GB2457950A - Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide - Google Patents

Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide Download PDF

Info

Publication number
GB2457950A
GB2457950A GB0803867A GB0803867A GB2457950A GB 2457950 A GB2457950 A GB 2457950A GB 0803867 A GB0803867 A GB 0803867A GB 0803867 A GB0803867 A GB 0803867A GB 2457950 A GB2457950 A GB 2457950A
Authority
GB
United Kingdom
Prior art keywords
carbon dioxide
unit
gas
solvent
minus
Prior art date
Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
Withdrawn
Application number
GB0803867A
Other versions
GB0803867D0 (en
Inventor
Cyril Timmins
Current Assignee (The listed assignees may be inaccurate. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation or warranty as to the accuracy of the list.)
Individual
Original Assignee
Individual
Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)
Filing date
Publication date
Application filed by Individual filed Critical Individual
Priority to GB0803867A priority Critical patent/GB2457950A/en
Publication of GB0803867D0 publication Critical patent/GB0803867D0/en
Priority to GB0818778A priority patent/GB2457970B/en
Priority to US13/202,946 priority patent/US8980211B2/en
Priority to DK09717231.6T priority patent/DK2401052T3/en
Publication of GB2457950A publication Critical patent/GB2457950A/en
Withdrawn legal-status Critical Current

Links

Classifications

    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D53/00—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols
    • B01D53/34—Chemical or biological purification of waste gases
    • B01D53/343—Heat recovery
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D53/00—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols
    • B01D53/002—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols by condensation
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D53/00—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols
    • B01D53/02—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols by adsorption, e.g. preparative gas chromatography
    • B01D53/04—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols by adsorption, e.g. preparative gas chromatography with stationary adsorbents
    • B01D53/0462—Temperature swing adsorption
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D53/00—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols
    • B01D53/14—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols by absorption
    • B01D53/1456—Removing acid components
    • B01D53/1475—Removing carbon dioxide
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D53/00—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols
    • B01D53/34—Chemical or biological purification of waste gases
    • B01D53/46—Removing components of defined structure
    • B01D53/62—Carbon oxides
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D53/00—Separation of gases or vapours; Recovering vapours of volatile solvents from gases; Chemical or biological purification of waste gases, e.g. engine exhaust gases, smoke, fumes, flue gases, aerosols
    • B01D53/34—Chemical or biological purification of waste gases
    • B01D53/74—General processes for purification of waste gases; Apparatus or devices specially adapted therefor
    • B01D53/75—Multi-step processes
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B3/00—Hydrogen; Gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen; Separation of hydrogen from mixtures containing it; Purification of hydrogen
    • C01B3/02—Production of hydrogen or of gaseous mixtures containing a substantial proportion of hydrogen
    • C01B3/32—Production of hydrogen or of gaseous mixtures containing a substantial proportion of hydrogen by reaction of gaseous or liquid organic compounds with gasifying agents, e.g. water, carbon dioxide, air
    • C01B3/34—Production of hydrogen or of gaseous mixtures containing a substantial proportion of hydrogen by reaction of gaseous or liquid organic compounds with gasifying agents, e.g. water, carbon dioxide, air by reaction of hydrocarbons with gasifying agents
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B3/00—Hydrogen; Gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen; Separation of hydrogen from mixtures containing it; Purification of hydrogen
    • C01B3/50—Separation of hydrogen or hydrogen containing gases from gaseous mixtures, e.g. purification
    • C01B3/506—Separation of hydrogen or hydrogen containing gases from gaseous mixtures, e.g. purification at low temperatures
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B3/00—Hydrogen; Gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen; Separation of hydrogen from mixtures containing it; Purification of hydrogen
    • C01B3/50—Separation of hydrogen or hydrogen containing gases from gaseous mixtures, e.g. purification
    • C01B3/52—Separation of hydrogen or hydrogen containing gases from gaseous mixtures, e.g. purification by contacting with liquids; Regeneration of used liquids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B3/00—Hydrogen; Gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen; Separation of hydrogen from mixtures containing it; Purification of hydrogen
    • C01B3/50—Separation of hydrogen or hydrogen containing gases from gaseous mixtures, e.g. purification
    • C01B3/56—Separation of hydrogen or hydrogen containing gases from gaseous mixtures, e.g. purification by contacting with solids; Regeneration of used solids
    • C01B31/20—
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B32/00—Carbon; Compounds thereof
    • C01B32/50—Carbon dioxide
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10J—PRODUCTION OF PRODUCER GAS, WATER-GAS, SYNTHESIS GAS FROM SOLID CARBONACEOUS MATERIAL, OR MIXTURES CONTAINING THESE GASES; CARBURETTING AIR OR OTHER GASES
    • C10J3/00—Production of combustible gases containing carbon monoxide from solid carbonaceous fuels
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10K—PURIFYING OR MODIFYING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COMBUSTIBLE GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE
    • C10K1/00—Purifying combustible gases containing carbon monoxide
    • C10K1/002—Removal of contaminants
    • C10K1/003—Removal of contaminants of acid contaminants, e.g. acid gas removal
    • C10K1/004—Sulfur containing contaminants, e.g. hydrogen sulfide
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10K—PURIFYING OR MODIFYING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COMBUSTIBLE GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE
    • C10K1/00—Purifying combustible gases containing carbon monoxide
    • C10K1/002—Removal of contaminants
    • C10K1/003—Removal of contaminants of acid contaminants, e.g. acid gas removal
    • C10K1/005—Carbon dioxide
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10K—PURIFYING OR MODIFYING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COMBUSTIBLE GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE
    • C10K1/00—Purifying combustible gases containing carbon monoxide
    • C10K1/08—Purifying combustible gases containing carbon monoxide by washing with liquids; Reviving the used wash liquors
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10K—PURIFYING OR MODIFYING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COMBUSTIBLE GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE
    • C10K3/00—Modifying the chemical composition of combustible gases containing carbon monoxide to produce an improved fuel, e.g. one of different calorific value, which may be free from carbon monoxide
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10K—PURIFYING OR MODIFYING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COMBUSTIBLE GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE
    • C10K3/00—Modifying the chemical composition of combustible gases containing carbon monoxide to produce an improved fuel, e.g. one of different calorific value, which may be free from carbon monoxide
    • C10K3/02—Modifying the chemical composition of combustible gases containing carbon monoxide to produce an improved fuel, e.g. one of different calorific value, which may be free from carbon monoxide by catalytic treatment
    • C10K3/04—Modifying the chemical composition of combustible gases containing carbon monoxide to produce an improved fuel, e.g. one of different calorific value, which may be free from carbon monoxide by catalytic treatment reducing the carbon monoxide content, e.g. water-gas shift [WGS]
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
    • F02C—GAS-TURBINE PLANTS; AIR INTAKES FOR JET-PROPULSION PLANTS; CONTROLLING FUEL SUPPLY IN AIR-BREATHING JET-PROPULSION PLANTS
    • F02C3/00—Gas-turbine plants characterised by the use of combustion products as the working fluid
    • F02C3/20—Gas-turbine plants characterised by the use of combustion products as the working fluid using a special fuel, oxidant, or dilution fluid to generate the combustion products
    • F02C3/26—Gas-turbine plants characterised by the use of combustion products as the working fluid using a special fuel, oxidant, or dilution fluid to generate the combustion products the fuel or oxidant being solid or pulverulent, e.g. in slurry or suspension
    • F02C3/28—Gas-turbine plants characterised by the use of combustion products as the working fluid using a special fuel, oxidant, or dilution fluid to generate the combustion products the fuel or oxidant being solid or pulverulent, e.g. in slurry or suspension using a separate gas producer for gasifying the fuel before combustion
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
    • F02C—GAS-TURBINE PLANTS; AIR INTAKES FOR JET-PROPULSION PLANTS; CONTROLLING FUEL SUPPLY IN AIR-BREATHING JET-PROPULSION PLANTS
    • F02C6/00—Plural gas-turbine plants; Combinations of gas-turbine plants with other apparatus; Adaptations of gas- turbine plants for special use
    • F02C6/04—Gas-turbine plants providing heated or pressurised working fluid for other apparatus, e.g. without mechanical power output
    • F02C6/06—Gas-turbine plants providing heated or pressurised working fluid for other apparatus, e.g. without mechanical power output providing compressed gas
    • F02C6/08—Gas-turbine plants providing heated or pressurised working fluid for other apparatus, e.g. without mechanical power output providing compressed gas the gas being bled from the gas-turbine compressor
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F23—COMBUSTION APPARATUS; COMBUSTION PROCESSES
    • F23J—REMOVAL OR TREATMENT OF COMBUSTION PRODUCTS OR COMBUSTION RESIDUES; FLUES 
    • F23J15/00—Arrangements of devices for treating smoke or fumes
    • F23J15/06—Arrangements of devices for treating smoke or fumes of coolers
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J3/00—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification
    • F25J3/02—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by rectification, i.e. by continuous interchange of heat and material between a vapour stream and a liquid stream
    • F25J3/0228—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by rectification, i.e. by continuous interchange of heat and material between a vapour stream and a liquid stream characterised by the separated product stream
    • F25J3/0266—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by rectification, i.e. by continuous interchange of heat and material between a vapour stream and a liquid stream characterised by the separated product stream separation of carbon dioxide
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J3/00—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification
    • F25J3/06—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation
    • F25J3/0605—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the feed stream
    • F25J3/061—Natural gas or substitute natural gas
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J3/00—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification
    • F25J3/06—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation
    • F25J3/0605—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the feed stream
    • F25J3/0625—H2/CO mixtures, i.e. synthesis gas; Water gas or shifted synthesis gas
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J3/00—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification
    • F25J3/06—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation
    • F25J3/063—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the separated product stream
    • F25J3/0635—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the separated product stream separation of CnHm with 1 carbon atom or more
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J3/00—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification
    • F25J3/06—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation
    • F25J3/063—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the separated product stream
    • F25J3/0655—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the separated product stream separation of hydrogen
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J3/00—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification
    • F25J3/06—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation
    • F25J3/063—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the separated product stream
    • F25J3/066—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the separated product stream separation of nitrogen
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J3/00—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification
    • F25J3/06—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation
    • F25J3/063—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the separated product stream
    • F25J3/067—Processes or apparatus for separating the constituents of gaseous or liquefied gaseous mixtures involving the use of liquefaction or solidification by partial condensation characterised by the separated product stream separation of carbon dioxide
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D2256/00—Main component in the product gas stream after treatment
    • B01D2256/16—Hydrogen
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D2256/00—Main component in the product gas stream after treatment
    • B01D2256/22—Carbon dioxide
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01D—SEPARATION
    • B01D2257/00—Components to be removed
    • B01D2257/50—Carbon oxides
    • B01D2257/502—Carbon monoxide
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/02—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/0205—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a reforming step
    • C01B2203/0227—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a reforming step containing a catalytic reforming step
    • C01B2203/0233—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a reforming step containing a catalytic reforming step the reforming step being a steam reforming step
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/02—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/025—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a partial oxidation step
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/02—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/0283—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a CO-shift step, i.e. a water gas shift step
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/04—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a purification step for the hydrogen or the synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/0405—Purification by membrane separation
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/04—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a purification step for the hydrogen or the synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/0415—Purification by absorption in liquids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/04—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a purification step for the hydrogen or the synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/042—Purification by adsorption on solids
    • C01B2203/043—Regenerative adsorption process in two or more beds, one for adsorption, the other for regeneration
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/04—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a purification step for the hydrogen or the synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/0435—Catalytic purification
    • C01B2203/0445—Selective methanation
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/04—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a purification step for the hydrogen or the synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/0465—Composition of the impurity
    • C01B2203/0475—Composition of the impurity the impurity being carbon dioxide
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/04—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a purification step for the hydrogen or the synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/0465—Composition of the impurity
    • C01B2203/0485—Composition of the impurity the impurity being a sulfur compound
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/06—Integration with other chemical processes
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/12—Feeding the process for making hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/1205—Composition of the feed
    • C01B2203/1211—Organic compounds or organic mixtures used in the process for making hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/1235—Hydrocarbons
    • C01B2203/1241—Natural gas or methane
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/12—Feeding the process for making hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/1258—Pre-treatment of the feed
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/14—Details of the flowsheet
    • C01B2203/146—At least two purification steps in series
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
    • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
    • C01B2203/80—Aspect of integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas not covered by groups C01B2203/02 - C01B2203/1695
    • C01B2203/84—Energy production
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10J—PRODUCTION OF PRODUCER GAS, WATER-GAS, SYNTHESIS GAS FROM SOLID CARBONACEOUS MATERIAL, OR MIXTURES CONTAINING THESE GASES; CARBURETTING AIR OR OTHER GASES
    • C10J2300/00—Details of gasification processes
    • C10J2300/16—Integration of gasification processes with another plant or parts within the plant
    • C10J2300/1603—Integration of gasification processes with another plant or parts within the plant with gas treatment
    • C10J2300/1612—CO2-separation and sequestration, i.e. long time storage
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10J—PRODUCTION OF PRODUCER GAS, WATER-GAS, SYNTHESIS GAS FROM SOLID CARBONACEOUS MATERIAL, OR MIXTURES CONTAINING THESE GASES; CARBURETTING AIR OR OTHER GASES
    • C10J2300/00—Details of gasification processes
    • C10J2300/16—Integration of gasification processes with another plant or parts within the plant
    • C10J2300/164—Integration of gasification processes with another plant or parts within the plant with conversion of synthesis gas
    • C10J2300/1643—Conversion of synthesis gas to energy
    • C10J2300/1653—Conversion of synthesis gas to energy integrated in a gasification combined cycle [IGCC]
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10J—PRODUCTION OF PRODUCER GAS, WATER-GAS, SYNTHESIS GAS FROM SOLID CARBONACEOUS MATERIAL, OR MIXTURES CONTAINING THESE GASES; CARBURETTING AIR OR OTHER GASES
    • C10J2300/00—Details of gasification processes
    • C10J2300/16—Integration of gasification processes with another plant or parts within the plant
    • C10J2300/164—Integration of gasification processes with another plant or parts within the plant with conversion of synthesis gas
    • C10J2300/1656—Conversion of synthesis gas to chemicals
    • C10J2300/1662—Conversion of synthesis gas to chemicals to methane (SNG)
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10J—PRODUCTION OF PRODUCER GAS, WATER-GAS, SYNTHESIS GAS FROM SOLID CARBONACEOUS MATERIAL, OR MIXTURES CONTAINING THESE GASES; CARBURETTING AIR OR OTHER GASES
    • C10J2300/00—Details of gasification processes
    • C10J2300/16—Integration of gasification processes with another plant or parts within the plant
    • C10J2300/1671—Integration of gasification processes with another plant or parts within the plant with the production of electricity
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F05—INDEXING SCHEMES RELATING TO ENGINES OR PUMPS IN VARIOUS SUBCLASSES OF CLASSES F01-F04
    • F05D—INDEXING SCHEME FOR ASPECTS RELATING TO NON-POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT MACHINES OR ENGINES, GAS-TURBINES OR JET-PROPULSION PLANTS
    • F05D2220/00—Application
    • F05D2220/70—Application in combination with
    • F05D2220/72—Application in combination with a steam turbine
    • F05D2220/722—Application in combination with a steam turbine as part of an integrated gasification combined cycle
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F05—INDEXING SCHEMES RELATING TO ENGINES OR PUMPS IN VARIOUS SUBCLASSES OF CLASSES F01-F04
    • F05D—INDEXING SCHEME FOR ASPECTS RELATING TO NON-POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT MACHINES OR ENGINES, GAS-TURBINES OR JET-PROPULSION PLANTS
    • F05D2220/00—Application
    • F05D2220/70—Application in combination with
    • F05D2220/75—Application in combination with equipment using fuel having a low calorific value, e.g. low BTU fuel, waste end, syngas, biomass fuel or flare gas
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F23—COMBUSTION APPARATUS; COMBUSTION PROCESSES
    • F23J—REMOVAL OR TREATMENT OF COMBUSTION PRODUCTS OR COMBUSTION RESIDUES; FLUES 
    • F23J2900/00—Special arrangements for conducting or purifying combustion fumes; Treatment of fumes or ashes
    • F23J2900/15061—Deep cooling or freezing of flue gas rich of CO2 to deliver CO2-free emissions, or to deliver liquid CO2
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J2205/00—Processes or apparatus using other separation and/or other processing means
    • F25J2205/40—Processes or apparatus using other separation and/or other processing means using hybrid system, i.e. combining cryogenic and non-cryogenic separation techniques
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J2205/00—Processes or apparatus using other separation and/or other processing means
    • F25J2205/50—Processes or apparatus using other separation and/or other processing means using absorption, i.e. with selective solvents or lean oil, heavier CnHm and including generally a regeneration step for the solvent or lean oil
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J2210/00—Processes characterised by the type or other details of the feed stream
    • F25J2210/70—Flue or combustion exhaust gas
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J2220/00—Processes or apparatus involving steps for the removal of impurities
    • F25J2220/80—Separating impurities from carbon dioxide, e.g. H2O or water-soluble contaminants
    • F25J2220/82—Separating low boiling, i.e. more volatile components, e.g. He, H2, CO, Air gases, CH4
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J2235/00—Processes or apparatus involving steps for increasing the pressure or for conveying of liquid process streams
    • F25J2235/80—Processes or apparatus involving steps for increasing the pressure or for conveying of liquid process streams the fluid being carbon dioxide
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J2240/00—Processes or apparatus involving steps for expanding of process streams
    • F25J2240/02—Expansion of a process fluid in a work-extracting turbine (i.e. isentropic expansion), e.g. of the feed stream
    • F25J2240/12—Expansion of a process fluid in a work-extracting turbine (i.e. isentropic expansion), e.g. of the feed stream the fluid being nitrogen
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J2260/00—Coupling of processes or apparatus to other units; Integrated schemes
    • F25J2260/80—Integration in an installation using carbon dioxide, e.g. for EOR, sequestration, refrigeration etc.
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F25—REFRIGERATION OR COOLING; COMBINED HEATING AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS; HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS; MANUFACTURE OR STORAGE OF ICE; LIQUEFACTION SOLIDIFICATION OF GASES
    • F25J—LIQUEFACTION, SOLIDIFICATION OR SEPARATION OF GASES OR GASEOUS OR LIQUEFIED GASEOUS MIXTURES BY PRESSURE AND COLD TREATMENT OR BY BRINGING THEM INTO THE SUPERCRITICAL STATE
    • F25J2270/00—Refrigeration techniques used
    • F25J2270/12—External refrigeration with liquid vaporising loop
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02C—CAPTURE, STORAGE, SEQUESTRATION OR DISPOSAL OF GREENHOUSE GASES [GHG]
    • Y02C20/00—Capture or disposal of greenhouse gases
    • Y02C20/40—Capture or disposal of greenhouse gases of CO2
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E20/00—Combustion technologies with mitigation potential
    • Y02E20/16—Combined cycle power plant [CCPP], or combined cycle gas turbine [CCGT]
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E20/00—Combustion technologies with mitigation potential
    • Y02E20/16—Combined cycle power plant [CCPP], or combined cycle gas turbine [CCGT]
    • Y02E20/18—Integrated gasification combined cycle [IGCC], e.g. combined with carbon capture and storage [CCS]
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E20/00—Combustion technologies with mitigation potential
    • Y02E20/32—Direct CO2 mitigation
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E50/00—Technologies for the production of fuel of non-fossil origin
    • Y02E50/10—Biofuels, e.g. bio-diesel
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
    • Y02P20/00—Technologies relating to chemical industry
    • Y02P20/151—Reduction of greenhouse gas [GHG] emissions, e.g. CO2
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
    • Y02P30/00—Technologies relating to oil refining and petrochemical industry

Abstract

A hydrogen-containing, high carbon monoxide, low carbon dioxide content gas is mixed with an oxidising gas at high, preferably about 35 bars or above, pressure and fed to a reactor system in which the carbon monoxide is converted, largely or completely, into carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide-rich product gas stream is cooled and then treated to facilitate cold processing, before being further cooled to condense carbon dioxide, which is removed as a liquid, pumped to pipeline pressure and exported. Cooling temperature is not below carbon dioxide solidification temperature of minus 56, and is preferably between minus 20 to minus 30 degrees Celsius. The remaining carbon dioxide is removed from the product gas, by solvent washing. The resulting carbon dioxide-rich solvent is stripped of carbon dioxide at said high pressure in a counter currently operated column, or columns, by one or other or both reaction gas streams, singly or in partial or complete combination. The carbon dioxide-lean solvent is returned to solvent washing for re-use, and the carbon dioxide-laden reactant or reactants stream or streams fed to the reactor system, to raise the carbon dioxide concentration in the reaction product gas stream such that substantially all net carbon dioxide reaction product is condensed in said further cooling stage and removed as liquid for pumping to pipeline pressure and export. The low carbon dioxide content product gas stream leaving solvent washing is sent on to end-use.

Description

Description
Increasing global concerns over the causative effect of carbon dioxide emissions in world climate change have led to a variety of countermeasures such as increased investment in wind power, nuclear power, and natural gas combined cycle power plants. In both Europe and the USA attention has also been focussed on clean coal technology incorporating coal gasification and the capture of carbon dioxide, followed by its compression to about 155 bars and export to pipeline. Such gas can then be used for enhanced oil recovery by injection into depleting fields or injected into depleted oil or gas reservoirs for safe storage.
There is a major negative impact of carbon dioxide capture and export upon the costs and thermal efficiencies of such clean coal plants. The invention is aimed at reducing this impact significantly.
The increased use of natural gas for power generation is placing pressure on supplies which in turn leads to price increases. This has led to proposals to construct coal-based substitute natural gas (SNG) plants in the USA. Such plants emit large amounts of carbon dioxide to atmosphere and are, like coal-based power plants, sure to be subject to regulations enforcing carbon dioxide capture and safe disposal. The invention is also aimed at significantly reducing the negative impact of carbon dioxide capture and disposal on the costs and thermal efficiencies of such SNG plants.
New build pulverized coal-based steam cycle power plants will suffer especially large negative impacts on costs and thermal efficiencies if, as seems likely, carbon dioxide capture and disposal is mandated. This makes the use of coal gasification as above-mentioned more attractive. The invention can be employed in conjunction with coal gasification to pennit direct combustion of a major portion of the resulting coal gas for steam raising and use in steam turbines, a lesser portion being used in a gas turbine power plant integrated with the steam cycle.
In order that the invention can be better understood three examples of its application will be given: (A) In a coal gasification combined cycle power plant (B) In a coal-based SNG plant (C) In a coal gas fuelled steam power plant integrated with a smaller coal gas-fuelled gas turbine plant.
Example (A)
Reference is made to figure 1.Unit I is coal gasification unit, unit 2 is a carbon monoxide shift conversion unit, unit 3 is a heat recovery and cooling unit, unit 4 is pre-treatment unit which renders shifted cooled gas fit for cold processing, unit 5 is a cold recovery unit using conventional heat exchange art, unit 6 is a cold processing unit, equipped with refrigeration means, which carries out shifted gas cold processing, unit 7 is a solvent wash unit to effect residual carbon dioxide removal from the exit gas of unit 6, unit 8 is a solvent stripping unit to remove carbon dioxide from used (rich) solvent and enable its re-use as regenerated (lean) solvent in unitl, and unit 9 is a product gas fuelled combined cycle power unit.
Unit 1 employs dry coal feed, oxygen-blown gasification to produce a gas, which after suitable treatment, is sulphur free and has the following typical analysis in volume percent: Hydrogen 30 Carbon monoxide 65 Carbon dioxide I Nitrogen 4 Said gas is assumed at a nominal pressure of 35 bars through items 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,and 8.11 is passed to item 8 where it is used to counter-currently strip carbon dioxide from rich solvent in a pressurized stripping column provided with suitable mass transfer means. The resulting carbon dioxide-laden gas is passed to unit 2 in which steam is added by known means e.g. by saturation using hot water in counter-current contact, and subjected to the well known shift reaction in a single or multi-stage reactor system. The hydrogen-rich shifted gas with its content of recycled carbon dioxide from unit 8 is passed to unit 3 for heat recovery and cooling and is then treated in unit 4 to render it fit for cold subsequent cold processing. In particular water vapour is removed to prevent ice fonnation. The treated gas is cooled in unit 5 in heat exchange with exit gas and liquid carbon dioxide from unit 6, and then is passed to unit 6 where the gas is further cooled to condense out liquid carbon dioxide. Such cooling must be limited in order to avoid solid carbon dioxide formation which occurs at minus 56 degrees Celsius. In practice the lower temperature is considerably higher and in the range minus 20 to minus 30 degrees Celsius, such that the carbon dioxide content of the exit gas lies in the range 201040 percent by volume. Liquid carbon dioxide is removed and passed to unit 5 to recover its cold content, before or after being pumped to pipeline pressure of about 155 bars and is then exported to pipeline for disposal.
Hydrogen-rich gas with lowered carbon dioxide content is passed to unit 5 for cold recovery and then passed to unit 7 where its carbon dioxide content is further reduced by solvent washing. The resulting low carbon content hydrogen-rich gas is passed to unit 910 fuel the gas turbine and produce electricity for export. Carbon dioxide-rich solvent from unit 7 is passed to unit 8 to be counter-currently stripped of carbon dioxide by high carbon monoxide, low carbon dioxide content gas from unit 1.Thus only a small amount of carbon dioxide goes forward to unit 9 and is emitted to atmosphere, the major portion being removed as liquid in unit 6 and exported to pipeline.
In order to benefit the shift reaction equilibrium in unit 2, and counteract the effect of the recycled carbon dioxide, hydrogen may be removed from unit I product gas, before it is passed to unit 8, by means of well known hydrogen permeable membrane technology, and used locally as carbon free fuel gas or exported. For local fuel gas use in the gas turbine of unit 9 the hydrogen permeates through the membrane into a counter current inert sweep gas, which is at a pressure appropriate to gas turbine 2) requirements. Such gas is readily available from the oxygen plant contained in unit 1, and is conventionally added to gas turbine fuel gas as a means to suppress nitrogen oxides formation in the gas turbine combustors in coal gasification combined cycle power plant designs. A low calorific value fuel gas at required pressure for the gas turbine of unit 9 is thus produced, which is blended with hydrogen rich fuel gas from unit 7 to yield a medium calorific value fuel gas turbine fuel for use in unit 9. A further benefit of the removal of hydrogen from unit 1 product gas is to reduce the flow of gas through units 2,3,4,5,6,7, and 8.
The power requirement for carbon dioxide removal and disposal in this example of the invention is about 30 Kwh per ton of carbon dioxide, compared with about 150 kwh per ton by conventional means employing solvent wash only and compression of carbon dioxide gas to pipeline pressure. This represents an improvement in overall power generation efficiency of about 3 percentage points.
Example (B)
Reference is made to figure 2. UnitS I,3,4,5,6,7,and 8 are as described in figure 1 of example (A). Unit 2 is a reactor system in which both shift and methanation reactions are performed simultaneously over the same catalyst. The British Gas HICOM process is an example of such a system. Unit 9 is a SNG export facility including dehydration, odonzation, and compression up to pipeline pressure. Units 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8 all are assumed to operate at a nominal pressure of 35 bars.
Cooled and sulphur free gas from unit I having the same composition as in example (A) is split into two streams X and Y. Stream X which may be as low as one third of the total is passed to unit 8 in which it is used to counter-currently strip carbon dioxide from rich solvent transferred in from unit 7. Stream X, laden with carbon dioxide is added to stream Y and the resulting stream is passed to unit 2, where simultaneously occurring shift and methanation reactions are performed to produce a gas which may contain roughly 27 percent of methane and 73 percent of carbon dioxide by volume ( nitrogen-free basis). This composition includes the carbon dioxide recycled in stream X. Said gas is passed via unit 3 to unit 4 for cold processing pre-treatment and then to unit 5 to be cooled by heat exchange with cold methane rich exit gas and liquid carbon dioxide from unit 6. The gas is further cooled in unit 6 to not lower than minus 56 degrees Celsius, and preferably between minus and minus 30 degrees Celsius, and liquid carbon dioxide is removed. Said liquid carbon dioxide is passed through unit 5 to recover its cold content before or after being pumped to pipeline pressure of about 155 bars and is then exported. The methane rich gas with reduced carbon dioxide content is passed through unit 5 to recover its cold content and then passed to unit 7 where its carbon dioxide content is further reduced by solvent wash. The resulting methane rich product gas is passed to unit 9 for conditioning and export as SNO. The rich solvent from unit 7 is passed to unit 8 to be counter-currently stripped of carbon dioxide by stream X, and the resulting lean solvent is returned to unit 7 for re-use. As in example A, only a small portion of carbon dioxide is exported in the final product.
The power requirement for carbon dioxide removal and disposal to pipeline is about 28 Kwh per ton.
In certain cases it may be required to reduce the carbon dioxide content of the SNG to very low levels. This can be done by using a portion of the exit gas from unit 7 as a sweep gas to accept hydrogen permeate in a membrane separation unit. Said hydrogen being transferred across the membrane from cooled and sulphur free gas from unit I flowing counter current to said sweep gas. The sweep gas is recombined with the remaining exit gas from unit 7. Sufficient hydrogen is so transferred into exit gas from unit 7 to enable a fmal methanation stage to convert the unwanted carbon dioxide into methane. The resulting product gas is then passed, as before, to unit 9 for conditioning and export.
Example (C)
Reference is made to figure 3, in which units 1,4,5,6,7,8 and 9 areas described in figure 1 of example A. Unit 2 is a pressurized combustion plant in which fuel gas is burnt with pressurized air and, in which steam is raised, and passed into the steam system of unit 3. Said pressurized air is provided by being extracted from the gas turbine compressor of unit 9, subjected to heat recovery and cooling and to further compression to about 35 bars. Unit 3 is a steam power plant in which hot combustion products from unit 2 are used to raise and superheat steam, which is then used in a steam turbine to generate power for export. The steam raising system of units 2 and 3 is integrated with that of unit 9. Unit 10 isa hydrogen-permeable membrane unit in which hydrogen is removed from unit 1 product gas across a membrane, which is selectively permeable to hydrogen and into a hydrogen-free, inert sweep gas stream P from unit 7, said sweep gas flowing counter-currently to the unit I product gas stream.
Gas pressure in all units is assumed at a nominal value of 35 bars, except for fuel gas pressure to the gas turbine of unit 9, which is as required by gas turbine specifications and to which sweep gas stream P from unit 7 is suitably adjusted.
Cooled and sulphur-free gas from unit 1, having the same composition as that given in example A, is split into two streams X and Y. Stream Y is passed through unit 10, where a significant portion of its hydrogen content flows through the membrane into hydrogen free, low carbon dioxide content, counter-current sweep gas stream P. Stream P leaves unit 10 and is combined with stream X to produce a fuel gas suitable for use in unit 9. Gas stream Y is passed to unit 2 and burnt with pressurized air from unit 9, said air having been previously employed to strip carbon dioxide from carbon dioxide-rich solvent in unit 8. Steam is raised in unit 3 and combined with that from units 2 and 9. Said combined steam is superheated in unit 3 and used to generate power in a steam turbine for export. Cooled combustion product gas from unit 3 is treated in unit 4 and further cooled in unit 5 before passing to unit 6, in which it is further cooled to condense out liquid carbon dioxide. As in previous examples cooling is restricted to avoid carbon dioxide solidification, to not lower than minus 56 and preferably between minus 20 and minus 30 degrees Celsius. Liquid carbon dioxide from unit 6 is passed for cold-recovery to unit 5 before or after being pumped to 155 bars and is then exported. Cold combustion product gas from unit 6 is passed through unitS for cold-recovery and then to unit 7 for removal of the major part of its c remaining carbon dioxide by solvent washing. The carbon dioxide rich solvent from unit 7 is passed to unit 8, where it is stripped of carbon dioxide by a counter-current stream of air from unit 9 as above described. The combustion product gas is then split into two streams P and Q. Stream P is passed, as previously described to unit 10 and stream Q is sent to unit 9 and after suitable pressure reduction, which may include expansion (with or without preheating) for power recovery, is mixed with gas turbine compressor delivery air and used in the gas turbine combustors where it aids in nitrogen oxides suppression. Power is generated in unit 9 for export.
It will be noted by those skilled in the art, that the direct combustion of carbon monoxide in unit 2 avoids the loss in lower heating value associated with carbon monoxide shift conversion to hydrogen, as practised in example A, and the power losses associated with the consumption of steam in the shift reaction.
The percentage of gas from unit I,which is split into stream X, depends upon the required degree of carbon removal, but even with 90 percent removal a split of almost percent is possible. It has been suggested that, in order to achieve parity of carbon emissions (on a tons of carbon dioxide per Mwh basis) with natural gas combined cycle piants, only 60 percent removal is required. Such a target would mean that stream X would amount to almost 40 percent of unit I gas output.
There are many different commercial solvent wash processes for carbon dioxide removal as described in examples A, B and C. In some processes it may be advantageous to add steam, directly or by saturation using hot water, to the stripping gas used in unit 8. Such steam increases the volume of stripping gas, acts as a source of heat, if required, for regeneration of the solvent and, if unused, passes on to be used in the subsequent reaction stage in unit 2 of figures 1,2 and 3.The selection of such processes is made on largely economic grounds.
GB0803867A 2008-03-01 2008-03-01 Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide Withdrawn GB2457950A (en)

Priority Applications (4)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title
GB0803867A GB2457950A (en) 2008-03-01 2008-03-01 Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide
GB0818778A GB2457970B (en) 2008-03-01 2008-10-14 Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide
US13/202,946 US8980211B2 (en) 2008-03-01 2009-02-24 Method for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide in an energy conversion process
DK09717231.6T DK2401052T3 (en) 2008-03-01 2009-02-24 Improved method for the collection and disposal of carbon dioxide in a process for the energy conversion

Applications Claiming Priority (1)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title
GB0803867A GB2457950A (en) 2008-03-01 2008-03-01 Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide

Publications (2)

Publication Number Publication Date
GB0803867D0 GB0803867D0 (en) 2008-04-09
GB2457950A true GB2457950A (en) 2009-09-02

Family

ID=39315809

Family Applications (2)

Application Number Title Priority Date Filing Date
GB0803867A Withdrawn GB2457950A (en) 2008-03-01 2008-03-01 Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide
GB0818778A Expired - Fee Related GB2457970B (en) 2008-03-01 2008-10-14 Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide

Family Applications After (1)

Application Number Title Priority Date Filing Date
GB0818778A Expired - Fee Related GB2457970B (en) 2008-03-01 2008-10-14 Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide

Country Status (1)

Country Link
GB (2) GB2457950A (en)

Cited By (4)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
GB2464368A (en) * 2008-10-14 2010-04-21 Cyril Timmins A solvent regeneration process
US8252091B2 (en) 2008-03-18 2012-08-28 General Electric Company CO2 recovery from IGCC power plants
US8585802B2 (en) 2010-07-09 2013-11-19 Arnold Keller Carbon dioxide capture and liquefaction
US8980211B2 (en) 2008-03-01 2015-03-17 Bryan Christopher Timmins Method for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide in an energy conversion process

Families Citing this family (4)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US8445147B2 (en) * 2009-02-26 2013-05-21 Fuelcell Energy, Inc. Fuel humidifier assembly for use in high temperature fuel cell systems
FR2953914A1 (en) * 2009-12-15 2011-06-17 Air Liquide Method for separating mixture of main components of carbon dioxide, involves providing refrigeration part for process by refrigerating circuit, where refrigerating circuit circulates mixed cooling agent to cool exchanger
GB2493400A (en) * 2011-08-05 2013-02-06 Bp Alternative Energy Internat Ltd Separation of carbon dioxide and hydrogen
CN103881766B (en) * 2014-03-24 2015-06-10 中石化宁波工程有限公司 Chilling cyclic CO (carbon monoxide) transformation process

Citations (4)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US20030022948A1 (en) * 2001-07-19 2003-01-30 Yoshio Seiki Method for manufacturing synthesis gas and method for manufacturing methanol
WO2006037320A1 (en) * 2004-10-08 2006-04-13 Union Engineering A/S Method for recovery of carbon dioxide from a gas
WO2006054008A1 (en) * 2004-11-16 2006-05-26 L'air Liquide, Societe Anonyme Pour L'etude Et L'exploitation Des Procedes Georges Claude Method and installation for combined production of hydrogen and carbon dioxide
WO2006097703A1 (en) * 2005-03-14 2006-09-21 Geoffrey Gerald Weedon A process for the production of hydrogen with co-production and capture of carbon dioxide

Family Cites Families (1)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
GB2165552A (en) * 1984-10-11 1986-04-16 British Gas Corp Methanating synthesis gas

Patent Citations (4)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US20030022948A1 (en) * 2001-07-19 2003-01-30 Yoshio Seiki Method for manufacturing synthesis gas and method for manufacturing methanol
WO2006037320A1 (en) * 2004-10-08 2006-04-13 Union Engineering A/S Method for recovery of carbon dioxide from a gas
WO2006054008A1 (en) * 2004-11-16 2006-05-26 L'air Liquide, Societe Anonyme Pour L'etude Et L'exploitation Des Procedes Georges Claude Method and installation for combined production of hydrogen and carbon dioxide
WO2006097703A1 (en) * 2005-03-14 2006-09-21 Geoffrey Gerald Weedon A process for the production of hydrogen with co-production and capture of carbon dioxide

Cited By (6)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US8980211B2 (en) 2008-03-01 2015-03-17 Bryan Christopher Timmins Method for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide in an energy conversion process
US8252091B2 (en) 2008-03-18 2012-08-28 General Electric Company CO2 recovery from IGCC power plants
GB2464368A (en) * 2008-10-14 2010-04-21 Cyril Timmins A solvent regeneration process
GB2464368B (en) * 2008-10-14 2011-02-09 Cyril Timmins High pressure physical absorption regeneration process
US8585802B2 (en) 2010-07-09 2013-11-19 Arnold Keller Carbon dioxide capture and liquefaction
US9103584B2 (en) 2010-07-09 2015-08-11 Arnold Keller Carbon dioxide capture and liquefaction

Also Published As

Publication number Publication date
GB2457970B (en) 2011-05-18
GB0803867D0 (en) 2008-04-09
GB2457970A (en) 2009-09-02
GB0818778D0 (en) 2008-11-19

Similar Documents

Publication Publication Date Title
Cormos et al. Innovative concepts for hydrogen production processes based on coal gasification with CO2 capture
EP2401052B1 (en) Improved method for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide in an energy conversion process
Göttlicher et al. Comparison of CO2 removal systems for fossil-fuelled power plant processes
GB2457950A (en) Improved process for the capture and disposal of carbon dioxide
Herzog An introduction to CO2 separation and capture technologies
JP6186650B2 (en) Low emission power generation system and method including carbon dioxide separation system
EP1858803B1 (en) A process for the production of hydrogen with co-production and capture of carbon dioxide
JP5268471B2 (en) Polygeneration system
Cormos Evaluation of iron based chemical looping for hydrogen and electricity co-production by gasification process with carbon capture and storage
JP2007254270A (en) Method of treating gaseous mixture comprising hydrogen and carbon dioxide
JP2013533111A (en) Low emission power generation system and method
AU2007322454A1 (en) Absorbent regeneration with compressed overhead stream to provide heat
AU2012283712B2 (en) Advanced combined cycle systems and methods based on methanol indirect combustion
Andersen et al. Gas turbine combined cycle with CO2-capture using auto-thermal reforming of natural gas
US8268266B2 (en) System for heat integration within a gas processing section
Kreutz et al. Production of hydrogen and electricity from coal with CO2 capture
Hendriks et al. Carbon dioxide recovery using a dual gas turbine IGCC plant
CN102712469B (en) Method for operating an IGCC power plant process having integrated CO2 separation
Goldthorpe et al. System studies on CO2 abatement from power plants
AU2011201679B2 (en) System for gas purification and recovery with multiple solvents
GB2456169A (en) A method and associated apparatus for the production of hydrogen and/or electric energy
O’Keefe et al. A single IGCC design for variable CO2 capture
Lozza et al. Low CO2 emission combined cycles with natural gas reforming, including NOx suppression
AU2021286875B2 (en) Method for the production of hydrogen
DK2401052T3 (en) Improved method for the collection and disposal of carbon dioxide in a process for the energy conversion

Legal Events

Date Code Title Description
WAP Application withdrawn, taken to be withdrawn or refused ** after publication under section 16(1)