without a gas flow at ambient temperatures (<5 C to 12 C) when the heat exchanger (1505) was switched off.

Productwaterremoved through conduit (12): [Water: Batch 1: Eh = 0.167 V; pH = 8.19; EC= 0.544,nScm1; Water: Batch 2: Eli = 0.130 V; pH 8.66; EC 0.556 mScm1].

REMEDIATION IMPLIED BY THE Eh, pH CHANGES IN THE WATER The redox (Eli, pH) changes exhibited by Figure 2e indicate (by reference to Pourbaix, 1974; Takeno, 2005) that the reactor (15) can reduce the concentration in water (7) of Sc, Y, La, Pr, Nd, Pm, Ce, Sm, Eu, (Id, Th, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, U, Np, Am, Pu, V. Cr, Mn, Fe, Co. Ni, Rh, Cu, Ag, Zn, Cd, TI, NO, As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te, ions by precipitation, or reduction. Figures 2b, 2f, 2g indicate that the reactor can be operated to reduce water EC.

GASEOUS PRODUCTS

The reactor (15) can be used to make one or more gaseous products.

REACTOR (15): MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS, WHERE THE PRODUCT GAS COMPOSITION HAS

CHANGED RELATIVE TO FEED GAS COMPOSITION

A manufactured product gas, where the product gas is depleted (reLative to the feed gas) in one or more components (selected from one or more of H2, CO2. Co. 02, 03, 1128, S0,, C1H, [x>0, y = >0]), or enriched (relative to the feed gas) in one or more components (selected from one or more of 2, C02, CO. 02. 03, 1128, 801. 1x>0, y = >0]), or a combination thereof.

Table 1 provides examples of hydrogen generation, hydrocarbon generation and CO2 generation where the feed gas is air. Examples of feed gas component removal and gas component generation (associated with an operating temperature in the range -10 C to 105 C) include: Enrichment of the Product Gas in Hydrogen a) enrichment of 112 -feed gas contains N2, 112, CO, CU4, C02; i) Reactor (15): Figure 3a4 ii) Reactor (20)[1]: Figure 3b; b) enrichment of 112 -feed gas contains N2 + C02; i) Reactor (15): Figure 3c; ii) Reactor (20)[1]: Figure 3d; Formation of H + CO + CH4 associated with CO2 removal from a feed gas containing N2 + CO, a) CO formation; i) Reactor (15): Figure 3e; ii) Reactor (20)[l]: Figure 3f b) CR4 formation; i) Reactor (15): Figure 3g; ii) Reactor (20)[1]: Figure Ski; c) ll2 formation (Table 1); i) Reactor (15): Figure 3i; ii) Reactor (20)[1]: Figure 3j; Formation of 112 + N2 Synthesis Gas associated with CO2 removal from a feed gas containing N2 + CO, 1-12: N2 productgasratios: [H2:N2synthesis gas formationi. TheH2:N2ratio isin therange<0.1:l to>20:1; (1) Reactor (15): Figure 3k; (2) Reactor (20)[1]: Figure 31; Formation of 112 ÷ CO Synthesis Gas associated with CO2 removal from a feed gas containing N2 + CO2 112: CO product gas ratios: [I-12:CO synthesis gas formation] where the 112:C0 ratio is in the range <0.1:1 to >300:1, where the feed gas contains CO2. or CO2 + N2; (1) Reactor (15): Figure 3m; (2) Reactor (20)L1]: Figure 3n; Removal of CO2 from a gas containing C03+ N2 (I) Reactor (15) + Reactor (20)[1]: Figure 3o; (2) Reactor (15): Figure 3p; Removal of CO2 from a gas containing C114 + CO + 112 + CO2+ N2 (1) Reactor (15) + Reactor (20)[l]: Figure 3q; Removal of CO from a gas containing CH4 + CO + H2 + CO2t N2 (1) Reactor (15) + Reactor (20)[I]: Figure 3r; Removal of Cl4 from a gas containing CIII ÷ CO + H2 + C02+ N2 (I) Reactor (15) + Reactor (20)[1]: Figure 3s; Formation of CO + CO2 + CH4 when the feed gas contains Cl4 + CO + H2 + CO2 + N2 (1) Reactor (15): Figure3t; (2) Reactor (20)[1]: Figure 3u; Depletion/enrichment of CH4, CO, C02, and enrichment of H2 (Reactor (15) (Figures 4a to 40-feed gas contains 112, CO, CR, CO2 EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS CONTAINING C2H1 PRODUCTS a) Reactor (15) from gas containing Cl4 + CO + H + CO2 + N2 (Figure 4g); b) Reactor (15) from gas containing CO2 + N2 (Figure 4h).

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS: FORMATION OF 2 ENRICHED GAS, AND REMOVAL OF 02, WHERE THE FEED GAS IS Am a) Reactor (15) (e.g. Figure 41, Table 1); b) Reactor (15): Water (7) contains 18% gasoline (555) by volume; Gas (air) volume (700): Water (7) volume ratio in the reactor= 1:2.9: ZVM(10):water(7)(weigjitratio)= 1:3.7; Gasoline composition: 9.19%C3H3 +21.85% C4H10+ 22.08% C5H12+ 8.53% C6H14 + 9.24% C,H16 + 18.29% C8fl15 ± 10.82% C9H20; Feed water: Eh = 0.08 V; pH 6.16; EC = 110.6 mScni'; After 67 days operation at -7 to 14 C; product water volume = 38% of feed water volume. Product water: Eh -0.159 V; pH = 9.72; EC = 101.4 mScm'; No gasoline (555) is present in product water. Product gas (700) after 67 days: 85.98% 12 + 14.02% N2.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS: DEPLETION/ALTERATION OF CH VOLATILE GAS

COMPONENTS

Example changes in volatile product gas composition relative to feed gas composition over a 22/24 day period are provided in Figures Sa -Sc.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS WHERE THE MOLAR CONCENTRATION OF N2 IN THE PRODUCT GAS HAS CHANGED RELATIVE TO THE MOLAR CONCENTRATION OF N2 IN THE FEED GAS Examples where the molar concentration of N2 in the product gas has changed relative to the molar concentration of N2 in the feed gas are provided in Figures Sd, Sc.

EXAMPLE OF A MANuFACTURED PRODUCT GAS CONTAINING 12 + N2 Examples demonstrating that the reactor (15) can produce a product gas containing N2 + H2 + residual CO2 from a feed gas containing N2 + CO2 are provided in Figures Sf, 5g. Figures Sg, 5h estabLish that sustained 2 production rates can be produced by the Reactor (15).

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT FUEL GAS CONTAINING H2 + C1H [x>0, y = >0] An example demonstrating that the reactor (15) can produce a product fuel gas containing C1-1 and n2 is provided in Figure Sc.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT FUEL GAS CONTAINING 112 Examples demonstrating that the reactor (15) can produce a product fuel gas containing H2 are provided in Figures 4i, Sc and Table 1.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS DEPLETED IN C1H [x>0, y = >0] Examples demonstrating that the reactor (15) can produce a product gas depleted in C,H [x='>O, y >0] from a feed gas containing C1H are provided in Figure 5a -Sc.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS ENRICHED IN C,H,, [x>0, y = >01 Examples demonstrating that the reactor (15) can produce a product gas enriched in Cl-I [x=>O, y >0] from a feed gas containing CO + 1-Ia, or CO + Cl4 + F!2, or CO. + CH + H2, or CO2 + CO + 014 + H2, or CON, or air, or a combination thereof [x=>0, y >0, z = >0] is provided in Figures 4g, 4h and Table 1.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS DEPLETED IN 02 FROM A FEED GAS CONTAINING AIR An example demonstrating that the reactor (15) can produce a product gas depleted in oxygen from a feed gas containing air is provided in Figure 4i.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS DEPLETED IN CO2 FROM A FEED GAS CONTAINING CO2 Examples demonstrating that the reactor (15) can produce a product gas depleted in carbon dioxide from a feed gas containing carbon dioxide are provided in Figures 3o, 3p.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT FUEL GAS CONTAINING C,H [x=>0, y = >0] The reactor (15) can produce a product the! gas containing CFI,; [x=z'O, y >0]; For example, a reactor (15) filled with Water (7) contained 18% gasoline (555) by volume; Gas (air) volume (700): Water (7) volume ratio in the reactor = 1:2.9: ZVM (10):water (7) (weight ratio) = 1:3.4; Feed water Eh = 0.08 V; pH 6.16; EC = 110.6 mScm4; After 26 days operation at -7to 14 C the product gas in conduit (9) was a hydrogen + hydrocarbon rich ft,el gas (Figure Si).

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS ENRiCHED IN CO2 The reactor (15) may produce a product gas containing carbon dioxide where the feed water contains one or more carbonyls (.g.

Table 1). For example: 1. (11: Feed water (7) with the organic composition: 9.50% glycerol, 39.17%toluene, 8.47% acetic acid, 1.04% 1-hydroxy- 2-propanone, 1.54% 1-(4-hydrox-3-methoxyphenyl)-2propanone, 1.33% fliranone, 1.08% cyclohexanone, 254% methyl fufural, 1.08% methyl furanone, 1.99% phenolic compounds, 11.01% hexanoic acid, 20.85% others (including heptane, pyranose): Feed Water (7): Eh 0.271 V, pH = 2.03, EC = 16.57 mScm1; Feed gas = air; Product gas composition after 22 days at-? C to 12 C: 27.70% H2 4-70.07% N2 + 2.23% C02; Product Water (7): Eh' -0.043 V. pH= 3.87, EC = 8.75 mScm"; ZVM (10): 340 g U1 (of which 200 g L' is Fe°, the residue is Al° + Cu°).

2. 62: Feed water (7) with the composition: 8% methanol + 10% propanol + 3% formic acid. The water (7) contained 0.9 g NaCI U'. A gasoline layer (555) was present with the water (7): gasoline (555) volume ratio of 10:1. ZVM (10) = 620 g U' (of which 220 g U' is CaCO3 + coal + NaHCO3, the remainder is Fe° + Cu° + Al°). Feed gas = air. Feed Water (7): Eh -0.044V; p11=3.68; EC2.02 mScm"; Product Water (7): Eh'-0.420 V; p1-1' 5.41; EC = 19.55 mScm'; the Foduct gas (700) is 8.94% CO2 + 14.3%N2 + 75.54% Fl2 + 1.22% hydrocarbons.

3. 03: Feed water (7) with the composition: 35% ethanol + 4% N1130H + 0,8% formic acid. ZVM (10) 340 g U' (Fe° + Cu° + Al°). Feed gas = air. Feed Water (7): Eh= -0.02 V; pH = 6.12; EC = 2.57 mScm'1; After 24 days (Temperature -7 C to 12 C): Product Water (7): Eh = 0.014 V; pH = 6.57; EC 3.62 mScni1 and the product gas (700) is 0.81% CO2 + 76.66% N2 + 22.53% H2.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURFJD PRODUCT GAS ENRICHED IN 112 PRODUCED FROM ALKALINE ORGANIC

ENRICHED WATER

An example [G4] alkali feed water was processed in the reactor (15). The observations are: a. Feed water (7) composition: 35% ethanol + 4% N1-13011. A gasoline layer (555) was present. The water (7): gasoline (555) volume ratio = 5:1; b. ZVM (10) = 420 g U' (Fe° + Cu° + Al°). Feed gas (700) = air; c. Feed Water (7): Eh = -0.121 V; pH 9.64; BC = 13.82 mScnf'; d. After 56 days (Temperature -7 C to 12 C): Product Water (7): Eh = -0.25 V; pH = 9.95; BC = 13.73 rnScm' and the product gas (700) is 0.85% N2 ± 93.38% H2 + fresidue hydrocarbons]; e. The composition of the gasoline (555) has changed from 29.34 M% [C7 to C9 alkanes] to 60.41 M% [C, to C9 alkanes]. The residue is C3 to C6alkanes. Reactions which may be present include: 2C41-I,0 CH,8 + 1-12; C3H + C5H,2 C,H,3 + 112; C4110 + C5H,2 C9H20 + 112; C4H,0 + C3113 = C,H,6 + 112; C2H60 + C5H12 C,H,6 + 1120; C2H60 + C61-134 = C311,8 + 1120; C21160 + C,1115 = C2o + HO; C2F160 + C3118 = C5FI,2 + 1120; C2H60 + C411,0 C6F114 + 1120; C21150 + C51112 = C711,6 + H20; f. The overall weight of hydrocarbons (gas + liquids) in the reactor (IS) increased over 56 days by >5%. Weight increases were observed for C5 to C9 hydrocarbons, and weight decreases were observed for C3, C4 hydrocarbons.

EXAMPLE OF A MANUFACTURED PRODUCT GAS ENRICHED IN CL1, PRODUCED FROM ACIDIC CARBONYL

ENRICHED WATER

Product gas analyses have established that acidic carbonyl enriched water (e.g. pyroligneous acid) which becomes alkali during treatmcnt can sometimes contain hydrocarbon CH gases: e.g. a. 05: Pyroligneous Acid (waste water from a carbonisation reactor).

i. ZVM (10): 400 g U' (of which 140 g U1 is Fe0, the residue is Al° + Cu° ± CaCO3 + NaHCO3); ii. Feed Water (7): Eh= 0.149 V, pH 2.98, EC = 3.06 mScm'; Feed gas air; iii. After 33 days at -7 C to 12 C the product gas (700) composition is 0.04% C02+ 14.96% N2 + 85.0O% H2: Product Water (7): Eh = -0.308 V, pH = 9.22, BC = 18.61 mScm'; iv. The product gas composition may vary with temperature: e.g. 1. 1 = 45 C:57.02% H,± 8.91% N2 + 31.79% C02+ 0.02% C3Hg + 0.56% C4H10 + 1.22% C5H12+ 0.38% C5H,4+ 0.10% C7H,; 2. T=75 C: 91.88%H2+4.88%N2+3.24%C02; b. 06: Pyroligneous Acid (waste water from a carbonisation reactor).

i. ZVM (10): 360 g U1 (of which 100 g U' is Fe°, the residue is A]° + Cu° + K,C0, + NaHCO3); ii. FeedWater(7):Eh0.117V,pH=3.27,EC=3.71 mScnf':Feedgas=air; iii. After 33 days at -7 C to 12 C the product gas (700) composition is 0.26% CO2 ÷ 18.29%N2 + 81.45% 112: Product Water (7): Eh -0.446 V, pH = 9.28, BC = 203.6 mScm4; iv. The product gas composition may vary with temperature: e.g. I. T 45 C:89.78% H2+ 9.07% N2 + 0.92% CO2 + 0.05% C4H10 + 018% C3H12; 2. T = 75 C: 9783% 112+1.24% N2 + 0.93% CO2.

EXAMPLE OF USE OF THE PRODUCT GAS FROM A REACTOR (15) TO ALTER THE PROPERTIES OF WATER IN A DOWNSTREAM REACTOR (20) The reactor (15) can produce a product gas which when bubbled through water contained in one or more downstream water column (s), or reactor (s) (20), can alter one or more of Eh, pH and EC (electrical conductivity) in the downstream water column (a), or reactor (s) (20). Tables 2-6 establish that this alteration in Eli, pH and EC is accompanied by removal of one or more cations and anions. Examples of Eh, pH and EC changes include: 1) a reactor (15) was operated with a single downstream reactor (20). The ZVM (10) had been operation for 5361 hours, prior to recharge of the reactors (15), reactors (20) [1] and reactors (20) [2J with fresh feed water. Feed gas = nitrogen. The feed water in reactor (15) contained 0.67 M NaCI U'. The operating temperatures were varied within the range 4 C to 24 C. The observed changes in Eb, pH, anion concentrations, and cation concentrations are provided in Figures 6a -6d, Tables 2, 5 [Example E3).

The water bodies in Reactor (15) and Reactor (20)[l] in this example are connected by a conduit (30) (e.g. Figure im). The water body (7) in Reactor (20)[2] is not connected in this example to either of the water bodies in Reactor (15) and Reactor (20)[1] by a conduit (30).

2) a reactor (15) was operated where the product gas from conduit (9) [reactor (15)] was sequentially passed through a first reactor (20)[l] and then a second reactor (20)[2]. Feed gas nitrogen. ZVM (10) particle size ranged between 10 ran and 66,000 nm. 26 g ZVM (10) U' H20. The operating temperatures were varied within the range 4 C to 27 C. The water bodies (7) in Reactor (15) and Reactor (20)111 are connected by a conduit (30) (e.g. Figure lm). The water body (7) in Reactor (20)[2] is not connected to the water bodies in Reactor (15) and Reactor (20)[1] by a conduit (30). The observed changes in Eh, pH, and salinity (EC) are provided in Figures Oe -oh; The associated change in anion and cation concentrations is provided in Tables 2, 6 [Example £4, Reactor (20)[1]].

3) a reactor (IS) was operated with a single downstream reactor (20). Feed gas = nitrogen/air. The operating temperatures were varied within the range -10 C to 14 C. The reactor was operated with a number of modules (951) attached to the manifold (900). Each module (951) had a different ZVM (10) composition. The valve (923) was switched off after Day 150, to isolate the water body (7) from the ZVM (10) during operation, and to allow nano-ZVM TP, entrained in the water body (7) to undertake water remediation.The observed changes in Eh, pH, and EC are provided in Figures 6i -61; The associated change in anion and cation concentrations is provided in Tables 2, 3 [Example El, Reactor (20)[ I]].

4) a reactor (15) was operated with a single downstream reactor (20). Feed gas CH4 -4-CO + CO2 + 112. The operating tcmpcratures were varied within the range -10 C to 30 C, The associated change in anion and cation concentrations is provided in Tables 2, 4 [Example £2, Reactor (20)[1]]. Feed gas = H2 + N2 + CO + CO2 + CL!.4; ZVM (10) = 120 g U' of which >70% = Fe°. Treatment period = 44 days.

LIQUID PRODUCTS

The reactor (15) can be used to make one or more liquid products.

REACTOR (15): EXAMPLE MANUFACTURED WATER PRODUCT The reactor (15) can be used to manufacture a water product (7), where one or more of the water's composition, Eh, pH and EC has been altered (e.g. Figures 6a -61).

REACTOR (15): REMEDIATED WATER PRODUCT The reactor (15) can be used to manufacture remediated water where the reactor (15) is operated to alter one or more of the water Eli, pH and EC and to remove (or partially remove) from water (7) one or more of: i) anions including one or more of: Cl, F, N(N03), N(N02), S(S04), P(P04); (e.g. Tables 1, 2); ii) cations including one or more of: As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, F, 5, Si, Sr. Zn; (eg Tables 1, 3-7); iii) a water product, where the volume of the product water is less than the volume of the feed water (e.g. Tables 2-7); iv) organic compounds including one or more of: methanol, ethanol, propanol, furfural alcohol, glycerol, propyne, propene, propane, butane, butene, pentane, pentene, hexane, hexene, heptane, heptene, octane, octene, nonane, nonene, methanoic (formic) acid, acetic acid, butyric acid, propanoic acid, nonanoic acid, decanoic acid, phenolic compounds, 1-(4-hydrox-3-methoxyphenyl)2propanone, furfural, fliranone, methyl fufliral, methyl furanone, toluene, cyclohexanone, pyranose, hydroxymethylcyclobutnnone, methoxycresol, resorcinol, methylpyrocatchechol, vanillin, acetovanillone, phenols, polyphenols, flavonoid radicals, phenoxy radicals and other volatile organic compounds; Examples include: (I) treatment of carbonyl enriched water (e.g. carbonisation waste water, pyroligneous acid, etc.) to remove voltatile organic compounds including carbonyls, e.g. carboxylic acids (Figures 7a, 7b); (2) [G7] treatment of carbonisation plant product water (7). The feed water's (7) organic composition is: 16.16% acetic acid, 12.55% propanoic acid, 1.85% butyric acid, 0.99% 1-(4.hydrox-3-methoxyphenyl)-2propanone, 5.84% fljrfijral, 4.63% thranone, 1.34% furfijral alcohol, 2.64% methyl fufural, 5.90% methyl furanone, 21.51% phenolic compounds, 3.05% nonanoic acid, 14.1% decanoic acid, 9.44% others (including hydroxymethylcyclobutanone, methoxycresol, resorcinol, methylpyrocatchechol, vanillin, acetovanillone) Feed Water (7): Eh = 0.436 V, pH = 0.95, EC = 90.13 mScm4. After 22 days at -7 C to 12 C, Product Water (7): Eh = -0.244 V. pH = 2.62, EC = 48.60 mScnf'; ZVM (JO) = 380 g L1; Fe' = 200 g U'. Product gas = 1.4% CO2 + 70.56% H2 + 28.04% N2; (3) gasoline/hydrocarbon removal (Table 7). Table 7 indicates that higher rates of gasoline removal can be associated with higher rates of NaCI removal; (4) hydrocarbons; (a) a hydrocarbon product where the relative concentration of pentane and higher carbon number alkanes/aikenes (including one or more of hexane, heptane, octane and nonane) in the product oil is increased, and the relative concentration of lower carbon number alkanes/alkenes (e.g. butane, propane. etc.) in the product oil is decreased, relative to their concentrations in the feed oil; (e.g. Figures 7c -7g); (b) a hydrocarbon product where one or more of an oil's composition, density and volume relative to the composition, density and volume of the feed oil has been altered; (e.g. Figures 7h, 7i); (c) a hydrocarbon product where organic compounds within the water (7) are used as a feed stock (e.g. Figure 7e); (d) liquid hydrocarbon products (C.XHY. CHOIr>0; y=>0; z=>01) from a feed gas containing CH,, [x>0; r>0J using (supported, or unsupported) n-ZVM catalyst within the water body (7), or ZVM (10), or a combination thereof; (e.g. Figures 7c -7g); (e) liquid organic products (CXHY, C}lO[x=>0; y=>0]), or gaseous products, or a combination thereof, from one or more of: (i) a feed gas containing CO + H2, or CO2 + H2, or CO, or C02, or CH4, or or CXHYOZ [x>0; r>°; z>O]), or H2, or a combination thereof, using a (supported, or unsupported) n-ZVM catalyst within the water body (7), or ZVM (10), or a combination thereof. Observed conversion rates at -7-. 14 C are typically <4 mMol CO convened to hydmcarhons mo11 Fe° hr1 in the water (7) (Figures 3g. 3h, 4g. 4h). Kinetics may allow this conversion rate to fall in the range <Ito >15 Mol CO. converted to hydrocarbons mol4 Fe° hr1 in the waler (7) at 150 C; (ii) a feed water containing CO + 1-12, or CO2 ± H2, or CO, or CO2, or Cr14, or or CXHYOZ, l-I2CO, or HCO,J or CO,, organic ions, or H2, or a combination thereof, using a (supported, or unsupported) n-ZVM catalyst within the water body (7), or ZVM (10), or a combination thereof. The hydrocarbon products may be produced by combining one or more of molecules, ions, molecular components (e.g. Figure 7e, 7h, 7i). The net effect is to increase the proportion of carbon molecules with longer chain lengths (e.g. >9 carbon atoms), decrease the proportion of carbon molecules with shorter chain lengths (e.g. <10 carbon atoms), and may increase the total number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon product (e.g. Figure 7j); The reactor (15) can be used to make a hydrocarbon liquid product, where the volume of product liquid hydrocarbons is less than the volume of the feed liquid hydrocarbons; (e.g. Figure 7h).

Desalination is undertaken in the reactor (15) using a variety of methods including: I) direct removal of NaCI during the formation of ZVM TP (e.g. Tables 2 to 7); 2) direct removal of NaCI using one or more of ZVM (e.g. Tables 2-7), ZVM TI' (e.g. Tables 8-20, 22, 23) and ZVM TPG (e.g. Tables 8, 21. 22, 23); Table 7 indicates that there can be a relationship between water consumption and NaC1 removal during ZVM TP mnnufacture or operation of Reactor (15). Tables 22. 23 indicate that there cnn be a relationship between water consumption and the proportion of NaCI removed from the feed water, during water treatment with one or more of ZVM TP and ZVM TPG; 3) direct removal of NaCI during the formation of n-FeOOH and other n-Fe%OYI-I, species in the water (e.g. Tables 2-7); 4) direct removal of NaCI using an alkali shift (resulting from the presence of ZVM (and optionally an alkali gas such as NH3)) to increase the water pH and reduce the water Eh, followed by: a) bubbling a gas containing CO2 through the water, or acidiing the water through the addition of an organic acid (e.g. UCOOB), followed by addition of CaCO3 (or another carbonate) to both generate CO2 and increase the alkalinity of the water; b) an alkali shift increasing water pH (e.g. addition of ammonium hydroxide, or another alkali) following a cessation of CO2 flow through the water; c) An example of operation usiag water containing 7.2 g NaCI U' (pH = 6.65) allowed the pH to rise to 9.!. HCOOH was added to reduce the pllto 2.91. CaCO3 was added to initially raise the pH to 6. The pH in the water was allowed to increase to 8.0. The pH rise was associated with a reduction in ion concentration of 3 g 5) conversion of water to hydrogen in the reactor (15) (e.g. Table 1), followed by passage of the hydrogen over one or more of: a) a copper catalyst (or another catalyst) + an oxygen containing gas (or an oxygen containing gas + water, or oxygenated water, or a combination thereol) to produce water. The recombination, 2 + 0.502 = H2O + heat can be undertaken in a gas bubbling vessel (4) (or another type of reactor (e.g. reactor (20))) which contains catalyst in one or more of the water body (7) and gas body (700). Non limiting examples of suitable catalysts may include (but are not limited to) one or more of zero valent metals (elements), hydroxides, oxides and peroxides of Cu, Pd, Pt, Au, Hg, Rh, Ag, Ir, Ni, graphite, graphene, Os, Po, Ru, Bi, Tc, Re, Sb, WC, Co, Ce, Al, Ti; b) a metal oxide/hydroxide/peroxide, or graphite/graphene oxide, or a combination thereof, to produce a reduced metal (or reduced metal oxide/hydroxide/peroxide) plus water, graphene plus water, reduced graphene oxide plus water; 6) production of water with a reduced NaCI content by differential freezing of water within the reactor (15) (e.g. Figure 61) or water containing one or more of ZVM TI', ZVM TPG (e.g. Figures 8d, 8h). Differential freezing of water containing ZVM TP allows c% to >50% of the water to be removed as low salinity (EC = 0->2 mScm1) water during each freeze-thaw cycle

(e.g. Table 24);

7) dilution with lower salinity water.

SOLID PRODUCTS

The reactor (15) is used to make one or more of the solid products:-i) a solid product derived from ZVM: (1) a solid product (ZVM TP), (constructed from ZVM (10) placed in contact with water (7) in the reactor (15)) which if placed in water will alter one or more of the water's Eli, pH and EC: (a) The ZVM TP can be placed in the water body as particulate matter, or unsheathed/moulded pellets/granules. Figures 8a -Sd demonstrate an example operation in saline water; (b) The ZVM TP can be placed in the water body in sheathed pellets (e.g. Figure Is, Figures Se to Sh). The sheath is constructed from any suitable material (e.g. an organic material (e.g. MDPE), a metal (e.g. Cu), etc.). Figures Se -Sb demonstrate an example operation in saline water; (2) The solid product (ZVM TP). will remove (or partially remove) from water (7) one or more of: (a) anions including one or more of: Cl, F, N(N03), N(N02), S(S04), P(P04); (e.g. Table 8); (b) cations including one or more of: As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co. Cu, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, 5, Si, Sr, Zn; (e.g.

Tables 9 to 20);

(3) a solid product (ZVM TPG), (constructed from ZVM (10) placed in contact with gas in the reactor (15)) which if placed in water will alter one or more of the water's Rh, p11 and EC; The ZVM TPG can be placed in the water as particulate matter, or unsheathed/moulded pellets/granules, or sheathed pellets. Figures 8i to 81 demonstrate an example of ZVM TPG operation in Cu sheathed pellets placed in saline water where the ZVM TPG was manufactured from ZVM (10) (4) The solid product (ZVM TPG), will remove (or partially remove) from water (7) one or more of: (a) anions including one or more of: Cl, F, N(N03), N(N02), S(S04), P(P04; (e.g. Table 8); (b) cations including one or more of: As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P. 5, Si, Sr, Zn; (e.g.

Table 21);

ii) one or more species of FeO. FerOyFLt, FeO2H, Fe(OH)[x=>0; y=>O]; the colloidal and nano-particles can contain one or more cations, anions (derived from the water (7), ZVM (10)); iii) one or more nano-zero valent metals as metal cations where thc metal cations are reduced within the reactor (15) to a zero valent form by one or more of Eh-pH interactions, interactions with ions in the water, and interactions with one or more of H2, CO. Cjl,, NH3 Ix=>O; r>OI; iv) chernisorbed material where one or more of CON, C11, H2, FINS, SQ [x>O; y=>O] is adsorbed onto one or more of the ZVM (10), precipitated material and ions in the water (7); v) Stober n-silica particles (including amorphous crystallites, hollow spheres and spheres) and n-silicon particles resulting from the subsequent reduction of Stober n-silica particles; vi) Stober n-silica particles (including amorphous crystallites, hollow spheres and spheres) and n-silicon particles containing one or more cations, anions (derived from the water (7), ZVM (10) within the reactor (15)); vii) resorcinol -formaldehyde (RE) nano particles and nano-carbon particles (including spheres, hollow spheres and amorphous crystallites); viii) resorcinol -formaldehyde (RE) nano particles and nano-carbon particles (including spheres, hollow spheres and amorphous crystallites) containing one or more cations, anions (derived from water (7), ZVM (10) within the reactor (15)); ix) n-Fe°; x) a variety of polymers and polymeric substances including polyvinylpyrolidone (PVP) and polymer encapsulated (or protected) nano particles (containing one or more cations, anions (derived from water (7), ZVM (10) within the reactor (15)); xi) a hydrocarbon product; reactors (15); xii) an organic chemical product EXAMPLE USE OF THE REACTOR (15) TO MANUFACTURE SOLID PRODUCTS: The reactor (15) can be used to manufacture: 1. ZVMTP; 2. ZVM TPG; 3. unsupported n-ZVM particles; 4. supported n-ZVM particles placed on, or in, a support; 5. hollow n-Stober silica particles (and silicon nano crystals (Si-nc)); 6. resorcinol -formaldehyde (RF) nano particles and nano-carbon particles (including spheres, hollow spheres and amorphous crystallites); 7. n-ZVM (and metal cations) placed inside hollow Stober silica particLes (and silicon nano crystals (Si-nc)); & n-ZVM (and metal cations) placed inside hollow nano-polyiner structures (and nano-polymeric structures).

Cations, anions (derived from the water, ZVM (10) within the reactor (15) are located on one or more of the particle surface, within the crystallite structure, and encased within cavities and pores within the particle. The reactor (15) can be used to load metal cations onto support material (e.g. carbon nanotubes, etc). Operation of the reactor (15) incorporating one or more optional in line filters/separators (1700, 1701) (e.g. Figure 1 r) can allow direct removal of the nano-products from the circulating water (7). The size of the nano-products can increase with time, and operating conditions (e.g. illustrative example times, particle sizes and yields for n-silica particles: (i) 0.5 hours = 5-7 nra [yield = 70-75%]; (ii) 5 hours 35-45 run [yield = 75 -80%]; (iii) 36 hours = 70-nm [yield >80%]). Other crystallites show similar patterns where precipitated particle sizes grow with time. FeOOH crystallite shape and size can also be a fUnction of temperature and water composition.

MANUFACTURE OF n-ZVM AND n-CATALYSTS WITHIN THE REACTOR (15) The reactor (15) [and reactor (20)] can be used to manufacture nano-crystals of n-ZVM (<1 nm ->10,000 inn) based on FeOOH and Fe0. The methods which can be used in the reactor (15) to manufacture n-Fe0 include: I. hydroxide, peroxide, oxide precipitation followed by direct reduction by a reducing gas (e.g. H2, CO. CH4, NH3); 2. acidification and ionization of ZVMJZVM TI' (10) followed by alkalization, precipitation and reduction; 3. ion reduction where a soluble Fe salt, or combination of metal salts is placed in water, and a reducing agent is placed in the water (7) to reduce the metal cations, or a gas is used to reduce the cations; 4. precipitation where a soluble Fe salt, or combination of metal salts, is placed in water (7), and one or more alkalis (or gases) are used to increase pH thereby inducing precipitation of n-FeOOH, or n-Fe(OH), or n-F;O; 5. precipitation where a soluble Fe salt, or combination of metal salts, is placed in water (7), and oxygen (or air, or an oxygen containing gas) is delivered through the distributor (8) and is used to increase the waLer (7) Eh thereby inducing precipitation of one or more of n-FeOOFI, or n-Fe(OH), or n-F;O.

MANUFACTURE OF ZVM TI' WITHIN THE REACTOR (15) Manufacture of ZVM TI' in the reactor (15)is achieved by: a) obtaining ZVM (10) particulate ingredients with a particle size of between <0.1 nm and 200 mm; and b) the ZVM (10) ingredients are mixed in air, or an inert gas, or in water, or in a mixture of water and miscible organic species, or in a mixture of water and ammonium hydroxide, or in a mixture of water, miscible organic species and ammonium hydroxide, or a combination thereof; and c) the mixed ZVM (10) ingredients are placed in the reactor (15) and allowed to mature for a period of between 1 hour and >200 days at a temperature of between -40 C [233 K] and 350 C [723 K]; the temperature is constant, or is varied with time; the water pressure is controlled by the gas pressure of the gas body (700); the gas pressure is maintained at a pressure in the range (relative to atmospheric pressure) of between -5 bar [-0.5 MN] and 100 bar [10 MPa]; and d) the ZVM TP ingredient mixture will naturally change the pressure of the ZVM 1? ingredient mixture (10), gas body (700) and water body (7) in a sealed environment by releasing/removing one or more of H2, 1-12S, CO, C02, 0, ci-i, into the ZVM TP ingredient mixture (10), gas body (700) and water body (7); i) the gas body (700) contains one or more of air, N2, H2, CH4, CO. CO2. NH3, 1-125, 02 (x=>0; ii) the water body (7) can contain chemicals (organic/inorganic); and e) the reactor (45) is operated with: (I) a single water charge, or with a single water charge with periodic/continuous water makeup, or multiple water charges, or with a continuous, semi-continuous, or periodic flow of water; (2) a single gas charge, or with a continuous, semi-continuous, or periodic flow of gas through the water (7), or a combination thereof; and 1) at the end of the maturation process, the ZVM TI' is either left in the reactor (15) and used as a water (7) treatment agent (or for another purpose), or is removed from the reactor (15) for use elsewhere, or is used in the reactor (15), before being removed for use elsewhere, or a combination thereof; and g) the ZVM TP (10) product is used as a watexy sluny, or a damp paste, or is dried and moulded to form pellets, or is dried to form a particulate catalyst/water treatment agent, or the ZVM TP is placed into sheaths to form pellets or capsules; the ZVM TP can be subject to further treatment including one or more of: i) thermal drying (at a temperature of <300 C); ii) calcination in air at a temperature in the range 300 C -900 C; iii) passivation (by bubbling an oxygen containing gas through the ZVM TI', or through water containing the ZVM TI'); iv) reduction (by bubbling a reducing gas (containing one or more of H2, CC, Cl-I4, NH3, CXHY) through the ZVM TI' (at a temperature of between -40 C and 1000 C), or bubbling the reducing gas through water (7) containing the ZVM TP (10) (at a temperature of between -40 C and 350 C), or pressuring water (7) containing the ZVM TP (10) with a reducing gas (at a temperature of between -40 C and 350 C); v) chemisorption (by bubbling a gas (containing one or more of CC, CC2, 502, NO2, N2C, CU4, 2S, NH3, CH) through the ZVM TI', or bubbling the gas through water containing the ZVM TI' (at n temperature of between -40 C and 350 C)) or pressurising the water with the gas (at a temperature of between -40 C and 350 C); vi) one or more of passivation, reduction, and chemisorption can be undertaken during maturation, or following maturation, or during operation, or a combination thereof; and h) the ZVM TP is placed in water requiring treatment (either in the reactor (15) or a water body, or water contained in another type of reactor): i) the ZVM TP removes from water (or reduces the concentration in the water of) one or more of: (1) cations [including one or more of As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, F, 5, Si, Sr. Zn], e.g. Tables 9-20, 22, 23; (2) anions [including one or more of Cl, F, N(N03), N(NO2), 5(504), P(P04], e.g. Tables 8,22,23; (3) ammonia; (4) organic chemicals (including one or more of methanol, ethanol, propanol, furfural alcohol, glycerol, propyne, propene, propane, butane, butene, pentane, pentene, hexane, hexene, heptane, heptene, octane, octene, nonane, nonene, methanoic (formic) acid, acetic acid, butyric acid, propanoic acid, nonanoic acid, decanoic acid, phcnolic compounds, I -(4-hydrox-3-methoxyphenyl)-2propanone, furfural, furanonc, methyl ififlural, mcthyl furanone, toluene, cyclohexanone, pyranose, hydroxymethylcyclobutanone, methoxycresol, resorcinol, methylpyrocatchechol, vanillin, acetovanillone); and ii) the ZVM TP can produce Fe colloidal species (one or more of FeOOI-1, Fe(OH),, Fe0H, Fe0) in the water; and iii) the ZVM TP will alter one or more of the water's Eh, pH and BC during operation, e.g. Figures 8a -8h; and iv) the ZVM TP can operate with no effective net discharge of product gases; gases evolved during the ZVM TP's operation include (but are not limited to) one or more of H2, CC), CH; gases removed during the ZVM TP operation include (but are not limited to) one or more of 1-42. 02, CO, CH; the composition of product gases and gases removed can change with temperature; the rate of gas production and gas removal can change with temperature; and 1) placement of the ZVM TP in water containing hydrocarbons, or water containing a layer of hydrocarbons floating on the water, may result in the removal of shorter chain liquid hydrocarbons (including but not limited to one or more of C3H, C4H) and an increase in the relative molar abundance of longer chain liquid hydrocarbons (including but not limited to one or more of C7U. C8H, C9,H,3; when the water contains organic chemicals the catalytic process may use the organic chemicals to assist in the formation of the hydrocarbon chains and increase the total amount of carbon incorporated into the liquid hydrocarbons; and j) placement of the ZVM TP in water containing hydrocarbons, or water containing a layer of hydrocarbons floating on the water, can facilitate the production of hydrogen gas and a fuel gas containing hydrogen + light hydrocarbons (including but not limited to C3H, C4H, C5H, Cd-I', C7fl); the rate of gas production can increase with increasing temperature and varies with catalyst (ZVM F?) composition and water composition; and k) the ZVM TP is regenerated (or partially regenerated) by one or more of reduction (by one or more of H2, CH4, Cr11,, NH3, H2S), hydrogenation, oxidation, chemisorption (by one or more of CO. CC)-2, SON, N0), acidification, alkalinizat ion.

During the manufacture and operation of ZVM TI' nano-crystallites can form colloidal masses within the water (7). n-FeO5H coLloidal precipitates will nucleate onto surfaces placed within the water (15). They will also nucleate onto and into porous and permeable structures placed in water (7), e.g. porous and permeable carbon, porous and permeable polymer products (e.g. membranes), porous and permeable silica frameworks (e.g. diatomite, radiolarite, keiselgurh, etc.), porous and permeable ceramic discs, membranes, monoliths, and pellets, porous and permeable alumina structures, porous and permeable zeolites, carbon nanotubes, amorphous carbon, organic material, etc. The ZVM TI' can be placed in pellets (e.g. Figure 1 s) prior to placement in water requiring treatment.

MANUFACTURE OF ZYM TPG WITHIN THE REACTOR (15) ZVM TPG is a solid product manufactured in the reactor (15) where the thy ZVM (10) is reduced by a gas, or passivated by a gas, or subject to chemisorption by a gas at atemperature of between -70 C and 800 C. Manuficture of ZVM TJ'G in the reactor (15) is achieved by: a) obtaining ZVM (10) particulate ingredients with a particle size of between 0.1 mn and 200 mm; The ZVM (10) can include metal wool; and b) the ZVM (10) ingredients are mixed in air, or an inert gas, or a combination thereof; and c) the mixed ZVM (10) ingredients are placed in flowlines (e.g. conduit (6), (9)) or manifolds (900). cartridges (922), modules (951) attached to the flowlines (e.g. conduit (6), (9)) (e.g. Figure lh, 10; and d) a reducing gas containing one or more of H2, CU, C0, C1-L4, C1-1, NH3, HS, S,0,, is passed through the ZVM (10) to allow one or more of reduction and chemisorption to occur; an oxidising gas (e.g. a gas containing 02) can be used to passivate the ZVM (10); and e) one or more heat exchangers (931) can be used to regulate the temperature in the maturing ZVM TPG and the product gas exiting the ZVM TPG; and f) at the end of the treatment process, the ZVM TPG is either left in the reactor (15) and used as a water (7) treatment agent, or is removed from the reactor (15) for use elsewhere, or is used in the reactor (15). before being removed for use elsewhere, or a combination thereof. The manifold structure can be constructed to allow gas phase reductioit/chemisorption/passivation to be undertaken prior to use of the ZVM TPG in a manifold (900) attached to one or more of the vessels (1), (4) and conduits (2), (3); The manifold structure allows gas phase reduction/chemisorptionipassivation of ZVM TI' (and ZVM (10)) to be undertaken in the reactor (15) as required. This is effected by: i) closing the valve (923) connecting the manifold (900) to the reactor (15) vessels (1), (4) and conduits (2), (3); and ii) opening the valve (925) to drain the manifold (900); iii) following drainage, the valve (925) is closed, and the valve (923) connecting the manifold to one or more of conduit (6), (9) is opened; iv) gas (with the appropriate composition, temperature and pressure) contained in one or more of conduit (6), (9) is allowed to flow through the manifold (900) and ZVM (10)/ZVM TP for the appropriate length of time; the valve (923) connecting the manifold to one or more of conduit (6), (9) is closed; and valve (923) connecting the manifold (900) to the reactor (15) vessels (1), (4) and conduits (2), (3) is opened. This structuring allows the reactor (15) to regenerate ZVM (10)/ZVM TI' using one or more of a gas feed (in conduit (6)), or gas product (in conduit (9)), while remaining in operation using ZVM (10)/ZYM TI' [present in one or more other manifolds (900)] to treat the water (7) and gas (700).

MANUFACTURE OF STOBER SILICA PARTICLES WITHIN THE REACTOR (15) Stober silica particles are mono dispersive hollow n-silica spheres. A reactor (15) manufacturing n-Stober silica (or n- amorphous/colloidal silica) can be operated as follows:-I. ZVM (10) (or ZVM TP, ZVM TPG) is placed in the reactor (15); and 2. water (7) is placed in the reactor (15); and 3. a neutral, or reductive, or alkaline (e.g. NFl3) gas is bubbled through the reactor (15) to deoxygenate the water and the water pH is allowed to rise into the range 9 to 12; and 4. an alcoholic solution is constructed from about 0.01 to about 1.0 mol litre of solution of at least one tetraester of silicic acid selected from the group consisting of tetramethyl silicic acid, tetraethyl silicic acid, tetrabutyl silicic acid, tetrapropy silicic acid, tetrapentyl silicic acid, tetramyl silicic acid, tetrauthylorthosilicate (Si(0C2115)4. TEOS [Si(OR)4], silanes (e.g. vinyltriethoxysilane (VTS), methacryloxypropyltriethoxysilane (MTS), 3-glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTS), 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APIS), 3-mercaptopropyltriethoxysilane (McPTS), chloropropyltriethoxysilane (CPTS)), and related species. The alcoholic solution is added to the water (7) to create an alcohol: water molar ratio of between 1:1 and 1:15. One or more alcohols are used to make the alcoholic solution where each alcohol has a carbon number of less than 30. The initial reaction may take the generic form Si(OR)4 + x1120 = Si(OR)4., (Of + OH -4-xlit; The silica is precipitated as colloidal nano-particles (<10 nm ->1000 nm) with the basic generic structure (OR)4.Si-O-Si(OR); and 5. a neutral (e.g. N2), or reductive, or alkaline (e.g. NH3) gas is optionally bubbled through the reactor (15) to assist in increasing the water (7) pH into the range 9 to 12. One or more ofNaCl, KCI, NaOH. KOH, NT-I3OH is optionally added to the reactor (15) to increase the water (7) pH; and 6. the precipitated silica can be recovered by filtration.

The damp/wet or dried Stober silica particles can be converted to silicon nanocrystals by reduction. Cations (e.g. Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Ag, Pt, Pd, Ni, etc.). can be introduced into the Stober silica particles during manufacture.

MANUFACTURE OF RF-SPHERES WITHIN THE REACTOR (15) A reactor (15) manufacturing n-RF-spheres (and amorphous/colloidal n-RF crystallites/bodies) can be operated as follows:-I. ZVM (10) (or ZVM TP, ZVM TPO) is placed in the reactor (15); and 2. water (7) is placed in the reactor (15); and 3. a neutral, or reductive, or alkaline (e.g. NH3) gas is bubbled through the reactor (15) to deoxygenate the water and the water pH is allowed to rise into the range 9 to 12; and 4. an alcoholic solution containing about 10% by volume formaldehyde + about 0.7 t resorcinol m3 formaldehyde + about 1.1% by volume aqueous ammonia (e.g. 25 wt %) is added to the water (7) to create an alcohol: water (7) molar ratio of about 1:1.

One or more alcohols are used to make the alcoholic solution; and 5. a neutral (e.g. N2), or reductive, or alkaline (e.g. NH3) gas is optionally bubbled through the reactor (15) to assist in increasing the water (7) pH into the range 9 to 12 and to maintain circulation within the water. The water is maintained at about 30 C for about 24 hours. One or more of NaCI, KCI, NaOl-l, KO1-I, N1-130F1 is optionally added to the reactor (15) to increase the water (7) pH. The water (7) temperature is then raised to about 100 C, the gas flow entering the reactor (15) is switched off (the valve (40) on conduit (9) is closed), and the water (7) is allowed to stand in the reactor (15) for a time period (e.g. 24 hours); and 6. the precipitated n-RF spheres (or n-RF precipitates) can be recovered from the product water (7) and reactor (15) by filtration or centrifuging. Metal cations contained within the water (7) may be incorporated within the n-RF spheres; and 7. pyrolysing the recovered n-RF spheres/precipitates will produce n-C spheres/n-C bodies.

Cations (e.g. Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Ag, Pt, Pd, Ni, etc.), can be introduced into the RF particles during manufacture.

REACTOR (15): MANUFACTURE OF SELF ASSEMBLY NANO ION ADDUCT MOLECULES AND ASSOCIATED

COLLOIDS

The reactor (15) can be used to make self assembly nano ion adduct molecules and associated colloids, either directly from ZVM (1 0)/ZVM 1? or by adding water (7) containing soluble ion adducts to the reactor (15) in the required stoichiometric ratios. For example, to manufacture a precipitated product containing FeiooCu5[OH]:- 1. water (7) containing a molar ratio of 100 Fe[ion adduct, e.g. FeCI; Fe(NO3), etc.) and 5 Cu [ion adduct, e.g. CuCl; Cu(NO3),, etc.) is added to the reactor (15); and 2. the ZVM (10) is used to increase the water (7) pH. The rate of pH increase can (optionally) be assisted by the addition of a soluble alkali to the water (e.g. a hydroxide), or by bubbling NH3 (gas) (or another alkaline gas) through the water (7), or a combination thereof and 3. the FeOH, ([FeiooCus}zOxHy) nano-colloidal precipitates can be extracted from the water (7), or can be allowed to settle on the ZVM (10) to form ZVM TP. The colloids will act as water treatment agents within the reactor (15); 4. the recovered n-FeOH colloidal precipitates can be dried (at a temperature <200 C), optionally calcined (at 300 -900 C) and optionally subjected to one or more of reduction (to reduce n-Fe2OH to n-Fe°, or n-FeZOX.H)frb), passivation, and chemisorption prior to use. Reduction, passivation and chemisorption can be undertaken in the reactor (15).

REACTOR (15): MANUFACTURE OF n-VIM The reactor (15) can also be used to construct n-ZVM which is provided with a protective polymer coating, or a composite catalyst including both silica and polymer shells (e.g. [PVPI-n-ZVM, [PVP]-ZVM,OH) and n-ZVM (or n-ZVM O) (following elimination of the polymer by subsequent heat treatment). The polymer can be a polymeric complex supporter or a porphyrinogenic organometallic complex. The reactor (15) can also be operated to undertake the manufacture of a variety of catalysts using polymer bound ligands and metal carbonyls.

The reactor (15) can be used to manutheture n-Fe° catalyst, for example:-I. ZVM (10) (or ZVM IP, ZVM TPG) is placed in the reactor (15); and 2. water (7) is placed in the reactor (15); and 3. a n-Fe° precursor (e.g. one or more of FeCI2.4H20, FeCI3.6H20, Fe504.71120, FeCl3, Fe(NO3)3, Fe2(S04)3.9H20) is placed in the water (7) to create a concentration of 0.1 to 2 M ii of Fe4; and 4. the Ff is converted to n-Fe° [using one or more of H2, NH3, C,H, CO. or by addition of NaB}-14 or Kill-i4 or another reducing agent (e.g. phenols, polyphenols, phenoxy radicals, flavonoid radicals), or a combination thereof], or the Fe is converted to Fe,OH prior to conversion to n-Fe°, or a combination thereof; and 5. the reduced n-Fe° catalyst (<1 to >40 nm particles) can be removed from the water (7) using one or more magnets, or by another separation process. The reduced n-Fe° can beheld in an organic liquid (e.g. liquid polymer, oil, carbonyl (e.g. alcohol)), or reduced water (7), or reducing/inert gas, or a combination thereof. Passivation in the reactor (15) (using an oxygen containing gas) of the n-Fe0 can produce air stable n-Fe° protected by a layer of Fe304/Fe001-l.

Cations (e.g. Al, Au, Ag, Ca, Cu, Co, Mg, Ni, Ag Pt, Pd, Pb, S, Si, Ru, Rh, Re, Th, U, Cr, Cd, As, Hg Mg, Mn, Be, Ba, Na, K, CL, C, Li, La, etc.), can be introduced into the n-Fe° particles during manufacture.

REACTOR (15): MANUFACTURE OF n-ZVM-POLYMER STRUCTURES The reactor (15) can be used to create n-ZVM-polymer structures. The required nano-catalyst composition takes the form M[1] -..M[x]Polymer. M cation (e.g. Fe, Cu, Co, etc.). A reactor (15) manufacturing catalyst for water treatment (or another purpose (e.g. production of hydrocarbons in an aqueous environment where the feed gas delivered through conduit (6) contains CO + H2) with the composition n-Fe24(%) Cu 2(4%)Polymer974(,fl) [e.g. Fe:Polymer ratio = 1:40])) can be constructed and operated as follows:-I. ZVM (10) (or ZVM TP, ZVM TPG) is placed in the reactor (IS); and 2. water (7) is placed in the reactor (15). The water (7) can be replaced (or partially replaced) by an organic liquid (e.g. methylene chloride); and 3. the appropriate molar ratios of FeiNO3)3.9F120 (or FeCl.nH2O) + CuN2O6.31120 (CuCl.xH2O) are dissolved in the water (7) (e.g. 12 M Fe: 1 M Cu); and 4. the required molar (or weight) ratio of polymer is added to the water (7), non limiting example polymers include chitosan, sodium oleate, PVP (polyvinylpyrrolidone), PVP grafted on silica, PVP modified with 1-vinyl-3-alkylimidazollium salts, FDU-l 5, polystyrene, PVPy, PM1vIA, lignin, polyanaline grafted onto lignin, low sulfonate content lignin, NCR=N02, CAR-OAc, PEG (polyethylene glycol) modified with azamacrocycles, etc. The polymer can be purchased and added to the reactor (15). Alternatively some polymers can be constructed within the reactor (15); and 5. a reducing gas, or inert gas, or a combination thereof, is bubbled through the water (7) for a period of <2 ->36 hours at a temperature in the range 20 -95 C; and 6. the polymer precipitate is extracted from the reactor (15), or can be used directly for water treatment, or gas treatment (or a combination thereof) within the reactor (15). The Fe-polymer activity can be a ifinction of the Fe-ion adduct, (e.g. relative activity: FeC!, >FeSO4 >Fe(N03)3 >Fe203 (Fe-(OH)3)). The polymer precipitate may also include metal cations removed from the water (7) and ZVM (10); and 7. the F&: Polymer can be reduced to n-Fe°:polymer within the reactor (15) using one or more of NH3, C,H,, CO, or by addition ofNaBl-L or KBH4, or another reducing agent, or a combination thereof and 8. the reduced n-Fe°: polymer catalyst (CI to >40 nfl particles) cmi be removed from the water (7) using one or more magnets, or by another separation process. The reduced n-Fe° lymer can be held in an organic liquid (e.g. liquid polymer, oil, carbonyl (e.g. alcohol)), or reduced water (7), or reducing/inert gas, or a combination thereof. Passivation in the reactor (15) (using an oxygen containing gas) of the n-Fe° can produce air stable n-Fe0 protected by a layer of Fe304/FeOOH.

The polymer encapsulated (or protected) n-cations are located on one or more of, the polymeric particle surfitce, within the polymeric crystallite structure, and encased within cavities and pores within the polymeric particle.

REACTOR (15): MANUFACTURE OF PVP The reactor (t5) can be used to manufacture PVP: I. the manifold valve (923) is closed and the water (7) in the reactor (15) replaced with a liquid containing anliydrous 4-vinyl-pyridine and divinyl benzene in the volume ratios 1.75:1 at atemperature of0-35 C. A solution containing composition ratios [10 g hydroxyl ethyl cellulose + 100 g 10%NaCI solution + 12 g 0.4% NaOH solution + 1000 g 1120] is added to the reactor (15) to give a volume ratio of divinyl benzene: water of about 0.15:1; and 2. an oxygen free gas (e.g. nitrogen) is bubbled through the water (7) mixture at a temperature of 0-35 C to ensure mixing. The heat exchangers (701), (702) are then used to maintain a temperature of about 70 C (in an oxygen free environment) for 12 hours. A white PVP product precipitate is present. The white PVP product is recovered by filtration, washed and dried (at <100 C). PVP yields may exceed 90%. Altematively the PVP can be washed in the reactor (15) and then used as a water treatment agent (or used to make n-ZVM:polymer catalysts). A number of alternative recipes and methods exist for PVP manufacture. Some of these recipes and methods can be modified and adapted to create the product using the reactor (IS).

REGENERATION OF ZYM (10), ZYM TI', ZVM TPG The valency of ZVM (10), ZVM TP and ZVM TPG increases with time as the proportion of ME O,I4}. precipitants and corrosion products increases. The ZVM (10), ZVM TP and ZVM TN) can be regenerated in the reactor (15) using one or more of a reducing gas, or reducing reagent. Many inorganic reducing agents are toxic. Many organic reducing agents are biodegradable (or produce biodegradable products) and are considered to be non-toxic, or less toxic.

"Green" reduction reactions use a biodegradable (or organic) reductant, or a reductant manufactured from biological sources, or a reductant (synthetic or biological) which produces a biodegradable product to reduce a cation, Orion adduct, to a lower valency state. Examples of "green" reductants which can be used in the reactor (15) include glycerol (glycerine, glycerine), phenols, polyphenols, phenoxy radicals, tiavonoid radicals, alcohols, ketones and aldehydes. Reductants (gaseous, or solid, or liquid, or a combination thereof) can be used in the reactor (15) to: 1. reduce ZVM (10), ZVM TP, ZVM TPG, and cations/anions present in the water (7); 2. reduce organic chemicals in the water (7); 3. reduce gases bubbled through the water (7) from the distributor (8), e.g. CO. C02, N,O.

Reducants can be present in water (7) requiring remediation, or can be added to the water (7). Examples UI to G7, and the examples in Figures 7a, 7b include "een" reductants in the water (7) requiring treatment.

Reduction of Cations (oxidation of reductant) The basic reduction reaction associated with aromatics is: nFe + x[Aromatic-OH] nFe° + xn [Aromatic=0J + xnl-1 1ff4X* + x[Aromatic-OIfl = nM° + xn [Aromatic=0] ± xnflt M cation: Fe2 ion may take the form [Fe(HzO)d2; Mx+ ion may take the form [M(1-I2O)]"; Fe0 product may include a FeOOWF;O shell/coating.

The aromatic product is a ketone or aldehyde. Reduction reactions associated with glycerol (e.g. Example UI) include: Fe(OH)2 + C311303 (glycerol) = Fe° + C3}{503 (tactic acid) + 21120 2Fe(OH)3 + 3C311803 (glycerol) 2Fe° -4-3C31-1603 + 61120 Fe304.xH2O + 4C3Fl03 (glycerol) 3Fe° + 4C311603 + (8+x)1120 Reduction reactions associated with simple alcohols (e.g. Examples 02 to 04) include reactions of the form: Fe + y[CH3CH2-OH] = Fe° + y[CH3CH=O] + 2yW + ye The alcohols may interact with both the ZVM (10) and water (7) to produce adsorption (and desorption) reactions of the Wpe: CH3OH (methanol) + 40ff = C0,,, + 41120 + 46 CO. + OH, = COOHadS COOH + °11Ss= CO2 (g) + 1120 (e.g. Example 02) 2. Reduction of Gases (oxidation of reductant) Gases entering the water (7) through the distributor (8) are reduced (or oxidised) by one or more of components in the water (7) and ZVM (10). e.g. 3Fe° [ZVM (10)] + (4+x)}-120 [Water (7)] + 4C02 [Gas] = Fe304.xI-120 + 411C0011 [reaction = RI] The basic reaction of CO2 with 1120 (CO2 + H20 = H2C03) reduces in effectiveness with increasing temperature, and at C allows a maximum removal of 0.73 L CO2 U1 1120. This increases to about 2 L CO2 U' 1120 at <0 C. The reactor (15) established (Figure 3o) removal rates which exceed 18 L CO2 L1 1120. Similarly the observed rates of CO and CH removal (Figure 3r, 3s) exceed their expected removal rates in water (e.g. Cl-I4 + 1120 CO + 6H4 + 66; CH4 + 2H20 = CO2 + 81[t + 86; CO + 1120 = C02+ 2Fl+ 2&(Pourbaix, 1974)). Figures 3q to 3s establish that the capacity for CO2 removal in the reactor (15) can exceed 45 L CO2 U' 1120. The reaction rate associated with reaction [Rh increases with temperature and pressure. The reaction kinetics for [Rh] may allow the reaction time required to remove >45 L CO2 L 1120 (>0.7 M CO2 M' Fe°) to be reduced from 700 hours (Figures 3q to 3s) to <1 hour by increasing temperature and pressure.

The ZYM (10) adsorption-desorption mechanisms associated with COOH [e.g. HCOOH = COOH (ads) + lit; CO2 + 1-120 = HCOOH + 02i, and related species (e.g. CXHyOZ (ads)) allow desorption of C02, CO, CF10, and C11.

Desorption of CO, CO2. C11. and C$, in the reactor (15) are demonstrated in Figures 3e to 3h; 3t to 4e, 4g, 4h. CO, CO2.

Cl-I4 and Cj-l can become interchangeable species in the reactor (15), allowing CO2 to be desorbed as one or more of CO, CH4, and CH (e.g. Figures 3e to 3h).

Examples G4, 05 and 06 demonstrate that the desorbed species can be alkanes (CH) and that desorption can result in the formation of longer chain hydrocarbons. Example 04 demonstrates that where aldehydes or ketones (e.g. CH3CH2OI-I = CI-13C1-I0 + fl2) are an intermediary, alkenes may be present in the product hydrocarbon (e.g. C21-l40 + C5F112 = C71-114 +1120).

Secondary Reactions Associated with "Green" and Organic Reductants Aromatic precipitates were observed in the reactor (15) in examples 01. 05, 06. They indicate that the reactions can include: 2[AromaticO] = [Aromatic-O]-[O-Aromatic] [Aromatic=O] + R [Aromatic-O-R] [Aromatic-OH] + R = [Aromatic-C] + RH R = free radical; Aromatic aromatic organic chemical (e.g. Ebbing and Gammon, 2005). Other reactions involving "green" reductants can also occur. e.g. In Example Gi the presence of glycerol may allow the reaction CO2 + C311303 = HCOOH -f C3H603 to occur.

ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY

Electrical activity (0->875 mV; 0->100 mA) was observed: 1. in the reactor (15) in some electrically isolated segments (using a multimeter); 2. in some electrically isolated cartridges (922) attached to a manifold (900), e.g. [0.5 mx 40mm OD UPVC cartridge containing Fe° wire wool connected by MDPE tubing to the manifold (900)]; and 3. in some ZVM TP and some pellets containing ZVM 1?.

Voltages and currents (when observed) fluctuated with time.

Metal Sheathed ZVM TP Pellet Dry Voltage Cell: Example dry voltage cells, ET] and ET2, were constructed using examples of ZVM TP: I. El']: ZVM 1?, 75 mm, 15 mm OD Cu tube containing dry ZVM TP (total weight 56 g (ZVM TP + Cu°)). The two ends were exposed to air and a Fe° electrode inserted into the ZVM TP. A second electrode was attached to The Cu0 shell.

2. ET2:ZVMTP, 11 gZVMTP+5gNaCl+2gfl2Omixedandplacedina5Omm, l5minODCutube.Thetwoends were sealed with plastic (PVC) and a Fe° electrode inserted into the ZVM F?. A second electrode was attached to the Cu° shell of the dry cell.

The dry voltage cells were placed on material which is not electrically conductive. Figures 9a -9c demonstrate that:-I. the reactor (15) can be used to manufacture a ZVM F? product which may have applications in the construction of voltage cells (including Fe-hydrogen batteries), and 2. adjusting the cation compositions and fluid compositions and concentrations in the ZVM TP including associated electrolytes, water availability, and hydrogen (and other gas) availability, can allow modification of the voltages, currents, and life expectancy of the voltage cell.

Operating the voltage cell as a hydrogen battery can allow recharge to occur. Complete discharge (to 0 Volts and 0 amperes) occurred in some dry cell examples over a period of <1 minute. Some dry cell examples showed no measurable electrical activity.

ET2 establishes that the ZVM TP can be constructed with a natural power capacity (Whr) of>90 Whr C, before recharge from an external power source. Power capacity [voltage x current x hours].

ZVM (10): ZVM TP Powder Wet Voltage Cell: The operating life of ZVM (10) can exceed 5000 hours (e.g. Figure 3o), and may indicate the presence of ZVM (10) auto-recharge mechanisms in thc reactor (15).

The prior art has established that in a metal:hydrogen eleetrochemical cell the primary reversible equilibrium reactions include: Fe° = -0.877 V. Individual ion adducts and metals act as cathodes and anodes in water. These drive the basic equilibrium forward waler decomposition reactions (during cell discharge) of 21-120 + 2e ll2 (ads) + 20ff; AE° -0.828 V; 02 (ads) + 21120 + 4C = 4011; AE° +0.401 V; 2W = F12(g). Related reactions involving Fe°, FeW, FeOOEl, F;0, Fe(OH) (and related ions) occur.

1. the prior art has established:

a. hydrogen is generated during cell discharge, while water is consumed during cell charging; b. the rate of hydrogen discharge increases as the relative proportion of discharge:charge reactions increases, and vice versa; c. during charging adsorbed (ads) 02 accumulates on the charge sites; d. switching a cell from a net charge status to a net discharge status can increase the electrolyte (water) temperature by <1 ->5 C and can result in short periods of thermal runaway occurring. Periods of thermal runaway can be accompanied by thermal spikes where the temperature increase can exceed 10 C. The increased heat generation can be associated with the reaction: 2112 + 02 = 21120 + heat.

2. Reactor (15) operating observations have established that: a. water consumption occurs in the reactor (15) and in water bodies containing both ZVM TP and ZVM TN) (e.g.

Tables 2 -23);

b. hydrogen generation occurs in the reactor (15) (e.g. Figures 3a-3d and Table I). Hydrogen generation has also been observed in some water bodies containing one or more of ZVM TP and ZVM TPG; c. the rate of hydrogen production can cyclically increase and decrease (e.g. Figure 5g. 5h); d. water (7) temperature in an unheated reactor (15) is at, or above air temperatures. Temperature spikes which are >20 C above ambient temperatures can occasionally occur (e.g. Figure 9d). The associated hydrogen concentrations in the product gas in conduit (9) are provided in Figures 9e, 9f.

3. Electrical Activity During Operation a. monitoring of electrical activity in a reactor (15), containing powdered (44,000 -66,000 nm) ZVM (10) [Fe° (68 wt%) + Cu° (10 wt %) + Al° (22 wt%)], after 18 months operation over a 48 hour period using Al° (4 em2) and Cu° (6.2 cm2) electrodes [placed 40 mm apart in the water (7), extending through the ZVM-water contact (801) into the ZYM (1W] established a fluctuating current and voltage (Figure 9g). The voltage and current duringoperationcanbeOVandoamp.Salinewater(7):Eh=-0.078V;pI{=8.9;T= 14.9C:gas=air.

4. Impact of ZVM composition a. a number of reactors (15) were examined after a period of operation (at -18 C to 25 C); ZVM (10) = one or more of n-Fe°, m-Fe0 ( and optionally one or more of n-Cu°, n-Al0, n-Ca-montmorillonite, bituminous coal dust and NaCl); m-Fe° = fibrous fine steel wool; nano (n-) particles are <66,000 rim in size: 2 of the reactors (IS) contained 31.5 g NaC1 U', the remainder contained 0 g NaCI L'. 10 of the reactors contained Ca-montmorillonite; the remainder contained no Ca-montmorillonite; 2 of the reactors (15) contained coal dust, the remaining reactors contained no coal dust. The gas used is air. The maximum voltages and current recorded during a 15 minute observation period, showed a relationship between voltage and current (Figure 9h).

These observations establish that the reactor (15) (and water containing ZVM TP) can contain measurable electrical activity which can be adjusted by altering one or more of the electrolytic content of the water (7), gas compositionlflow rate/pressure, temperature, and ZYM (1 0)/ZVM TP composition. The current vs. voltage relationships indicate that placement of an anode and cathode in the reactor (15) [or water containing ZVM TPI (to create an electrical circuit) can allow the ZVM (10)/ZVM TP to accept, or discharge, an electrical charge.

The potential power capacity indicated by Figure 9h is >70 kWhr t ZVM Ti'. This indicates that the ZYM Ti' can be constructed to both act as a store of electrical charge and a source of stored electrical power. The power capacity of the ZVM TP can be increased by one or more oE I. increasing the ratio of high conductivity cations:Fe in the ZVM Ti'. High conductivity cations (e.g. Li, Sr, Ca, Al) include one or more of cations jIM] associated with the redox reaction M° = M" + ne; where SE° = >0 V; 2. increasing the electrolyte concentration (e.g. LiOll, KOl-!, N11401-1, NaOH, NaCI, etc.); 3. increasing the availability of hydrogen in the redox cell; 4. altering particle size and surface area; 5. increasing the ratio of low conductivity cations:Fe in the ZVM TP. Low conductivity eations (e.g. Au, Pt, Ag, Cu, Rh, etc.) include one or more of cations [M] associated with the redox reaction M° = M + ne; where AE° = <0 V.

ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS

In saline water the electrochemical reactions NaCI + 31120 = NaClO3 + 3112(5) can occur, where the cathodic reaction is 211' + 2e = 2 (5) and the anodic reaction is 2C1 = Cl2 (ads) + 2e. The associated series of reactions may include (Cl2 + 1120 = Clan + CY ± t; CIOH = C10 + W; 2C1011 + C10 do; + 21-t + 2Cr). At higher p11 the anodic reactions may include I2OCY + 6H0 = 4ClO; + 12H + 8C + 302 (ads) +12e; CIOH + 1120 3H ± CY ± 02 (ads) ± 2e; 21120 02(ads) + 4H + 4e; 40H 02(axis) ± 21-120 + 4e; 20Cr = 02(ads) + 2Cl. The reactions may be buffered in the reactor (15) by reactions associated with the formation of FeOOH, Fe(011), species which can incorporate both Na and Cl.

Hydrogen production rates can vary cyclically (Figure Sf to 5h), and the electrical activity within the water (7) can vary cyclically (Figure 9g). If hydrogen discharge is associated with auto-cell discharge, and oxygen discharge is associated with auto-cell recharge, then the reactions (02 (ads) + 112 (g) = 21120 + heat; or 02 (ads) ÷ 211' + 2e 21120 + heat) will occur, with specific temperature rises occurring when the ZVMIZVM TP switches from a net electrical charge mode to a net electrical discharge mode.

The temperatures in Figure 9d were associated with the production of hydrogen in Figure ii The temperature spikes in Figure 9d are associated with lower concentrations of 112 in the product gas (Figure 9e, 90 and may indicate that they are associated with a switch from a net electrical charge mode to a net electrical discharge mode (or vice versa) within the reactor (15).

In an alkaline environment reactions of the form [Cl-+ 80H = Cl04 + 41120 + 8c; AL° = -0.56 V: Cr + 60ff = Cl03 + 3H20 ÷ 6e;AE°=-0.63V;CL+40ff=Cl02+21120+4e;AE°-0.78V;CF+2OHCI(X+1120+2&;AE°=0. S9Vjmayalso occur. The observed desalination in Figures 6d, oh may be associated with the redox equilibrium couplet 2A1° + Fe203 A1203 + Fe°; AE° -1.42 to -1.6 V. The ZVM (10) contained both Al° and Fe°. The hydrated form of Fe203 = Fe(OH)j. 2A1° + 3H20 = A1203 + 611' + 6e; AE° = -1.471 to -1.550 V; Fe203 + 6H + 6e 31120 + Fe°; AE° -0.059 to +0.051 V. This redox couplet (and redox couplets associated with other components of the ZVM (10)) may allow removal of any C17(g) formed and adsorbed on the 0.5 Cl2 + 21120 = 3fl + HCIO2 + 3e; AE° = -1.64 V; 0.5 Cl7 + F120 = W + I-ICIO + e'; AE° = -1.63 V. 1-tygroscopic product species of Al, Fe and other ZVM (10) species can incorporate one or more of K, Na, Cl.

REMOVAL OF HALIDES (e.g. NaCI) Tables 2 -21 establish that halides such as NaCl can be removed within the reactor (15). reactor (20) and in water containing ZVM TP, ZVM TPG. When ZVM (10) or ZVM TPIZVM TPG is present the Nã and C ions may be removed by adsorption within growing nano-crystallites (F;Ol IJ within the water (7). Tables 2 to 23 establish relationships between water removal and NaC1 removal. Table 7 establishes a relationship between gasoline removal and NaCI removal.

DESALINATION

The prior art indicates that no desalination will occur if water Eh and pH is altered (Pourbaix, 1974; Takeno, 2005). The operation of the reactor (15) established desalination levels which can exceed 70 g NaC1 L' which can be associated with both an increase in pH and a decrease, or change, in Eh. Observations associated with the operation of the reactor (15) established: I) production of distillation quality product water, resulting from the interaction of 112 product with air catalysed by copper (and copper oxides/hydroxides/peroxides), or another oxide/hydroxide/peroxide, or another catalyst, or a combination thereof, in the gas discharge conduits (9), or in one or more manifolds (900), modules (951), and cartridges (902) attached to the gas discharge conduits (9), or a combination thereof; 2) desalination of water (7) within the reactor (15) (e.g. Tables 2-6; Figures 6d, 6h); 3) desalination of water (7) within the reactor (15) both before and after the removal of the ZVM (10). Continuing desalination is due to the presence of n-ZVM TI' in the water (7) (e.g. Figure 60; 4) following removal of water from the reactor (15), desalination can continue in the stored water (due to the presence of nano-ZVM TI' in the water (7)); a) An example reactor (15) operated with ZVM (10) containing 50 nm particle size Fe° and other ZVM components in the 40,000-80,000 nm particle size range, processing water (7) containing 7.6 g NaCl 1]', produced a product water with the characteristics: Eh = -0.25 V; pH = 9.95, BC = 2.69 mScnf' (1.345 g NaCI L1). This product water was stored at-S C to 12 C for aperiod of 146 days. After 146 days storage, the product water characteristics were: Eh 0.151 V; pH = 7.24, EC = 1.136 mScm' (0.568 gNaCl U'); 5) desalination of water (7) which may be accelerated by the presence of an immiscible liquid (555) located between the gas (700) and water (7); The reactor (15) can be used to remove both hydrocarbon liquids (555) and NaCl from water (7).

Examples of operation are provided in Table 7 processing saline [110.6 mScm'] and hypersaline [171 A mScm1] feed water (7); 6) desalination of water bodies using ZVM TP/ZVM TPG powders, granules, pellets, tablets and cartridges (e.g. Tables 8 to 21; Figures Sa -81); Placement of ZVM TI' (e.g. granules, powders, pellets) in a water body may result in a rapid decrease in BC (e.g. Figures lOa-bc); a) Table 22 establishes that BC reductions in the water due to the presence of one or more of ZVM TI' and ZVM FF0 can be directly linked to reductions in water salinity; I,) Table 23 Establishes that placement of ZVM TI' (or ZVM TPO) in water can result in desalination occurring; c) Tables 22 and 23 establish that water volumes may decrease during the operation of ZVM TP or ZVM TPG; 7) desalination of water (7) during the formation of ZYM TV from ZYM (10) (e.g. Figures 6d, 6h); a) Table 7 establishes that the removal ofNaCl from the feed water can be associated with an increase in EC in the product water, when the rate of water removal is greater than the rate of NaC1 removal. NaCI removal rates can exceed 70 g U1

(Table 7);

8) desalination of water (7) containing ZVM TP (or ZVM (10)) by differential freezing producing frozen water with reduced EC/TDS, and a residue water with increased EC/TDS (e.g. Figures 61, 8d, 8h; Table 24); 9) desalination of water (7) containing ZVM TP (or ZVM (10)) by clathrate (hydrate) formation producing a solid precipitate with reduced EC/TDS, and a residue water with increased EC/TDS; The clathrate can be an organic clathrate; 10) desalination of water (7) resulting from an alkali shift followed by acidification associated with the presence of CO2 (e.g. bubbling of a CO2 rich gas through the distributor (8) (e.g. Figure lOd -lOfl) [or presence of acids in the water (7)]. The alkali shift (created by the ZVM (10) (e.g. Figure 6b), or ZVM TP (e.g. Figure Sb) can be supported by bubbling an alkali gas (e.g. NH3) through the distributor (8) and by the addition of alkali material to the water (7); II) Desalination of water (7) by dilution in the reactor (15) with less saline water.

These observations demonstrate that reactor (15) and ZVM TP can be used to desalinate water. Potential applications are:-I) Treatment of saline agricultural water; 2) Pre-treatment of saline water feeds for a desalination plant; 3) Processing of reject brine from a desalination plant to produce lower salinity water which can be reused in the desalination plant, or used for another purpose; 4) Water desalination to produce water for irrigation and municipal applications; 5) Processing of saline and hypersaline flowback water from shale gas and oil shale welLs to produce lower salinity water and water with reduced scale components which can be reused for fracking.

HYDROGEN GAS PRODUCTION RATES

The prior art (e.g. Chen et al., 2011) indicates that the basic reaction for hydrogen production is Fe° + 21120 Fe2 ± 201-F ± l12(g) (e.g. 31k° ± 4H20 = Fe304 + 4112(g) (i.e. 3 M Fe° can theoretically produce a maximum of 67.23 to 89.64 L 112)). Reactor (15) operation has established (Figure 3a) that 3 M Fe° can produce >1.8 m3 112 (i.e. the ZVM (10) may catalysc thc clcctron shuttlc water decomposition reaction 21120 + 2e 112 (ads) + 2011 ± 2e and related reactions). Table 1 established a 2 production rate: (i) at 75 C of>4.0 L H2 minut&1 M' n-Fe0 (44,000 -66,000 nm), and (ii) at -7 C to 25 C of>9.6 L 111 minute1 M' n-Fe0 (44,000- 66,000 nm). This compares with the rates recorded by Chen et al. (2011) of 0.000156 -0.0153 L 1-12 minute1 M' n-Fe° (60 am) in a continuously stirred batch reactor. M' n-Fe° mole n-Fe° (I mole = 55.845 g Fe°).

Hydrogen gas production rates in the reactor (15) vazy with temperature, ZVM (10) composition, amount of ZVM (10) per unit volume of water (7), gas composition, pressure, gas flow rate, water (7) composition and time. Examples of hydrogen production rates are provided in Table 1. The hydrogen concentration in the product gas in conduit (9) can vary from 0% to >95%. This allows the reactor (15) to be used to:- 1) add hydrogen to a product gas to assist in the treatment of downstream water bodies (e.g. reactors (15), reactors (20)); 2) add hydrogen to a gas/water to remove °2; 3) add hydrogen to natural gas to manufacture hydrogen enriched natural gas; 4) manufacture hydrogen for use as a thel, power generation, or for another purpose; 5) manufacture a synthesis gas; 6) add hydrogen to a gas containing carbon oxides; 7) make hydrogen which is used to reduce ZVM (10), ZVM TP, ZVM TPG, and other material; 8) make hydrogen which is used in one or more of electrocheniical, electrostorage and battery operations.

The electrochemical reaction environment within the reactor (15) may control both the rate of hydrogen evolution and the life expectancy of the ZVM (1 0)/ZVM TP in the reactor (15). Therefore by adjusting the electrochemical environment within the reactor (15) it may be possible to: 1. create high rates of 112 gas discharge (e.g. Figure 3a); 2. vary the rate of H2 production (e.g. Figure 3a, 5g. 5h); 3. operate the reactor (15) with no 112 gas production (Table 1); 4. increase the effective operating life of ZVM (10), ZVM TP and ZVM TPG.

OTHER REACTION MECHANISMS

The reactor (15) can be used for Grignard reactions and cross coupling reactions. Tables 2-6, 8-21 demonstrate that cations used in Grignard and cross coupling reactions may be involved in reactions within the reactor (15).

Table 1: Gas and Hydrogen Production. Reactor (15) feedstock and products normalised to a reactor (15) containing I t ZVM (10).

ZVM (10) contains 10 wt% to 100 wt% Fe° + 0 wt %to 40 wt% Al° + 0 wt%to 50 wt% Cu° + 0 wt%to 60 wt% other material.

A. Operation at 45 (ito 80 C E55 to E59 have a saline feed water (EC = 110.6 mscnf'). £40 to £54 contain organic pollutants in the feed water.

Hydrogen Hydrocarbon Hydrogen Gas CO2 Gas Gas Gas Gas Production Production Production Feed Production Production Rate, L Rate, L Rate, L Feed Water Gasoline/oil Gas Body Rate rn3 Rate, m' Minute' minute' M minute' M' (7), m' (555), m3 (700), m3 T, C minute' minute1 M' Fe° Fe° Fe° Example _____________________________________ _____ ___________ ___________ _____________________________________ £40 2.14 0.00 1.43 75.0 2.29 210 0.349 0.0123 0.0000 £41 2.50 0.00 1.39 75.0 8.74 8.55 1.709 0.0162 0.0000 £42 1.79 0.00 1,07 75.0 2.07 1.96 0.338 0.0050 0.0000 £43 1.58 0.16 0.68 75.0 0.91 0.51 0.088 0.0440 0.0155 £44 1.63 0.21 1.29 45.0 0.60 0.34 0.114 0.0519 0.0000 £45 1.59 0.19 1.00 45.0 0.27 0.02 0.003 0.0237 0.0000 £46 5.56 0.00 2.78 75.0 0.35 0.00 0.000 0.0000 0.0000 £47 6.25 0.63 2.50 75.0 0.21 0.00 0.000 0.0000 0.0000 £48 2.94 0.29 1.47 70.0 0.14 0.01 0.001 0.0015 0.0000 £49 1.82 0.45 1.14 75.0 0.23 0.08 0.009 0.0009 0.0068 £50 2.63 0.00 1.32 75.0 0.26 0.13 0.013 0.0036 0.0000 £51 1.92 0.00 0.96 75.0 0.11 0,02 0.003 0.0023 0.0000 £52 1.74 0.43 1.09 75.0 1.09 0,65 0.082 0.0109 0.0343 £53 2.94 0.00 1.41 75.0 1.45 1.25 0.131 0.0085 0.0005 E54 1.90 0.48 1.19 75.0 4.09 3.51 0.372 0.0000 0.0511 E55 3.00 0.60 1.40 76.6 78.00 57.22 4.331 0.0000 1.5643 £56 2.81 0.56 1.31 76.6 26.89 20.63 1.832 0.0000 0.5470 £57 2.05 0.41 0.95 75.0 0.18 0.00 0.000 0.0000 110080 £58 3.75 0.75 1.75 75M 0.31 0.00 0.000 0.0000 0.0090 £59 1.96 0.39 0.91 75.0 17.31 14.21 0.954 0.0000 0.2039 B. Average Gas Production During Operation at-S C to 12 C over a 10 to 160 day period: Feed water salinity varied from 0 g NaCI U' to 85.7 g NaCI L'.

Hydrogen Hydrogen (las CO, Gas Hydrocarbon Feed Gas Productioi Production Gas Gasoline/Oil Production Rate, L Rate, L Production Feed Water (555)(558), Gas Body Rate, m3 Day' M' Day' M' Rate, L Day (7), m' m3 (700), m' Days day' Fe5 I M" Fe° Example _____________________________________ ______ ___________ _____________________________________ Fl 214 0.00 1.43 33 0.192 0.0319 0.00002 0.00000 F2 278 0.00 1.39 33 0,146 0.0292 0.00009 0.00000 P3 1.79 0.00 0.89 34 0.252 0.0436 0.00003 0.00000 P4 5.56 0.00 2.78 26 0.000 0.0000 0.00047 0.00000 P5 1.92 0.00 0.96 22 0.041 0.0059 0.00019 0.00000 P6 1.58 0.16 0.84 34 0.102 0.0175 0.00207 0.00028 P7 1.63 0.21 1.29 33 0.057 0.0189 0.00195 0.00000 P8 1.63 0.21 1,29 191 0.004 0.0015 0.00060 0.00000 P9 1.72 0.20 1,08 33 0.003 0.0004 0.00140 0.00000 P10 1.72 0.20 1.08 191 0.001 0.0001 0.00004 0.00000 FlI 2.94 0.00 1.47 24 0,014 0.0015 0.00005 0.00000 P12 1.90 0.48 1.19 24 0.136 0.0144 0.00000 0.00102 P13 1.90 0.48 1.19 56 1.822 0.1930 0.00000 0.01193 F14 6.25 0.63 2.50 26 0.000 0.0000 0.00004 0.00000 P15 1.82 0.45 1.14 22 0.001 0.0001 0.00000 0.00030 P16 1.74 0.43 1.09 22 0.045 0.0058 0.00008 0.00110 P17 2.38 0.00 1.19 13 0.013 0.0012 0.00000 0.00000 P18 2.50 0.63 1.56 13 0.003 0.0003 0.00000 0.00108 P19 3.85 0.00 1.92 13 0.001 0.0001 0.00000 0.00000 P20 2.35 0.59 1.47 13 0.015 0.0016 0.00000 0.00287 P21 2.35 0.59 147 56 0.141 0.0148 0.00000 0.00608 P22 3.00 0.67 1,33 II 0.023 0.0017 0.00000 0.00744 P23 3.00 0.67 1.33 26 0.854 0.0646 0.00000 0.02817 P24 3.00 0.67 1.33 67 0.095 0.0072 0.00000 0.00000 V.25 2.81 0.63 1.25 11 0.126 0.0112 0.00000 0.01480 F26 2.8! 0.63 1.25 26 1.301 0.1155 0.00000 0.04765 F27 281 0.63 1.25 67 0.063 0.0056 0.00000 0.00000 P28 2.05 0.45 0.91 11 0.050 0.0040 0.00000 0.00694 P29 2.05 0.45 0.91 26 0.001 0.0001 0.00000 0.00102 P30 2.05 0.45 0.91 67 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00046 P31 3.75 0.83 1.67 11 0.119 0.0066 0.00000 0.00827 P32 3.75 0.83 1.67 26 0.004 0.0002 0.00000 0.00166 P33 3.75 0.83 1.67 67 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00046 P34 1.96 0.43 0.87 1 I 0.662 0.0445 0.00000 0.02522 P35 1.96 0.43 0.87 26 2.602 0.1748 0.00000 0.00988 P36 1.96 043 0.87 67 0.021 0.0014 0.00000 0.00005 P37 2.25 0.50 1.00 11 0.323 0.0299 0.00000 0.02488 P38 2.25 0.50 1.00 27 0.546 0.0505 0.00000 0.02214 P39 2.25 0.50 1.00 67 0.062 0.0057 0.00000 0.00048 P40 2.05 0.45 0.91 11 0.001 0.0001 0.00000 0.00314 P41 2.05 0.45 0.91 27 0.207 0.0180 0.00000 0.00815 P42 2.05 0.45 0.91 67 0.057 0.0050 0.00000 0.00024 P43 2.50 0.56 1.11 11 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00439 P44 2.50 0.56 1.11 27 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00120 F45 2.50 0.56 1.11 67 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00062 P46 2.50 0.56 1.11 157 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00006 F47 3.00 0.67 1.33 11 0.018 0.0010 0.00000 0.00467 F48 3.00 0.67 1.33 27 0.001 0.0001 0.00000 0.00092 F49 3.00 0.67 1.33 67 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00028 HO 3.00 0.67 1.33 157 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00000 ES! 1.88 0.42 0.83 11 0.038 0.0028 0.00000 0.00413 F52 1.88 0.42 0.83 27 0.196 0.0145 0.00000 0,00653 F53 1.88 0.42 0.83 67 0.095 0.0070 0.00000 0.00041 F54 1.88 0.42 0.83 157 0.004 0.0003 0.00000 0.00006 F55 4.09 0.91 1.82 8 0.084 0.0047 0.00000 0.01180 F56 4.09 0.91 1.82 19 0.008 0.0005 0.00000 0.00272 F57 4.09 0.91 1,82 56 0.009 0.0005 0.00000 0.00120 F58 4.09 0.91 1.82 156 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0.00006 P59 3.21 0.71 1.43 8 0.005 0.0003 0.00000 0.00365 P60 3.21 0.71 1.43 19 0.003 0.0002 0.00000 0.00172 F61 3.21 0.71 1.43 8 0.004 0.0002 0.00000 0,00333 P62 3.21 0.71 1.43 19 0.028 0.0016 0.00000 0.00266 F63 4.09 0.91 1.82 10 0.000 0.0000 0.00000 0,00392 F64 4.09 0.91 1.82 20 0.002 0.0001 0.00000 0.00170 P65 4.09 0.91 1.82 66 0.001 0.0001 0.00000 0.00010 P66 3.2! 0.7! 1.43 10 0.008 0.0005 0.00000 0.00298 P67 3.21 0.71 1.43 20 0.021 0.0012 0.00000 0.00233 P68 3.2! 0.7! 1.43 10 0.030 0.0017 0.00000 0.00333 P69 3,21 0.71 1.43 20 0.001 0.0000 0.00000 0.00123 P70 2.50 0.00 0.14 33 0.827 344.4976 P71 2.50 0.00 0.14 46 37.098 5206.7124 F72 2.50 0.00 0.14 36 99.444 13957.1150 P73 2.27 0.00 0.12 98 4.887 670.7356 Table 2: Examples of feed water and product water anion compositions. Reactor (20)[1] [or Reactor (20)] receives product gas from an upstream reactor (15). Reactor (20) [2] receives product gas from an upstream Reactor (20)[1]. The reactor (15) has a water capacity of [C] Litres. At the time the product water samples were collected the volume of water (7) in the reactor was [F] litres.

Net Product values are calculated as: Observed product value times [F]/(G] to determine the residual amount of anions per unit volume of feed water. ZVM (10) contains >20 wt% Fe°. Fe0 particle size is in the range 10 nm -70,000 nfl. Particle size of other ZVM (10) components is in the range 40,000 nm to 6mm.

Reactor Example Cl N(N03) S(S04) P(P04) F N(N02) ______ Sample mg/I mg/I mg/i mg/I mg/I mg/I £1 Feed Water 2816 16.4 6.99 <0.017 0.044 2.934 Reactor (t5) Product 1468 0.49 4.81 0.025 0.023 1.688 Reactor (20) [I] Product 1533 2.83 4.7 0.014 0.023 2.245 Reactor (15) Product (Net) 1366 0.46 4.48 0.023 0.021 1.572 _________ Reactor (20) LII Product (Net) 1428 2.63 4.37 0.013 0.021 2.09 E2 Feed Water 16243.975 27.554 10.15 <0.10 0.059 0.09 Reactor (15) Product 10076.223 3.943 6.044 <0.10 0.128 2.472 Reactor (20) [II Product 11232803 1.789 9.455 <0.10 0.136 2.362 Reactor (15) Product (Net) 6709.214 2.625 4.024 <0.10 0.085 1,646 ________ Reactor (20) [1] Product (Net) 7479.319 1.191 6.296 <0.10 0.091 1.573 E3 Feed Water 23162.040 26.031 9.588 <0.10 0.055 0.085 Reactor (15) Product 348.025 0.639 1.524 0.148 0.033 0.1% Reactor (20)111 Product 27685.821 0.966 8.042 <0.10 <0.020 1.855 Reactor (15) Product (Net) 92.093 0.169 0.403 0.039 0.009 0.052 Reactor (20) [1] ProductG'4et) 11585.451 0.256 2.128 <0.10 <0.020 0.491 Reactor (20)[2] Feed Water 114.926 9.099 30.173 12.281 <0.020 0.193 Reactor (20)[2] Product 139.124 0.218 20.166 <0.10 <0.020 0.037 ________ Reactor (20)121 Product (Net) 97.718 0.153 14.164 <0.10 <0.020 0,026 St Feed Water 4646.582 80.5% 29,687 <0.10 0.171 0.264 Reactor (15) Product 299,873 0.34t 3.669 <0.10 0.042 0.051 Reactor (20) [I] Product 1791.926 0.908 5.292 <0.10 0.025 2.603 Reactor (IS) Product (Net) 269.886 0.307 3.302 <0.10 0.038 0.046 _________ Reactor (20)111 Product (Net) 1612.733 0.817 4.763 <0.10 0.023 2.343 Table 3: Examples of feed water and product water cation compositions: Example El.

Reactor Reactor Reactor Reactor (15) (20) [1] Feed (15) (20) [1] Product Product Cation Water Product Product (Net) (Net) K mg/I 4.89 77.91 83.29 72.53 77.55 Ca mg/I 48.37 3.45 5.14 3.21 4.78 Mg mg/I 14.65 1.41 2.67 1.31 2.48 Na mg/I 1736.00 962.00 1040.00 895.00 969.00 Al rig/I <260.0 375.40 < 150.0 349.48 C 150.0 Fe jig/I <52.0 <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn rig/I 11.28 4.50 6.20 4.19 5.77 P mg/i 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.02 S mg/I 6.88 4.87 4.90 4.53 4.56 B jig/I 32.69 35.30 32.50 32.87 30.26 Ba pig/I 139.42 <15.0 17.30 <15.0 16.11 Cd.tg/l 0.98 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.19 Co pig/I 2.29 0.20 1.50 0.19 140 Cr pig/I <3.5 <2.0 <15.0 <1.8 <15.0 Cu pig/I 111.60 <20.0 147.30 <20.0 137.10 Ni pig/I <5.2 <10 <3.0 <3.0 <3.0 Pb pig/I <17.3 <10.0 <10.0 <10.0 <10.0 Si mg/i 7.46 0.13 0.41 0.12 0.38 Sr pig/I 208.56 20.00 35.70 18.62 33.24 Zn pig/i 320.20 <4.00 53.60 <4.00 49.90 As pig/i <8.3 2.00 6.30 1.86 5.87 Mo pig/i <34.6 36.10 23.80 33.61 22.16 Sb pig/I <34.6 <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Se pig/I <34.6 <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sn Mg/I <17.3 <10.0 <10.0 <10.0 <10.0 Table 4: Examples of feed water and product water cation compositions: Example E2.

Reactor Reactor Reactor Reactor (15) (20) [1] Feed (15) (20) [1] Product Product Cation Water Product Product (Net) (Net) K mg/I 4087.42 3266.23 1212.37 2174.80 807.25 Ca mg/i 80.39 25.51 30.32 16.99 20.19 Mg mg/I 25.75 6,23 5.37 4,15 3.58 Na mg/I 8406.66 4197.07 5996.22 2794.60 3992.56 Al rig/I <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe hg/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn ig/l 4.15 23.90 92.90 15.91 61.86 P mg'I <0.005 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 S mg/I 10.52 6.12 9.21 4.08 6.13 B sg/I 71.82 38.10 25.00 25.37 16,65 Ba tg1i 331.20 55.20 39.20 36.80 26.10 Cd kg/I <0.2 10.20 1.80 6.80 1.20 Co xg/I <0.2 3.60 3.90 2.40 2.60 Cr JIg/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu jig/I 189.80 31.80 65.30 21.10 43.50 Ni jig/I <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 Pb ig/i <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 12.73 0.22 0.46 0.15 0.31 Sr jig/I 353,90 86,10 96.70 57.30 64.40 Zn jig/I 91.36 205.10 94.10 136.60 62.70 Table 5: Examples of feed water aid product water cation compositions: Example E3.

Reactor Reactor Reactor Reactor (20) 12] Reactor Reactor (15) (20) [1] Reactor (20) 12] Product (15) (20) [1] Product Product (20) [2] Product Water Cation Feed Water Product Product (Net) (Net) Feed Water Water (Net) K mg/I 3.89 5.24 840.36 1.39 222.37 262.48 77.83 54.67 Ca mg/I 75.94 7.46 33.31 1.97 8.82 84.96 58.76 41.27 Mg mg/I 24.33 1.82 385 0.48 1.02 29.46 16.03 11.26 Na mg/I 15411.17 223.21 16462.82 59.06 4356.32 40.76 86.08 60.46 Al jig/I < 150.0 288.80 < 150.0 76.42 < 150.0 157.90 4079.60 2865.40 Fe jig1l <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 657.60 8991.90 6315.70 Mn ig/1 3.92 4.00 350.30 1.06 92.70 272.20 859.20 603.49 P mg/I <0.005 <0.005 0.02 <0.10 <0.10 13.63 0.04 0.03 S rng/L 9.94 3.74 5.27 0.99 1,40 41.41 19.70 13.84 B jig/I 67.80 109.60 51.70 29.00 13.70 98.80 59.50 41.80 Ba jig/I 312.90 <15 139.90 <15 37.00 127.70 48.10 33.80 Cd jig/I <0.2 <0.2 0.70 <0.2 0.19 0.20 2.10 1.50 Co jig/I <0.2 0.20 2.20 0.05 0.58 5.40 3.40 2.40 Cr jig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu jig/I 179.30 29.00 375.40 7.67 99.30 242.90 12127,10 8517.80 Ni jig/I <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 8.40 237.40 166.70 Pb jig/I <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 190.90 134.10 Si mg/I 12.03 0.35 0.71 0.09 0.19 4,87 2.83 1.99 Sr jig/I 33440 30.60 108.70 8.10 28.80 307.90 209.60 147.20 Zn igii 86.30 828.50 325.80 219.20 86.20 336.70 5591.20 3927.10 Table 6: Examples of feed water and product water cation compositions: Example E4.

Reactor Reactor Reactor Reactor (15) (20) [II (15) (20) [1] Product Product Cation Feed Water Product Product (Net) (Net) K mg/I 12.04 21.76 19.98 19.59 17.98 Ca mg/I 235.14 7.60 20.79 6.84 18.71 M mg/I 75.32 0.82 5.82 0.74 5.23 Na mg/I 3121.91 183.09 1127.29 164.78 1014.56 Al pig)1 <150.0 <150.0 < 150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe pig/I <30.0 <30.0 48.60 <30.0 43.74 Mn pig/I 12.15 387.20 75.90 348.48 68.31 P mg/I <0.10 <0.10 0.02 <0.10 <0.10 S mg/I 30.80 3.74 5.27 3.37 4.75 B pg]1 210.00 109.60 51.70 98.60 46.50 Ba pig/I 968.90 <15 139.90 <15 125.90 Cd pig/I <0.2 <0.2 0.70 <0.2 0.63 Co pig'I <0.2 0.20 2.20 0.18 1.98 Cr pig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu pg/I 555.20 29.00 375.40 26.10 337.90 Ni pig/I <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 Pb pig/I <10 <10 <JO <10 <10 Si mg/I 37.23 0.35 0.71 0.32 0.64 Sr pig/I 1035.30 30.60 108.70 27.54 97.83 Zn jig/I 267.20 828.50 325.80 745.60 293.20 Table 7: Examples of gasoline (555) and NaCI removal from saline water and hypersaline water in a reactor (15). The results are standardised to 67 days operation and are normalised to I t ZVM (10) to allow comparison. The initial feed gas (700) charge in the reactor (15) is air. ZVM (10) particle size = 44,000 nm -66,000 nm. Operating Temperature = -10 C to 14 C. A. Normalised Reactor Dimensions and Products Feed Product Product Peed Water Gasoline Feed Gas Water (7), Gasoline Water Gasoline NaCI (7), m' (555), m (700), & m3 (555), m3 Removed Removed removed L1 Example _________________________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ 1110 (7) E21 300 0.67 1.33 1.40 000 53.33% 100% 30.89 22 2,81 0.63 1.25 1.00 0.00 64.44% 100% 35.99 E23 2.05 0.45 0.91 1.73 0.30 15.56% 35% 14.51 24 3.75 0.83 1.67 3.13 0.42 16.67% 50% 12.22 196 0,43 0.87 1.63 0.00 16.67% 100% 6.38 26 2.25 0.50 1.00 0.20 0.05 91.11% 90% 77.19 27 2.05 0.45 0.91 0.75 0.09 63.33% 80% 43.96 28 2.50 0.56 1.11 2.17 0.33 13.33% 40% 11.64 29 3.00 0.67 1,33 2.40 0.27 20.00% 60% 23.70 E30 1.88 0.42 0.84 0.31 0.08 83.33% SO% 68.37 B. Salinity of Feed and Product Water Salinity Reduction Salinity Reduction Feed Water Product in water EC Gross BC Number of Reduction Rate g L" (7) Water (7) volume % Reduction Reduction Days g L" Day' Example BC mScm1 BC mScm' mScm' mScm 21 110.60 104.60 53% 6.00 61.79 67 30.9 0.46 22 110.60 108.60 64% 2.00 71.99 67 36.0 0.54 23 110.60 96.60 16% 14.00 29.03 67 14.5 0.22 24 110.60 103.40 17% 7.20 24.43 67 12.2 0.18 110.60 117.40 17% -6.80 12.77 67 6.4 0.10 E26 171.40 191,40 91% -20.00 154.39 67 77.2 1.15 E27 171.40 227.70 63% -56.30 87.91 67 44.0 0.66 £28 171.40 170.90 13% 0.50 23.29 67 11.6 0.17 29 171.40 155.00 20% 16.40 47.40 67 23.7 0.35 E30 171.40 208.00 83% -36.60 136.73 67 68.4 1.02 Table 8: ZVM TI' and ZVM TPG: Examples of feed water and product water anion compositions associated with ZVM TI' and ZVMTPG.

Cl N(N03) 5(504) P(P04) F N(N02) Example Sample mg/I mg/I mg/I mg/I mg/I mg/I ZVM TP, El Feed Water 4769.00 11.03 4.86 <0.010 0.02 1.06 Product 3937.00 4.61 4,53 <0.010 0.07 2.21 ______________ Product (net) 3253.00 3.81 3.79 <0.010 0.06 1.83 ZVM TI', E2 Feed Water 6519.00 8.41 4.50 <0.010 0.02 2.20 Product 2060.00 0.16 1.32 <0.010 0.02 1.31 ______________ Product (Net) 1545.00 0.12 0.99 <0.010 0.01 0.98 ZVM TI', E3 Feed Water 6519.00 8.41 4.50 <0.010 0.02 2.20 Product 2066.00 3.69 2.48 <0.010 0.03 2.08 _______________ Product (Net) 1550.00 2.77 1.86 <0.010 0.02 1.56 ZVM TI', E4 Feed Water 3983.85 10.04 4.72 <0.10 <0.020 0.29 Product 3631.88 0.09 4.74 <0.10 0.03 0.02 _______________ Product (Nct) 3421.34 0.09 4.47 <0.10 0,03 0.02 ZVM TP, ES Feed Water 4037.39 10.50 4.51 <0.10 <0.020 <0.020 Product 3700.83 0.53 4.49 <0.10 <0.020 0.08 ________________ Product (Net) 2929.82 0.42 3.56 <0.10 <0.020 0.06 ZVM TI', E6 Feed Water 2092.10 10.81 4.55 0.44 <0.020 2.40 Product 1982.02 9.77 7.35 <0.10 0.08 2.43 _______________ Product (Net) 1637.32 8.07 6.07 <0.10 0.07 2.01 ZVM TI', E7 Feed Water 2464,20 1.38 1.70 0.23 <0.020 2.49 Product 1554.33 1.53 2.78 <0.10 0.05 2.70 ______________ Product (Net) 1441.69 1.42 2.58 <0.10 0.04 2.50 ZVM TP, ES Feed Water 2464.20 1.38 1.70 0,23 <0.020 2.49 Product 1873.30 1.39 5.50 <0.10 0.04 2.42 ________________ Product (Net) 1710.40 1.27 5.02 <0.10 0.04 2.21 ZVMTP,E9 Feed Water 4568.84 11.28 4.16 <0.10 0.02 0.04 Product 1613.63 0.73 2.32 <0,10 <0.020 3.17 ______________ Product (Net) 887.49 0,40 1.28 <0.10 <0.020 1.74 ZVMTP,E10 FeedWater 6004.17 11.28 4.16 <0.10 0.02 0.04 Product 1434.20 0.12 3.12 <0.10 0.03 2.48 _______________ Product (Net) 788.81 0.07 1.71 <0.10 0.02 1.36 ZVM TP, Eli Feed Water 4422,82 11,28 4.16 <0.10 0.02 0.04 Product 1179.69 7.90 3.24 <0.10 <0.020 2.40 ________________ Product (Net) 648.83 4.34 1.78 <0.10 <0.020 1.32 ZVM TI', E12 Feed Water 5457.60 11.28 4.16 <0.10 0.02 0.04 Product 5269.30 3.33 4.27 <0.10 <0.020 2.34 ______________ Product (Net) 4352.90 2.75 3.53 <0.10 <0.020 1.93 ZVMTPG,E1 Feed Water 1914.05 10.8! 4.46 <0.10 0.02 3.00 Product 1822.42 0.13 4.84 <0.10 0.02 3.22 ________________ Product (Net) 1426.24 0.10 3.79 <0.10 0.02 2.52 Table 9: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP. El. MDPE cased pellets; 6.5 pellets L; 43 g ZVM TP U1; ZVM TP manufactured from ZVM (10) containing 74 wt % Fe° + 2 wt% [Al° + Cu°] ÷ 24 wt% [oxides + carbonates].

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 23 156.8 129.53 Ca mg/I 31.16 6.08 5.02 Mg mg/I 9.54 49.23 40.66 Na mg/I 3052 252! 2083 Al sg/I <150.0 377 311.4 Fe jig/I 42.1 <30.0 <30.0 Mn jig/I 2.9 2.4 1.983 P mg/I 0.042 0.014 0.012 S mg/I 4.793 4.793 3.959 B jig/I 20.8 70.4 58.16 Ba pig)! 102.8 <15.0 <15.0 Cd jig/I 0.4 0.4 0.33 Co jig/I 1.3 1.6 1.32 Cr jig)! <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu ag/I 52.9 <20.0 <20.0 Ni pig/! <3.0 <3.0 <3.0 Pb jig/I < 10.0 <10.0 < 10,0 Si mg/I 4.92 0.37 0.3 Sr jig/I 139.9 6.7 5.53 Zn jig/I 170 17.6 14.54 As pig/I 4.8 2.5 2.07 Mo pig/I <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sb jig/I <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sc pg/I <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sn pig/I <10.0 <10.0 <10.0 Table 10: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP, E2; Cu cased pellets; 5 pellets U l; 25gZVMTPL.

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 3.49 5.48 7.76 Ca mg/I 26.65 3.26 17.63 Mg mg/I 7.65 2.49 7.38 Na mg/I 4527.00 1309.00 1293.00 Al jig/I <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe jig/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn jig/I 8.00 13.00 9.75 P mg/I 0.07 0.01 0.01 S mg/I 4.59 1.56 1.17 B jig/I 14.90 59.40 44.55 Ba jig/I 103.10 <15.0 < 15.0 Cd jig/I 0.90 1.20 0.90 Co pig/I 3.30 1.20 0.90 Cr jig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu jig/I 45.10 <20.0 C20.0 Ni jig/I 3.70 <3.0 <3.0 Pb pig/I <10.0 <10.0 < 10.0 Si mg/I 3.99 0.29 0.22 Sr pig/I 112.40 15.60 11.70 Zn pig/i 337.60 <4.00 <4.00 As jig/I 2.30 5.40 4.05 Mo pg/I <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sb pig/I <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Se pig/I <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sn pig/I <10.0 <10.0 <10.0 Table 11: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP, E3; Cu cased pellets; 5 pellets U ;S7.5 g ZYM TP 1]'.

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 3.49 4.11 5.82 Ca mg/I 26.65 2.45 13.22 Mg mg/I 7.65 1.87 5.54 Na mg/I 4527.00 982.00 970.00 Al jig/I <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe jig/I C 30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn jig/I 8.00 5.90 4.43 P mg/I 0.07 0.02 0.02 S mg/I 4.59 2.63 1.97 B jig/I 14.90 17.50 13.13 Ba jig/I 103.10 <15.0 <15.0 Cd sg/I 0.90 1.00 0.75 Co g/l 3.30 1.60 120 Cr jig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu jig/I 45.10 <20.0 <20.0 Ni jig/I 3.70 <3.0 <3.0 Pb jig/I <10.0 < 10.0 < 10.0 Si mg/I 3.99 0.62 0.47 Sr pig/I 112.40 103.40 77.55 Zn pig/I 337.60 <4.00 <4.00 As pig/I 2.30 5.30 3.98 Mo pig/i <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sb pig/I <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sc pg/I <20.0 <20.0 <20.0 Sn pg/I <10.0 <10.0 <10.0 Table 12: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TI', E4; Cu eased pellets; 5.8 pellets L; 80.3 g ZVM TP L1; ZVM TP manufactured from ZVM (10) containing 79 wt % Fe0 4-21 wt% loxides].

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mgJl 5.89 6.97 6.57 Ca mg/I 31.26 14.36 13.53 Mg mg/I 9.50 4.50 4.24 Na mg/I 2390.85 2175.29 2049.18 Al gg/1 <150.0 <150.0 <30.0 Fe ig/1 34.70 <30.0 <30.0 Mn tg/l 14.20 3.30 3.11 P mg/I 0.01 0.01 0.01 S mg/I 4.80 4.90 4.60 B tg/I 28.90 34.60 32.60 Ba tg/i 118.70 <15 <15 Cd pig/I <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Co pig/I 2.20 1.10 1.00 Cr ig/1 <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu igR 41.00 <20 <20 Ni pig/I <3 <3 <3 Pb jig/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 4.89 0.28 0.26 Sr pig/I 138.00 32.50 30.60 Zn pig/I 286.90 29.00 27.30 Table 13: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP, ES; MDPE cased pellets; 6.5 pellets I;'; 121 g ZVM TP 1; ZVM TP manufactured from ZVM (10) containing 79 wt % Fe0 + 21 wt% [Cu° + Al°1.

Product Catiom Feed Product (net) K mg/I 4.18 23.05 18.25 Ca mg/I 30.17 12.27 9.71 Mg mg/I 9.09 3.85 3.05 Na mg/I 2434.31 2198.69 1740.63 Al ugh <150.000 2085.20 1650.78 Fe jig/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn jig/I 4.30 2.90 2.30 P mg/I 0.02 0.01 0.01 S mg/I 4.66 4.68 3.71 B jig/I 15.80 11.30 8.90 Ba jig/I 115.40 <15 <15 Cd jig/I <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Co jig/I 2.40 2.20 1.70 Cr jig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu pig/I 93.10 <20 <20 Ni pig/I <3 <3 <3 Pb pig/i <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 4.67 0.06 0.05 Sr pig'I 133.30 10.20 8.08 Zn pig/I 101.10 5.10 4.00 Table 14: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM IF, E6; MDPE cased pellets; 4.8 pellets U'; 58.5 g ZVM TI' U'; ZVM TI' manufactured from ZVM (10) containing 84 wt % Fe0 ± 16 wt% [Cu° ± Al° + carbonates + oxides].

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 2.80 7.04 5.81 Ca mg/I 30.55 33.65 27.80 Mg mg/I 9.42 0.41 0.34 Na mg/I 1370.70 1319.14 1089.72 Al pg/I <150.0 10720.00 8521.00 Fe pigIl <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn pg/I 5.10 1.40 1.16 P mg/I 0.47 0.03 0.03 S mg/I 4.66 7.55 6.24 B pig/I 36.00 22.30 18.40 Ba pg/I 118,90 <15 <15 Cd pg/I 0.30 <0.2 <0.2 Co pig/I 0.80 1.80 1.49 Cr pg/I <2.0 c2.0 <2.0 Cu pg/I 74.90 <20 <20 Ni pg/I <3 <3 <3 Pb pg/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 4.83 0.12 0.10 Sr pg/I 134.30 209.10 172.70 Zn pig/i 342.00 <4 <4 Table 15: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with Z\M TP, E7; ZVM TP granules/powder; 91 gZVMTPL* Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 1.80 2.37 2.19 Ca mg/I 9.27 3.64 3.38 Mg mg/I 2.13 44.29 41.08 Na mg/I 1522.07 1107.61 1027.35 Al jig/I <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe jig/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn jig/I 2.80 2.tO 1.95 P mg/I 0.25 0.04 0.04 S mg/I 1.89 315 2.92 B jig1! <10 25.80 23.93 Ba ig1l 16.40 <15 <IS Cd jig/I <0,2 <0.2 <0.2 Co jig/I 1.80 1.40 1.30 Cr jig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu jig/I <20 <20 <20 Ni jig/I <3 <3 <3 Pb jig/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 1.43 0.90 0.83 Sr jig/I 28.50 4.30 3.99 Zn jig/I 137.50 14.10 13.10 Table 16: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP, ES; MDPE cased pellets; 4.2 pellets L'; 90 g ZVM TI' Ld; ZVM TI' manufactured from ZVM (10) containing 55 wt % Fe° + 45 wt% [Al° + Cu° + carbonates + oxides].

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 1.80 3.24 2.96 Ca mg/I 9.27 2.84 2.59 Mg mg/I 2.13 35.75 32.64 Na mg/I 1522.07 1273.08 tt62.38 Al tg/t <150.0 < tSO.0 < 150.0 Fe jig/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn ig/1 2.80 2.00 1.83 P mg/I 0.25 0.02 0.02 S mg/I 1.89 6.02 5.49 B jig/I < 10 97.30 88.80 Ba jig/I 16.40 <15 <15 Cd pig/I <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Co pig/I 1.80 2.40 2.t9 Cr pig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu pig/I <20 <20 <20 Ni pig/I <3 <3 <3 Pb pig/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/i 1.43 0.44 0.40 Sr jig/I 28.50 0.80 0.73 Zn jig/I 137.50 7.70 7.00 Table 17: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP, E9; ZVM IT granules/powder; g ZVM TP L'; ZVM TP manufactured from ZVM (10) containing Fe° + Al° + Cu°.

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 1.69 10.11 5.56 Ca mg/I 32.91 20,52 11.29 Mg mg/I 10.54 7.58 4.17 Na mg/I 3039.15 1009.59 555.28 Al tg/I <150.0 173.40 95.37 Fe pig/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn pig/i 1.70 5.50 3.03 P mg/I <0.005 0.01 0.00 S mg/I 4.31 2.55 1.40 B pig/I 29.40 < 10 < 10 Ba ig/l 135.60 <15 <15 Cd pig/I <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Co ig11 <0.2 1,50 0.80 Cr pig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu pig/I 77.70 54.30 29.87 Ni pig/I <3 <3 <3 Pb pig/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 5.21 0.09 0.05 Sr pig/I 144.90 54.20 29.8! Zn pig/i 37.40 33.80 18.59 Table 18: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP, El 0; ZVM TP granules/powder; g ZVM TP L'; ZVM TP manufactured from ZVM (10) containing Fe0 + Al° + Cu°. Eb, pH and EC changes are provided as PS4 (Figures 8a -8d).

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 169 15.71 8.64 Ca mg/I 32.91 10.79 5.93 Mg mg/I 10.54 16.45 9.05 Na mg/I 3995,83 899.63 494.80 Al jig/I <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe jig/I <30.0 47.60 26.18 Mn jig/I 1.70 2.10 1.16 P mg/I <0.005 0.01 0.00 S mg/I 4.31 3.30 1.82 B rig/I 29.40 12.00 6.60 Ba jig/I 135.60 15.10 8.31 Cd jig/I <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Co jig/I <0,2 1.30 0,70 Cr pg/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu jig/I 77.70 <20 <20 Ni jig/I <3 <3 <3 Pb jig/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 5.21 0.05 003 Sr jig/I 144.90 76.00 41.80 Zn jig/I 37.40 <4 <4 Table 19: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP, Eli; ZVM TP granules/powder; 2.5 g ZVM TP L; ZVM TP manufactured from ZYM (10) containing Fe° + Al° + Cu°.

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 1.69 11.45 6.30 Ca mg/I 32.91 25.19 13.85 Mg mg/I 10.54 7.90 4.35 Na mg/I 2947.17 750.23 412.63 Al pig/I <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe pig/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn ggJl 1.70 159.60 87.78 P mg/I <0.005 0.01 0.00 S mg/I 4.31 3.51 1,93 B pig/I 29.40 18.80 10.34 Ba ag/I 135.60 81.40 44.77 Cd 1g/I <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Co pig/I <0.2 1.00 0.55 Cr pig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu pig/i 77.70 40,40 22.22 Ni gg/I <3 3.20 1.76 Pb jig/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 5.21 0.80 0.44 Sr gg/l 144.90 100.60 55.33 Zn jig/I 37.40 28.50 15.68 Table 20: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TP, E12; Cu cased pellets; 9 g ZVM TP L; ZVM TP manufactured from ZVM (10) containing Fe0 + Al° + Cu0 + oxides.

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 1.69 5.53 4.57 Ca mg/I 32.91 32.48 26.83 Mg mg/I 10.54 9.58 7.91 Na mg/I 3630.53 3275.18 2705.58 Al gg/I <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe.g/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn gg/I 32.90 69.90 57.70 P mg/I <0.005 0.01 0.01 S mg/I 4.31 4.31 3.56 B gg/l 29.40 <10 <10 Ba ag/I 135.60 68.50 56.60 Cd tag/I <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Co jig/I <0.2 3.90 3.20 Cr jig/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu jig/I 77.70 736.50 608.41 Ni jig/I <3 <3 <3 Pb jig/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 5.21 0.41 0.34 Sr jig/I 144.90 134.60 111.19 Zn jig/I 37.40 68.20 56.34 Table 21: Example of feed water and product water cation compositions associated with ZVM TPG, El; Cu cased pellets; 11.5 g ZVM TPCI L'; Eli, pH and EC data is provided in Figures 8i -SI.

Product Cation Feed Product (net) K mg/I 2.67 4.92 3.85 Ca mg/I 31.13 6.94 5.43 Mg mg/I 9.60 3.58 2.80 Na mg/I 1245.32 1197.14 936.89 Al i'g/1 <150.0 <150.0 <150.0 Fe jig/I <30.0 <30.0 <30.0 Mn ig/l 2.80 1.50 1.41 P mg/I 0.03 0.01 0.01 S mg/I 4.5t 4.80 3.75 B gg/I 22.20 <10 <10 Ba Ag/I 117.10 <15 <15 Cd jig/I <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 Co jig/I 1.50 1.50 1.20 Cr xg/I <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 Cu jig/I 122.10 <20 <20 Ni jig/i <3 <3 <3 Pb jig/I <10 <10 <10 Si mg/I 4.77 0.04 0.03 Sr jig/I 136.10 54.00 42.30 Zn jig/I 125.60 <4 <4 Fable 22: Relationship between change in EC and change in salinity associated with ZVM TP [Examples El to El 2] and ZYM

TPG Example El. Gross

Feed Water Product Reduction Salinity Salinity Feed Water Na + K + Product Water Na Number of in water Reduction [C Reduction (7) CI Water (7) + K + Cl Days volume % rug L1 Reduction rug U' Example BC mScm1 mg L' EC mScm" mg U' [C mScm" El 14.65 7823.30 12.53 6614.80 100 17% 1208.5 2.12 2357.7 E2 12.34 11049.49 6.73 3374.48 126 25% 7675.0 12.11 8513.6 E3 18.84 11049.49 6.66 3052.11 126 25% 7997,4 12.18 8759.7 E4 12.35 6380.24 10.95 5814.14 98 9% 566.1 1.40 1079.8 ES 12.66 6475.88 10.93 5922.57 98 21% 553.3 1.73 1787.2 £6 7.23 3465.60 6.46 3308.20 98 17% 157.4 0.77 732.7 [7 7.84 3988.07 5.43 2664.32 57 7% 1323.8 2.41 1516.8 £8 7.84 3988.07 6.57 3149.62 57 9% 838.5 1.27 1112.3 £9 15.18 7609.68 5.32 2633.33 150 45% 4976.4 9.86 6161.4 ElO 19.71 10001.69 505 2195.88 150 70% 7805.8 14.66 9342.9 Eli 14.05 7391.68 470 1941.37 198 45% 5450.3 9,35 6323.9 £12 16.59 9089.82 15.74 8550.01 120 17% 539.8 0.85 2026.8

ZVM TPG

El 6.41 316204 5.66 3024.48 57 22% 137.6 0.75 795.1 Table 23: Change in PC associated with example operations where ZVM TP (or ZVM TPG) is placed in water.

ZVM TP is constructed from ZVM (10) containing between 5 wt% and 100 wt% Fe°. Gases used in the reactor (15) to construct the ZVM TP contained one or more of air, H2, N2, CH4, CO. CO2. 02. KI, K3, K4, K9, 111,112, are placed in fresh water. In the other examples ZVM TP was placed in water EEC = 0.06-0.31 mScm + NaCI]. The temperature varied during the desalination operation within the range: -20 C and 25 C. The examples (except H90) were constructed from ZVM (10) composed of particles in the size range <5 nm -6 mm. 1190 was constructed as ZYM TPG using Fe0 wire wool. Examples KI to 1(9 were placed in the water as particulate material. Examples HI to HI 04 were placed in the water as one or more of particulate material, Cu sheathed pellets and MDPE sheathed pellets. The water body was exposed to air. Gross Salinity Reduction, g U' = (IFeed Water EC] -([Product Water PC] x (1-Reduction in Water Volume (fraction between 0 and 1.0)))) x Fi (where Fi = 0.5). Gross

Reduction Salinity Salinity Salinity Feed Water Product PC Number of in water Reduction Reduction Reduction ZVM TP g (7) Water (7) Reduction Days volume % g U' % g U' Example EC mScm1 EC mScm1 PC mScm' KI 0.270 0.220 0.050 274 25.0 1(2 2.434 0.494 1.940 274 0.97 79.7% 25.0 K3 0.270 0.303 -0.033 274 50.0 K4 2.434 0.482 1.952 274 0.98 80.2% 50.0 KS 0.270 0,244 0.026 274 75.0 1(6 2.434 0.771 1.663 274 0.83 68.3% 75.0 1(7 18.330 16.610 1.720 6 33% 0.86 9.4% 3.60 1.3 K8 14.050 4.700 9.350 198 SO% 4.68 66.5% 5.85 2.5 K9 0.282 1.372 -1.090 60 40% 2.5 HI 0.266 0.686 -0.420 40 70% 20.0 112 0.426 0.567 -0.141 227 20.0 113 11.870 2.750 9.120 227 78% 4.56 76.8% 5.63 25.0 114 17.030 5.320 11.710 187 45% 5.86 68.8% 7.05 25.0 0.790 1.380 -0.590 60 25.0 116 12.860 4.740 8.120 214 4.06 63.1% 30.0 117 19.300 4.714 14.586 214 7.29 75.6% 65.0 H8 20.000 5.050 14.950 183 45% 7.48 74.8% 8.61 55.0 119 0.761 1.294 -0.533 60 55.0 1110 5.022 3,963 1.059 167 0.53 21.1% 30.0 1111 10.780 3.973 6.807 212 47% 3.40 63.1% 4.34 100.0 1112 10.780 3.906 6.874 212 46% 3.44 63.8% 4.33 105.0 H13 10.850 3.971 6.879 212 46% 3.44 63.4% 4.35 100.0 1114 10.890 3.600 7.290 212 46% 3.65 66.9% 4.47 100.0 HIS 10.780 3.190 7.590 212 47% 3.80 70.4% 4.55 110.0 1116 10.780 2.930 7.850 212 57% 3.93 72.8% 4.76 70.0 H17 15.200 4.677 10.523 200 68% 5.26 69.2% 6.85 18.3 1118 15.200 3.686 11.514 200 70% 5.76 75.8% 7.05 23.1 H19 15.200 4.223 10.977 200 65% 5.49 72.2% 6.86 25.3 1120 15.200 4.447 10.753 200 65% 5.38 70.7% 6.82 26.7 1-121 15.200 3.735 11.465 200 65% 5.73 75.4% 6.95 21.7 1122 15.200 4.142 11.058 200 65% 5.53 72.8% 6.88 28.3 1-123 15,200 4.400 10.800 200 28% 5.40 71.1% 6.01 31.9 H24 15.200 4.341 10.859 200 30% 5.43 71.4% 6.08 30.1 1125 15.200 4.460 10.740 200 30% 5.37 70.7% 6.04 23.3 H26 15.200 4.126 11.074 200 30% 5.54 72.9% 6.16 25.! 1127 17.660 4.471 13.189 200 85% 6.59 74.7% 8.49 28.5 H28 17.660 4.717 12.943 200 70% 6.47 73.3% 8.12 30.1 1429 17.660 4.853 12.807 200 67% 6.40 72.5% 8.03 24.9 1430 17.660 5.330 12.330 200 67% 6.17 69.8% 7.95 24.9 1431 17.660 5.170 12.490 200 75% 6.25 70.7% 8.18 33.5 H32 17.660 6.110 11.550 170 42% 5.78 65.4% 7.06 26.7 H33 1.481 1.224 0.257 40 0.13 17.4% 26.7 H34 17.660 4.575 13.085 200 31% 6.54 74.1% 7.24 26.7 1-135 17.660 5.174 12.486 200 36% 6.24 70,7% 7.18 23.3 H36 17.660 5.812 11.848 200 36% 5.92 67.1% 6.97 26.7 1437 17.660 5.830 11.830 200 39%, 5.92 67.0% 7.05 33.5 H38 18.480 4.855 13.625 200 47% 6.8! 73.7% 7.96 31.9 1439 18.480 6.100 12.380 170 75% 6.19 67.0% 8.48 24.9 1140 2.070 1.936 0.134 40 24% 0.07 6.5% 0.30 24.9 1441 18.480 5.218 13.262 200 36% 6.63 71.8% 7.57 30.! 1442 18.480 5.013 13.467 200 33% 6.73 72.9% 7.56 30.1 1443 18.480 6.220 12.260 200 36% 6.13 66.3% 7.25 26.5 1444 8.820 4.67! 4.149 162 2.07 47.0% 60.0 1145 8.820 4.605 4.215 162 2.1! 47.8% 60.0 1446 8.820 4.378 4.442 162 35% 2.22 50.4% 2.98 37.2 1147 8.820 4.684 4.136 162 82% 2.07 46.9% 3.99 45.3 1-148 8.820 4.819 4.001 162 33% 2.00 45.4% 2.80 79.6 1149 18.590 5.270 13.320 170 75% 6.66 71.7% 8.64 57.5 1450 0.947 1.067 -0.120 40 26% 0.08 57.5 1451 18.500 4.305 14.195 200 28% 7.10 76.7% 7.69 80.0 H52 18.570 5.461 13.109 200 30% 6.55 70.6% 7.38 65.3 1-153 18.530 5.877 12.653 200 36% 6.33 68.3% 7.39 72.1 1154 18.510 6.385 12.125 200 36% 6.06 65.5% 7.21 66.9 1-155 16.960 5.535 11.425 200 46% 5.71 67.4% 6.99 50.3 1456 16.960 4.903 12.057 200 33% 6.03 71.1% 6.84 55.3 1457 16.960 4.744 12.216 200 33% 6.1! 72.0% 6.89 50.0 H58 16.960 5.420 11.540 200 36% 5.77 68.0% 6.75 46.2 1159 16.960 6.110 10.850 200 39% 5.43 64.0% 6.62 52.3 H60 16.960 5.244 11.716 200 51% 5.86 69.1% 7.20 44.2 H61 16.960 5.682 11.278 200 38% 5.64 66.5% 6.70 48.8 H62 16.960 5.729 11.231 200 39% 5.62 66.2% 6.73 66.6 1163 16.960 6.017 10.943 200 36% 5.47 64.5% 6.55 36.0 1164 16.960 6.297 10.663 200 40% 533 62.9% 6.59 44.6 H65 17.890 5.676 12.214 200 51% 6.11 68.3% 7.56 63.9 1466 17.890 6.012 11.878 200 38% 5.94 66.4% 7.07 47.6 1167 17.890 6.415 11.475 200 38% 5.74 64.1% 6.94 48.2 1468 17.890 6.537 11.353 200 35% 5.68 63.5% 6.81 62.7 1169 17.890 7.060 10.830 200 35% 5.42 60.5% 6.64 62.7 H70 17.890 6.475 11.415 200 46% 5.71 63.8% 7.19 473 H71 17.890 6.300 11.590 200 46% 5.80 64.8% 7.24 37.9 H72 17.890 8.269 9.621 200 46% 4.8! 53.8% 6.70 75.0 1473 17.890 8.933 8.957 200 44% 4.48 50.1% 6.44 51.0 1474 17.890 7.366 10.524 200 42% 5.26 58.8% 6.79 72.6 1475 14.310 11.488 2.822 182 49% 1.41 19.7% 4.22 15.8 1-176 14.780 12.150 2.630 182 50% 132 17.8% 4.34 15.1 1477 12.520 10.079 2.441 182 51% 1.22 19.5% 3.79 6.8 H78 16,590 14.107 2.483 182 49% 1.24 15.0% 4.69 5.2 1179 11.460 10.480 0.980 99 15% 0.49 8.6% 1.27 38.7 1180 12.210 11.700 0.510 99 15% 0.26 4.2% 1.13 40.9 1181 12.590 11.890 0.700 99 15% 0.35 5.6% 1.24 25.7 1182 11,160 11.084 0.076 60 0.04 0.7% 35.1 1183 13.080 11.565 1.515 151 35% 0.76 11.6% 2.77 43.1 1184 13.830 12.375 1.455 15! 34% 0.73 10.5% 2.83 51.4 1-185 14.340 14.180 0.160 72 23% 0.08 1.1% 1.69 32.3 H86 17.200 12.280 4,920 76 23% 2.46 28.6% 3.86 40.9 H87 13.130 10.403 2.727 158 64% 1.36 20.8% 4.68 121.5 1188 13.240 10.887 2353 158 30% 1.18 17.8% 2.80 49.5 1189 13.250 11.284 1.966 158 38% 0.98 14.8% 3.14 36.0 1-190 6.130 5.716 0.414 117 0.21 6.8% 11.5 1191 6.450 5.890 0.560 117 0.28 8.7% 9.6 H92 6.410 6.450 -0.040 117 9.6 H93 6.880 6.713 0.167 117 17% 0.08 2.4% 0.65 73.6 1-194 6.880 6.730 0.150 31 0.07 2.2% 73.6 H95 7.110 7.020 0.090 31 11% 0.05 1.3% 0.42 62.6 H96 7.220 7.110 0.310 31 11% 0.05 1.5% 0.43 52.8 1197 6.520 6.713 -0.193 31 63.0 H98 5.340 5.108 0.232 117 0.12 4.3% 91.3 1-199 6.110 6.000 0.110 3! 0.06 1.8% 91.4 11100 6.380 6.470 -0.090 31 22% 0.68 87.8 11101 7.340 7.390 -0.050 31 23% 0.81 91.4 11102 5.780 6.490 -0.710 117 22% 0.37 91.3 11103 15.180 5320 9.860 184 47% 4.93 65.0% 6.19 30.0 11104 6.660 6.494 0.166 85 0.08 2.5% 90.2 Table 24: Examples of freeze-thaw desalination associated with the use of ZVM 1? in water.

Desalination is undertaken by draining the residual water during each freeze cycle and recovering the desalinated water during the thaw cycle. Desalination associated with the presence of ZVM TP (e.g. Table 23) occurs during the time intervals between each freeze-thaw cycle, after the residual water has been returned to the vessel (or container) containing the ZVM IF. Low

Salinity Salinity of Water Feed Water Residual Recovered Salinity Water as Ice [Proportion of Feed Example mScnf' mScm4 Water] Ml 8.99 19.20 53% M2 3.80 536 29% M3 3.90 4.75 18% M4 7.83 12.50 37% MS 4.67 5.20 10% M6 4.59 5.36 14% M7 8.44 9.15 8% MS 4.83 5.83 17% M9 7.83 10.18 23% Ml0 5.00 5,62 11% MIl 4.61 4.90 6% M12 7.80 9.60 19% M13 4.83 5.15 6% M14 9.14 11.86 23% MIS 9.09 10.86 16% M16 8.00 9.79 18% M17 8.56 9.40 9% MiS 8.80 9.47 7% M19 4.76 5.86 19% M20 4.74 6.33 25% M21 5.60 6.10 8% M22 10.76 14.20 24% M23 9.24 12.16 24% M24 10.82 11.72 8% M25 9.70 10.50 8% M26 5.17 5.64 8% M27 5.43 6.00 10% M28 6.04 6.82 11% M29 8.80 10.15 13% M30 8.89 11.34 22% M.31 9.52 10.52 10% M32 1.35 1.80 25% M33 8.92 13.67 35% M34 9.53 12.60 24% M35 5.90 6.38 8% M36 5.90 6.38 8% M37 890 10.54 16% M38 6.73 7.32 8% 1439 9.52 10.50 9% M40 6.82 7.26 6% M4I 9.35 10.80 13% M42 10.30 15.30 33% M43 990 13.50 27% M44 5.70 7.04 19% M45 2.14 2.59 17% 1446 6.93 7.30 5% M47 10.38 11.78 12% M48 7.76 9.40 17% 1449 5.82 6.39 9% M50 8.40 12.04 30% M51 7.83 10.80 28% M52 4.53 5.53 18% M53 6.57 9.08 28% M54 7.52 9.26 19% M55 4.96 10.34 52% M56 2.99 4.14 28% M57 7.31 12.31 41% M58 7.15 9.59 25% M59 7.91 11.15 29% MW) 6.29 10.35 39% Thus, the present invention comprises a combination of features and advantages that provide it with flexibility, allow it to be constructed to accommodate a wide range of feed stocks and operating conditions and allow it to produce a range of products.

These, and various other characteristics and advantages of the present invention will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading the detailed description of the preferred embodiments of the invention and by referring to the accompanying flgwes.

Publications cited herein and the materials for which they are cited, are specifically incon)orated by reference. It is to be understood that the present invention is not limited by the examples and equations set forth which have been provided merely to demonstrate operability. Modifications and variations of the process, methods, operation. ZVM, gas compositions, examples, catalysts and apparatus described herein will be obvious to those skilled in the art from the foregoing detailed descriptions. These modifications and variations are intended to come within the scope of the attached claims.