FR3134424A1 - Method for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel - Google Patents

Abstract

The present application describes a method (1008) of determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel suitable for powering a gas turbine engine of an aircraft, the gas turbine engine having a combustion chamber to which fuel is supplied from a fuel system, the method comprising: determining (1009) a mass of the fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber; determining (1010) a corresponding volume of the fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber; and determining (1011) one or more fuel characteristics based on the determined mass and volume. Also described is a system for determining fuel characteristics, a method of operating an aircraft, and an aircraft. Figure for abstract: 19

Description

Method for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel

The present description relates to aircraft propulsion systems, and methods of aircraft operation involving the management of fuels of different types, including refueling control, and methods of modifying aircraft in such a manner. to allow the application of such operating methods. The present disclosure further relates to methods of, and systems for, determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel. The present description further relates to the operation of an aircraft according to the determined fuel characteristics.

There is an expectation in the aviation industry of a trend toward the use of fuels different from the traditional kerosene-based jet fuels typically used today.

According to a first aspect, a method is provided for refueling an aircraft comprising a gas turbine engine and a fuel tank arranged to supply fuel to the gas turbine engine, the method comprising:

obtaining a quantity of energy required for a planned flight profile;

obtaining a calorific value of fuel available to the aircraft for refueling;

calculating the quantity of available fuel needed to provide the required energy; And

refueling with the calculated quantity of available fuel.

Knowledge of the calorific value(s) of fuel(s) available for an aircraft can enable more efficient, tailor-made control of the propulsion system. For example, changing to a fuel with a higher calorific value may allow a smaller quantity (mass or volume) of fuel to meet an aircraft's energy requirements for a flight. Additionally, since more power is required to lift a greater mass of fuel, take sufficient fuel for the intended flight (with a safety margin above the expected energy demand), but do not fill completely the tank(s), can provide a performance bonus by reducing the takeoff weight of the aircraft. Knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel can therefore be used as a tool to improve aircraft performance, e.g. e.g., avoiding carrying extra weight of fuel.

Calculating the amount of available fuel needed to provide the required energy may include obtaining an energy content of fuel already in the fuel tank(s) – e.g. e.g., that remaining from a previous refueling event - and subtracting this from the determined amount of energy required for the planned flight profile.

Obtaining the calorific value of the fuel available to the aircraft for refueling may include receiving a calorific value data input for the available fuel, e.g. e.g., through a user interface.

Obtaining the calorific value of fuel available to the aircraft may include receiving calorific value data in an electronic communication, e.g. e.g., from scanning a barcode or QR code associated with fueling, or receiving a message from the fuel supplier or fueling facility.

Obtaining the calorific value of the fuel available for the aircraft may include a chemical and/or physical determination of the calorific value of the fuel available, possibly carrying out one or more of:

i. identifying a tracer in the available fuel, such as a dye, or a trace substance used as a marker, and consulting a calorific value corresponding to this tracer (a substance at the (a trace state intrinsically present in the fuel which can vary between fuels can be used to identify a fuel, and/or a substance can be added voluntarily to act as a tracer);

ii. the deduction of the calorific value from one or more detected physical or chemical properties of the available fuel; and or

iii. the combustion of a sample of the available fuel to determine its calorific value directly, possibly using the gas turbine engine.

The chemical and/or physical determination of the calorific value of the available fuel can be carried out on board the aircraft, and can possibly be carried out during operation of the aircraft, e.g. e.g., powering lighting, heating and/or air conditioning while stationary/before refueling is completed.

Particularly (but not only) in scenarios where the calorific value is entered manually, the method may further include performing a check to verify the calorific value/data entered, the check comprising measuring the calorific value of the fuel in use in the gas turbine engine, possibly during aircraft operation before takeoff (e.g., taxiing, or gate operations), and comparing it to the power obtained by a different road. In the event of a discrepancy beyond a threshold, the aircraft can be returned to the gate / refueling can begin again.

Determining the calorific value of the fuel may be accomplished by monitoring engine parameters during a first time period of aircraft operation during which the gas turbine engine uses the fuel; and determining the calorific value of the fuel based on the monitored engine parameters. This determination step can be used to determine the calorific value of fuel already in the aircraft tanks – e.g. e.g., during a flight before the refueling event – so that the remaining energy in the tanks can be calculated and deducted from the amount needed during refueling. This determination step can also be used for new fuel to be supplied to the aircraft – e.g. e.g., burning a small sample in the gas turbine engine while the aircraft is stationary and before refueling is completed, so as to determine the amount of additional fuel to request or accept , or as part of checks to confirm the calorific value obtained during bunkering.

The gas turbine engine may be a main, propulsion gas turbine engine, or may be a gas turbine engine of an auxiliary power unit (APU), which may or may not be arranged to provide propulsive power to the aircraft. In some cases, fuel properties can be determined by burning a small sample in the APU before starting the main engine(s). In additional or alternative examples, combustion of a fuel sample to determine fuel characteristics may be done in one or more of the main propulsion engine(s).

According to a second aspect, a propulsion system is provided for an aircraft, the propulsion system comprising:

a gas turbine engine;

a fuel tank arranged to contain fuel for powering the gas turbine engine; And

a refueling manager designed to:

obtain an amount of energy required for a planned flight profile;

obtain a calorific value of fuel available for the aircraft;

calculate the mass or volume of available fuel needed to provide the required energy; And

deliver at the output the mass or volume of available fuel necessary so as to allow the aircraft to be refueled accordingly.

The amount of energy required for an expected flight profile may have a safety margin beyond the expected amount needed for flight. The size of the safety margin can be decided based on a variety of flight parameters, environmental conditions, and aircraft.

The propulsion system may further comprise one or more sensors arranged to physically and/or chemically detect one or more properties or characteristics of the fuel. One or more fuel properties/sensor data can then be used to infer or calculate the calorific value of the fuel – this can be used for either or both of the fuel already present in the fuel(s). tanks of the aircraft before refueling, and fuel being supplied to the aircraft during refueling. The sensor type and location can be chosen accordingly.

The propulsion system can be arranged to implement the method of the first aspect.

The gas turbine engine optionally includes:

an engine core including a turbine, a compressor, and a central shaft connecting the turbine to the compressor; And

a fan located upstream of the motor core, the fan comprising a plurality of fan blades and being arranged to be driven by an output of the core shaft.

In another aspect, a non-transitory computer-readable medium is provided on which instructions are stored which, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to:

obtain an amount of energy required for a planned flight profile of an aircraft;

obtain a calorific value of fuel available for the aircraft;

calculate the quantity of available fuel needed to provide the required energy; And

deliver at the output the mass or volume of available fuel necessary so as to allow the aircraft to be refueled accordingly.

The instructions may further be arranged to cause the processor to control an input of fuel to the aircraft, such that the aircraft is refueled with the calculated quantity of available fuel.

The instructions may be arranged to cause the processor to perform the method of the first aspect.

According to a third aspect, a method is provided for controlling the refueling of an aircraft comprising a gas turbine engine and a fuel tank arranged to supply fuel to the gas turbine engine, the method comprising:

receiving a calorific value data input for fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling;

determining independently of at least one of:

(i) the calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use; And

(ii) the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling; And

providing an alert if the determined calorific value of fuel is inconsistent with the calorific value data input received.

As used above, “independently” determining calorific value means determining calorific value without use of, or reference to, inputted calorific value data – two values for calorific value can therefore be obtained separately and compared. The two values can therefore be obtained in completely different ways – e.g. e.g., one can be provided by a fuel supplier, and the other can be calculated from sensor data.

The inventors were aware that, given that different fuels can have different properties, while still being compliant with standards, knowledge of the fuel(s) available to an aircraft can enable more efficient, tailored control of the propulsion system. Verification systems, for example, implementing a check of fuel properties if changes to aircraft control are to be made based on fuel characteristics, can therefore be implemented to enhance confidence in, and improve reliability, such new propulsion system control techniques.

Control of the third aspect may be carried out for safety reasons – to ensure that the total energy in the fuel on board the aircraft is sufficient for the intended flight, including any intended safety margin (e.g., in case of bad weather or the need to divert to a different airport).

Control of the third aspect may be carried out for reasons of optimizing aircraft performance – reliance on knowledge of the fuel(s) on board the aircraft may enable engine operation to be matched to the fuel(s). available.

The process may be carried out by an aircraft system, and/or by an off-site unit.

The gas turbine engine may be a main, propulsive gas turbine, or an auxiliary power unit (APU) gas turbine engine, which may or may not be arranged to provide propulsive power to the aircraft.

The method may include determining the calorific value of fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling in a fuel testing unit. The fuel testing unit can be provided off-site at a fueling site.

The determination of the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use may be made during at least one of: (i) one or more ground operations prior to takeoff (e.g., l heating of the engine and/or taxiing of the aircraft), and (ii) climb. It should be kept in mind that making the determination relatively early in the flight may facilitate taking appropriate corrective action if the determined value is inconsistent with the calorific value data input received. Ideally, the check can be carried out before the aircraft leaves the ground, in the event that fuel is not as expected to such an extent that refueling is advised.

Determining the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use may be carried out by burning fuel taken from the fuel tank arranged for use in supplying fuel to the gas turbine engine in an auxiliary unit. power (APU) of the aircraft and determining the calorific value.

Determining the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use can be carried out by detecting engine parameters (of the propellant gas turbine engine and/or a gas turbine engine of a APU) during a first time period of aircraft operation during which the gas turbine engine uses the fuel; and determining the calorific value of the fuel based on the monitored engine parameters. Optionally, one or more motor parameters may be monitored over the first time period.

Determining the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling may be made by identifying a tracer in the fuel supplied to the aircraft (e.g., a dye or trace element), and by consulting a calorific value corresponding to this tracer.

The determination of the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling can be carried out by deducting the calorific value from one or more detected physical or chemical properties of the available fuel.

Receiving a calorific value data input for fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling may include receiving a data input through a user interface of the aircraft, e.g. e.g., a value entered or a value chosen from a menu.

Receiving a calorific value data input for fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling may include receiving data communicated electronically to the aircraft, e.g. e.g., sent by a supplier or obtained from scanning a barcode, QR code, or other code associated with the fuel supplied.

According to a fourth aspect, a propulsion system is provided for an aircraft, the propulsion system comprising:

a gas turbine engine;

a fuel tank arranged to contain fuel for powering the gas turbine engine; And

a fuel tracking system designed to:

receive a calorific value data input for fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling;

determine at least one of:

(i) the calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use; And

(ii) the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling; And

provide an alert if the determined calorific value of the fuel is inconsistent with the received calorific value data input.

The gas turbine engine may include:

an engine core including a turbine, a compressor, and a central shaft connecting the turbine to the compressor; And

a fan located upstream of the motor core, the fan comprising a plurality of fan blades and being arranged to be driven by an output of the core shaft.

The propulsion system may further include one or more sensors arranged to physically and/or chemically detect one or more fuel properties, where one or more fuel properties are used to infer or calculate the calorific value of the fuel. These sensors can be used in determining the calorific value of any of the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use, and the fuel being supplied to the aircraft during refueling. The sensor type and location can be chosen accordingly.

The propulsion system may further include one or more sensors arranged to detect at least one engine parameter during a first time period of aircraft operation during which the gas turbine engine (a propellant gas turbine engine and /or a gas turbine engine of an APU) uses the fuel; the at least one engine parameter being used to determine the calorific value of the fuel.

The propulsion system can be arranged to implement the method of the third aspect.

According to a fifth aspect, a method is provided for refueling an aircraft comprising a gas turbine engine and a fuel tank arranged to supply fuel to the gas turbine engine, the method comprising:

determining a quantity of energy required for a planned flight profile (possibly including a safety margin as mentioned above);

receiving a calorific value data input for the available fuel;

calculating the quantity of available fuel needed to provide the required energy;

the output delivery of the calculated quantity of available fuel required so as to allow the aircraft to be refueled accordingly;

the determination of at least one of:

(i) the calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use after refueling; And

(ii) the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the aircraft during refueling; And

providing an alert if the determined calorific value of fuel is inconsistent with the calorific value data input received.

Calculating the amount of available fuel (e.g., from a tank or fueling pipeline) needed to provide the required energy may include obtaining a calorific value of fuel already in the tank of fuel, and using it to calculate the total available energy of fuel already on board, optionally using one or more calorific values of one or more fuels on board and the quantity of each . This value can then be subtracted from the determined amount of energy required for the intended flight profile. Calculating the amount of available fuel needed to provide the required energy may therefore include obtaining a value of fuel energy already in the fuel tank, and subtracting this from the amount of determined energy required for the intended flight profile.

The method may further include calculating a calorific value of the mixed fuel after refueling. The calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use can therefore be determined to be inconsistent with the calorific value data input received only when the calorific value calculated for the blended fuel does not match the calorific value determined amount of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine in use.

According to a sixth aspect, a method is provided for determining a calorific value of fuel supplied to a gas turbine of an aircraft, the method comprising:

detecting one or more engine parameters during a first time period of aircraft operation during which the gas turbine engine is using the fuel; And

depending on one or more detected engine parameters, determining a calorific value of the fuel.

The detection may be repeated such that the at least one motor parameter is monitored over time, and/or to provide control of a first detected power.

As different fuels can have different properties, such as different calorific values, while still meeting the standards, the same gas turbine engine may perform differently when provided with a different fuel. The performance of the gas turbine engine itself can therefore be used to determine the calorific value of a fuel currently being supplied to a gas turbine engine. Knowledge of the fuel(s) available for an aircraft is beneficial because it can enable more efficient, tailor-made control of propulsion systems, and/or tailor-made refueling.

The first period of aircraft operation time may include at least one of (i) a period of engine operation before takeoff, and (ii) a period of time spent climbing.

The first period of aircraft operation time may include a period of time spent warming up the engine before any movement, a period of time spent taxiing before takeoff, and/or a period of time spent climbing. . In other examples, the first period of time may be during the cruise. It should be borne in mind that making the determination relatively early in the flight can facilitate the use of the determined calorific value. The determination may be made before the aircraft leaves the ground, in the event that the fuel is not as expected to such an extent that refueling is advisable, or in order to judge the quantity of a fuel to be load. In other applications, the calorific value can be used to influence the control of the propulsion system during flight / for the remainder of the flight following the determination.

The detected/monitored engine parameters may include one or more of fuel flow, shaft speed, combustion chamber temperature rise, generated thrust, and exhaust temperature.

The method may further comprise the fact of carrying out a check to verify the determined calorific value, the check comprising the comparison of the calorific value of the fuel determined from the engine parameters with a calorific value of the fuel which is:

a) provided to the aircraft (e.g., by electronic communication, or using a graphical user interface);

b) calculated from detected fuel properties (e.g., sensor data); and or

c) determined from one or more engine parameters detected in a different time period of aircraft operation.

The calorific value of the fuel can be determined as a relative value, or change, in comparison with that of a different fuel used by the same gas turbine engine. A change in the monitored/detected engine parameter(s) when changing from one fuel to another can be used to determine the change in calorific value.

One or more engine parameters can therefore be detected/monitored in two different time periods - each for the two different fuels. The fuel change may be the only change made to the engine control between the two time periods. The two time periods can also be chosen such that the altitude and/or other external parameters are at least substantially the same for both, and can therefore be chosen to be close to each other in the time, if not immediately consecutive. An interval can be left between the two time periods to allow for any transient behavior around the fuel change.

Engine parameters can instead be monitored over a single period of time during which the change between the two different fuels is made. The fuel change may be the only change made to the engine control during the time period. Any transient behavior around the fuel change can be used in determining the calorific value in some examples.

Engine parameters may be or include shaft speed and fuel flow.

Engine parameters may be or include temperature rise across the combustion chamber and fuel flow.

The gas turbine engine that is monitored to determine the calorific value of the fuel being consumed may be a propellant gas turbine engine of the aircraft.

The gas turbine engine that is monitored to determine the calorific value of the fuel being consumed may be a gas turbine engine of an auxiliary power unit of the aircraft. In such cases, the calorific value can be determined before starting a propellant gas turbine engine of the aircraft.

According to a seventh aspect, there is provided a method of operating an aircraft comprising a gas turbine engine and a fuel tank arranged to supply fuel to the gas turbine engine, the method comprising:

detecting one or more engine parameters during a first time period of aircraft operation during which the gas turbine engine is using the fuel;

depending on the detected engine parameter(s), determining data relating to or including a calorific value of the fuel; And

adjusting (e.g., optimizing) engine performance during a second period of aircraft operation time based on the determined data.

The detection may be repeated such that the at least one motor parameter is monitored over time, and/or to provide control of a first detected power.

Knowledge of the calorific value of fuel can therefore be used as a tool to improve aircraft performance during flight, e.g. e.g., by gauging the probability of contrail formation behind an aircraft under given atmospheric conditions and the change in fuel source or altitude mid-flight as appropriate, or using a fuel with lower calorific value for lower thrust operations.

The first period of aircraft operation time may include at least one of (i) a period of engine operation before takeoff, and (ii) time spent climbing. The first period of operation of the aircraft may include at least one of the time spent warming up the engine before movement, the time spent taxiing before takeoff, and the time spent climbing. Alternatively or additionally, the first time period may be early in a cruise period (e.g., in the first 1%, 5%, or 10% of cruise time), thereby allowing optimization of engine performance afterwards.

The second period of time of operation of the aircraft may be a period of time spent in cruise, and possibly may be the entire cruise.

The engine performance tuning may include at least one of:

• change in fuel flow;

• change of pump discharge;

• change in altitude;

• change of guide vane stage; And

• fuel change.

According to an eighth aspect, a power system is provided for an aircraft, the power system comprising:

a gas turbine engine;

a fuel tank arranged to contain fuel for powering the gas turbine engine; And

a fuel tracking system designed to:

detecting one or more engine parameters during a first time period of aircraft operation during which the gas turbine engine uses the fuel; And

determine a calorific value of the fuel based on the detected engine parameter(s).

The gas turbine engine may include an engine core including a turbine, a compressor, and a central shaft connecting the turbine to the compressor; and a fan located upstream of the motor core, the fan comprising a plurality of fan blades and being arranged to be driven by an output of the central shaft.

The gas turbine engine may be arranged to provide propulsive power to the aircraft. The power system can therefore be described as a propulsion system.

Alternatively, the gas turbine engine may be an auxiliary power unit (APU) of the aircraft and may not be arranged to provide propulsive power.

The power system may further comprise at least one sensor arranged to detect the at least one engine parameter.

The fuel system may further comprise one or more sensors arranged to physically and/or chemically detect one or more properties or characteristics of the fuel, one or more properties or characteristics of the fuel being used to deduce or calculate the calorific value of the fuel. fuel.

According to a ninth aspect, there is provided a propulsion system for an aircraft, the propulsion system comprising a gas turbine engine and one or more fuel tanks arranged to contain fuel to power the gas turbine engine, one or more several of the tanks containing a fuel which is a sustainable aviation fuel – SAF ( sustainable aviation fuel ) – or is a mixture of fuel comprising SAF, the SAF having a density between 90% and 98% of the density, ρ _K , of kerosene and a calorific value of between 101% and 105% the calorific value, PC _K , of kerosene.

The propulsion system therefore comprises at least one fuel tank arranged to store fuel to power the gas turbine engine, wherein the stored fuel comprises at least a proportion of a sustainable aviation fuel – SAF. If the stored fuel is a SAF blend as opposed to purely SAF, the calorific value and density of the blend will be between those of SAF and kerosene.

The gas turbine engine includes:

a combustion chamber; And

a fuel pump arranged to supply fuel from one or more of the fuel tanks to the combustion chamber at an energy flow rate, C, the fuel pump having an inlet arranged to receive fuel from one or more tanks fuel and a discharge arranged to output fuel at a pump outlet volumetric flow rate, Q, a proportion of the output fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber and the remainder being recirculated (i.e., returned from pump outlet to the inlet, either directly or indirectly through one or more systems or components), the percentage of fuel passing through the pump that is recirculated/not supplied to the chamber of combustion being called a spill percentage, and wherein the fuel supplied to the pump comprises X% SAF, where has a density, ρ _F , and a calorific value PC _F.

The propulsion system is arranged such that:

the fuel change spill ratio (dimensionless), R _d , of:

is equal to :

X can be greater than 50, such that the fuel supplied to the combustion chamber is greater than 50% SAF.

It should be borne in mind that different tanks may contain fuels with a different %SAF.

The gas turbine engine may be arranged such that, for an engine with maximum takeoff thrust in the range from 400 kN to 500 kN, R _d is in the following range at cruise:

and possibly in the range:

where Q (fuel flow) is measured in liters per second, PC (calorific value) in MJ/kg, and ρ (density) in kg per liter, with subscripts K and F used for kerosene and SAF blend fuel or SAF, respectively.

The gas turbine engine may be arranged such that, for an engine with maximum takeoff thrust in the range 300 kN to 350 kN, R _d is in the following range at cruise:

and possibly in the range:

where, as above, Q is measured in liters per second, PC in MJ/kg, and ρ in kg per liter.

The SAF proportion (X%) can be gravimetric.

The gas turbine engine can be arranged such that .

The gas turbine engine can be arranged such that .

The gas turbine engine can be arranged such that . It may be when the SAF proportion is greater than or equal to 75%.

In addition to considering fuel properties, R _d can vary depending on one or more of ambient temperature, altitude, and cruise stage.

The gas turbine engine can be arranged such that R _d decreases by less than 0.15% between the start and the end of cruise, for a constant temperature and altitude.

The gas turbine engine can be arranged such that R _d decreases by at least 0.11% when the altitude increases by at least 600 m.

The gas turbine engine may include an engine core including a turbine, a combustion chamber, a compressor, and a central shaft connecting the turbine to the compressor; and a fan located upstream of the motor core, the fan comprising a plurality of fan blades and being arranged to be driven by an output of the central shaft.

A fuel tank of one or more tanks may contain pure SAF having a density of between 90% and 98% of the density, ρ _K , of kerosene and a calorific value of between 101% and 105% of the calorific value, PC _K , kerosene. Alternatively or in addition, a fuel tank of one or more tanks may contain a mixed fuel comprising a proportion of SAF, the SAF having a density of between 90% and 98% of the density, ρ _K , of kerosene and a calorific value between 101% and 105% the calorific value, PC _K in kerosene and being mixed with a kerosene fuel to form the mixture.

According to a tenth aspect, there is provided a propulsion system for an aircraft, the propulsion system comprising a gas turbine engine and at least one fuel tank arranged to store fuel for powering the gas turbine engine, wherein the stored fuel comprises at least a proportion of a sustainable aviation fuel – SAF, the SAF having a density of between 90% and 98% of the density, ρ _K , of kerosene and a calorific value of between 101% and 105% calorific value PC _K , kerosene,

the gas turbine engine comprising:

a combustion chamber; And

a fuel pump arranged to supply fuel from one or more of the fuel tanks to the combustion chamber, the fuel pump having an inlet arranged to receive fuel from one or more of the fuel tanks, the fuel supplied to the pump comprising circulation, the percentage of fuel passing through the pump that is recirculated/not supplied to the combustion chamber being called a spill percentage,

and in which the propulsion system is arranged such that:

the fuel change spill ratio, R _d :

where X% is at least 30%, is greater than or equal to 1.003.

Here, a gravimetric SAF percentage is used, as opposed to volumetric – the fuel is therefore X% SAF by weight. Due to the varying densities of fuels, the SAF volumetric percentage would be slightly different – a volume percentage may be used in some applications, and the numbers given may be adjusted accordingly.

The propulsion system, and more particularly the gas turbine engine, can be arranged such that:

When X is 50 (i.e., the fuel is 50% SAF by weight), the fuel change spill ratio can be at least 1.0066.

When X is 100, such that the fuel is pure SAF, the fuel change spill ratio can be at least 1.0138.

The gas turbine engine may be arranged such that R _d varies as a function of one or more of ambient temperature, altitude, and cruise stage.

The gas turbine engine can be arranged such that R _d decreases by less than 0.15% between the start and the end of cruise, for a constant temperature and altitude.

The gas turbine engine can be arranged such that R _d decreases by at least 0.11% when the altitude increases by at least 600 m.

The gas turbine engine may be arranged such that R _d is less than or equal to 1.04.

The gas turbine engine may be arranged such that R _d is greater than or equal to 1.003.

The gas turbine engine may be arranged such that R _d is greater than or equal to 1.014.

According to an eleventh aspect, there is provided a method of operating an aircraft comprising a propulsion system, the propulsion system comprising a gas turbine engine comprising a combustion chamber, and at least one fuel tank arranged to store fuel for powering the gas turbine engine, wherein the stored fuel comprises at least a proportion of a sustainable aviation fuel – SAF – having a density of between 90% and 98% of the density, ρ _K , of kerosene and a calorific value of between 101% and 105% the calorific value PC _K , of kerosene, the gas turbine engine comprising a fuel pump arranged to supply fuel from one or more of the fuel tanks to the combustion chamber at an energy flow rate, C, the fuel pump having an inlet arranged to receive fuel from the one or more fuel tanks and an outlet arranged to output fuel at a pump outlet volumetric flow rate, Q, a proportion of the fuel output being supplied to the combustion chamber and the remainder being recirculated, the percentage of fuel passing through the pump which is recirculated being called a spill percentage, the method comprising:

supplying a fuel from one or more of the fuel tanks to the gas turbine engine, the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine comprising 100%, with any remainder of the fuel being kerosene, and wherein the fuel has a density, ρ _F , and a calorific value PC _F ; And

controlling the propulsion system so that:

the fuel change spill ratio, R _d :

is equal to :

The method may include controlling the propulsion system such that any of the conditions relating to R _d as described above for the ninth and tenth aspects apply.

X% can be in the range of 50% and 100%.

According to a twelfth aspect, there is provided a method of operating an aircraft comprising a propulsion system comprising a gas turbine engine and one or more fuel tanks arranged to contain fuel to power the gas turbine engine, one or more of the tanks containing at least a proportion of a sustainable aviation fuel – SAF – having a density of between 90% and 98% of the density, ρ _K , of kerosene and a calorific value of between 101% and 105% calorific value, PC _K , of kerosene:

the gas turbine engine comprising:

a combustion chamber; And

a fuel pump arranged to supply fuel from one or more of the fuel tanks to the combustion chamber, the fuel pump having an inlet arranged to receive fuel from the one or more fuel tanks, the fuel supplied to the pump comprising the percentage of fuel passing through the pump that is recirculated being called a spill percentage.

The propulsion system is arranged such that:

the fuel change spill ratio, R _d , is defined as:

_When

The method may include controlling the propulsion system such that any of the conditions relating to R _d as described above for the ninth and tenth aspects apply.

According to a thirteenth aspect, a method is proposed for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel suitable for powering a gas turbine engine of an aircraft, the method comprising:

determining a mass of fuel loaded, or which has been loaded, on the aircraft;

determining a corresponding volume of the fuel; And

determining one or more fuel characteristics of the fuel based on the determined mass and volume.

The inventors have in mind that by measuring a mass and volume parameter of the fuel being loaded, or which has been loaded, onto an aircraft one or more characteristics of the fuel can be determined.

Determining one or more fuel characteristics may include calculating a fuel density based on the determined fuel mass and fuel volume. One or more fuel characteristics may be a function of density. One or more fuel characteristics may be obtained by comparing the density with a look-up table of fuels having known densities and corresponding fuel characteristics to be determined.

Determining fuel mass may include measuring a mass flow rate at a point within a fuel delivery line used to deliver fuel to one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft.

Determining the volume of the fuel may include measuring a volumetric flow rate at a point in the fuel delivery line used to deliver fuel to one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft.

Determining the mass of the fuel may include measuring the mass and/or a change in the mass of any one or more of: the aircraft; one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft; a fuel tank vehicle from which the fuel is supplied; or a storage tank from which fuel is supplied to the aircraft.

Determining the volume of fuel may include measuring the volume and/or a change in the volume of fuel: stored in one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft; and/or stored in a fuel storage tank from which fuel is supplied to the aircraft.

One or more determined fuel characteristics may include any one or more of:

(i) distribution of hydrocarbon fuel

(ii) a percentage of sustainable aviation fuel in the fuel; and or

(iii) an aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel.

One or more fuel characteristics may include an indication that the fuel is a fossil fuel, e.g. e.g., kerosene.

One or more fuel characteristics may further be determined based on a signal indicative of fuel temperature.

According to a fourteenth aspect, there is provided a fuel characteristics determination system for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel suitable for powering a gas turbine engine of an aircraft, the system comprising:

a fuel characteristics determination module arranged to:

receiving a fuel mass signal indicating a mass of fuel being loaded, or which has been loaded, on the aircraft;

receiving a fuel volume signal indicating a volume of fuel being loaded or loaded onto the aircraft; And

determining one or more fuel characteristics of the fuel based on the fuel volume and fuel mass signals.

The fuel characteristic determination module may be configured to calculate a density of the fuel based on the fuel mass signal and the fuel volume signal.

The fuel characteristic determination system may further include a mass sensor arranged to measure a mass of the fuel, wherein the fuel mass signal is received from the mass sensor.

The fuel characteristic determining system may further include a volume sensor arranged to measure a fuel volume, wherein the fuel volume signal is received from the volume sensor.

The mass sensor may be a mass flow meter. The volume sensor may be a volume flow meter.

The mass flow meter may be arranged to measure mass flow at a point within a fuel delivery line used to deliver fuel to one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft.

The volume flow meter may be arranged to measure a volume flow at a point within the fuel delivery line used to deliver fuel to one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft.

The fuel mass signal may be a function of a measured mass and/or a change in mass of any one or more of: the aircraft; one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft; a fuel tank vehicle from which the fuel is supplied; or a storage tank from which fuel is supplied to the aircraft. The mass sensor can be arranged to measure any parameter from the previous sentence.

The fuel volume signal may be a function of a measured volume and/or in a change in fuel volume: stored in one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft; and/or stored in a fuel storage tank from which fuel is supplied to the aircraft. The volume sensor can be arranged to measure one or other of these parameters.

One or more determined fuel characteristics may include any one or more of:

(i) distribution of hydrocarbon fuel;

(ii) a percentage of sustainable aviation fuel in the fuel; and or

(iii) an aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel.

One or more fuel characteristics may include an indication that the fuel is a fossil fuel, e.g. e.g., kerosene.

The determination module may further be arranged to determine one or more fuel characteristics based on a signal indicative of the fuel temperature.

According to a fifteenth aspect, there is provided a method of operating an aircraft having a gas turbine engine, the method comprising:

determining one or more fuel characteristics using the method of the thirteenth aspect; And

the operation of the aircraft according to one or more fuel characteristics.

Operation of the aircraft under one or more fuel characteristics may include:

a) modifying a control parameter of the aircraft, preferably a control parameter of the gas turbine engine, in response to one or more fuel characteristics; and or

(b) the provision of fuel with different fuel characteristics during the refueling of the aircraft.

According to a sixteenth aspect, there is provided an aircraft comprising the system for determining fuel characteristics of the fourteenth aspect, the aircraft further comprising a control system arranged to control the operation of the aircraft according to one or more characteristics fuel determined by the fuel characteristic determination system.

In a seventeenth aspect, there is provided a method of determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel suitable for powering a gas turbine engine of an aircraft, the gas turbine engine having a combustion chamber to which fuel is supplied from a fuel system of the aircraft, the method comprising:

determining a mass of the fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber;

determining a corresponding volume of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber; And

determining one or more fuel characteristics based on the determined mass and volume.

The inventors have in mind that one or more fuel characteristics may be determined during operation of a gas turbine engine by measuring a mass and volume parameter of fuel as it is supplied to a chamber. combustion of the gas turbine engine. One or more fuel characteristics may be determined based on the measured mass and volume of the fuel.

Determining one or more fuel characteristics may include calculating a fuel density based on the determined fuel mass and fuel volume. One or more fuel characteristics may be a function of density. One or more fuel characteristics may be obtained by comparing the density with a look-up table of fuels having known densities and corresponding fuel characteristics to be determined.

Determining the mass of the fuel may include determining a mass flow rate of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber.

The fuel system may include an engine fuel system forming part of the gas turbine engine. Mass flow can be measured at a point in a fuel line of the engine fuel system. Mass flow can be measured immediately before the fuel reaches the combustion chamber.

The mass flow rate can be determined based on an operating parameter of a fuel pump provided in the fuel system. Mass flow rate can be determined based on a fuel flow measurement using a mass flow meter.

Determining the volume of the fuel may include determining a volume flow rate of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber.

Volume flow rate can be measured at a point in a fuel line of the engine fuel system. The volume flow rate can be measured immediately before the fuel reaches the combustion chamber. The volume flow rate can be measured at a position adjacent to the mass flow rate.

The mass volume can be determined based on an operating parameter of a pump provided in the fuel system. The volume flow rate can be determined based on a fuel flow measurement using a volume flow meter.

One or more determined fuel characteristics comprise any one or more of:

(i) distribution of hydrocarbon fuel;

(ii) a percentage of sustainable aviation fuel in the fuel; and or

(iii) an aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel.

One or more fuel characteristics include an indication that the fuel is a fossil fuel, e.g. e.g., kerosene.

According to an eighteenth aspect, there is provided a fuel characteristic determination system for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel suitable for powering a gas turbine engine of an aircraft, the engine gas turbine engine having a combustion chamber to which fuel is supplied from a fuel system of the aircraft, the system for determining fuel characteristics comprising:

a fuel characteristics determination module arranged to:

receiving a fuel mass signal indicative of a mass of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber;

receiving a fuel volume signal indicative of a volume of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber; And

determining one or more fuel characteristics of the fuel based on the fuel volume and fuel mass signals.

The fuel characteristic determination module may be configured to calculate a density of the fuel based on the fuel mass signal and the fuel volume signal.

The fuel characteristics determination system may further comprise a mass flow meter arranged to measure a mass flow rate of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber. The fuel mass signal can be received from the mass flow meter.

The fuel characteristics determination system may further comprise a volume flow meter arranged to measure a volume flow rate of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber. The fuel volume signal can be received from the volume flow meter.

The mass flow meter and/or the volume flow meter may be arranged to measure fuel flow measured at a point in a fuel conduit of an engine fuel system of the gas turbine engine. The mass flow meter and/or volume flow meter may be arranged to measure the flow of fuel measured at a point immediately before the fuel reaches the combustion chamber.

The fuel system may further include a fuel pump arranged to supply fuel to the combustion chamber.

The fuel mass signal and/or the fuel volume signal may be a function of a fuel pump operating parameter.

One or more determined fuel characteristics comprise any one or more of:

(i) distribution of hydrocarbon fuel;

(ii) a percentage of sustainable aviation fuel in the fuel; and or

(iii) an aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel.

One or more fuel characteristics include an indication that the fuel is a fossil fuel, e.g. e.g., kerosene.

According to a nineteenth aspect, there is provided a method of operating an aircraft having a gas turbine engine, the method comprising:

determining one or more fuel characteristics using the method of the seventeenth aspect; And

the operation of the aircraft according to one or more fuel characteristics.

Operation of the aircraft under one or more fuel characteristics may include:

a) modifying a control parameter of the aircraft, preferably a control parameter of the gas turbine engine, in response to one or more fuel characteristics; and or

(b) the provision of fuel with different fuel characteristics during the refueling of the aircraft.

According to a twentieth aspect, there is provided an aircraft comprising the system for determining fuel characteristics of the eighteenth aspect, the aircraft further comprising a control system arranged to control the operation of the aircraft according to one or several fuel characteristics determined by the fuel characteristic determination system.

This description may apply to any relevant gas turbine engine configuration. Such a gas turbine engine may be, for example, a turbofan gas turbine engine, an open rotor gas turbine engine (in which the propeller is not surrounded by a nacelle), a turboprop engine. or a turbojet. Any engine like this may or may not have an afterburner.

A gas turbine engine according to any aspect of the present disclosure may include an engine core including a turbine, a combustion chamber, a compressor, and a central shaft connecting the turbine to the compressor. Such a gas turbine engine may include a fan (having fan blades). Such a fan can be located upstream of the engine core. Alternatively, in some examples the gas turbine engine may include a fan located downstream of the engine core, for example where the gas turbine engine is an open rotor or turboprop (in which case the fan may be referred to as a propeller ).

When the gas turbine engine is an open rotor or turboprop engine, the gas turbine engine may include two stages of counter-rotating propellers connected to and driven by a free turbine via a shaft. The propellers can rotate in opposite directions so that one rotates clockwise and the other counterclockwise around the axis of rotation of the motor. Alternatively, the gas turbine engine may include a propeller stage and a guide vane stage configured downstream of the propeller stage. The guide vane stage can be of variable pitch. Accordingly, high pressure, intermediate pressure and free turbines can respectively drive high pressure and intermediate compressors and propellers by suitable interconnecting shafts. Thus, the propellers can provide the majority of the propulsive thrust.

When the gas turbine engine is an open rotor or turboprop, one or more of the propeller stages may be driven by a gearbox. The gearbox may be of the type described here.

An engine according to the present description may be a turbofan engine. Such an engine may be a direct-drive turbofan engine in which the fan is directly connected to the fan drive turbine, for example, without a gearbox. In such a direct drive turbofan engine, it can be said that the fan rotates at the same rotational speed as the fan drive turbine.

An engine according to the present description may be a geared turbofan. In such an arrangement, the engine has a blower which is driven through a gearbox. Thus, such a gas turbine engine may comprise a gearbox which receives an input from the central shaft and outputs a drive to the fan so as to drive the fan at a lower rotation speed than the shaft. central. Input to the gearbox can be directly from the central shaft, or indirectly from the central shaft, for example, through a shaft and/or spur gear. The central shaft can rigidly connect the turbine and compressor, such that the turbine and compressor rotate at the same speed (with the fan rotating at a lower speed).

The gas turbine engine as described and/or claimed here may have any suitable general architecture. For example, the gas turbine engine can have any desired number of shafts that connect turbines and compressors, for example, one, two or three shafts. Purely by way of example, the turbine connected to the central shaft may be a first turbine, the compressor connected to the central shaft may be a first compressor, and the central shaft may be a first central shaft. The engine core may further include a second turbine, a second compressor, and a second central shaft connecting the second turbine to the second compressor. The second turbine, the second compressor and the second central shaft can be arranged to rotate at a higher rotational speed than the first central shaft.

In such an arrangement, the second compressor can be positioned axially downstream of the first compressor. The second compressor may be arranged to receive (e.g., directly receive, for example, through a generally annular conduit) a flow from the first compressor.

The gearbox may be arranged to be driven by the central shaft which is configured to rotate (e.g. in use) at the lowest rotational speed (e.g. the first central shaft in the example above). For example, the gearbox may be arranged to be driven only by the central shaft which is configured to rotate (e.g., in use) at the lowest rotational speed (e.g., being only the first central shaft, and not the second central shaft, in the example above). Alternatively, the gearbox can be arranged to be driven by one or more shafts, for example, the first and/or second shafts in the example above.

The gearbox may be a reduction gearbox (in that the output to the blower is a lower rotation rate than the input to the central shaft). Any type of gearbox can be used. For example, the gearbox may be a "satellite" or "star" gearbox, as described in more detail elsewhere here. Such a gearbox can be single-stage. Alternatively, such a gearbox may be a compound gearbox, for example a compound satellite gearbox (which may have the input on the sun gear and the output on the ring gear, and thus be called a compound gearbox). “star compound” speeds), for example, having two reduction stages.

The gearbox can have any desired reduction ratio (defined as the rotational speed of the input shaft divided by the rotational speed of the output shaft), for example greater than 2.5, e.g. , in the range from 3 to 4.2, or 3.2 to 3.8, for example of the order of or at least 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4, 4.1 or 4.2. The gear ratio can be, for example, between any two of the values in the previous sentence. Purely by way of example, the gearbox may be a "star" gearbox having a reduction ratio in the range of 3.1 or 3.2 to 3.8. Purely by way of further example, the gearbox may be a "star" gearbox having a reduction ratio in the range 3.0 to 3.1. Purely as a further example, the gearbox may be a "star" gearbox having a reduction ratio in the range 3.6 to 4.2. In some arrangements, the gear ratio may be outside of these ranges.

In any gas turbine engine as described and/or claimed herein, a fuel of a given composition or mixture is supplied to a combustion chamber, which may be supplied downstream of the fan and the(s) compressors relative to the flow path (e.g., axially downstream). For example, the combustion chamber may be directly downstream of (e.g. at the outlet of) the second compressor, when a second compressor is provided. As a further example, flow at the exit of the combustion chamber may be supplied to the inlet of the second turbine, when a second turbine is provided. The combustion chamber can be provided upstream of the turbine(s).

The or each compressor (e.g., the first compressor and the second compressor as described above) may include any number of stages, e.g., multiple stages. Each stage may include a row of rotor blades and a row of stator blades, which may be variable stator blades (in that their angle of incidence may be variable). The row of rotor blades and the row of stator blades can be offset axially from each other. For example, the gas turbine engine may be a direct drive turbofan gas turbine engine comprising 13 or 14 compressor stages (in addition to the fan). Such an engine can, for example, include 3 stages in the first compressor (or “low pressure”) and either 10 or 11 stages in the second compressor (or “high pressure”). As a further example, the gas turbine engine may be a "gear" gas turbine engine (in which the fan is driven by a first central shaft through a reduction gearbox) comprising stages compressor 11, 12 or 13 (in addition to the blower). Such an engine can include 3 or 4 stages in the first compressor (or “low pressure”) and 8 or 9 stages in the second compressor (or “high pressure”). As a further example, the gas turbine engine may be a "gear" gas turbine engine having 4 stages in the first compressor (or "low pressure") and 10 stages in the second compressor (or "high pressure"). pressure ").

The or each turbine (e.g., the first turbine and the second turbine as described above) may include any number of stages, e.g., multiple stages. Each stage may include a row of rotor blades and a row of stator blades. The row of rotor blades and the row of stator blades can be offset axially from each other. The second (or “high pressure”) turbine can have 2 stages in any arrangement (for example, whether a gear or direct drive motor). The gas turbine engine may be a direct drive gas turbine engine comprising a first (or "low pressure") turbine having 5, 6 or 7 stages. Alternatively, the gas turbine engine may be a "gear" gas turbine engine comprising a first (or "low pressure") turbine having 3 or 4 stages.

Each fan blade may be defined as having a radial extent extending from a root (or hub) at a gas-washed radially internal location, or from a 0% extent position, to a tip at a 100% extent position. The ratio of the radius of the fan blade at the hub to the radius of the fan blade at the tip may be less than (or of the order of) any of: 0.4 , 0.39, 0.38, 0.37, 0.36, 0.35, 0.34, 0.33, 0.32, 0.31, 0.3, 0.29, 0.28, 0 .27, 0.26 or 0.25. The ratio of the radius of the fan blade at the hub to the radius of the fan blade at the tip may be within an inclusive range delimited by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values can form upper or lower limits), for example, in the range 0.28 to 0.32 or 0.29 to 0.30. These ratios may commonly be referred to as the hub to tip ratio. The radius at the hub and the radius at the tip can both be measured at the leading edge (or axially forward) portion of the blade. The hub-to-tip ratio refers, of course, to the gas-washed portion of the fan blade, i.e., the portion radially outboard of any platform.

The fan radius can be measured from the engine centerline to the tip of a fan blade at its leading edge. The fan diameter (which can simply be twice the fan radius) can be greater than (or of the order of) any one of: 140 cm, 170 cm, 180 cm, 190 cm, 200 cm, 210 cm, 220 cm, 230 cm, 240 cm, 250 cm (approximately 100 inches), 260 cm, 270 cm (approximately 105 inches), 280 cm (approximately 110 inches), 290 cm (approximately 115 inches), 300 cm (approximately about 120 inches), 310 cm, 320 cm (about 125 inches), 330 cm (about 130 inches), 340 cm (about 135 inches), 350 cm, 360 cm (about 140 inches), 370 cm (about 145 inches) , 380 cm (approximately 150 inches), 390 cm (approximately 155 inches), 400 cm, 410 cm (approximately 160 inches) or 420 cm (approximately 165 inches). The blower diameter may be in an inclusive range delimited by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values may form upper or lower limits), for example, in the range from 240 cm to 280 cm or 330 cm at 380 cm. Purely by way of non-limiting example, the blower diameter may be in the range of 170 cm to 180 cm, 190 cm to 200 cm, 200 cm to 210 cm, 210 cm to 230 cm, 290 cm to 300 cm or 340 cm to 360 cm.

The blower rotation speed may vary during use. Generally, the rotation speed is lower for fans with a larger diameter. Purely by way of non-limiting example, the rotation speed of the fan at cruising conditions may be less than 3500 rpm, for example, less than 2500 rpm, for example, less than 2300 rpm. min. Purely as a further non-limiting example, the fan rotation speed at cruise conditions for a "gear" gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 200 cm to 210 cm may be in the range range from 2750 to 2900 rpm. Purely as a further non-limiting example, the fan rotation speed at cruise conditions for a "gear" gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 210 cm to 230 cm may be in the range range from 2500 to 2800 rpm. Purely as a further non-limiting example, the fan rotation speed at cruise conditions for a "gear" gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 340 cm to 360 cm may be in the range range from 1500 to 1800 rpm. . Purely as a further non-limiting example, the fan rotation speed at cruising conditions for a direct drive engine having a fan diameter in the range of 190 cm to 200 cm may be in the range of 3600 to 3900 rpm. Purely as a further non-limiting example, the fan rotation speed at cruising conditions for a direct drive motor having a fan diameter in the range of 300 cm to 340 cm may be in the range of 2000 to 2800 rpm.

In use of the gas turbine engine, the fan (with associated fan blades) rotates about an axis of rotation. This rotation leads to the movement of the tip of the fan blade with a speed U _tip . The work done by the fan blades 23 on the flow leads to an increase in enthalpy dH of the flow. A fan peak load can be defined as dH/U _peak ² , when dH is the enthalpy rise (e.g., the average 1-D enthalpy rise) across the fan and U _peak is the (translational) velocity of the fan tip, for example, at the leading edge of the tip (which can be defined as fan tip radius at the leading edge times the angular velocity). The peak fan load at cruise conditions may be greater than (or of the order of) any of: 0.28, 0.29, 0.30, 0.31, 0.32, 0, 33, 0.34, 0.35, 0.36, 0.37, 0.38, 0.39 or 0.4 (all values dimensionless). The fan tip load may be in an inclusive range delimited by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values may form upper or lower limits), for example in the range 0.28 to 0, 31, or 0.29 to 0.3 (e.g. for a geared gas turbine engine).

Gas turbine engines according to the present disclosure may have any desired dilution ratio, where the dilution ratio is defined as the ratio of the mass flow rate of the flow through the bypass pipe to the mass flow rate of the flow through the core at cruising conditions. In certain arrangements the dilution ratio may be greater than (or of the order of) any of the following values: 9. 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5 , 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5 or 20. The dilution ratio can be in an inclusive range delimited by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values may form upper or lower limits), for example in the range 12 to 16, or 13 to 15, or 13 to 14. Purely by way of non-limiting example, the dilution ratio of a direct drive gas turbine engine according to the present disclosure may be in the range of 9:1 to 11:1. Purely by way of additional non-limiting example, the dilution ratio of a geared gas turbine engine according to the present disclosure may be in the range of 12:1 to 15:1. The bypass pipe may be substantially annular. The bypass line may be radially outboard of the central engine. The radially outer surface of the bypass pipe may be defined by a nacelle and/or a fan casing.

The overall pressure ratio of a gas turbine engine as described and/or claimed herein may be defined as the ratio of the stagnation pressure at the outlet of the highest pressure compressor (before entering the compressor chamber). combustion) on the stagnation pressure upstream of the fan. By way of non-limiting example, the overall pressure ratio of a gas turbine engine as described and/or claimed here at cruise may be greater than (or of the order of) any of the following values : 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75. The overall pressure ratio may be in an inclusive range delimited by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values may form limits higher or lower), for example in the range of or 50 to 70. Purely by way of non-limiting example, the overall pressure ratio at cruising conditions of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 200 cm to 210 cm may be in the range of 40 to 45. Purely by way of non-limiting example, the overall pressure ratio at cruising conditions of a geared gas turbine engine having a diameter of blower in the range of 210 cm to 230 cm may be in the range of 45 to 55. Purely by way of non-limiting example, the overall pressure ratio at cruising conditions of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 340 cm to 360 cm can be in the range of 50 to 60. Purely as a non-limiting example, the overall pressure ratio at cruising conditions of a gas turbine engine driven direct having a blower diameter in the range of 300 cm to 340 cm can be in the range of 50 to 60.

The specific thrust of an engine can be defined as the net thrust of the engine divided by the total mass flow through the engine. In some examples, specific thrust may depend, for a given thrust condition, on the specific composition of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber. At cruise conditions, the specific thrust of an engine described and/or claimed here may be less than (or of the order of) any of the following values: 110 Nkg ^-1 s, 105 Nkg ^-1 s, 100 Nkg ^-1 s, 95 Nkg ^-1 s, 90 Nkg ^-1 s, 85 Nkg ^-1 s or 80 Nkg ^-1 s. The specific thrust may be in an inclusive range delimited by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values may form upper or lower limits), for example in the range from 80 Nkg ^-1 s to 100 Nkg ^-1 s or 85 Nkg ^-1 s to 95 Nkg ^-1 s. Such engines can be particularly efficient compared to conventional gas turbine engines. Purely as a non-limiting example, the specific thrust of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 200 cm to 210 cm may be in the range of 90 Nkg ^-1 s to 95 Nkg ^-1 sec. Purely as a non-limiting example, the specific thrust of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 210 cm to 230 cm may be in the range of 80 Nkg ^-1 s to 90 Nkg ^-1 sec. Purely as a non-limiting example, the specific thrust of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 340 cm to 360 cm may be in the range of 70 Nkg ^-1 s to 90 Nkg ^-1 sec. Purely as a non-limiting example, the specific thrust of a direct drive gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 300 cm to 340 cm may be in the range of 90 Nkg ^-1 s to 120 Nkg ^-1 s.

A gas turbine engine as described and/or claimed herein may have any desired maximum thrust. Purely by way of non-limiting example, a gas turbine as described and/or claimed here may be capable of producing a maximum thrust of at least (or of the order of) any of the following values: 100 kN, 110 kN, 120 kN, 130 kN, 140 kN, 150 kN, 160 kN, 170 kN, 180 kN, 190 kN, 200 kN, 250 kN, 300 kN, 350 kN, 400 kN, 450 kN, 500 kN, or 550 kN. The maximum thrust may be within an inclusive range delimited by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values may form upper or lower limits). Purely by way of non-limiting example, a gas turbine as described and/or claimed herein may be capable of producing maximum thrust in the range of 330 kN to 420 kN, for example, 350 kN to 400 kN. Purely as a non-limiting example, the maximum thrust of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 200 cm to 210 cm may be in the range of 140 kN to 160 kN. Purely as a non-limiting example, the maximum thrust of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 210 cm to 230 cm may be in the range of 150 kN to 200 kN. Purely as a non-limiting example, the maximum thrust of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 340 cm to 360 cm may be in the range of 370 kN to 500 kN. Purely as a non-limiting example, the maximum thrust of a direct drive gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 300 cm to 340 cm may be in the range of 370 kN to 500 kN. The thrust mentioned above may be the maximum net thrust under standard atmospheric conditions at sea level plus 15 degrees C (ambient pressure 101.3 kPa, temperature 30 degrees C), with the engine static.

During use, the temperature of the flow at the inlet of the high pressure turbine can be particularly high. This temperature, which may be called TET, may be measured at the exit of the combustion chamber, for example, immediately upstream of the first turbine blade, which may itself be called a nozzle guide vane. In some examples, TET may depend, for a given thrust condition, on the specific fuel composition supplied to the combustion chamber. In cruise, the TET can be at least (or of the order of) any one of the following values: 1400 K, 1450 K, 1500 K, 1550 K, 1600 K or 1650 K. Thus, strictly as a non-limiting example, the cruising TET of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 200 cm to 210 cm may be in the range of 1540 K to 1600 K. Purely by way of example non-limiting, the cruising TET of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 210 cm to 230 cm may be in the range of 1590 kN to 1650 kN. Purely by way of non-limiting example, the cruise TET of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 340 cm to 360 cm may be in the range of 1600 K to 1660 K. Purely as a non-limiting example, the cruise TET of a direct drive gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 300 cm to 340 cm may be in the range of 1590 K to 1650 K. Purely As a non-limiting example, the cruise TET of a direct drive gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 300 cm to 340 cm may be in the range of 1570 kN to 1630 kN.

The cruising TET may be within an inclusive range bounded by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values may form upper or lower limits). The maximum TET during use of the motor may be, for example, at least (or of the order of) any one of the following values: 1700 K, 1750 K, 1800 K, 1850 K, 1900 K, 1950 K, 2000 K, 2050 K or 2100 K. Thus, purely as a non-limiting example, the maximum TET of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 200 cm to 210 cm can be in the range of 1890 K to 1960 K. Purely as a non-limiting example, the maximum TET of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 210 cm to 230 cm may be within the range from 1890 kN to 1960 kN. As a non-limiting example, the maximum TET of a geared gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 340 cm to 360 cm may be in the range of 1890 kN to 1960 kN. Purely as a non-limiting example, the maximum TET of a direct drive gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 300 cm to 340 cm may be in the range of 1935 K to 1995 K. Purely As a non-limiting example, the maximum TET of a direct drive gas turbine engine having a fan diameter in the range of 300 cm to 340 cm may be in the range of 1890K to 1950K. The maximum TET may be in an inclusive range delimited by any two of the values in the preceding sentence (i.e., the values may form upper or lower limits), for example in the range 1800 K to 1950 K. The maximum TET may occur, for example, at a high thrust condition, for example at a maximum takeoff (MTO) condition.

A fan blade portion and/or aerodynamic profile of a fan blade described and/or claimed herein may be manufactured from any suitable material or combination of materials. For example, at least part of the fan blade and/or the aerodynamic profile may be manufactured at least in part from a composite, for example, a metal matrix composite and/or an organic matrix composite, such as a carbon fiber composite. As a further example at least part of the fan blade and/or the aerodynamic profile may be manufactured at least in part from a metal, such as a titanium-based metal or a titanium-based material. aluminum (such as an aluminum-lithium alloy) or a steel-based material. The fan blade may include at least two regions manufactured using different materials. For example, the fan blade may have a protective leading edge, which may be made using a material that is better able to withstand impact (e.g. from birds, ice or other materials) than the rest of the blade. Such a leading edge can, for example, be manufactured using titanium or a titanium-based alloy. So, purely as an example, the fan blade may have a carbon fiber or aluminum (such as a lithium aluminum alloy) based body with a titanium leading edge.

A fan as described and/or claimed here may comprise a central portion, from which the fan blades may extend, for example, in a radial direction. The fan blades can be connected to the central portion in any desired manner. For example, each fan blade may include a retainer that may engage a corresponding slot in the hub (or disk). Purely by way of example, such attachment may be in the form of a dovetail which may insert into and/or engage a corresponding slot in the hub/disc in order to secure the vane. hub/disc blower. As a further example, the fan blades can be formed in one piece with a central portion. Such an arrangement may be called a bladed disk or bladed ring. Any suitable process can be used to manufacture such a bladed disc or bladed ring. For example, at least a portion of the fan blades may be machined from a block and/or at least a portion of the fan blades may be connected to the hub/disc by welding, such as linear friction welding.

The gas turbine engines described and/or claimed herein may or may not be provided with a variable area nozzle (VAN). Such a variable section nozzle can make it possible to vary the outlet section of the diversion pipe during use. The general principles of this description can apply to engines with or without VAN.

The fan of a gas turbine as described and/or claimed herein may have any desired number of fan blades, for example, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 or 26 fan blades. When the fan blades have a carbon fiber composite body, there may be 16 or 18 fan blades. When the fan blades have a metal body (e.g. aluminum-lithium or titanium alloy), there may be 18, 20 or 22 fan blades.

As used herein, the terms idle, taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, approach and landing have the conventional meaning and would be easily understood by those skilled in the art. Thus, for a given gas turbine engine for an aircraft, those skilled in the art will immediately recognize each term to refer to a phase of operation of the engine within a given mission of an aircraft to which the turbine engine gas is intended to be connected.

In this regard, ground idling may refer to a phase of engine operation where the aircraft is stationary and in contact with the ground, but where there is a requirement for engine operation. At idle, the engine can produce between 3% and 9% of the available engine thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 5% and 8% available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 6% and 7% of available thrust. Taxiing can refer to a phase of engine operation where the aircraft is propelled on the ground by the thrust produced by the engine. When taxiing, the engine can produce between 5% and 15% of available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 6% and 12% of available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 7% and 10% available thrust. Takeoff can refer to a phase of engine operation where the aircraft is propelled by the thrust produced by the engine. At an initial stage during the takeoff phase, the aircraft may be propelled while the aircraft is in contact with the ground. At a later stage during the takeoff phase, the aircraft may be propelled while the aircraft is in contact with the ground. During takeoff, the engine can produce between 90% and 100% available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 95% and 100% available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce 100% available thrust.

Climb can refer to a phase of engine operation where the aircraft is propelled by the thrust produced by the engine. When climbing, the engine can produce between 75% and 100% available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 80% and 95% available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 85% and 90% available thrust. In this sense, climb can refer to a phase of operation within an aircraft flight cycle between takeoff and arrival at cruise conditions. Additionally or alternatively, climb may refer to a nominal point in an aircraft flight cycle between takeoff and landing, when a relative increase in altitude is required, which may require a request for additional thrust of the motor.

As used herein, cruise conditions have the conventional meaning and would be readily understood by those skilled in the art. Thus, for a given gas turbine engine for an aircraft, those skilled in the art would immediately recognize cruise conditions to signify the point of engine operation at mid-cruise of a given mission (which may be referred to in the 'industry "economic mission") of an aircraft to which the gas turbine engine is designed to be connected to it. In this sense, mid-cruise is the point in an aircraft flight cycle at which 50% of the total fuel that is burned between the end of climb and the start of descent has been burned (which can be approximated by the mid-course - in terms of time and/or distance between the end of climb and the start of descent. Cruise conditions thus define a point of operation of the gas turbine engine which provides thrust which would ensure operation in a static state (i.e., maintaining a constant altitude and Mach number) at mid-cruise of an aircraft to which it is designed to be attached, taking into account the number of engines supplied to that aircraft. For example when an engine is designed to be connected to an aircraft which has two engines of the same type, at cruise conditions the engine provides half of the total thrust which would be required for static operation of this aircraft at mid-range. cruise.

In other words, for a given gas turbine engine for an aircraft, cruise conditions are defined as the point of engine operation that provides a specified thrust (required to provide – in combination with any of the other engines on the aircraft - a static state operation of the aircraft to which it is designed to be connected at a given mid-cruise Mach number) at mid-cruise atmospheric conditions (defined by the International Standard Atmosphere according to ISO 2533 standard at mid-cruise altitude). For any given gas turbine engine for an aircraft, the mid-cruise thrust, atmospheric conditions and Mach number are known, and therefore the engine's operating point at cruise conditions is clearly defined.

Purely by way of example, the forward speed at cruise condition may be any point in the range Mach 0.7 to 0.9, e.g., 0.75 to 0.85, e.g., 0 .76 to 0.84, for example, 0.77 to 0.83, for example, 0.78 to 0.82, for example, 0.79 to 0.81, for example, on the order of Mach 0 .8, of the order of Mach 0.85 or in the range of 0.8 to 0.85. Any speed alone within these ranges may be part of the cruising condition. For some aircraft, cruise conditions may be outside of these ranges, for example, below Mach 0.7 or above Mach 0.9.

Purely by way of example, cruise conditions may correspond to standard atmospheric conditions (according to the International Standard Atmosphere, ISA) at an altitude which is in the range of 10,000 m to 15,000 m, for example in the range of 10,000 m m to 12,000 m, for example in the range of 10,400 m to 11,600 m (around 38,000 feet), for example, in the range of 10,500 m to 11,500 m, for example, in the range of 10,600 m to 11,400 m, for example for example, in the range from 10,700 m to 11,300 m, for example, in the range from 10,700 m (about 35,000 feet) to 11,300 m, for example, in the range from 10,800 m to 11,200 m, for example, in the range 10,900 m to 11,100 m, for example, of the order of 11,000 m. Cruise conditions may correspond to standard atmospheric conditions at any given altitude within these ranges.

Purely by way of example, cruise conditions may correspond to an engine operating point that provides a known required level of thrust (e.g., a value in the range 30 kN to 35 kN) at a Mach number advance of 0.8 and standard atmospheric conditions (according to the International Standard Atmosphere) at an altitude of 38,000 feet (11,582 m). Purely as a further example, cruise conditions may correspond to an engine operating point that provides a known required level of thrust (e.g., a value in the range 50 kN to 65 kN) at a number of Forward Mach of 0.85 and standard atmospheric conditions (according to the International Standard Atmosphere) at an altitude of 35,000 feet (10,668 m).

In use, a gas turbine engine described and/or claimed herein may be operated under the cruise conditions defined elsewhere herein. Such cruise conditions may be determined by the cruise conditions (e.g., mid-cruise conditions) of an aircraft to which at least one (e.g. 2 or 4) gas turbine engine may be fitted in order to provide a propulsion thrust.

Furthermore, one skilled in the art would immediately recognize either or both of descent and approach to refer to a phase of operation in an aircraft flight cycle between cruise and landing of the aircraft. 'aircraft. During one or both of the descent and approach, the engine can produce between 20% and 50% available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 25% and 40% available thrust. In additional non-limiting examples, the engine may produce between 30% and 35% available thrust. Additionally or alternatively, descent may refer to a nominal point in an aircraft flight cycle between takeoff and landing, when a relative increase in altitude is required, and which may require a request for thrust reduced from the engine.

In one aspect, there is provided an aircraft comprising a gas turbine engine as described and/or claimed herein. The aircraft according to this aspect is the aircraft for which the gas turbine engine has been designed to be connected to it. Accordingly, cruise conditions in this aspect correspond to mid-cruise of the aircraft, as defined elsewhere herein.

In one aspect, there is provided a method of operating a gas turbine engine as described and/or claimed herein. The operation may be at any suitable condition, which may be as defined elsewhere herein (e.g. in terms of thrust, atmospheric conditions and Mach number).

In one aspect, there is provided a method of operating an aircraft as described and/or claimed herein. The operation according to this aspect may comprise (or may be) an operation at any suitable condition, for example mid-cruise of the aircraft, as defined elsewhere herein.

It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, unless mutually exclusive, that a characteristic or parameter described in relation to any of the above aspects may be applied to any other aspect. Additionally, unless mutually exclusive, any feature or setting described herein may be applied to any aspect and/or combined with any other feature or setting described herein.

Embodiments will now be described by way of example only, with reference to the figures, in which:

There is a side sectional view of a gas turbine engine;

There is a side view in close section of an upstream portion of a gas turbine engine;

There is a partially cutaway view of a gearbox for a gas turbine engine;

There is a schematic view of an aircraft comprising a refueling manager;

There is a schematic representation of a fueling management method;

There is a schematic view of an aircraft comprising a fuel tracking system;

There is a schematic representation of a calorific value control process;

There is a schematic representation of a fuel tracking system;

There is a schematic representation of a fueling management method comprising the method of controlling the calorific value of the ;

There is a schematic view of an aircraft comprising a fuel tracking system;

There is a schematic representation of a method for determining calorific value;

There is a schematic representation of a fuel tracking system;

There is a schematic view of an aircraft fuel delivery system, illustrating spillage around the fuel pump;

There is a schematic view of an aircraft fuel pump;

There is a schematic representation of a spill management process; And

There is a schematic view of an aircraft comprising a system for determining fuel characteristics;

There is a schematic representation of a method for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel;

There is a schematic view of a fuel characteristic determination system provided within a fuel system of a gas turbine engine;

There is another schematic representation of a method for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel; And

There is a schematic representation of an aircraft operating method.

There illustrates a gas turbine engine 10 having a main axis of rotation 9. The engine 10 includes an air intake 12 and a propulsive fan 23 which generates two air flows: a central air flow A and a flow d bypass air B. The gas turbine engine 10 includes a core 11 which receives the central air flow A. The engine core 11 includes, in axial flow series, a low pressure compressor 14, a high pressure compressor 15, combustion equipment 16, a high pressure turbine 17, a low pressure turbine 19 and a core exhaust nozzle 20. A nacelle 21 surrounds the gas turbine engine 10 and defines a bypass pipe 22 and a nozzle bypass exhaust 18. The bypass air flow B flows through the bypass pipe 22. The blower 23 is joined to and driven by the low pressure turbine 19 through a shaft 26 and of an epicyclic gearbox 30.

In use, the core air flow A is accelerated and compressed by the low pressure compressor 14 and directed into the high pressure compressor 15 where further compression takes place. The compressed air discharged from the high pressure compressor 15 is directed into the combustion equipment 16 where it is mixed with fuel F and the mixture is consumed. Combustion equipment 16 may be referred to as combustion chamber 16, with the terms "combustion equipment 16" and "combustion chamber 16" used interchangeably herein. The resulting hot combustion products then expand through, and thereby drive, the high pressure and low pressure turbines 17, 19 before being discharged through the nozzle 20 to provide some propulsive thrust. The high pressure turbine 17 drives the high pressure compressor 15 via a suitable interconnection shaft 27. The fan 23 generally provides the majority of the propulsive thrust. The epicyclic gearbox 30 is a reduction box.

An exemplary arrangement for a geared fan gas turbine engine 10 is shown in Figure . The low pressure turbine 19 (see ) drives the shaft 26, which is coupled to a sun wheel, or sun gear, 28 of the epicyclic gear arrangement 30. Radially outwardly from and meshing with the sun gear 28 it There are a plurality of planet gears 32 which are coupled together by a planet carrier 34. The planet carrier 34 constrains the planet gears 32 to precess around the sun gear 28 in synchronism while allowing each planet gear 32 to rotate around its own axis. The planet carrier 34 is coupled via connections 36 to the fan 23 in order to cause its rotation around the motor axis 9. Radially towards the outside of the planet gears 32 and meshing with them, it There is a ring or annular gear 38 which is coupled, via links 40, to a stationary support structure 24.

It should be noted that the terms "low pressure turbine" and "low pressure compressor" as used herein may be taken to mean the lowest pressure turbine stages and the lowest pressure compressor stages respectively. (i.e., without including the blower 23) and/or the turbine and compressor stages which are connected together by the interconnecting shaft 26 with the lowest rotational speed in the engine (i.e., without including the output shaft of the gearbox which drives the fan 23). In some literature, the "low pressure turbine" and the "low pressure compressor", here called "intermediate pressure turbine", and "intermediate pressure compressor". When such alternative nomenclature is used, the blower 23 may be referred to as a first stage compression, or lowest pressure.

The epicyclic gearbox 30 is shown by way of example in more detail on the . Each of the sun gear 28, planet gears 32 and ring gear 38 includes teeth around their periphery for meshing with the other gears. However, for clarity only exemplary portions of the teeth are illustrated on the . There are four planet gears 32 illustrated, although it will be apparent to the competent reader that more or fewer planet gears 32 may be provided within the scope of the claimed invention. Practical applications of an epicyclic satellite gearbox 30 generally include at least three planet gears 32.

The epicyclic gearbox 30 illustrated by way of example in Figures 2 and 3 is of the satellite type, in that the planet carrier 34 is coupled to an output shaft via connections 36, with the toothed ring 38 fixed. However, any other suitable type of epicyclic gearbox 30 may be used. As a further example, the epicyclic gearbox 30 may be a star arrangement, in which the planet carrier 34 is held fixed, with the gear (or ring) 38 allowed to rotate. In such an arrangement the fan 23 is driven by the ring gear 38. As a further alternative example, the gearbox 30 may be a differential gearbox in which the ring gear 38 and the planet carrier 34 are both allowed to turn.

It will be borne in mind that the arrangement shown in Figures 2 and 3 is by way of example only, and various alternatives are within the scope of the present description. Purely by way of example, any suitable arrangement may be used to locate gearbox 30 in motor 10 and/or to connect gearbox 30 to motor 10. As a further example, connections (such that the connections 36, 40 in the example of the ) between the gearbox 30 and other parts of the engine 10 (such as the input shaft 26, the output shaft and the fixed structure 24) may have any desired degree of rigidity or flexibility. As a further example, any suitable arrangement of bearings between rotating and stationary parts of the engine (e.g. between the input and output shafts of the gearbox and fixed structures, such as the gearbox housing speeds) can be used, and the description is not limited to the exemplary arrangement of the . For example, where the gearbox 30 has a star arrangement (described above), one skilled in the art will readily understand that the arrangement of the output and support links and bearing locations would typically be different from that shown as an example on the .

Accordingly, the present disclosure extends to a gas turbine engine having any arrangement of gearbox styles (e.g., star or satellite), supporting structures, input shaft arrangement and output, and landing locations.

Optionally, the gearbox may drive additional and/or alternative components (e.g., the intermediate pressure compressor and/or a booster).

Other gas turbine engines to which the present description may be applied may have alternative configurations. For example, such engines may have an alternating number of compressors and/or turbines and/or an alternating number of interconnecting shafts. As a further example, the gas turbine engine shown in has a split flow nozzle 18, 20, which means that the flow through the bypass line 22 has its own nozzle 18 which is separate from and radially outward from the central engine nozzle 20. However, this is not limiting, and any aspect of the present description may also apply to engines in which the flow through the bypass pipe 22 and the flow through the core 11 are mixed, or combined, before (or upstream) of a single nozzle, which may be called a mixed flow nozzle. One or both nozzles (whether mixed or split flow) may have a fixed or variable surface area.

While the example described relates to a turbofan engine, the description may apply, for example, to any type of gas turbine engine, such as an open rotor (in which the fan stage is not surrounded by a nacelle) or a turboprop, for example. In some arrangements, the gas turbine engine 10 may not include a gearbox 30.

The geometry of the gas turbine engine 10, and components thereof, is defined by a conventional axis system, comprising an axial direction (which is aligned with the axis of rotation 9), a radial direction (in the direction from bottom to top on the ), and a circumferential direction (perpendicular to the page in the view of the ). The axial, radial and circumferential directions are perpendicular to each other.

The fuel F supplied to the combustion equipment 16 may comprise a fossil hydrocarbon fuel, such as kerosene. Thus, the fuel F may include molecules from one or more of the chemical families of n-alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatics. Complementarily or alternatively, F-fuel may include renewable hydrocarbons produced from biological or non-biological resources, otherwise known as sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). In each of the examples provided, the fuel F may comprise one or more trace elements including, for example, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, inorganic materials, and metals.

Functional performance of a given composition, or fuel mixture intended to be used for a given mission, can be defined, at least in part, by the ability of the fuel to serve the Brayton cycle of the gas turbine engine 10. Parameters defining functional performance may include, for example, a specific energy; an energy density; thermal stability; and, emissions involving particulate matter. Relatively higher specific energy (i.e., energy per unit mass), expressed in MJ/kg, can at least partially reduce takeoff weight, thus potentially providing a relative improvement in fuel efficiency. Relatively higher energy density (i.e., energy per unit volume), expressed in MJ/L, can at least partially reduce the volume of fuel at takeoff, which may be particularly important for high-volume missions. limited or military operations involving refueling. Relatively higher thermal stability (i.e., inhibition of fuel degradation or coking under thermal stress) can allow the fuel to withstand high temperatures in the engine and fuel injectors, thus potentially providing relative improvements in fuel efficiency. combustion efficiency. Reduced emissions, including particulate matter, can allow for reduced contrail formation, while reducing the environmental impact of a given mission. Other fuel properties may also be key to functional performance. For example, a relatively lower freezing point (°C) can enable long-range missions to optimize flight profiles; minimum aromatic concentrations (%) may ensure sufficient swelling of certain materials used in the construction of O-rings and gaskets that have been previously exposed to fuels with high aromatic contents; and, maximum surface tension (mN/m) can ensure sufficient spray breakup and fuel atomization.

The ratio of the number of hydrogen atoms to the number of carbon atoms in a molecule can influence the specific energy of a given composition, or fuel mixture. Fuels with higher ratios of hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms can have higher specific energies in the absence of bonding constraints. For example, fossil hydrocarbon fuels may include molecules of approximately 7 to 18 carbons, with a significant portion of a given composition coming from molecules of 9 to 15 carbons, with an average of 12 carbons.

A number of sustainable aviation fuel blends have been approved for use, comprising between 10% and 50% sustainable aviation fuel (the remainder comprising one or more fossil hydrocarbon fuels, such as Kerosene), with additional compositions awaiting release. 'approval. However, it is expected in the aviation industry that sustainable aviation fuel blends comprising up to (and comprising) 100% sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) will ultimately be approved for use.

Sustainable aviation fuels may include one or more of n-alkanes, iso-alkanes, cyclo-alkanes and aromatics, and may be produced, for example, from one or more of syngas (syngas). ; lipids (e.g., fats, oils, and greases); sugars; and alcohols. Thus, sustainable aviation fuels may include one or both of lower aromatics and sulfur content, compared to fossil hydrocarbon fuels. Complementarily or alternatively, sustainable aviation fuels may include one or both of a higher content of iso-alkanes and cyclo-alkanes, compared to fossil hydrocarbon fuels. Thus, in some examples, sustainable aviation fuels may include either or both of a density of between 90% and 98% of that of kerosene and a calorific value of between 101% and 105% from that of kerosene.

Due at least in part to the molecular structure of sustainable aviation fuels, sustainable aviation fuels may provide beneficial effects involving, for example, one or more of a higher specific energy (despite, in some examples, a higher specific energy density). lower energy); higher specific heat capacity; higher thermal stability; higher lubricity; lower viscosity; lower surface tension; a lower freezing point; lower soot emissions; and, lower CO ₂ emissions, compared to fossil hydrocarbon fuels (e.g., when consumed in combustion equipment 16). As a result, compared to fossil hydrocarbon fuels, such as kerosene, sustainable aviation fuels can lead to one or both of a relative decrease in specific fuel consumption, and a relative decrease in maintenance costs.

As shown in Figures 4, 6 and 10, an aircraft 1 may comprise several fuel tanks 50, 53; for example a larger primary fuel tank 50 located in the aircraft fuselage, and a smaller fuel tank 53a, 53b located in each wing. In other examples, an aircraft 1 may have only one fuel tank 50, and/or the wing fuel tanks 53 may be larger than the center fuel tank 50, or no fuel tanks central cannot be provided (with all fuel being stored in the wings of the aircraft) – it will be borne in mind that many different tank arrangements are envisaged and that the examples shown are provided for ease of description and not intended to be limiting.

There , there , and the show an aircraft 1 with a propulsion system 2 comprising two gas turbine engines 10. Fuel from a fuel delivery system on board the aircraft 1 is supplied to the gas turbine engines 10. The system d The fuel intake of the examples shown includes a single fuel source. By "fuel source" is meant for the purposes of the present application, either 1) a single fuel tank, or 2) a plurality of fuel tanks which are fluidly interconnected. Each of the fuel sources is arranged to provide a distinct fuel source, that is, the first fuel source may contain a first fuel having a different fuel characteristic, or multiple different fuel characteristics, from a second fuel contained in the second fuel source. The first and second fuel sources are therefore not fluidly coupled to each other so as to separate the different fuels (at least under normal operating conditions).

As used herein, the term "fuel characteristics" refers to intrinsic or inherent fuel properties such as fuel composition, not variable properties such as volume or temperature. Examples of fuel characteristics include one or more of:

i. the percentage of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) in the fuel, or an indication that the fuel is a fossil fuel, for example, fossil kerosene, or pure SAF;

ii. parameters of a fuel hydrocarbon distribution, such as:

● the aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel, and possibly also/alternatively the multi-aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel;

● the hydrogen to carbon (H/C) ratio of the fuel;

● % compositional information for some or all of the hydrocarbons present;

iii. the presence or percentage of a particular species or element, such as:

● the percentage of nitrogen-containing species in the fuel;

● the presence or percentage of a tracer species or trace element in the fuel (e.g., a trace substance inherently present in the fuel that may vary between fuels and thus used to identify a fuel, and/or a substance added voluntarily to act as a tracer);

● the naphthalene content of the fuel;

● the sulfur content of the fuel;

● the cycloparaffin content of the fuel;

● the oxygen content of the fuel;

iv. one or more properties of the fuel in use in a gas turbine engine 10, such as:

● the level of non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) or CO ₂ emissions during combustion (a value can be provided for a specific combustion chamber being operated under particular conditions to fairly compare fuels; a value measured can be adjusted accordingly depending on the properties and conditions of the combustion chamber);

● a level of coking of the fuel;

v. one or more properties of the fuel itself, independently of use in an engine or combustion, such as:

● thermal stability of the fuel (e.g., thermal degradation temperature); And

● one or more physical properties such as density, viscosity, calorific value, freezing temperature, and/or heat capacity.

In the present example, the first fuel source comprises a central fuel tank 50, located mainly in the fuselage of the aircraft 1 and a plurality of wing fuel tanks 53a, 53b, where at least one fuel tank d The wings are located in the left wing and at least one wing fuel tank is located in the right wing for balance. All tanks 50, 53 are fluidly interconnected in the example shown, thus forming a single fuel source. Each of the center fuel tank 50 and the wing fuel tanks 53 may include a plurality of fluidly interconnected fuel tanks.

In another example, the wing fuel tanks 53a, 53b may not be fluidly connected to the central tank 50, thereby forming a second, separate fuel source. For balancing purposes, one or more fuel tanks in the left wing may be fluidly connected to one or more fuel tanks in the right wing. This can be done either through a central fuel tank(s) 50 (if that tank is not part of a different fuel source), or by bypassing the central fuel tank(s), or both ( for maximum flexibility and security).

In another example, the first fuel source includes wing fuel tanks 53 and a center fuel tank 50, while a second fuel source includes an additional center fuel tank. Fluid interconnection between the wing fuel tanks 53 and the center fuel tank 50 of the first fuel source can be provided to balance the aircraft 1.

In certain examples, the allocation of fuel tanks 50, 53 available on the aircraft 1 can be constrained such that a first fuel source and a second fuel source are each substantially symmetrical with respect to the center line of the aircraft. In cases where an asymmetrical fuel tank allocation is permitted, a suitable means of fuel transfer may be provided between fuel tanks of the first fuel source and/or between fuel tanks of the second fuel source of such that the position of the center of mass of the aircraft can be maintained within acceptable lateral limits throughout the flight.

An aircraft 1 can be refueled by connecting a fuel storage tank 60, such as that supplied by an airport fuel truck, or a permanent pipeline, to a connection port 62 of the aircraft fuel line, via the through a fuel line 61. A desired quantity of fuel can be transferred from the fuel storage tank 60 to one or more tanks 50, 53 of the aircraft 1. Particularly in examples with more than one fuel source, in which different tanks 50, 53 are to be filled with different fuels, multiple fuel line connection ports 62 may be provided instead of one, and/or valves may be used to direct proper handling of fuel.

The aircraft 1 is generally refueled at multiple different airports, for example, at the start and end of a long distance flight. While there are standards that all aviation fuels must meet, different aviation fuels have different compositions, for example, depending on their source (e.g., different petroleum sources, biofuels or other aviation fuels). (often described as sustainable aviation fuels – SAFs), and/or blends of petroleum-based fuels, and other fuels) and any additives included (e.g., such as antioxidants and metal deactivators, biocides, static reducers, icing inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors) and any impurities. As well as varying between airports and fuel suppliers, even for a given airport or fuel supplier, the composition of available aviation fuel can vary between batches. Furthermore, the fuel tanks 50, 53 of the aircraft 1 are usually not emptied before being restocked for a subsequent flight, resulting in mixtures of different fuels within the tanks – effectively a fuel with a different composition resulting of the mixture. Different fuels may have different calorific values and/or different densities, among other fuel characteristics.

As used herein, the term "heating value" means the lower heating value (also called net heating value) of the fuel, unless otherwise noted. Net calorific value is defined as the amount of heat released by the combustion of a specified quantity of the fuel, assuming that the latent heat of vaporization of water in the reaction products is not recovered (i.e., the produced water remains as water vapor after combustion).

The calorific values (also called heating powers) of fuels can be directly determined - for example, by measuring the energy released when a certain volume or mass of the fuel is consumed in the gas turbine engine 10 - or calculated from other fuel parameters; p. e.g., by observing the distribution of hydrocarbons in the fuel and the calorific value of each type of constituent hydrocarbons. Alternatively, or in addition to provide verification, the calorific value can be determined using external data, such as a lookup table for a tracer substance in the fuel, or data encoded in a barcode associated with the fuel. fuel, or other stored data.

The determination can therefore be carried out in many different ways. For example :

• a barcode of a fuel to be added to a fuel tank 50, 53 of the aircraft 1 can be scanned to read data of the fuel, or an identified tracer substance (e.g., dye) and fuel properties consulted according to this tracer;

• data can be entered manually, or transmitted to the aircraft 1;

• a fuel sample can be extracted for ground-side analysis before takeoff;

• fuel properties can be inferred from measurements of the activity of the propulsion system 2 during one or more periods of aircraft operation, e.g. e.g., engine warm-up, taxiing, takeoff, climb and/or cruise; and or

• one or more fuel properties can be detected on board, possibly in flight, for example, using online sensors and/or other measurements.

The calorific value of the fuel can therefore be accessed, physically determined from combustion results (either on-wing or off-site), chemically determined from detected chemical properties, calculated/inferred from other properties detected fuel (either under-wing or off-site), or otherwise determined or obtained.

In some examples, combinations of these techniques may be used to determine and/or verify one or more fuel characteristics, including calorific value.

Fuel characteristics can be detected in a variety of ways, both direct (e.g., from sensor data corresponding to the fuel characteristic in question) and indirect (e.g., by inference or calculation from other characteristics or measurements). Characteristics can be determined as relative values compared to another fuel, or as absolute values. For example, one or more of the following detection methods may be used:

• The aromatics or cycloparaffin content of the fuel can be determined based on measurements of the swelling of a sensor component made of a sealing material such as a nitrile sealing material.

• Trace substances or species, either naturally occurring in the fuel or added to act as a tracer, can be used to determine fuel characteristics such as the percentage of sustainable aviation fuel in the fuel or whether the Fuel is kerosene.

• Measurements of the vibrational mode of a piezoelectric crystal exposed to fuel can be used as a basis for determining various fuel characteristics including aromatic content of the fuel, oxygen content of the fuel, and thermal stability or level of fuel coking – for example by measuring the accumulation of surface deposits on the piezoelectric crystal which will result in a change in vibration mode.

• Various fuel characteristics may be determined by collecting performance parameters of the gas turbine engine 10 during a first period of operation (such as during takeoff) and then during a second period of operation (e.g., during cruising) comparing these collected parameters to expected values if fuel with known properties is used.

• Various fuel characteristics including the aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel can be determined based on sensor measurements of the presence, absence, or degree of contrail formation by the gas turbine 10 during its operation .

• Fuel characteristics including aromatic hydrocarbon content can be determined based on a UV-Vis spectroscopy measurement performed on the fuel.

• Various fuel characteristics including sulfur content, naphthalene content, aromatic hydrogen content and hydrogen to carbon ratio can be determined by measuring substances present in the exhaust gases emitted by the gas turbine engine 10 when in use.

• The calorific value of the fuel can be determined during operation of the aircraft 1 based on measurements taken when the fuel is consumed – for example using fuel flow and shaft speed or change of temperature through the combustion chamber 16.

• Various fuel characteristics may be determined by making an operational change arranged to affect the operation of the gas turbine engine 10, detecting a response to the operational change; and determining one or more fuel characteristics of the fuel based on the response to the operational change.

• Various fuel characteristics may be determined with respect to the fuel characteristics of a first fuel by changing a fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 from the first fuel to the second fuel, and determining one or more fuel characteristics of the second fuel based on a change in a relationship between T30 and one of T40 and T41 (the relationship being indicative of the increase in temperature across the combustion chamber 16). The characteristics may be determined as relative values in comparison to the first fuel, or as an absolute value as a reference to known values for the first fuel.

As used herein and discussed below, T30, T40, and T41, and any other numbered pressures and temperatures, are defined using the station numbering listed in SAE AS755, specifically:

• T30 = High pressure compressor discharge temperature (CHP);

• T40 = Combustion outlet temperatures; And

• T41 = High pressure turbine rotor inlet temperature (THP).

In certain examples, obtaining the calorific value of the fuel available for the aircraft 1 and/or the fuel already on board the aircraft 1 before refueling may include a chemical and/or physical determination of the calorific value of the fuel available . Equivalent determinations can be made for the fuel(s) to be used for refueling – either using ground testing (e.g., prior to refueling) or onboard testing (e.g., using one or more sensors 204 on a fuel supply line within the aircraft 1, leading to a tank 50, 53). Optionally, this determination may be or include one or more of:

(i) identifying a tracer in the available fuel, such as a dye or trace element, and consulting a calorific value corresponding to that tracer;

(ii) deriving the calorific value from one or more detected physical and/or chemical properties of the available fuel, for example, using a ground test unit to analyze a fuel sample; and or

(iii) burning a sample of the available fuel to determine its calorific value directly, possibly using the gas turbine engine 10.

The step of chemical and/or physical determination of the calorific value of the available fuel can therefore be carried out on the aircraft 1 in certain examples.

The inventors were aware that, as different fuels can have different properties while still complying with standards, knowledge of the fuel(s) available for an aircraft 1 can allow more efficient, tailor-made control of the propulsion system 2. By For example, switching to a fuel with a higher calorific value may allow a smaller quantity (mass and/or volume) of fuel to meet an aircraft's energy requirements for a flight. Since more power is required to lift a greater mass of fuel, take sufficient fuel for the intended flight (including a safety margin above the expected energy demand), but do not completely fill the fuel tank(s). tanks 50, 53, can provide an efficiency bonus by reducing the take-off weight of the aircraft 1. Knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel can therefore be used as a tool to improve the performance of the aircraft, p . e.g., avoiding carrying extra weight of fuel.

In the example shown on the , two sensors 204a, 204b are provided, each arranged to physically and/or chemically detect one or more characteristics of the composition of the fuel being added to the fuel tank 50, 53 during fueling. One or more of these fuel characteristics can be used to infer or calculate the calorific value. The sensors can be described as part of a refueling management system 204, 206.

In alternative examples, no such sensors 204 may be provided (e.g., a barcode associated with fuel storage tank 60 may be read and corresponding fuel data provided to fueling manager 206 rather than to detect fuel properties), or more or less, and/or differently located, sensors can be provided.

In the examples described here with respect to Figures 4 and 5, before refueling an aircraft 1, a quantity of energy required for a planned flight profile of this aircraft is determined. As used herein, the "amount of energy required for a planned flight profile" generally carries a safety margin above a calculated amount of fuel required for the aircraft 1, with its expected mass at takeoff, to complete the planned flight. The safety margin may include authorization for a possible diversion to an alternative destination airport, e.g. e.g., in the event of weather conditions preventing a safe landing at the intended destination airport.

As used herein, the term "flight profile" refers to operational characteristics (e.g., height/altitude, power setting, flight path angle, airspeed and the like) of an aircraft 1 when flying along a flight path, as well as its own flight path/track (route). In determining the amount of energy required to complete a planned flight profile, external conditions may also be considered (e.g., weather, such as prevailing headwinds may increase the energy required for example). Additionally or alternatively, the size of the safety margin can be chosen to cover variation in external conditions.

When an aircraft 1 is about to be refueled, in various examples, a calorific value of the fuel available to the aircraft 1 (i.e., the fuel with which the aircraft is to be refueled) is obtained, optionally at using any of the off-site processes described above. The total specific energy of the fuel available (either per unit mass or per unit volume) can therefore be established. A quantity of fuel required to meet the energy requirements of the flight profile can then be determined. In some cases, an under-wing determination method could be used (e.g., burning a sample or using onboard sensors). An under-wing determination may lead to a need to pause and restart refueling while the desired amount of fuel is calculated.

In many cases, the tank(s) 50, 53 of the aircraft 1 are not completely empty when the aircraft 1 must be refueled. In such cases, the calorific value of the fuel already on board the aircraft 1 is also obtained, possibly by recovering the characteristics of the fuel (e.g., the calorific value, or other properties from which the calorific value can be calculated) from storage, and/or by consuming a fuel sample (e.g., while taxiing) and directly measuring the calorific value. From a known quantity of fuel remaining (mass, volume, or %full of tank(s) 50, 53) and known calorific value, the total energy available from the fuel on board can be determined.

The total energy available from the fuel on board can therefore be subtracted from the determined amount of energy required for the intended flight profile to determine an amount of energy necessary to add to the aircraft 1 during refueling. Using the specific energy (or volumetric energy density) of the available fuel, a desired quantity (i.e., mass or volume) of the fuel available to the aircraft 1 can therefore be calculated.

In some examples, an aircraft 1 may have multiple tanks 50, 53 which contain different fuels, possibly with different calorific values. The total fuel energy content for on-board fuel can therefore be added across the different tanks 50, 53. Likewise, if an aircraft 1 must be refueled with several different fuels, the determined quantity of energy required can be distributed between the different fuels as desired, and a mass or volume of each fuel to be added can be calculated.

The aircraft 1 can then be refueled with the calculated quantity (mass or volume) of the available fuel.

In certain examples (notably examples in which data consultation was used to determine one or more calorific values), after refueling a check is then carried out to verify the calorific value of the fuel. The control may include measuring the calorific value of the fuel in use in the gas turbine engine 10, possibly during heating of the engine before taxiing, or during taxiing of the aircraft 1 before takeoff. Ideally, the fuel characteristics can be determined (and any checks, or based on the determined characteristics, carried out) before the aircraft 1 leaves the ground, in the event that the fuel is not as expected.

The 2020 process carried out in these examples is illustrated in .

At step 2022, an amount of energy required for a planned flight profile, including a safety margin, is obtained. In this context, the amount of energy being "obtained" means that a numerical value or measure of the amount of energy required is in some way made available for use in the 2020 process - whether by calculation or other determination (e.g., from a lookup table), by communication with another system, by user input (e.g., at a graphical user interface), by retrieval of the memory, or in any other suitable way. For example, the refueling manager 206 can receive a message including a value indicative of the energy requirement, or can calculate such a value based on knowledge of the targeted flight profile and the aircraft 1 and the load of the aircraft.

At step 2024, a calorific value of fuel available to aircraft 1 is obtained. In this context, the calorific value being "obtained" again means that a numerical value or measurement of the calorific value is in some way made available for use in the present method 2020. The value can be obtained from a any suitable way, e.g. e.g., by being entered manually, for example, through a graphical user interface in communication with the fueling manager 206, communicated electronically to the fueling manager 206, p. e.g., by wired or wireless communication from a barcode reader following the scanning of a barcode, and/or determined from sensor data. The value can be stored for future use, possibly in memory, or in communication with, the refueling manager 206.

The steps of obtaining 2022 the required quantity of energy and obtaining 2024 a calorific value of the fuel available for refueling purposes can be carried out in either order, or simultaneously.

It will be borne in mind that, if the tank 50, 53 is not empty before refueling, the energy content of the fuel already on board can also be obtained – p. e.g., by recovering a previously stored calorific value for this fuel, and calculating the energy content of the remaining fuel with reference to it and the quantity of fuel remaining in the tank(s) 50, 53, or by calculation from sensor data.

At step 2026, a quantity of available fuel necessary to provide the required energy is calculated, based on the values obtained. The calculated quantity can be a volume and/or a mass of fuel – refueling can be carried out volumetrically or gravimetrically. The calculation can be carried out by the own refueling manager 206 in certain examples. In examples where fuel remains on board, the energy of that fuel can be subtracted from the energy required for the planned flight profile before calculating the amount of available fuel needed.

In step 2028, the calculated quantity (mass or volume) of the necessary available fuel is distributed so as to allow the aircraft 1 to be refueled accordingly. For example, a fueling manager 206 may display the quantity to a graphical user interface, may transmit the quantity to another system for the attention of a fueling technician, or may provide the value to an automated system in a manner to cause this system to automatically complete the fueling process, or trigger an alert, once the calculated quantity of fuel has been supplied.

Updated values for the calorific value of the fuel in the fuel tank 50, 53 after refueling may be calculated and stored for future use, optionally by the refueling manager 206. In examples where an aircraft 1 has multiple fuel tanks 50, 53 which are fluidly linked such that the fuels in the tanks 50, 53 are equivalent, only one calorific value of the fuel can be stored and updated. In examples in which an aircraft 1 has multiple fuel tanks 50, 53 which are not fluidly linked, such that there may be differences between fuels in the different tanks 50, 53, a distinct calorific value can be stored and updated for each tank 50, 53.

The 2020 process can then be iterated at each refueling event.

The method 2020 may further comprise the command 2029 of an automated refueling system to refuel the aircraft 1 in line with the calculated quantity of fuel. Alternatively, refueling can be carried out and/or completed manually, e.g. e.g., by a person reading the calculated quantity delivered at the output (mass or volume) of the necessary available fuel, possibly from a display associated with the connection port 62 of the fuel line of the aircraft.

In some examples, fueling may be started before one or more of the preceding process steps 2022-2028 are performed, these steps may be performed during fueling, and the fueling process may then be completed when the quantity fuel calculation has been added.

In certain examples, notably in applications in which a calorific value of fuel is entered manually at step 2024, a check can then be carried out to verify the data entered. The control may include measuring the calorific value of the fuel in use in the gas turbine engine 10, possibly during taxiing of the aircraft 1 before takeoff. Determining the calorific value of the fuel may be accomplished by monitoring engine parameters during a first time period of aircraft operation during which the gas turbine engine 10 uses the fuel; and determining the calorific value of the fuel based on the monitored engine parameters (e.g., fuel burn rate, fuel flow, temperatures, pressures, generated thrust, shaft speed, etc.). In the event of a significant discrepancy between the entered and determined values, aircraft 1 may return to the terminal for additional investigation, as a safety measure.

A propulsion system 2 for an aircraft 1 can therefore include a refueling manager 206 arranged to:

obtain 2022 a quantity of energy required for a planned flight profile, possibly including a safety margin;

obtain 2024 a calorific value of fuel available for the aircraft;

calculate 2026 the quantity (mass or volume) of available fuel needed to provide the required energy; And

deliver at output 2028 the quantity (mass or volume) of the necessary available fuel so as to allow the aircraft 1 to be refueled accordingly.

In some implementations, a fueling manager may be provided separately; not on board the aircraft 1. Optionally, a refueling manager may be provided as part of a ground refueling station.

If the flight profile does not have a safety margin, or if any reasons to extend a safety margin are found (e.g., predicted adverse weather conditions or abnormally high load), an (additional) safety margin ) can be added at the calculation stage.

The fueling manager 206 may further be arranged to control 2029 an automated fueling system such that it fuels the aircraft 1 in line with the calculated quantity of fuel (e.g., adding the calculated quantity of fuel only, within tolerances).

The fueling manager 206 may be provided as a separate fueling management unit integrated into the propulsion system 2, and/or as software and/or hardware incorporated into pre-existing aircraft control systems (e.g. e.g., as part of an electronic motor controller (EMC) 42). In some examples, the fueling manager 206 may store calorific value data for any fuel currently in the tank(s) of the aircraft 50, 53, and may cause this data to be updated after fueling. The data can be stored separately from the circuits performing the calculations and retrieved as needed – regardless of where the data is stored, that storage can be considered part of the fueling manager 206, whether or not it is integrated or physically connected in any way.

In examples in which a calorific value is viewed or read (e.g., from scanning a barcode), this value may be automatically transferred to the fueling manager 206, or may be entered into a user interface, or associated with, the supply manager 206, p. e.g., by a pilot or technician.

In some implementations, a non-transitory computer-readable medium on which instructions for carrying out the method 2020 described above are stored may be provided, for use on-wing or off-site. Instructions can cause the processor to:

obtain 2022 a quantity of energy required for a planned flight profile of an aircraft 1;

obtain 2024 a calorific value of fuel available for the aircraft;

calculate 2026 the quantity of available fuel needed to provide the required energy; And

deliver at output 2028 the mass or volume of available fuel necessary so as to allow the aircraft to be refueled accordingly.

In automated fueling applications, the instructions may further be arranged to cause the processor to command 2029 a fuel input to the aircraft 1, such that the aircraft is fueled with the calculated quantity of available fuel. In other implementations, the output may be read by a person who then refuels the aircraft 1 accordingly, and/or used to provide an alert when a sufficient volume or mass of fuel has been added.

The inventors were aware that, given that different fuels can have different properties while still complying with standards, knowledge of the fuel(s) available to an aircraft 1 can allow more efficient, tailor-made control of the propulsion system 2 For example, switching to a fuel with a higher calorific value may allow a smaller amount of fuel to meet an aircraft's energy requirements for a flight. Since more power is required to lift a greater mass of fuel, take sufficient fuel for the intended flight (including a safety margin above the expected energy demand), but do not completely fill the fuel tank(s). tanks, can provide a performance bonus by reducing the takeoff weight of the aircraft. Knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel can therefore be used as a tool to improve the performance of the aircraft, e.g. e.g., avoiding carrying excess fuel weight and/or gauging the probability of contrails forming behind an aircraft in given atmospheric conditions. The calorific value of one or more fuels may be controlled by a second method to improve reliability, particularly if knowledge of the calorific value is to be used in any way that could impact safety (e.g., ensuring sufficient fuel on board for a safe landing at a destination airport).

In various examples as described with respect to Figures 6 to 9, an aircraft 1 receives a calorific value data input for fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling. For example, a barcode of a fuel to be added to a fuel tank 50, 53 of the aircraft may be scanned to read data of the fuel, or a tracer substance (e.g., dye) identified and properties of the fuel. fuel consulted according to this tracer. Alternatively, calorific power may be provided to a pilot or technician, e.g. e.g., on a written label or orally, for entry into an aircraft system. The calorific value data may be entered manually, or transmitted electronically to the aircraft 1. In examples in which a calorific value is accessed or read (e.g., from scanning a barcode), this value can be transferred automatically to a fuel tracking system 203 of the aircraft 1, or can be entered into a user interface of, or associated with, fuel tracking system 203 p. e.g., by a pilot or technician.

It should be borne in mind that controlling the calorific values of fuels can be important, particularly in examples involving manual entry of calorific values data. The received input of the calorific value data of the fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling can therefore be monitored, and an alert can be provided if the determined calorific value of fuel is inconsistent with the power data input. heat received.

In the example shown on the , two sensors 204a, 204b are provided, each arranged to physically and/or chemically detect one or more characteristics of the composition of the fuel being added to the fuel tank 50, 53 during fueling. One or more of these fuel characteristics can be used to infer or calculate the calorific value. The sensors 204 may be described as part of a fuel tracking system 203, which may be described as a fuel composition tracking system 203.

In alternative examples, no such sensors 204 may be provided (e.g., a barcode associated with a fuel storage tank 60 may instead be read and the corresponding fuel data provided to the fueling manager 206). , or more or less, and/or differently located, sensors can be provided.

In many cases, the tank(s) 50, 53 of the aircraft 1 are not completely empty when the aircraft 1 must be refueled. In such cases, the calorific value of the fuel already on board the aircraft 1 is also obtained, possibly by recovering the characteristics of the fuel (e.g., the calorific value, or other properties from which the calorific value can be calculated) from storage, and/or by consuming a fuel sample (e.g., while taxiing) and directly measuring the calorific value. From a known quantity of fuel remaining (mass, volume or %full of the tank(s), a known quantity of fuel added, and the known calorific values of each, the calorific value of the resulting mixture can be determined if necessary (p (e.g., where fuels mix in the same or related tanks, or are mixed in use).

In various examples, the calorific value of the fuel arranged to be supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 is determined. It will be borne in mind that, in applications with multiple fuel sources, the fuel arranged to be supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 may differ from the fuel in any given tank 50, 53. This fuel may include a mixture of fuel with which the aircraft 1 was recently refueled, and any fuel remaining in the tank(s) 50, 53 of the aircraft following a previous refueling event. In some examples a sample may be extracted, e.g. e.g., from a pipe approaching the gas turbine engine 10, for analysis, for example, using an analysis unit or ground laboratory. In alternative or additional examples, the determination may be made under the wing, using one or more sensors or other sensors on board the aircraft 1.

In alternative or additional examples, the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling is determined, for example, by a ground test before the refueling event, or by under-wing tests in a pipe or tank containing only the newly added fuel. In examples with an active fuel management system, it may be possible to feed the new fuel alone to the gas turbine engine 10, regardless of whether the older fuel is still on board (e.g., e.g., choice of tank/fuel source), and to calculate the calorific value of the new fuel directly from the engine performance.

In examples in which ground fuel testing is performed, the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling can be determined in a fuel testing unit 61a. In some examples, the fuel testing unit may form part of a fuel delivery apparatus 61. In other examples, a fuel testing unit 61a may be provided by an airline or airport, or a sample can be sent to a laboratory for analysis.

The test unit 61a of such examples may be provided off-site to a fueling site.

In examples in which under-wing fuel testing is carried out, the determination of the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 in use can be carried out during at least one of the taxiing of the aircraft before takeoff, and during climb. If a sufficiently significant discrepancy is identified, the flight may be abandoned subject to fuel rechecking.

In examples in which under-wing fuel testing is performed, determining the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 in use may be made by burning fuel taken from the fuel tank 50 , 53 in an auxiliary power unit of the aircraft 1 and by measuring the calorific value. Alternatively or in addition, the main gas turbine engine 10 can be used to carry out combustion.

After refueling, a check is then carried out to check the calorific value of the fuel on board the aircraft 1. The check may include measuring the calorific value of the fuel in use in the gas turbine engine 10, possibly during taxiing of the aircraft 1 before takeoff.

If a deviation between the determined calorific value and the received calorific value data exceeds a threshold, an alert can be provided – e.g. e.g., an audible and/or visual alarm, and/or a message sent to a pilot or other responsible party. It will be borne in mind that, when the determined calorific value is that of a fuel mixture created on board the aircraft 1, the determined power is not compared directly to the calorific value data received; instead, adjustments are made to one or the other to reflect the contribution of the older fuel.

The 2030 process carried out is illustrated in .

In step 2032, a data input of calorific value of a fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling is received. This data may be entered manually, transmitted to the fuel tracking system 203, obtained by reading a barcode, or the like. The input may include a calorific value of the fuel, and/or may be arranged to enable the calorific value of the fuel to be determined (e.g., calculated or consulted).

Input may be obtained in any suitable manner, e.g. e.g., being entered manually, for example, through a graphical user interface in communication with the fuel tracking system 203, and/or communicated electronically to the fuel tracking system 203, e.g. e.g., by wired or wireless communication from a barcode scanner after reading a barcode. The input may be or include sensor data in some applications, e.g. e.g., providing one or more chemical or physical fuel characteristics. A calorific value of the fuel in, or determined from, the input may be stored for future use, possibly in memory of, or in communication with, the fuel tracking system 203.

In step 2034, a calorific value is determined for at least one of:

(i) the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 in use (this fuel comprising a part of, or being, the fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling); And

(ii) the fuel supplied to aircraft 1 during refueling.

Determination 2034 does not use the calorific value data provided in step 2032, such that the calorific value determinations in steps 2032 and 2034 are independent of each other. Determination 2034 may otherwise use any approach described above. The value may be stored for future use, possibly in memory, or in communication with, the fuel tracking system 203.

It will be borne in mind that the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 in use may differ from the fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling, given that any other fuel already on board the aircraft 1 can be used (either by mixing in the same tank 50, 53 as the new fuel, or by being supplied in a mixture from different onboard fuel sources).

Steps 2032 (receiving the calorific value input) and 2034 (determining the calorific value, independent of this input) can be performed in either order, or simultaneously.

At step 2036, an alert is provided if the determined calorific value of the fuel is inconsistent with the received calorific value data input.

It will be borne in mind that, if the tank 50, 53 is not empty before refueling, the calorific value of the fuel already on board can also be obtained – p. e.g., by retrieving a previously stored calorific value for that fuel – and may also be used in determining 2034 whether or not the determined calorific value of the fuel is inconsistent with the received calorific value data input.

Updated values for the calorific value of the fuel in the fuel tank 50, 53 after refueling may be calculated and stored for future use, possibly by the fuel tracking system 203. In examples where an aircraft 1 has multiple fuel tanks 50, 53 which are fluidly linked such that the fuels in the tanks 50, 53 are equivalent, only one calorific value of the fuel can be stored and updated. In examples in which an aircraft 1 has several fuel tanks 50, 53 which are not fluidly linked, such that there may be differences between fuels in the different tanks 50, 53, a distinct calorific value may be stored and updated for each tank.

The 2030 process can then be iterated at each refueling event.

Applications of the 2030 process therefore make it possible to carry out a check to verify the data entered. The control may include measuring the calorific value of the fuel in use in the gas turbine engine 10, possibly during heating of the engine 10 or taxiing of the aircraft 10 before takeoff. Determining 2034 the calorific value of the fuel may be made by monitoring engine parameters during a first period of aircraft operation time during which the gas turbine engine 10 is using the fuel; and determining the calorific value of the fuel based on the monitored engine parameters (e.g., fuel burn rate, temperatures, pressures, thrust generated by shaft speed(s), etc.). In the event of a significant discrepancy between the values entered and determined, the aircraft 1 can return to the terminal for additional investigation, as a safety measure, and/or propulsion system control based on knowledge of the calorific value of fuel may not be carried out.

A propulsion system 2 for an aircraft can therefore include a fuel monitoring system 203 arranged to:

receive a data input of calorific value of fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling;

determine at least one of:

i. the calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 in use; And

ii. the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling; And

provide an alert if the determined calorific value is inconsistent with the received calorific value data input.

Fuel tracking system 203 may be provided as a separate fuel tracking unit integrated into propulsion system 2, and/or as software and/or hardware incorporated into pre-existing aircraft control systems. In some examples, the fuel tracking system 203 may store calorific value data for any fuel currently in the tank(s) of the aircraft 50, 53, and may cause this data to be updated after refueling. . The data can be stored separately from the circuitry performing the calculations and retrieved as needed – regardless of where the data is stored, that storage can be considered part of the fuel tracking system 203, whether or not it is integral or physically connected in any way.

The fuel tracking system 203 includes a fuel composition tracker 202. The fuel composition tracker 202 of the example being described includes a memory 202a arranged to store current fuel characteristics data (in particular, calorific values ), and processing circuits 202c arranged to calculate updated values for the fuel characteristic(s) of the fuel in the fuel tank 50, 53 after refueling. The calculated values may then replace fuel characteristic data previously stored in the memory, and/or be time stamped and/or dated and added to the memory. A log of fuel characteristic data over time can therefore be assembled.

The fuel composition tracker 202 of the example shown also includes a receiver 202b arranged to receive data relating to the fuel composition (e.g., calorific value, or data that can be used to determine the calorific power). calorific) and/or requests for fuel composition information.

The fuel composition tracker 202 of the example shown also includes an output module 202c arranged to provide an alert if the determined calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 and/or newly added fuel is inconsistent with the Heating value data input received, for example by sending a signal to an alarm or other system.

In examples where a calorific value is viewed or read (e.g., from scanning a barcode), this value may be automatically transferred to the fuel composition tracker 202, or may be entered into a user interface of, or associated with, fuel composition tracker 202, p. e.g., by a pilot or technician.

In certain applications, the calorific value control method 2030 can be incorporated into a refueling process 2020 as described previously with respect to the , as shown in the . In such implementations, the fuel composition tracker 202 may also be called a fueling manager, or may be part of a fueling manager 206.

At step 2022, an amount of energy required for a planned flight profile, optionally including a safety margin, is obtained. In this context, the amount of energy "obtained" means that a numerical value or measure of the amount of energy required is in some way made available for use in the process 2020, 2030 - whether by calculation or other determination (e.g., from a lookup table), by communication with another system, by user input (e.g., to a graphical user interface), by retrieval of memory, or in any other suitable way. For example, the refueling manager 202, 206 can receive a message including a value indicative of the energy requirement, or can calculate such a value based on knowledge of the targeted flight profile and the aircraft 1 and the load of the aircraft.

The term “flight profile” is used as defined above.

In step 2032, a data input of calorific value of a fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling is provided, as described above.

Steps 2022 and 2032 can be performed in either order, or simultaneously.

It will be borne in mind that, if the tank 50, 53 is not currently empty, the energy content of the fuel already on board can also be obtained – e.g. e.g., by recovering a previously stored calorific value for this fuel, and calculating the energy content of the remaining fuel with reference to it and the quantity of fuel remaining in the tank(s) 50, 53.

At step 2026, a quantity of available fuel necessary to provide the required energy is calculated, based on the values obtained. The calculated quantity can be a volume and/or a mass of fuel – refueling can be carried out volumetrically or gravimetrically. The calculation can be carried out by the own refueling manager 206 in certain examples. In examples where fuel remains on board, the energy of that fuel can be subtracted from the energy required for the planned flight profile before calculating the amount of available fuel needed.

In step 2028, the calculated quantity (mass or volume) of the necessary available fuel is distributed so as to allow the aircraft 1 to be refueled accordingly. For example, a fueling manager 206 may display the quantity to a graphical user interface, may transmit the quantity to another system for the attention of a fueling technician, or may provide the value to an automated system in a manner to cause this system to automatically complete the fueling process, once the calculated quantity of fuel has been supplied.

Updated values for the calorific value of the fuel in the fuel tank 50, 53 after refueling may be calculated and stored for future use, optionally by the refueling manager 202, 206. In examples where a Aircraft 1 has multiple fuel tanks 50, 53 which are fluidly linked such that the fuels in the tanks 50, 53 are equivalent, only one calorific value of the fuel can be stored and updated. In examples in which an aircraft 1 has several fuel tanks 50, 53 which are not fluidly linked, such that there may be differences between fuels in the different tanks 50, 53, a distinct calorific value may be stored and updated for each tank.

The method 2020 may further comprise the command 2029 of an automated refueling system to refuel the aircraft 1 in line with the calculated quantity of fuel. Alternatively, 2029 refueling can be done manually, e.g. e.g., by a person reading the calculated quantity dispensed (mass or volume) of the necessary available fuel, possibly from a display associated with the connection port 62 of the fuel line of the aircraft.

In some examples, refueling may be started before one or more of the steps 2022 to 2028 are completed; These steps can be performed during fueling, and the fueling process can then be completed when the calculated amount of fuel has been added.

A check 2034, 2036 is then carried out to verify the entered data, as described above.

The control may include measuring 2034 the calorific value of the fuel in use in the gas turbine engine 10, possibly during heating of the engine or taxiing of the aircraft 10 before takeoff. Determining 2034 the calorific value of the fuel may be made by monitoring engine parameters during a first period of aircraft operation time during which the gas turbine engine 10 is using the fuel; and determining the calorific value of the fuel based on monitored engine parameters (e.g., fuel burn rates, temperatures, shaft speeds, pressures, generated thrust, etc.). In the event of a significant discrepancy between the entered and determined values, an alert is provided 2036 and aircraft 1 may return to the terminal for further investigation, as a safety measure.

The check can be carried out during or after refueling.

The 2020, 2030 process can then be iterated at each refueling event.

In certain examples, the fuel monitoring system 203 can therefore be further arranged to:

obtain 2022 a quantity of energy required for a planned flight profile, including the safety margin;

obtain 2032 a calorific value of fuel available to the aircraft;

calculate 2036 the quantity (mass or volume) of available fuel needed to provide the required energy; And

deliver at output 2038 the quantity (mass or volume) of the necessary available fuel so as to allow the aircraft to be refueled accordingly.

In such examples, the fuel tracking system 203 can be called refueling manager 206. It will be borne in mind that the examples described with respect to Figures 4 and 5 can therefore be combined with the examples described with respect to Figures 6 to 9.

In such examples, calculating the mass or volume of available fuel needed to provide the required energy includes obtaining a calorific value of fuel already in the fuel tank 50, 53, and subtracting that. ci of the energy necessary for the planned flight profile.

The method may further include calculating a calorific value of the mixed fuel after refueling. The calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 can only be determined to be inconsistent with the received calorific value data input when the calculated calorific value for the mixed fuel does not match the determined calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10. gas turbine engine 10 in use.

The inventors were aware that, given that different fuels can have different properties while still complying with standards, knowledge of the fuel(s) available to an aircraft 1 can allow more efficient, tailor-made control of the propulsion system. For example, changing to a fuel with a higher calorific value may allow a lower flow rate of fuel to meet the power requirements of an aircraft at a particular point in the flight envelope, therefore potentially providing more fuel. to auxiliary systems (e.g., fuel hydraulic actuators or oil heat exchangers) if the total pumped flow rate is constant. Knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel can therefore be used as a tool to improve the performance of the aircraft in flight even if it is not known at the refueling point, e.g. e.g., by gauging the probability of formation of contrails behind an aircraft 1 in given atmospheric conditions and by changing fuel source or altitude during flight. In addition, the in-flight determination of the calorific value can be used as a check to verify the data provided or before refueling.

As discussed above, the calorific values (also called heating values) of fuels can be directly determined - for example, by measuring the energy released when a certain volume or mass of the fuel is consumed in the gas turbine engine 10 – or calculated from other fuel parameters. In the examples currently described, with respect to Figures 10 to 12, the calorific value of the fuel is directly determined by measuring the energy released (or by taking measurements which make it possible to deduce the energy released) when a certain volume or mass of fuel is consumed within a gas turbine engine 10, 44 of the aircraft 1. The performance of the own main/propulsive gas turbine engine 10 and/or a gas turbine engine of an auxiliary power unit (APU) 44 is therefore used to determine this fuel characteristic.

In addition to the propulsion system 2 described with respect to Figures 4 and 6, a power system 4 of the implementation shown on the comprises an auxiliary power unit (APU) 44. The more general term "power system" 4 can be used in place of the propulsion system 2 when the system 2,4 does not only provide propulsive power, or else when system 4 does not provide any propulsive power. A propulsion system 2 is an example of a power system 4.

The APU 44 is a gas turbine engine smaller than those 10 on the wings of the aircraft 1, and is arranged to provide electrical power to the systems of the aircraft 1; for example, lighting, heating, air conditioning and/or the like. The APU 44 may be, for example, an APU in Honeywell's 331 series, such as the HGT1700 auxiliary power unit (APU). In some implementations, the APU 44 may be certified for in-flight use; in other applications it may be certified for ground use only. An APU aircraft 44 is generally arranged to be started using one or more aircraft batteries so as to provide electrical energy as well as possibly bleed air for air conditioning and for starting the engine. The APU 44 of the implementation shown is located towards the rear of the fuselage, and is not arranged to provide any propulsive power to the aircraft 1. In alternative implementations, the APU can be located differently ( for example, within a nacelle 21 of the aircraft 1), and/or can provide a certain propulsive power. In the example shown on the , the central fuel tank 50 is arranged to supply fuel to the APU 44; fueling arrangements may vary in other examples.

Engine parameters during a first time period of aircraft operation during which the gas turbine engine 10, 44 uses fuel are detected, and optionally monitored over time. These parameters may include one or more of the thrust/propulsion provided, the volume (or mass) of fuel used in a given time (e.g., calculated from a fuel pumping rate/fuel flow rate, taking into account a pump spill ratio if applicable), exhaust temperature, one or more shaft speeds, one or more temperature readings of other components/in other locations, and/or one or more pressure measurements. In some examples, it can be assumed that 100% of the fuel supplied to a combustion chamber 16 of the gas turbine engine 10 is completely consumed. In other examples, different assumptions about the completeness of combustion can be made if applicable.

Sensors 224, for example, temperature sensors 224a and pressure sensors 224b, may be provided in association with the or each gas turbine engine 10 so as to monitor the performance of the gas turbine engine 10.

Depending on the engine parameters monitored, a calorific value of the fuel can then be determined.

As discussed above, it should be kept in mind that controlling the calorific values of fuels can be important, particularly in examples involving manual entry of calorific values data. The determined calorific value can therefore be controlled by a second determination (and possibly also additional determinations), and/or used to control a manually entered (or otherwise provided) value, and an alert can be provided if the determined calorific value of the fuel is inconsistent with the received calorific value data input. Examples as currently described with respect to Figures 10 to 12 can therefore be combined with examples described previously with respect to Figures 6 to 9.

In various examples, an aircraft 1 receives a calorific value data input for fuel supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling and a comparison of the entered value with the determined value can provide this verification. For example, a barcode of a fuel to be added to a fuel tank 50, 53 of the aircraft 1 may be scanned to read data of the fuel, or an identified tracer substance (e.g., dye) and properties. of fuel consulted according to this tracer. Alternatively or in addition, calorific power can be provided to a pilot or technician, e.g. e.g., on a written label or orally, for entry into an aircraft system. The calorific value data can therefore be entered manually, or transmitted to the aircraft 1. In examples in which a calorific value is consulted or read (e.g., from the scanning of a barcode), this value can be automatically transferred to a fuel tracking system 203 of the aircraft 1, or can be entered into a user interface of, or associated with, fuel tracking system 203 p. e.g., by a pilot or technician.

In some applications, the calorific value determined by measuring or otherwise determining the energy released when a certain volume or mass of the fuel is consumed may be verified against a value determined in a different manner, such as than any of the determination methods described above.

The calorific value of the fuel can therefore be determined physically from the results of the combustion under the wing, and possibly verified with values supplied to the aircraft 1, determined chemically from the chemical properties detected, or calculated from other fuel properties detected (either under-wing or off-site), for example using any of the detection techniques described above. In alternative or additional examples, the process of determining the calorific value based on engine performance may be repeated, and the values compared, thereby providing control using the same approach. In alternative or additional examples, a heating value as a function of engine performance can be determined in two different engines, thereby providing control; p. e.g., two different propellant gas turbine engines 10, or a propellant gas turbine engine 10 and an APU gas turbine engine 44.

Repeating the detection and determination so as to obtain a second calorific value can be described as performing the same process in a second period of time. The first and second time periods may be at different stages of aircraft operation (e.g., ground operations versus cruise, climb versus cruise, or cruise at a first altitude as opposed to cruising at a second altitude), or may be at the same stage of aircraft operation - therefore, in some cases no changes can be made to the propulsion system control and/or the Ambient conditions may be the same between the two time periods, such that the same values of the monitored parameters (within natural errors/variation) would be expected.

If a deviation between the determined calorific value and the received calorific value data exceeds a threshold, an alert can be provided – e.g. e.g., an audible and/or visual alarm, and/or a message sent to a pilot or other responsible party. It will be borne in mind that, when the determined calorific value is that of a fuel mixture created on board the aircraft 1, the determined power is not compared directly to the calorific value data received; instead, adjustments are made to one or the other to reflect the contribution of the different fuel(s).

If a sufficiently large deviation is identified, the flight may be aborted subject to a fuel recheck, and/or no fuel-specific control of propulsion system 2 may be made.

In some examples, an aircraft 1 may include multiple fuel tanks 50, 53, and two or more of the fuel tanks may contain different fuels, which may have different calorific values. In such cases, a determination of the calorific value for the fuel in each tank 50, 53 may be made – for example using a fuel management system to initially provide 100% fuel from a tank , and making a first determination, then using the fuel management system to initially provide 100% fuel from the other tank, and making a second determination. Alternatively or in addition, calorific values for two (or more) different mixtures of the two (or more) different fuels can be determined from the performance of the engine on the specific mixtures, and the calorific values of the fuels in the individual tanks 50 , 53 can be calculated based on these determinations. In other cases of this type, the two or more different fuels may still be supplied in the same ratio in a mixture, and the calorific value of the mixture may therefore be the only value of interest.

In the examples described here, the calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 in use is determined. This fuel may comprise a mixture of fuel with which the aircraft 1 was recently refueled, and any fuel remaining in the tank(s) 50, 53 of the aircraft following a previous refueling event, and may comprise a mixture of fuels from different tanks.

The determination(s) are made in a first stage of aircraft operation, and the results can then be used to influence the control of the propulsion system 2, or the aircraft 1 more generally, in one or more subsequent stages. aircraft operation. For example, the determination of the calorific value of the fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 in use can be carried out during taxiing of the aircraft 1 before takeoff, and/or during other operations on the ground, and the result can be used to influence control during one or more of takeoff, climb, and cruise. Particularly in applications in which an auxiliary power unit 44 is used for the determination, the determination can even be carried out at an airport gate, before the main gas turbine engine(s) 10 are ignited. Alternatively, the determination can be made under cruise conditions and the results used to influence control later in the flight, e.g. e.g., during cruise later in the same flight.

It will be borne in mind that cruise conditions generally represent a large proportion of most commercial flights, and that optimizing propulsion system control for cruise therefore provides optimization for the bulk of the envelope. of theft in most cases.

The 2040 process carried out is illustrated in .

In step 2042, engine parameters are detected or monitored during a first period of time in which a fuel of interest is consumed in a gas turbine engine 10, 44 of the aircraft 1. This period of time may be described as a first time period of aircraft operation, and may occur at any point of aircraft operation, including when the aircraft 1 is stationary (e.g., at a gate) . Particularly in examples in which the engine parameters are monitored while the aircraft 1 is stationary, the gas turbine engine used may be an APU 44 of the aircraft 1, rather than one of the engines 10 arranged primarily to provide propulsive power.

The first period of time may be an idling period when the engine is initially started. This can make it possible to determine the calorific value of the fuel before the flight begins, and the operation of the engine 10 can subsequently vary according to the determined calorific value. The 2040 method described here can therefore be used as part of an active control scheme.

As an example of monitored engine parameters, mass fuel flow through combustion chamber 16, shaft speed of one or more shafts 26, 27 of engine 10, and/or one or more pressures and temperatures can be detected – either instantly at a point in the first time period, or with monitoring over the first time period. The fuel flow into the combustion chamber 16 can be measured directly - many current aircraft 1 have a fuel flow meter at this location, and a meter could be added if not. Alternatively, the fuel flow rate at the combustion chamber inlet can be inferred from data collected elsewhere – e.g. e.g., from the position of a fuel metering valve (such valves commonly provide position feedback), or from one or more pumps or flow meters located elsewhere. In examples with a positive displacement pump rather than a gravimetric pump, the mass flow rate can be calculated from the volumetric flow rate and fuel density, or the calorific value calculation can be adjusted accordingly. Furthermore, it will be borne in mind that the current aircraft 1 systematically monitors one or more shaft speeds, and that this information, like other data, is often provided to an electronic engine controller (EMC) 42. Step 2042 can therefore be carried out without requiring any new sensors.

In step 2044, a calorific value is determined for the fuel consumed, using the monitored engine parameters.

For example, the mass flow rate of fuel used to obtain a given speed of the low pressure shaft, 26, or the speed of any of the engine shafts 26, 27, can be used to calculate the calorific value of the fuel ( either directly or using a consultation table of known values). In certain applications, an instantaneous measurement can be carried out so as to determine a calorific value. In other cases, parameters (e.g., fuel flow and shaft speed) can be monitored over a longer period of operation of the same fuel, for example, to improve the reliability of the calculation.

The change in relationship between fuel mass flow and shaft speed can be at least about 1:1 for the change in fuel calorific value (assuming no gearing of the fuel). 'TREE).

In some implementations, measurements may be taken both in the first time period in which the first fuel of interest is consumed in a gas turbine engine 10 and in a second time period in which a second fuel of interest is consumed in the gas turbine engine 10. Other than the fuel change, all other engine control options/engine operating characteristics may be held constant between the first and second time periods. , such that the fuel change is the only variable and a system response (in terms of change to one or more of the monitored parameters) can be attributed to the fuel change alone. The change in relationship between fuel mass flow and selected shaft speed can have a close to 1:1 relationship to the change in calorific value. The calorific value of the second fuel can therefore be determined based on knowledge of the calorific value of the first fuel, possibly as a relative value in comparison with that of the first fuel.

As an alternative to considering shaft speed, the mass fuel flow rate can be held constant when changing fuel, and a change (if any) in the temperature rise across the chamber combustion 16 taken into account. The combustion chamber outlet temperature - T40 - can be compared to the compressor outlet temperature - T30 - to obtain a measure of this temperature change (with the compressor outlet temperature closely matching the compressor inlet temperature). combustion chamber).

As used herein, T30 and T40, and any other numbered temperatures, are defined using the station numbering listed in SAE AS755, specifically:

• T30 = High pressure compressor outlet temperature (CHP)

• T40 = Combustion outlet temperatures

In current engines 10, T40 is generally not measured directly using conventional measurement technology, such as thermocouples, due to the high temperature. A direct temperature measurement can be taken optically but, alternatively or in addition, a value for T40 can instead be modeled or inferred from other measurements (e.g., using readings from thermocouples used to temperature measurement at other stations and knowledge of the architecture and thermal properties of the gas turbine engine).

For a fuel with a higher calorific value, an increase in temperature rise across the combustion chamber (T40-T30) would be expected, and vice versa , if the mass fuel flow rate and combustion chamber temperature change combustion can be used as an alternative to shaft speed, or as a control of a calculation based on shaft speed.

For the examples listed, the calculation of a change in calorific value when changing fuel is described. It will be borne in mind that absolute values can be calculated, but that consulting a change in shaft speed and/or combustion chamber temperature rise (or other parameter) for a flow rate Fixed fuel mass can provide improved accuracy in cases where there are relevant precision limits on how fuel mass flow can be measured.

When changes are evaluated, as described above, it may be desirable to have the first and second time periods as close together as reasonably possible – a small interval may be left to ensure a complete change of fuel in the fuel chamber. combustion 16 and allow any transient effects to pass. The required gap size (if any) may depend on the fuel flow at the operating condition. The gas turbine engine 10 generally responds almost instantaneously (within one second) to fuel differences once the fuel reaches the combustion chamber 16, and speed probes used for shaft speed measurements generally have a constant low time. Under conditions of relatively low power, low fuel flow, an interval of around ten seconds from the moment the fuel enters the mast which connects the engine 10 to the airframe of the aircraft 1 can be used. At higher power, when the fuel flow may be four times higher or more, and an interval of 2 to 3 seconds from fuel change to pylon inlet may be appropriate. It will be borne in mind that the travel time from a fuel tank to the engine 10 may vary depending on the location of the tank as well as the fuel flow rate, and may be accommodated accordingly with knowledge of the aircraft. 1 specific - the pylon inlet is therefore mentioned here for ease of generalization, although the change in time from the opening or closing of a valve at or near a fuel tank 50, 53, or the activation or deactivation of a fuel pump 108, can be used in various applications, with the interval calculated with reference to the fuel flow time between the point of interest and the engine 10 The interval can therefore be arranged to allow the time necessary for flushing the first fuel from the fuel delivery pipes and for the second fuel to reach the combustion chamber 16, as well as a new static state to be achieved.

Additionally, measurements can be averaged over a period of time (e.g., 5 seconds up to 30 seconds) in each time period, or in the second time period only, and any trends examined, to monitor that a new stable state has been reached and/or to improve reliability. In other examples, the own transient behavior can be used in the determination – no intervals can be left in such cases, and parameters can be monitored for a single period of time covering the change.

In certain applications, the propulsion system 2 of the aircraft 1 can then be controlled 2046 differently depending on the determined calorific value of the fuel.

The method 2040 can also be used to obtain near-instantaneous measurements during flight, for example, monitoring the calorific value of the fuel when the fuel is drawn into a different tank 50, 53 or a combination of tanks. This method 2040 can then be used as part of an active control scheme to control the subsequent operation of the gas turbine engine 10. A change in calorific value can be detected, e.g. e.g., based on a change in the relationship between fuel flow and shaft speed, and engine performance can be controlled accordingly, for example by changing one or more of the fuel flow; pump spillage; altitude; guide vane staging (where variable position vanes are provided); and fuel (where multiple different fuels are available on board aircraft 1).

Thus, once the calorific value(s) of one or more fuels on board the aircraft 1 have been determined, the propulsion system 2 can be controlled according to the calorific value(s) determined, for example, by:

• Changing an operating parameter of a thermal management system of the aircraft 1 (e.g., a fuel-oil heat exchanger), or by changing the temperature of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber 16 of the engine 10 .

• When more than one fuel is stored on board an aircraft 1, the choice of which fuel to use for which operations (e.g., for ground operations versus flight or for operations with fuel demands different thrust) can be made depending on the fuel. A fuel delivery system can therefore be controlled appropriately based on fuel characteristics.

• The adjustment of one or more flight control surfaces of the aircraft 1 so as to change course and/or altitude based on knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel(s).

• Changing the discharge percentage of a fuel pump 108 (i.e., the proportion of pumped fuel recirculated instead of being passed to the combustion chamber 16, as discussed in more detail below). Pump 108 and/or one or more valves can therefore be controlled appropriately depending on fuel characteristics.

• The change in the planning of variable inlet guide vanes (VIGV, Variable Inlet Guide Vane ). The VIGVs can therefore be moved, or a movement of the VIGVs is canceled, if necessary depending on the fuel characteristics.

It will be borne in mind that the fuel flow at the inlet to the combustion chamber 16 is generally already measured in modern gas turbine engines 10, with a gravimetric fuel flow meter often being provided. Conversions can be made if applicable where a volumetric flow meter is provided. Furthermore, the fuel flow rate may supplementally or alternatively be derived from the position of a fuel metering valve which controls the flow of fluid into the combustion chamber 16 and/or other circuits – such fuel metering valves. Fuel metering typically provide positional feedback, but, especially when cruising as opposed to idling, improved accuracy can be provided by a flow meter downstream of the fuel metering function. Likewise, shaft speeds are already recorded in modern gas turbine engines 10, so no additional hardware/sensors may be required to implement the 2040 process described here. The method 2040 can therefore be implemented in software, possibly as part of the CEM 42, without requiring any physical modifications to the gas turbine engine 10.

A propulsion system 2, or other power system 4 as discussed above, for an aircraft 1 can therefore include a fuel follower 202 arranged to:

monitoring 2042 engine parameters during a first time period of aircraft operation during which a gas turbine engine 10, 44 is using fuel; And

determine 2044 a calorific value of the fuel based on the monitored engine parameters.

The fuel follower 202 can then provide the determined calorific value as an output. The determined calorific value may be provided to an aircraft control system 42, for example, for use in influencing the control 2046 of the propulsion system 2.

The fuel tracker 202 may be provided as a separate fueling management unit integrated into the propulsion system 2, and/or as software and/or hardware incorporated into pre-existing aircraft control systems. In some examples, the fuel tracker may store calorific value data for any fuel currently in the tank(s) of the aircraft 50, 53, and may cause this data to be updated upon further determinations (e.g. e.g., triggered by refueling). The data can be stored separately from the circuits performing the calculations and retrieved as needed – regardless of where the data is stored, that storage can be considered part of the fuel tracker 202, whether or not it is integral or physically connected in any way.

The fuel tracker 202 may be part of a fuel tracking system 203.

The fuel tracking system 203 includes the fuel composition tracker 202. The fuel composition tracker 202 of the example being described includes a memory 202a arranged to store received values for the monitored engine parameters and calorific values of determined fuel, and a processing circuit 202c arranged to calculate calorific values based on the values received for the monitored engine parameters. The calculated calorific value may then replace fuel characteristic data previously stored in the memory, and/or be timestamped and/or dated and added to the memory. A data log of fuel characteristics (notably, calorific value, although other characteristics may also be stored) over time can therefore be assembled.

The fuel monitoring system 203 includes, or is in communication with, one or more sensors 224. The sensors 224, e.g., temperature sensors 224a and pressure sensors 224b, are associated with a gas turbine engine 10 so as to monitor the performance of the gas turbine engine 10. The data from these sensors is used, possibly in conjunction with other data provided, to calculate the calorific value of fuel based on the performance of the engine when that fuel is burned.

The fuel composition tracker 202 of the example shown also includes a receiver 202b arranged to receive data relating to the fuel composition (including the monitored engine parameters, or values calculated elsewhere from these) and /or requests for fuel composition information and/or requests for fuel composition information.

The fuel composition tracker 202 of the example shown also includes an output module 202d. In some implementations, the output module 202d may be arranged to provide an alert if the determined calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 is inconsistent with a received calorific value data input, for example by sending a signal to an alarm or other system.

In certain examples, the fuel monitoring system 203 can therefore be further arranged to:

receiving a data input of calorific value of fuel in an aircraft 1, supplied to the aircraft 1 during refueling;

comparing the inputted calorific value data to the determined calorific value; And

providing an alert if the determined calorific value of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 is inconsistent with the received calorific value data input.

In alternative or additional implementations, the output module 202d can send a message – for example, including a calorific value of fuel, or a control instruction depending on the calorific value – to an aircraft control system 42, p. e.g., an electronic engine controller (EMC), so as to influence the control of the propulsion system 2 depending on the fuel characteristics.

The inventors were aware that, given that different fuels can have different properties while still complying with standards, knowledge of the fuel(s) available to an aircraft 1 can allow more efficient, tailor-made control of the propulsion system 2 , and in particular it may be appropriate to change the discharge rate around a fuel pump 108 of the gas turbine engine 10. For example, changing to a fuel with a higher calorific value may allow a smaller flow rate of fuel to the combustion chamber 16 to meet the power requirements of an aircraft at a particular point in the flight envelope, therefore potentially providing more fuel to auxiliary systems (e.g., hydraulic actuators at the fuel or oil heat exchangers) if the total pumped flow rate is constant.

As shown in Figures 4, 6 and 10 and described above, an aircraft 1 may comprise several fuel tanks 50, 53; for example a larger primary fuel tank 50 located in the aircraft fuselage, and a smaller fuel tank 53a, 53b located in each wing. In other examples, an aircraft 1 may have only a single fuel tank 50. Many different fuel tank arrangements are possible as described above, and the tanks 50, 53 may form a single source. fuel, or multiple fuel sources.

The fuel used in a gas turbine engine 10 of the aircraft may therefore vary during flight (where an aircraft 1 has multiple distinct fuel sources) as well as between flights (given that an aircraft 1 may be refueled with a different fuel). Tanks 50, 53 may contain different fuels – for example, with one tank 50 containing kerosene jet fuel and another tank 53 containing SAF, or a kerosene-SAF mixture. The different fuels can be mixed en route to the combustion chamber 16. The percentage of SAF in a fuel supplied to the engine 10 can therefore vary between 0% and 100% during the operation of the aircraft 1 in certain examples. SAF can have a density (ρ) between 90% and 98% of the density of kerosene. The SAF can have a calorific value (PC) of between 101% and 105%, the calorific value of kerosene (calorific value being as defined above). For example, the calorific value of kerosene may be 43.1 MJ/kg (with a minimum common PC permitted in the fuel specification of 42.8 MJ/kg), while the calorific value of SAF may be 44. 2 MJ/kg. The calorific value and density of fuel mixtures can vary accordingly with a density of 90% to 100% of that of kerosene and a calorific value of 100% to 105% of that of kerosene.

The aircraft 1 of the examples currently described includes a fuel pump 108 arranged to pump fuel from one or more tanks 50, 53 to the gas turbine engine 10. The fuel pump 108 has an inlet 108a arranged to receive fuel and an outlet 108b through which fuel leaves pump 108. The fuel received may be from a single tank, or may be a mixture from a combination of tanks 50, 53. The fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 may therefore have a different composition than any fuel stored in a tank in some examples. Fuel may pass through one or more elements of a heat management unit, or other engine components, en route to inlet 108a of pump 108. Additionally, fuel leaving pump 108 is not not brought entirely to the combustion chamber 16; rather, a portion is recirculated ("spill"), and the recirculated fuel generally forms a proportion of the fuel entering pump inlet 108a.

The proportion of fuel passing through the pump 108 which is recirculated is called the spill or the percentage of spill, namely:

The recirculated fuel may include fuel returned directly from pump outlet 108b to pump inlet 108a, for example through a fuel return line 46 ( , flow S ₁ ). In other examples, no fuel return line 46 may be present. Recirculated fuel may include fuel diverted from the combustion chamber inlet to serve other roles in auxiliary systems or engine components ( , flow S ₂ ), for example with the fuel acting as a heat transfer medium in one or more heat exchangers, or as a working fluid in one or more fuel-hydraulic actuators. In addition, part of the recirculated fuel can be returned to a fuel tank 50, 53 before further use. Spilled fuel ( , flow S ₁ and S ₂ ) can therefore be used to perform engine functions as well as to allow a pump 108 to be operated with a defined flow rate even when there are fluctuations in combustion chamber fuel demand . As used herein, "spill" therefore includes fuel used for any purpose other than being fed into combustion chamber 16, not just fuel sent directly from pump outlet 108b to the inlet. pump 108a or returned to a reservoir 50, 53.

When an aircraft 1 is operated on kerosene at cruise, spills of 70-85% are common, with the spill often reaching 98% at flight idle. Precise spill levels depend on one or more of aircraft and engine designs, thrust demand, ambient temperature, altitude, and cruise stage (e.g., due to weight aircraft due to additional fuel, and often a lower altitude, at the start of the cruise, and a lighter and often higher aircraft at the end of the cruise). A minimum spill of at least 5% or 10% may be set to ensure sufficient fuel is supplied to auxiliary systems 45. Pump 108 may be sized for the maximum takeoff thrust (PMD) of an aircraft 1, possibly at low altitude. About 10% of the total pump capacity can generally be accounted for to provide auxiliary systems 45 to PMD. When cruising relative to PMD, a pump 108 with a rotation speed linked to a motor shaft will always rotate very quickly, but the flow required by the combustion chamber 16 will be significantly lower than at PMD; the fraction of excess flow discharged is therefore generally much higher at cruise than at PMD.

A new pump 108 on any engine 10 will generally have some additional capacity (in effect an excess fuel supply) because its performance is expected to deteriorate over time - the % of total flow discharged may therefore be higher for new pumps 108 than for older pumps. It will be borne in mind that the total fuel withdrawal requirements for auxiliary systems 45, etc. are a function of the number of auxiliary systems with fuel supply, what the flow requirements of those systems are, and when flow is required (e.g., fuel hydraulic actuators do not move usually not all at the same time). A margin of reserve capacity is usually also provided such that spilled fuel is generally more available than required.

One or more sensors may be provided to directly detect the spill. For example, the fuel flow in the combustion chamber 16 can be measured directly - many current aircraft 1 have a fuel flow meter at this location, and a counter could be added if not - or deduced from measurements elsewhere, and subtracted from a pump outlet flow value, Q, known to provide a measure of recirculated fuel flow.

The inventors were aware that because different fuels can have different properties and still meet standards, the use of SAF or kerosene-SAF blends can change the desired spill under given conditions. In particular, as the SAF content increases, a desired discharge can generally decrease. One or more valves associated with pump 108, with fuel return line 46, and/or auxiliary fuel-using systems or components 45 may be used to control discharge. Pump 108 and valves (not shown) and the fuel delivery lines connecting them together form a fuel delivery system 230, as illustrated in and the .

A fuel change spill ratio, R _d , is defined as:

R _d is therefore equal to 1 when X=0, i.e., when the fuel is pure kerosene fuel, but varies as X increases. It will be borne in mind that, in calculating R _d , the conditions are considered identical except for the fuel change - i.e., the same engine 10, the same stage of flight, the same altitude, etc.

In various examples, X% is at least 30% (X ≥ 30), and R _d is greater than or equal to 1.003.

In various examples, when the fuel mixture is 50% SAF by weight (X=50), the fuel change spill ratio is at least 1.0066, and when X=100 such that the fuel is pure, the fuel change spill ratio is at least 1.0138.

The following relationship may apply in various examples where X% is at least 10%, and possibly at least 30%, illustrating the relationship between %SAF and the spill:

,

The fuel supply system 230 is arranged to supply fuel to the combustion chamber 16 at an energy flow rate, C, optionally measured in Mega Watts, mW. This energy flow, C, can be controlled to meet/match the energy demand of the combustion chamber to achieve a given power output/thrust under given conditions. By defining the density of kerosene as ρK, the calorific value of kerosene as PC _K and the density and calorific value of the fuel supplied to the combustion chamber 16 as ρF and PC _F , respectively, it has proven advantageous to control the pump flow rate, Q, and spill ratio as a function of fuel properties and combustion chamber energy demand such that:

In various examples, the gas turbine engine 10 is arranged such that, for an engine 10 with maximum takeoff thrust in the range from 400 kN to 500 kN, at cruise:

where Q is measured in imperial gallons per hour, PC in CHU/lb and ρ in lb per imperial gallon.

Converting the units to measure Q in liters/second, PC in MJ/kg and ρ in kg per liter gives:

In various examples, the gas turbine engine 10 is arranged such that, for an engine 10 with maximum takeoff thrust in the range from 300 kN to 350 kN, the following relationship maintains at cruise:

where Q is measured in imperial gallons per hour, PC in CHU and ρ in pounds per imperial gallon.

Converting the units to measure Q in liters/second, PC in MJ/kg and ρ in kg per liter gives:

The fuel change spill ratio, R _d , can therefore be controlled based on the pump and fuel outlet flow properties.

As mentioned previously, a desired spill can vary depending on one or more of ambient temperature, altitude, and cruise stage. R _d can therefore vary accordingly.

In various examples, R _d is reduced by less than 0.15%, and possibly by more than 0.1%, between the start and the end of the cruise, for a constant temperature and altitude.

In various examples, R _d is decreased by at least 0.11% when the altitude increases by at least 600 m.

A method 3000 performed in some embodiments is illustrated in the .

In step 3002, fuel from one or more of the fuel tanks 50, 53 is supplied to the gas turbine engine 10. The fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 comprises the range is 5% to 100%, with any remaining fuel being kerosene. The fuel density is denoted ρ _F and its calorific value as PC _F. Correlatively, ρ _K and PC _K are used for kerosene.

In certain implementations, in step 3004, the propulsion system 2 is controlled such that:

the fuel change spill ratio, Rd:

is equal to :

Where Q is the fuel flow rate at the pump outlet, and C is the fuel energy flow rate entering the combustion chamber.

The fuel change spill ratio R _d can therefore be controlled based on knowledge of the fuel and current engine operation. The calorific value and/or density of the fuel may be determined or otherwise obtained using any one or more of the approaches described above.

Command 3004 can be repeated and iteratively updated if/when the fuel changes.

In alternative or additional implementations, and when the fuel supplied to the combustion chamber 16 in step 3002 comprises at least 30% SAF (namely, ) in step 3004, the propulsion system 2 is controlled such that:

is greater than or equal to 1.003.

In various applications of this type, the discharge is controlled such that:

.

For example, when X is 50, the fuel change spill ratio can be at least 1.0066, and when of fuel can be at least 1.0138.

In various implementations of the method 3000, the gas turbine engine 10 may be arranged such that and/or the gas turbine engine 10 is arranged such that , and eventually .

In other applications, in particular in applications in which a calorific value of the fuel is not known, the method 3000 can be reversed - instead of controlling R _d according to the activity of the engine and fuel properties, R _d can be iteratively adjusted when changing to a new fuel until a desired energy flow, C, to the combustion chamber 16 is achieved for a pump output flow known (e.g., defined or detected) Q. The change in spill, as captured in the ratio R _d , can therefore be used to determine the calorific value of a new fuel, if the fuel density is known, or a value of the calorific value multiplied by the fuel density if not. A change in R _d can therefore be used to determine fuel properties.

A propulsion system 2 for an aircraft 1 according to the examples currently described may therefore comprise a gas turbine engine 10 and one or more fuel tanks 50, 53 arranged to contain fuel to supply fuel to the gas turbine engine 10, one or more of tanks 50, 53 containing sustainable aviation fuel – SAF – either alone or as part of a mixture. SAF has a density of between 90% and 98% of the density, ρ _K , of kerosene and a calorific value of between 101% and 105% the calorific value, PC _K , of kerosene.

The gas turbine engine 10 of many examples includes an engine core 11 including a turbine 19, a combustion chamber 16, a compressor 14, and a central shaft 26 connecting the turbine to the compressor; and a fan 23 located upstream of the motor core, the fan comprising a plurality of fan blades and being arranged to be driven by an output of the core shaft 26; in addition to fuel pump 108.

The fuel pump 108 is arranged to supply fuel from one or more of the fuel tanks 50, 53 to the gas turbine engine 10 and provides a pump output volumetric flow rate, Q. The fuel pump 108 has an inlet 108a arranged to receive fuel from one or more fuel tanks 50, 53 and an outlet 108b arranged to supply fuel to the gas turbine engine 10, and is arranged to recirculate (discharge) the excess of fuel from the exhaust to the intake (directly or indirectly), with the percentage of fuel passing through the pump that is recirculated being called a spill percentage. The fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 comprises The fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine 10 has a density, ρ _F , and a calorific value PC _F.

The propulsion system 2 is arranged so that the fuel change spill ratio, R _d , is as described above.

The inventors have also found that a measurement of the mass and volume of the fuel F used by the aircraft can be used to determine the characteristics of the fuel. In one example, such measurement of a fuel mass and volume may be performed during a fueling process in which fuel is loaded onto the aircraft.

There illustrates an aircraft 1 which is connected to a fuel storage tank 60 for refueling as described above. The fuel storage tank 60 may be carried by a fuel delivery vehicle (e.g., a fuel truck) or may be a stationary storage tank from which the aircraft 1 may be refueled. The aircraft 1 includes a fuel line connection port 62 which is coupled to a fuel loading line 61 during fueling. The fuel loading line 61 may include a fuel pipe of known design. The connection port 62 of the fuel line is fluidly coupled to the fuel tanks 53, 55 of the aircraft 1 by one or more fuel transmission lines 63 on board the aircraft so that the fuel received through the fuel loading line 61 is transferred and stored in the fuel tanks 53, 55. The fuel loading line 61 and the fuel transmission line 63 can together form a used fuel supply line to supply fuel to the fuel tanks 53, 55 on board the aircraft 1 from the fuel storage tank 60. In some examples, the fuel transmission line(s) 63 may not be present, with the fuel instead being dispensed directly from a fuel line connection port for each fuel tank (or set of interconnected fuel tanks).

Referring again to the , the aircraft 1 further comprises a system for determining fuel characteristics 102. The system for determining fuel characteristics 102 is arranged to determine one or more fuel characteristics of the fuel loaded, or which has been loaded, on the aircraft 1, these characteristics being any one of those described or claimed here.

The fuel characteristics determination system 102 generally comprises a mass sensor 103, a volume sensor 104 and a fuel characteristics determination module 105. The mass sensor 103 is arranged to measure a mass of fuel loaded on the aircraft 1. In the example described here, the mass sensor 103 is arranged to measure a mass flow rate of fuel as it flows from the connection orifice 62 of the fuel line to the fuel tanks. fuel 55, 53 on board the aircraft 1. The mass sensor in this example may be a mass flow meter arranged to measure the mass of fluid passing a fixed point within the fuel supply line per unit of time . The point at which the mass flow rate is measured may be at any point upstream of the aircraft fuel tanks 53, 55 in which the fuel is stored so that the mass flow rate of fuel being loaded onto the aircraft 1 can be measured. . In the present example, the mass flow sensor 103 is located in a fuel conduit (e.g., part of the fuel transmission line 63) fluidly connecting the fuel line connection port 62 to the one of the aircraft fuel tanks 53, 55. It may, however, be located at other points within the aircraft fuel system, for example, at fuel connection port 62. Mass flow meter 103 may be a Coriolis flow meter of known design. Any other suitable type of mass flow meter may however be used, for example, any in which the mass determination is not measured indirectly based on knowledge of the fuel density.

The volume sensor 104 in the example currently described is arranged to measure a volume flow of fuel loaded on the aircraft 1. In the example described here, the volume sensor 104 is arranged to measure a volume flow of fuel as and as it flows from the connection port 62 of the fuel line to the fuel tanks 53, 55 on board the aircraft 1. The volume sensor 104 in this example may be a volume flow meter arranged to measure the volume of fluid passing a fixed point within the aircraft fuel system per unit time. Similar to mass flow meter 103, volume flow meter 104 may be located at any point upstream of the aircraft fuel tank(s) 53, 55 in which the fuel is stored. It can therefore be supplied in the same fuel conduit as the mass flow meter 103, and can be downstream of the mass flow meter 103 as illustrated in the figures, or upstream thereof. Any suitable volumetric flow meter can be used, such as a turbine or pressure flow meter. The volume flow meter may be of a type which does not deduce the volumetric flow from a measured mass flow. Likewise, the mass flow meter may be of a type that does not deduce the mass flow from a measured volumetric flow. Mass flow and volume flow rates are therefore measured independently of each other (and without requiring knowledge of fuel density).

The fuel characteristics determination module 105 is arranged to determine one or more fuel characteristics of the fuel loaded on the aircraft 1 as a function of the mass of fuel and the volume of fuel determined by the mass sensor 103 and the fuel sensor. volume 104. The fuel characteristics determination module 105 is therefore in communication with the mass and volume sensors 103, 104 as illustrated in the Figures so that it can receive signals from them which are indicative of the mass fuel and fuel volume. In the present example, the fuel characteristics determination module 105 is a separate unit, and may be in communication with an electronic engine controller (EMC) 42 of each of the gas turbine engines 10 provided on the aircraft 1 One or more determined fuel characteristics may be communicated to the CEM 42 such that the respective engine 10 may be controlled accordingly as will be discussed below. In other examples, the determination module 105 can be part of the CEM 42 of (or each) motor 10.

The fuel characteristic determined by the fuel characteristic determination module 105 may be any of those described or claimed herein. To determine a fuel characteristic, the fuel characteristic determination module 105 is arranged to compare the mass of fuel and the volume of fuel and determine a corresponding fuel density (e.g., by dividing the mass flow rate by the flow rate volume). Since fuels with different fuel characteristics will exhibit a known density variation, a characteristic of the fuel being loaded onto the aircraft 1 can be inferred based on density. In some embodiments, fuel characteristic(s) may be determined by calculating a deviation from the density value that would be expected if the fuel were fossil kerosene. In other embodiments, the determination module 105 may be arranged to access a lookup table defining a known dependence of fuel characteristics on fuel density. The measured fuel density can then be compared to the values in the lookup tables so that a fuel characteristic can be determined.

In one example, the fuel characteristic may be the percentage of SAF in the fuel. The inventors observed that SAF has a lower density compared to fossil kerosene, and this difference can be used to infer the percentage of SAF present in the fuel based on a measurement of the density of the fuel when charged. on the aircraft. Other fuel characteristics may also have associated fuel density variation. For example, the determination module 105 may determine that the fuel is fossil kerosene (e.g., substantially 100% fossil kerosene) if the measured fuel density is that associated with a fossil kerosene fuel without SAF present. In other examples, the fuel characteristics determined may include hydrocarbon distribution of the fuel, or aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel. In other examples, the fuel density determined from the mass and volume measurements may be considered a fuel characteristic determined by the fuel characteristic determination system 102.

In the example illustrated in , a mass flow rate and a volume flow rate of fuel are measured in the fuel flowing in a conduit leading to the fuel tanks on board the aircraft. In some examples, the mass sensor is arranged to measure the mass of fuel stored in aircraft fuel tanks during loading, or after it has been loaded. For example, the mass sensor 103 can be arranged to measure an increase in weight of the aircraft 1 when fuel is loaded, or an increase in weight of its own fuel tanks 53, 55 when they are filled with fuel. The fuel characteristic determination module 105 may in such examples base the fuel characteristic on a total mass of fuel loaded for a flight, or the mass per unit time loaded on the aircraft, associated with a measured mass change. . The same applies to the volume sensor 104. In some examples therefore, the volume sensor 104 may be arranged to determine a volume of fuel stored in the fuel tanks of the aircraft. For example, the volume sensor 104 may include one or more level sensors arranged to measure a fuel level within the or each fuel tank of the aircraft. The volume of fuel stored can then be determined. The determination module 105 may in such examples base the fuel characteristic(s) on a total volume, or volume per unit time, of fuel loaded on the aircraft. The determination module can therefore more generally receive a signal indicative of the mass and/or volume of fuel (e.g., a weight or level measurement), rather than a direct mass or volume measurement.

In various examples, determining the mass of the fuel may include measuring the mass and/or a change in the mass of any one or more of: the aircraft; one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft; a fuel tank vehicle from which the fuel is supplied; or a storage tank from which fuel is supplied to the aircraft. Determining the volume of fuel may include measuring the volume and/or a change in the volume of fuel: (a) stored in one or more fuel tanks on board the aircraft; and/or (b) stored in a fuel storage tank from which fuel is supplied to the aircraft.

In the example illustrated in , the determination system 102 is located entirely on board the aircraft 1. In other examples, which may not be the case, with one or more components of the determination system 102 not being located on the aircraft 1. For example, the mass and volume sensors 103, 104 and the determination module 105 may be included in a dedicated unit which is separate from the aircraft 1. In some examples, the fuel characteristics determination system 102 can be located entirely outside the aircraft. In such an example, the fuel characteristic determination module 105 may determine a fuel characteristic which is then communicated to the aircraft 1 (e.g., to an engine or engine control module 10). In this example, a data transfer link may be provided (e.g., a wireless or wired data connection) and may be used to communicate fuel characteristics to the aircraft from the fuel characteristics determination system 102. In some examples, data transfer can be done manually by a user, e.g. e.g., a technician or other system operator can obtain the fuel characteristics from the determination system 102 and manually provide them to a control module on board the aircraft.

In some examples, some of the components of the system 102 may be located at the fuel delivery tank 60 (e.g., on board a fuel tanker vehicle). For example, the sensors 103, 104 can be located within the fuel supply line 61, and the fuel characteristics determination module 105 located on board the aircraft 1. In such an example, measurements of mass and volume can be communicated to the determination unit on board the aircraft using any suitable data connection (wired or wireless). In certain examples, the mass and volume sensors 103, 104 can be arranged to measure the mass and/or the volume of fuel which is extracted from the storage tank 60 connected to the aircraft 1. In one example, the sensor mass 103 can be arranged to determine the mass of fuel supplied to the aircraft by measuring a change in weight of the fuel storage tank 60, or a vehicle on which the fuel storage tank 60 is transported. Likewise, the volume sensor 104 may include a level sensor arranged to measure the level of fuel contained in the fuel storage tank 60. Measurements made on or associated with the fuel storage tank may be used to determine a total mass and /or a total volume, or a mass per unit time and/or a volume per unit time of fuel supplied to the aircraft.

In some examples, the fuel characteristic determination module 105 is arranged to determine one or more fuel characteristics based at least in part on a fuel temperature. This may allow the variation in fuel density caused by changes in fuel temperature to be distinguished from those associated with the fuel characteristic(s) being determined. In certain examples, the determination module 105 is arranged to obtain a signal indicative of a current fuel temperature, for example, from a fuel temperature sensor arranged to directly measure the fuel temperature, or a fuel temperature sensor. ambient temperature.

In the examples currently described, the fuel characteristics determination module 105 is arranged to determine one or more fuel characteristics based solely on the fuel mass and the fuel volume determined. In other examples, the determination module 105 may be arranged to combine the fuel mass and fuel volume information with inputs from other sensors or other methods of determining fuel characteristics as described elsewhere herein. . This may allow a wider range of fuel characteristic types to be inferred, or may improve the accuracy of determining fuel characteristics.

There illustrates a method 1002 of determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel which can be performed by the fuel characteristic determination system 102 illustrated in the . The method 1002 includes determining 1003 a mass of fuel being loaded (or which has been loaded) on the aircraft 1; determining 1004 a fuel volume of the fuel loaded (or which has been loaded) on the aircraft 1; and determining 1005 one or more fuel characteristics based on the determined mass and volume of the fuel. Mass and volume measurements can be carried out during a fueling process, e.g. e.g., to measure a mass and/or volume of fuel as it is loaded onto the aircraft, or the total mass and/or volume of fuel that has been loaded onto the aircraft once that refueling is complete (e.g., before aircraft operation).

The fuel mass determination 1003 may include measuring a mass flow rate at a point within a fuel delivery line used to deliver fuel to the fuel tanks 53, 55 of the aircraft. As discussed above, the point at which the mass flow rate is measured may be any point upstream of one or more fuel tanks 53, 55 on board the aircraft 1. For example, the fuel flow rate may be measured at a point on board the aircraft through which fuel loaded on the aircraft travels to reach the fuel tank(s). In other embodiments, fuel flow may be measured at a point in a fuel loading system (i.e., not on the aircraft) such as a point within a fuel loading line 61 connected to the aircraft.

Determination 1004 of fuel volume may include measuring a volume flow rate at a point within a fuel delivery line used to deliver fuel to the fuel tanks 53, 55 of the aircraft. As discussed above, the point at which the volume flow rate is measured can be any point upstream of one or more fuel tanks 53, 55 on board the aircraft 1 similar to the measurement of the mass flow rate. The volume flow rate can be measured at a position similar to or adjacent to the mass flow rate.

As discussed above, in some examples, determining 1003 the mass of fuel may include measuring the mass or a change in the mass of the aircraft 1, one or more fuel tanks 53, 55 on board the aircraft. aircraft to which fuel is supplied, a tanker vehicle from which fuel is supplied, or a fuel storage tank 60 from which it is supplied. The change in weight of the aircraft 1, fuel tanks 53, 55, tanker vehicle, or fuel storage tank 60 may be used to determine a mass flow rate per unit time, or total mass, of loaded fuel on aircraft 1 for comparison with a corresponding volume measurement.

The step 1004 of determining the volume of fuel may include measuring the volume or a change in volume of fuel within one or more fuel tanks 53, 55 on board the aircraft 1 or the fuel storage tank. fuel 60. Measuring volume change may include measuring a fluid level within the respective fuel/tank in which the fuel is contained. The change in fuel level can be used to determine a volume per unit time, or total volume, of fuel loaded on the aircraft 1 for comparison with the corresponding mass measurement.

Determining 1005 one or more fuel characteristics may include comparing the determined fuel mass and fuel volume. As discussed previously, this may involve calculating 1006 a fuel density based on mass and volume. One or more fuel characteristics may be determined 1005 based on a comparison of the calculated fuel density with a known density value associated with fuel having known characteristics. The determined one or more fuel characteristics may be any of those described herein which are associated with a corresponding characteristic fuel density.

In the embodiment shown on the , one or more fuel characteristics are further determined 1007 based on a signal indicative of the fuel temperature. As discussed previously, the signal indicative of the fuel temperature may be from a sensor arranged to directly measure the fuel temperature, or a sensor arranged to measure the ambient temperature, or otherwise input to the determination module.

In the present example, characteristics of fuel when loaded on the aircraft can be determined. In such examples, one or more determined fuel characteristics may be communicated to the CEM 42 directly if run during fueling, or may otherwise be stored and communicated to the CEM when activated. If the CEM is not active when fuel characteristics are determined, they may be communicated to another aircraft control system.

When fuel specifications are determined for loading fuel onto the aircraft this fuel may be mixed with fuel already present in the fuel tanks (e.g., from previous flights). The fuel characteristics determined can therefore be combined with those determined from previous times the aircraft has been refueled in order to determine the characteristics of the fuel stored in the fuel tanks of the aircraft. This can be done using a summing process in which the amount of fuel loaded into the tanks, the amount of fuel used during each flight, and the corresponding characteristics of the fuel loaded are recorded and combined to determine the characteristics of fuel actually stored in the aircraft's tanks at any given time.

The inventors also found that fuel characteristics can be determined during operation of the gas turbine engine, rather than during fueling. There illustrates another example of a fuel characteristic determination system 106. In this example, the fuel characteristic determination system 106 is configured to determine one or more characteristics of the fuel being used by the gas turbine engine of the present application during the operation of the engine 10. The example of the therefore differs from that of the in that the mass and volume of fuel which is delivered to a combustion chamber of the engine are determined, e.g. e.g., the mass and volume can be measured while the fuel is burned by the gas turbine engine 10. More specifically, this can be the case during the flight of the aircraft 1 to which the gas turbine engines are mounted. gas 10, or during operation of the aircraft 1 while on the ground (e.g., while taxiing).

There illustrates a schematic view of a portion of the aircraft fuel system 65 and the combustion equipment 16 of the gas turbine engine 10. The combustion equipment 16 includes a plurality of fuel nozzles (not shown on there ) arranged to inject fuel into a combustion can. Fuel is supplied to the combustion equipment 16 by a fuel distribution regulator 107 under the control of the CEM 42. The fuel is distributed to the fuel distribution regulator 107 by a fuel pump 108 from a source of fuel 109 on board aircraft 1 (e.g., fuel tanks 53, 55 described above). The fuel distribution regulator 107 and the combustion equipment 16 (which may be simply called a combustion chamber) may be of known design, and may be arranged for staged (lean) combustion or rich-burn combustion.

The fuel characteristics determination system 106 illustrated in the generally comprises a fuel characteristics determination module 110, a mass sensor 111 and a volume sensor 112. The system 106 illustrated in the differs from that of the in that it is arranged to measure the mass and volume of fuel as it is supplied and burned by the combustion equipment 16 of the gas turbine engine 10 when the engine is operated, rather than when the fuel is loaded onto aircraft 1.

The aircraft 1 includes an aircraft fuel delivery system located on board the aircraft which is adapted to supply fuel F to each of the gas turbine engines 10 to be burned in the engine combustion equipment 16 as described above. The aircraft fuel delivery system is arranged to supply fuel to an engine fuel system provided on each of the gas turbine engines 10. The engine fuel system and the aircraft fuel delivery system together form the (overall) fuel system of the aircraft 1 in which fuel is stored, distributed to the engine, and consumed. The aircraft fuel system includes any component that can store fuel, or through which fuel flows during use or during refueling.

The mass sensor 111 is arranged to measure a mass flow rate of fluid supplied to the combustion equipment 16. In the example described here, the mass flow sensor 111 is arranged to measure the mass of fuel per unit of time. flowing between the fuel delivery regulator 107 and the combustion equipment 16. Any suitable mass flow meter can be used for the mass flow sensor 111, such as a Coriolis flow meter. The mass flow meter can be any mass flow meter which performs a mass measurement which is not a function of knowledge of the density of the fuel. The mass flow sensor 111 may be arranged to measure the mass flow of fuel at any point in the aircraft fuel system that is upstream of the combustion equipment 16 (e.g., upstream of the fuel nozzles fuel of the combustion equipment 16) and downstream of the fuel source 109 from which the fuel is brought on board the aircraft 1 (e.g., downstream of one or more fuel tanks 53, 55 forming the fuel source). In some examples, the mass flow is therefore measured at a point within the engine fuel system such as in a fuel conduit within or forming part of the gas turbine engine 10 (rather than being measured by a sensor provided on the aircraft 1 to which the gas turbine engine 10 is mounted). In some examples, the mass flow rate is measured at a point immediately before the fuel is consumed, e.g. e.g., immediately before it enters the combustion chamber. In still other embodiments, the mass flow rate is measured at a point within the aircraft fuel system, e.g. e.g., before it enters the gas turbine engine 10.

The volume sensor 112 is arranged to measure a volume flow rate of fluid supplied to the combustion equipment 16. In the example described here, the volume flow sensor is arranged to measure the volume of fuel per unit of elapsed time between the fuel delivery regulator 107 and the combustion equipment 16. Any suitable volume flow meter may be used for the volume flow sensor 112, such as a pressure or turbine type flow meter. The volume flow meter may be of a type which is arranged to measure the volume flow without taking into account a mass measurement. Likewise, the mass flow meter may be of a type which is arranged to measure the mass flow without taking into account a volume measurement. The volume and mass flow sensors can be of the same type as that described in the embodiment of the .

The volume flow sensor 112 may be arranged to measure the volume flow of fuel at any point in the aircraft fuel system that is upstream of the combustion equipment 16 (e.g., upstream of the fuel nozzles). fuel of the combustion equipment 16) and downstream of the fuel source 109 from which the fuel is supplied (e.g., downstream of one or more fuel tanks 53, 55 forming the fuel source) . It may therefore be at a position similar to or adjacent to the mass sensor 111 (e.g., upstream or downstream). In some examples, the volume flow rate is therefore also measured at a point within a fuel conduit within or forming part of the gas turbine engine 10 (rather than being measured by a sensor provided on the aircraft 1 to which the gas turbine engine 10 is mounted). In some examples, the volume flow rate is measured at a point immediately before the fuel is consumed in a manner similar to the mass flow rate, e.g. e.g., immediately before entering the combustion chamber 16. In some examples, the volume flow rate is measured as part of the aircraft fuel delivery system, before the fuel reaches the turbine engines at gas.

The fuel characteristics determination module 110 is in communication with the mass and volume sensors 111, 112, and is arranged to receive signals therefrom indicative of the mass and volume of fuel per unit time being burned by the combustion equipment 16. The fuel characteristics determination module 110 is arranged to determine one or more fuel characteristics of the fuel as a function of the mass and volume of fuel in a manner similar to the determination module 105 described in connection with the . For example, the determination module 110 can be arranged to calculate a fuel density from the signal indicative of the mass and volume of fuel based on which a fuel characteristic can be found as described above. As can be seen on the , the determination module 110 may transmit one or more fuel characteristics to the CEM 42. In other examples, it may be part of the CEM 42.

The fuel characteristic(s) determined by the fuel characteristic determination module 110 may be any of those described or claimed herein. To determine a fuel characteristic, the fuel characteristic determination module 110 is arranged to compare the mass of fuel and the volume of fuel and determine a corresponding fuel density (e.g., by dividing the mass flow rate by the flow rate volume). As fuels with different fuel characteristics will exhibit a known density variation, a characteristic of the fuel being loaded onto the aircraft 1 can be inferred. In some embodiments, the fuel characteristic may be determined by calculating a deviation from the density value that would be expected if the fuel were fossil kerosene. In other embodiments, the fuel characteristics determination module 110 may be arranged to access a look-up table defining a known dependence of fuel characteristics on fuel density. The measured fuel density can then be compared to the values in the lookup tables so that a fuel characteristic can be determined. The fuel characteristics determination module can therefore be operated in a manner corresponding to that of the .

In one example, the fuel characteristic may be the percentage of SAF in the fuel. The inventors observed that SAF has a lower density compared to fossil kerosene, and this difference can be used to infer the percentage of SAF present in the fuel based on a measurement of the density of the fuel when charged. on the aircraft. Other fuel characteristics may also have associated fuel density variation. For example, the fuel characteristic determination module 110 may determine that the fuel is fossil kerosene (e.g., substantially 100% fossil kerosene) if the measured fuel density is that associated with a fossil kerosene fuel without SAF present. In other examples, the fuel characteristics determined may include hydrocarbon distribution of the fuel, or aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel. In other examples, fuel density may be considered a fuel characteristic determined by fuel characteristic determination system 106.

In the example illustrated in , the mass sensor 111 and the volume sensor 112 are arranged to measure the flow of fuel passing through the engine fuel system. In other embodiments, the determination module 110 may be arranged to receive a signal indicative of mass and/or volume flow, which may not be a direct measurement of fuel flow. Such a signal may be an operating parameter of the fuel pump 108 such as the speed or discharge rate of the pump which has a known relationship to the mass and/or volume flow rate of fuel.

In some examples, the fuel characteristic determination module 110 is arranged to determine one or more fuel characteristics as a function of a fuel temperature in a manner similar to as described above. This may allow the variation in fuel density caused by changes in fuel temperature to be distinguished from those associated with the fuel characteristic(s) being determined. This may be important in examples where the fuel is heated above ambient temperature by a heat exchanger forming part of a thermal management system of the engine 10. Thus in some examples, the fuel characteristics determination module 110 is arranged to obtain a signal indicative of a current fuel temperature at the point where volume and/or mass are measured. The temperature may be measured by a fuel temperature sensor arranged to directly measure the fuel temperature, or an ambient temperature sensor. In other examples, the fuel characteristic determination module 110 may receive a signal indicative of fuel temperature that is inferred from other engine operating parameters rather than being based on direct measurement.

In the examples currently described, the fuel characteristics determination module 110 is arranged to determine one or more fuel characteristics based solely on the determined fuel mass and fuel volume obtained during operation of the turbine engine. gas 10. In other examples, the fuel characteristics determination module 110 may be arranged to combine the fuel mass and fuel volume information with inputs from other sensors or other methods for determining fuel characteristics. fuel characteristics as described elsewhere here. This may allow a wider range or types of fuel characteristics to be inferred, or improve the accuracy of determining fuel characteristics.

There illustrates a method 1008 of determining a fuel characteristic of an aviation fuel which can be performed by the fuel characteristic determination system 106 illustrated in the . The method 1008 includes: determining 1009 a mass of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber; determining 1010 a corresponding volume of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber; and determining 1011 one or more fuel characteristics based on the determined mass and volume. The mass and volume of fuel are determined during operation of the gas turbine engine.

As discussed previously, the determination 1009 of the mass of fuel comprises the determination of a mass flow rate of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber 16. The mass flow rate can be determined based on a measurement made by a mass flow meter 111 on fuel flowing to the combustion chamber 16. The mass flow rate can be measured at any point within the aircraft fuel system that is upstream of the combustion equipment 16. For example, upstream of the nozzles of fuel from the combustion equipment 16, and downstream of the fuel source 109 from which the fuel is supplied on board the aircraft 1 (e.g., downstream of one or more fuel tanks fuel 53, 55 forming the fuel source). In some examples, the mass flow rate may be measured at a point in a fuel line of the engine fuel system. The mass flow rate can be measured immediately before the fuel reaches the combustion chamber 16.

Determining 1010 the fuel volume includes determining a volume flow rate of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber 16. The volume flow rate may be determined 1010 based on a fuel flow measurement using a flow meter volume 112 as described above. The fuel volume flow meter 112 may be arranged to measure the volume flow at positions equivalent to those described above with reference to the mass flow meter.

In some examples, the mass and volume flow rates may be measured at positions close to each other or immediately upstream or downstream of each other, or at separate locations in the water delivery system. fuel. In any of the examples herein, mass and volume are measured for the same fuel flow, i.e., mass and volume are measured at positions on a flow path carrying the same fuel composition, and there are no additional sources of fuel wells in between. This makes it possible to meaningfully compare the measured flow rates. In examples where fuels of different compositions are stored in the aircraft fuel tanks 53, 55, the mass and volume sensors are located to measure the same fuel flow, e.g. e.g., the volume and mass sensors may be located in a pipe carrying fuel from tank 53, which may store fuel of a different composition than tank 55. In such an example, a pair of mass sensors and additional volume can be provided in a pipe carrying fuel from tank 55 so that the characteristics of each fuel can be measured independently.

In some examples, the fuel mass and fuel volume determination steps 1009, 1010 may include basing the determination on a signal from which the flow rate can be inferred rather than a direct measurement. In some examples, therefore, the determination of the mass or volume of fuel is a function of an operating parameter of the fuel pump 108 or another signal indicative of the mass/volume flow rate.

As discussed above, determining 1011 one or more fuel characteristics includes comparing the determined fuel mass and fuel volume. This may involve calculating 1012 a fuel density based on mass and volume. One or more fuel characteristics may be determined 1011 based on a comparison of the calculated fuel density with a known value associated with fuel having known characteristics. The determined one or more fuel characteristics may be any of those described herein which are associated with a corresponding characteristic fuel density.

In the embodiment shown on the , one or more fuel characteristics are further determined 1013 based on a signal indicative of the fuel temperature. As discussed previously, the signal indicative of the fuel temperature may be from a sensor arranged to directly measure the fuel temperature, or a sensor arranged to measure the ambient temperature, or otherwise input to the determination module from another source .

Fuel characteristics determined using any of the fuel characteristic determination systems or fuel characteristic determination methods in the examples herein may be used in the operation of the aircraft, and more specifically the operation of the aircraft's gas turbine engine(s). This can make it possible to modify the operation of the aircraft 1 in response to the determined fuel characteristic.

The present application therefore further provides a method 1065 of operating an aircraft 1 powered by one or more gas turbine engines 10 as illustrated in . The method 1065 may be a method of operating the aircraft 1 of any of the examples described here. The method 1065 includes determining 1066 one or more fuel characteristics. This may include the use of any of the methods described herein. The method 1065 further includes operating the aircraft 1 1067 according to one or more fuel characteristics. The operation of the aircraft 1067 may more specifically include the operation of the gas turbine engine(s) 10 mounted on the aircraft 1, but may include the operation of other parts of the aircraft.

Once one or more fuel characteristics are known, the gas turbine engine 10 or aircraft more generally can be controlled or operated in a variety of ways to take advantage of this knowledge. The gas turbine engine or aircraft operation step 1067 may include modifying 1067a a control parameter of the aircraft, and specifically a control parameter of the gas turbine engine, in response to one or more fuel characteristics. Changing the command parameter may include any one or more of the following:

i) Modifying a control parameter of a gas turbine engine thermal management system (e.g., fuel heat exchanger) based on one or more fuel characteristics. By modifying the operation of the heat exchanger the temperature of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber 16 of the engine 10. In one example, modifying the operation of the thermal management system or changing the temperature of the fuel may include increasing fuel temperature if fuel characteristics indicate that the fuel can tolerate operation at a higher temperature without risk of coking or thermal breakdown.

ii) When more than one fuel is stored on board an aircraft 1, modifying a control parameter which controls a selection of which fuel to use for which operations (e.g., for ground operations versus in flight, for low temperature start-up, or for operations with different thrust demands) depending on fuel characteristics such as %SAF, nVPM generation potential, viscosity and calorific value. A fuel delivery system of the aircraft can therefore be controlled appropriately based on fuel characteristics. The fuel delivery system may be controlled to supply the engine with fuel having a fuel characteristic different from that measured in step 1066. This may include, for example, providing fuel with a relatively lower aromatic content; the supply of fuel with a lower SAF content; or the supply of fossil fuel such as kerosene. Fuel delivery can be controlled by switching between fuel tanks, or changing a fuel mixture ratio.

iii) Modifying a control parameter to adjust one or more flight control surfaces of the aircraft 1, so as to change course and/or altitude based on knowledge of the fuel.

iv) Modifying a control parameter to change the fuel pump spill percentage (i.e., the proportion of pumped fuel that is recirculated rather than passed into the combustion chamber) of a system fuel of the aircraft according to one or more fuel characteristics, for example based on the %SAF of the fuel. The pump and/or one or more valves can therefore be controlled appropriately depending on the fuel characteristics.

v) Modifying a control parameter to change the timing of variable inlet guide vanes (VIGV) based on fuel characteristics. VIGVs can be moved, or a movement of VIGVs is canceled, if necessary depending on fuel characteristics.

In the above examples, the gas turbine engine or aircraft is operated under one or more fuel characteristics by making changes to the manner in which the aircraft or gas turbine engine is controlled during its operation. use. This can be done, for example, by a motor control system (such as the CEM 42) by making changes to various motor control parameters. Similar changes may be implemented by other aircraft control systems during use (e.g., during flight). The CEM may be more generally referred to as an example of a control system 42 arranged to control the operation of the aircraft (e.g., it may be a control module of a control system).

The present application further provides an aircraft 1 having a fuel characteristic determination system 102, 106 according to any one or more of the examples described or claimed herein. The aircraft 1 further comprises a control system arranged to control the operation of the aircraft according to one or more fuel characteristics determined by the fuel characteristic determination system. The control system may include the engine CEM 42, with which the fuel characteristics determination system may be in communication or partially integrated therein. In other examples, other control systems of the aircraft may be provided with fuel characteristics and the aircraft controlled accordingly.

Operating step 1067 of the gas turbine engine or aircraft according to one or more fuel characteristics may be performed automatically in response to the determination of fuel properties without any pilot intervention. In some examples, it may be performed after approval by a pilot, following notification to the pilot of a proposed change. In some examples, step 1067a may include automatically performing certain changes, and requesting others, depending on the nature of the change. In particular, changes that are "transparent" to the pilot – such as internal changes within engine flows that do not affect engine power output and would not be noticed by a pilot – can be made automatically, while any changes that the pilot notices may be notified to the pilot (i.e., a notification that the change will occur unless the pilot decides otherwise) or suggested to the pilot (i.e., the change will not occur not without positive input from the driver). In implementations where a notification or suggestion is provided to a pilot, it may be provided on an aircraft cockpit display, and/or sent to a separate device such as a portable tablet or a other computing device, and/or announced by means of an audible sound such as synthesized speech or a recorded message or a particular tone indicating the proposed/notified change.

In other examples, the step 1067 of operating the gas turbine engine according to one or more fuel characteristics may include providing 1067b to the gas turbine engine fuel having characteristics different from those of the fuel for which one or more fuel characteristics were measured in step 1066. This provision of a different fuel may include loading fuel having different fuel characteristics into the fuel tanks of the aircraft when refueling the aircraft.

In some embodiments, one or more determined fuel characteristics may include fuel density calculated from the mass and volume measurements. In such an example, the aircraft can be operated depending on fuel density.

It will be understood that the invention is not limited to the embodiments described above and various modifications and improvements can be made without departing from the concepts described here. Except where mutually exclusive, any of the features may be used separately or in combination with any other features and the description extends to and includes all combinations and sub-combinations of one or more of the features described herein .

Claims (13)

1 Method (1008) for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel suitable for powering a gas turbine engine (10) of an aircraft (1), the gas turbine engine (10) having a combustion chamber (16) to which fuel is supplied from a fuel system of the aircraft (65), the method being implemented by a fuel characteristic determination system (106) comprising a determination module fuel characteristic (110), a mass sensor (111) and a volume sensor (112), the method comprising:
determining (1009) a mass of the fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber (16);
determining (1010) a corresponding volume of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber (16); And
determining (1011) one or more fuel characteristics based on the determined mass and volume, including calculating (1012) a fuel density based on the determined fuel mass and fuel volume. 2 Method (1008) according to claim 1, wherein the determination (1009) of the mass of the fuel comprises the determination of a mass flow rate of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber, wherein the fuel system (65) comprises a engine fuel system forming part of the gas turbine engine (10), and the mass flow rate is measured at a point in a fuel conduit of the engine fuel system, preferably immediately before the fuel reaches the chamber combustion (16). 3 Method (1008) according to claim 2, wherein the mass flow rate is determined as a function of an operating parameter of a fuel pump (108) provided in the fuel system, or the mass flow rate is determined as a function a fuel flow measurement using a mass flow meter (111). 4 Method (1008) according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the determination (1010) of the volume of the fuel comprises the determination of a volume flow rate of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber (16), in which the system fuel (65) is an engine fuel system forming part of the gas turbine engine (10), and the volume flow rate is measured at a point in a fuel conduit of the engine fuel system, preferably immediately before the fuel does not reach the combustion chamber (16). 5 Method (1008) according to claim 4, wherein the volume flow rate is determined as a function of an operating parameter of a pump (108) provided in the fuel system or wherein the volume flow rate is determined as a function of 'a fuel flow measurement using a volume flow meter (112) 6 Method (1008) according to any one of the preceding claims, in which one or more determined fuel characteristics comprise any one or more of:
(i) distribution of hydrocarbon fuel;
(ii) a percentage of sustainable aviation fuel in the fuel; and or
(iii) an aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel. 7 Aircraft (1) comprising a fuel characteristic determination system (106) for determining one or more fuel characteristics of an aviation fuel suitable for powering a gas turbine engine (10) of the aircraft (1), further comprising a control system (42) arranged to control the operation of the aircraft (1) according to one or more fuel characteristics determined by the fuel characteristic determining system (106), the turbine engine gas engine (10) having a combustion chamber (16) to which fuel is supplied from a fuel system of the aircraft (65), the fuel characteristic determining system (106) comprising:
a fuel characteristics determination module (110) arranged to:
receiving a fuel mass signal indicating a mass of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber (16);
receiving a fuel volume signal indicative of a volume of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber (16); And
determining one or more fuel characteristics of the fuel based on the fuel volume and fuel mass signals. 8 Aircraft (1) according to claim 7, wherein the fuel characteristics determination module (110) is configured to calculate a fuel density as a function of the fuel mass signal and the fuel volume signal. 9 Aircraft (1) according to claim 7 or claim 8, further comprising:
a mass flow meter (111) arranged to measure a mass flow rate of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber (16) and in which the fuel mass signal is received from the mass flow meter (111); and or
a volume flow meter (112) arranged to measure a volume flow of fuel supplied to the combustion chamber (16) and in which the fuel volume signal is received from the volume flow meter (112), in which:
the mass flow meter (111) and/or the volume flow meter (112) are arranged to measure the fuel flow measured at a point in a fuel conduit of an engine fuel system of the gas turbine engine (10), preferably immediately before the fuel reaches the combustion chamber (16). 10 Aircraft (1) according to any one of claims 7 to 9, in which:
the fuel system (65) further comprises a fuel pump (108) arranged to supply fuel to the combustion chamber (16), and
the fuel mass signal and/or the fuel volume signal are a function of an operating parameter of the fuel pump (108). 11 Aircraft (1) according to any one of claims 7 to 10, in which one or more determined fuel characteristics comprise any one or more of:
(i) distribution of hydrocarbon fuel;
(ii) a percentage of sustainable aviation fuel in the fuel; and or
(iii) an aromatic hydrocarbon content of the fuel. 12 Method (1065) of operating an aircraft (1) having a gas turbine engine (10), the method comprising:
determining (1066) one or more fuel characteristics using the method according to any one of claims 1 to 6; And
operation (1067) of the aircraft (1) based on one or more fuel characteristics. 13 Method according to claim 12, wherein the operation of the aircraft (1) according to one or more fuel characteristics comprises:
a) modifying (1067b) a control parameter of the aircraft (1), preferably a control parameter of the gas turbine engine (10), in response to one or more fuel characteristics; and or
b) providing (1067b) a fuel having different fuel characteristics during refueling of the aircraft (1).