EP2909135A1

EP2909135A1 - Layer-by-layer surface functionalization of catalyst-free fullerene nanostructures and the applications thereof

Info

Publication number: EP2909135A1
Application number: EP12841875.3A
Authority: EP
Inventors: Chunhong Li; David J. Ruggieri
Original assignee: Ruggieri David J; Nanoselect Inc
Current assignee: Ruggieri David J; Nanoselect Inc
Priority date: 2011-10-18
Filing date: 2012-10-15
Publication date: 2015-08-26
Also published as: WO2013059107A1

Abstract

Fullerene nanostructures produced using a catalyst- free Carbo Thermal Carbon Conversion process may be protected and functionalized using a layer-by-layer method whereby functional groups on the nanostmcture surface may be further derivatized to incorporate additional functional moieties. Exemplary moieties include redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, DNA or RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, quantum dots and nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, or other cellular components. The density of functional groups or functional moieties on carbon nanostmcture surfaces may also be controlled as well as the degree of surface hydrophilicity of the nanostmcture. Fullerene nanostmctures functionalized using such a layer-by-layer method may be used to disperse, sort, separate and purify fullerene nanostmctures and may also be used as sensing elements such as voltametric, amperometric, and potentiometric pH sensors or as biometric sensing elements and electrodes and intracorporeal sensors and electrodes.

Description

LAYER-BY-LAYER SURFACE FUNCTIONALIZATION OF CATALYST-FREE FULLERENE NANOSTRUCTURES AND THE APPLICATIONS THEREOF

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] The present application is co-pending with and is a continuation-in-part application of International Application Serial No. PCT/US 12/054399 filed on September 10, 2012 which claims the priority benefit of the provisional application entitled "Layer- by-Layer Carbon Nanostructure Surface Functionalization and the Applications of Such Functionalized Nanostructures," Application Serial No. 61/533,310, filed on September 12, 2011, the entirety of each being incorporated herein by reference. The present application is co-pending with and claims the priority benefit of the provisional application entitled "Surface Modification and Functionalization of Fullerene

Nanostructures," Application Serial No. 61/548,559, filed on October 18, 2011, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference. The present application is copending with and related to the non-provisional application entitled, "Carbon

Nanostructure Electrochemical Sensor and Method," International Application Serial No. PCT/US 12/054565, filed on September 11, 2012.

FIELD OF DISCLOSURE

[0002] The disclosed system and method generally relate to a layer-by-layer surface functionalization of carbon nanostructures. The disclosed system and method relate to layer-by-layer surface functionalization of carbon nanostructures and the application of such functionalized carbon nanostructures as sensing elements. More specifically, the disclosed system and method relate to the surface modification and functionalization of fullerene nanostructures produced using a Carbo Thermal Carbide Conversion process whereby exemplary fullerene nanostructures are rendered hydrophilic and free from non-specific adsorption. BACKGROUND

[0003] Interest has grown in utilizing carbon nano structures including carbon nanotubes (CNT), a type of fullerene nanostructure, in sensing applications due to the unique mechanical, electrical and optical properties of CNTs. One method for producing CNTs employs small particles of a metal catalyst, such as, but not limited to, nickel, cobalt and iron, to catalyze the decomposition of a carbon-containing gas thereby causing the growth of CNTs on each metal particle. A different process named Carbo Thermal Carbide Conversion in which no metal catalyst is utilized may also produce CNTs in large quantities. In Carbo Thermal Carbide Conversion, a carbide starting material (e.g., silicon carbide, etc.) may be heated at an elevated temperature in a chamber while a reactive gas or an admixture of gases is passed through the chamber to actively remove silicon by-products. During the process, the carbide is converted to carbon

nanostructures such as CNTs. Nano structures produced via this method may be used as an electrode material as disclosed in patent application number 12/889,019 the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0004] Pristine CNTs and CNTs grown on a carbide substrate are generally hydrophobic and individual CNTs tend to bundle together due to van der Waals forces. Efforts have been made to covalently graft chemical functions to the surface of CNTs for various applications in attempts to impart new properties to these CNTs. For example, one conventional practice to impart new properties to CNTs is to first oxidize CNT powder in HNO₃ solution or oxygen plasma resulting in -OH and -COOH groups on the CNT surface. Functional groups may then be introduced via amide or ester bond formation. These as-functionalized CNTs may then be used as a powder or in a composite to enhance electrical or mechanical properties in various applications. While a viable approach to introduce -OH and -COOH groups on a CNT surface, an oxidation of the CNT surface may damage the CNT tube structure. Further, some C=C double bonds in the CNT may be altered or broken for any type of subsequent covalent

functionalization on the CNT surface thereby leaving pits in the CNT surface structure and modifying both the mechanical and electrical properties of the CNT. Furthermore, such a conventional process does not readily control the degree of functionalization and the density of the introduced functional groups.

[0005] Another conventional practice to impart new properties to CNTs includes non-covalent functionalization of CNTs such as dispersion and solubilization of CNT powders using surfactants and polymers. WO 03/050332 describes a preparation of CNT dispersions in liquid, WO 02/16257 describes a polymer wrapped, single-walled CNT, WO 03/102020 describes a method for obtaining peptides that bind to a CNT and other carbon nanostructures, WO 02/095099 describes non-covalent sidewall functionalization of CNTs, and WO 07/013872 describes the use of non-covalently functionalized CNTs as a sensing composition. Generally, the non-covalent approach relies upon favorable interactions between adsorbed molecules and CNT sidewalls, namely, van der Waals, π- π, and CH-π interactions. As no covalent bond is formed between the adsorbed molecules and CNT sidewalls, non-covalent functionalization of CNTs using these conventional approaches most likely results in little disturbance to the π system in a CNT and thus minimal alteration to the mechanical, electrical and spectroscopic properties of CNTs. These non-covalent approaches typically perform well in dispersing and solubilizing CNT powders, and such approaches generally include mechanical force processes such as ultrasonication and/or mechanical milling to form such powders.

[0006] An additional conventional approach to impart new properties to harness the superior properties of CNTs is to grow CNTs on a substrate, functionalize these CNTs on the substrate, and then use the resulting carbon nanostmcture on the substrate as an electrode material. For example, a thin film of a metal catalyst such as nickel, cobalt or iron may first be deposited on a silicon substrate with a titanium adhesion or barrier layer. This film may then be annealed at high temperature leading to the formation of small metal particles on the substrate. Feed gases such as acetylene, hydrogen and argon are introduced and contact the surface of each particle of metal catalyst whereby CNTs grow from the particles. The metal catalyst particles may then serve as conducting contacts between the CNTs and the substrate. These grown CNTs, however, are unstable toward strongly oxidizing agents including HNO₃. For example, when these grown CNTs are treated with an HNO₃ solution, CNTs are lost from the substrate as the metal catalyst is oxidized and consumed. Therefore, to maintain the structural integrity of the carbon nanostructure on a substrate and the electric contact between a CNT and the substrate, the metal catalyst particles must first be protected from strong oxidizing agents and/or the functionalization of CNTs on a respective substrate conducted under mild conditions.

[0007] While conventional non-covalent processes described above may result in the protection and functionalization of carbon nanostructures, it is unclear what surfactants, polymers or peptides are suitable for various applications. Further, if mechanical force processes such as ultrasonication and/or mechanical milling are required for the non-covalent functionalization, such processes are unsuitable for carbon nanostructures on a substrate as these structures are known to peel off from the substrate upon ultrasonication. Furthermore, when CNTs are dispersed and functionalized with general surfactants and polymers, the control of the deposition thickness of surfactants and/or polymers is difficult. Additionally, most surfactants and polymers used for CNT dispersion and functionalization are non-conducting and introduce an uncontrolled amount of foreign materials (e.g., conducting or non-conducting) to the respective CNT surface which may compromise any superior electrical properties of the CNT. Thus, for sensing applications, it is important that functionalized carbon nanostructures are free from non-specific adsorption. For example, serum albumin, an abundant plasma protein in mammal, forms complexes with CNT whereby the binding leads to quenching of the band gap fluorescence of CNT. An uncontrolled thickness of surface deposition of polymers or proteins may effectively block access to or shield the CNT from the environment. Thus, in such instances, the CNT would cease to function as sensing element. Therefore, a need exists in the art for a well-controlled surface functionalization of carbon nanostructures without altering the superior properties of such carbon nanostructures and provide exemplary nanostructures for biometric and other industry usage. Thus, it is desirable to overcome the limitations of the prior art and provide a carbon nanostructure having fimctionalized layers and utilize such structures as sensors and the like.

SUMMARY

[0008] Embodiments of the present subject matter may protect and functionalize carbon nanostructures using a layer-by-layer approach. For example, various functional groups and functional moieties may be introduced onto the carbon nanostructure surface platform thereby resulting in carbon nanostructures suitable for various applications. Embodiments of the present subject matter may also control the thickness of the functionalization layer thereby resulting in minimal alteration of the intrinsic electrical and optical properties of such carbon nanostructures. Additionally, embodiments of the present subject matter may adjust the density of introduced functional groups and functional moieties and may modulate the degree of surface hydrophilicity of the functionalized carbon nanostructures. Functionalized carbon nanostructures formed according to exemplary embodiments may then be stable and robust in resisting fouling (e.g., mineral deposition and biofouling) when used in aqueous applications. For example, one embodiment of the present subject matter includes a stable CNT

electrochemical sensor which is adaptable to determine free chlorine, bromine, chlorine dioxide and ozone concentrations in flowing tap water.

[0009] Another embodiment of the present subject matter finds applicability as a voltammetric pH sensor when a pH responsive redox mediator moiety is introduced onto a CNT surface. This resulting CNT electrode may then be used in a buffer solution with high ionic strength and/or a non-buffered tap water solution. A further embodiment of the present subject matter provides a functionalized CNT-based potentiometric pH sensor for flowing tap water with low conductivity. Such an exemplary functionalized CNT electrode may be employed to monitor molecular binding or interaction events on an electrode surface in electrochemical impedance spectroscopy or in a field-effect transistor (FET) device (e.g., ion-selective FET and solution-gate FET). Pristine CNTs may also be dispersed and functionalized using an exemplary layer-by-layer approach for CNT sorting, separation and purification; and, exemplary surface functionalized CNTs according to embodiments of the present subject matter may be utilized as optical sensors by harnessing the unique spectroscopic properties of CNT such as optical absorption, luminescence and Raman scattering.

[0010] One embodiment of the present subject matter provides a layer-by- layer protection and functionalization of a carbon nanostructure by subjecting carbon nanostmctures to a composition comprising an alkyl protective moiety under conditions that permit the formation of an alkyl protective moiety layer adjacent to the carbon nanostructure. Various functional groups and functional moieties may subsequently be introduced to form a second layer above the alkyl protective moiety layer. These introduced functional groups and functional moieties may, in other embodiments, undergo further transformations to incorporate additional layers and/or functionalities to the respective carbon nanostructure surface.

[0011] A further embodiment of the present subject matter provides a method for the protection of carbon nanostmctures such as fullerene nanostmctures. The method may include protecting the surface of such a stmcture, e.g., a carbon and metal catalyst on a substrate, by contacting the nanostmctures with a composition comprising an alkyl protective moiety under conditions that permit the formation of an alkyl protective moiety layer disposed directly adjacent to at least a portion of the metal catalyst, the carbon, or both.

[0012] An additional embodiment of the present subject matter provides a method for subsequent surface functionalization of carbon nanostmctures, such as fullerene nanostmctures, comprising forming a second layer and/or third layer on nanostmctures that have been protected with an alkyl protective moiety layer. Exemplary

functionalization may include, but is not limited to, the introduction of various functional groups such as -OH, -COOH, -NH₂, -NHR, -SH, -S-S-R, -C≡CH, -N₃, -CN, -CHO, -CONH-NH₂, a maleimido group, epoxide, and other functional moieties such as redox mediator stmctures. Of course, these functional groups may be further derivatized to form covalent bonds with other functional moieties including, but not limited to, redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides (DNAs and RNAs), DNA or RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, quantum dots and nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, and other cellular components, either before or after the formation of the second layer on carbon

nanostmcture surfaces. Thus, such a disclosure should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith.

[0013] Embodiments of the present subject matter may also control the density of specific functional groups and functional moieties on carbon nanostmcture surfaces and may control the degree of hydrophilicity of functionalized carbon nanostmcture surfaces. Exemplary methods may be provided to constmct a hydrophilic platform on the surface of a CNT and carbon nanostmcture. Functional groups and/or moieties such as redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides (DNAs and RNAs), DNA or RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, quantum dots and nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, and other cellular components, may then be introduced on the hydrophilic surface via covalent bond formation that is free from non-specific adsorption.

[0014] Exemplary devices formed using embodiments of the present subject matter may include, but are not limited to, voltametric pH sensors using a layer-by-layer functionalization of carbon nanostmcture surface having, for example, redox mediator molecules that require proton participation for their redox reactions (redox peak potential shift and the solution pH adhere to the Nernst Equation), a surface-functionalized CNT- based potentiometric pH sensor, and an amperometric pH sensor, to name a few.

[0015] Another embodiment of the present subject matter provides a method of functionalizing carbon nanostmctures. The method may include providing a carbon nanostmcture having a first protective layer on a surface of the stmcture and forming a functional second layer over the first protective layer, where the second layer comprises a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

[0016] One embodiment of the present subject matter provides a carbon

nanostmcture having a substrate with one or more carbon nanotubes situated on a surface of the substrate. A first protective layer may cover portions of the substrate, and a functional second layer may be situated over the first protective layer. This second layer may comprise a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

[0017] A further embodiment of the present subject matter provides a method of controlling the density of functional groups or functional moieties on a surface of a carbon nanostructure. The method may include providing a carbon nanostructure having a first protective layer on a surface of the structure and forming a functional second layer over the first protective layer, the second layer having a controllable density of functional groups or functional moieties. The density may be controlled by applying bipolar molecules having a predetermined ratio of functional groups or functional moieties.

[0018] An additional embodiment of the present subject matter provides a method of modulating hydrophilicity of a carbon nanostructure. The method may include providing a carbon nanostructure having a first protective layer on a surface of the structure, and forming a hydrophilic second layer over the first protective layer using compounds having one or more -OH groups, -NH₂ groups or -NH- groups.

[0019] In one embodiment, electrodes comprising fullerene nanostructures may be produced via a catalyst- free process where the nanostructure surface has been modified by contacting the nanostructures with a composition comprising an alkyl moiety under conditions that permit the formation of an alkyl moiety layer and by introducing various functional groups and functional moieties to form a second layer above the first layer. These functional groups and functional moieties may further undergo transformations to covalently incorporate additional layers and/or functionalities to the fullerene

nanostructure surface. Exemplary functionalities include, but are not limited to, redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides (DNAs and RNAs), DNA or RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, quantum dots and nanoparticles either before or after the formation of the second layer on fullerene nanostructure surfaces.

[0020] In another embodiment, a method is provided for functionalizing a fullerene nanostructure. The method may include producing a fullerene nanostructure on a substrate using a catalyst- free process and forming a first protective layer on a surface of the fullerene nanostructure. A functional second layer may be formed over the first protective layer where the second layer comprises a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

[0021] In a further embodiment, a nanostructure is provided having a substrate with one or more fullerene structures situated on a surface of the substrate and a first protective layer covering portions of the fullerene structures and the substrate. A functional second layer is provided over the first protective layer where the second layer comprises a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

[0022] An additional embodiment provides a nanostructure having a substrate with one or more fullerene structures situated on a surface of the substrate. A first protective layer covers portions of the fullerene structures and the substrate, and a functional second layer covers the first protective layer where the second layer comprises a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

[0023] One embodiment provides a method for sensing an electrochemical species in an environment. The method may include providing an electrochemical sensor, the sensor having a reference electrode and a sensing electrode with a fullerene

nanostructure. The sensing electrode is disposed between a first contact and a second contact. A potential may be applied across the reference and sensing electrodes, and current resulting from the applied potential measured. Concentration of an

electrochemical species in the environment may then be determined as a function of the measured current.

[0024] Yet another embodiment provides a device for measuring electrochemical species in a fluid. The device includes sensing and reference electrodes in

communication with a fluid. The sensing electrode may be disposed between a first electrical contact and a second electrical contact, and the sensing electrode may include one or more fullerene nano structures functionalized with a chemically stable moiety that measures concentration of an electrochemical species when a potential is applied across the first and second electrical contacts. [0025] These embodiments and many other objects and advantages thereof will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art to which the invention pertains from a perusal of the claims, the appended drawings, and the following detailed description of the embodiments.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0026] Figure 1 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary layer-by-layer approach to provide surface functionalization to a CNT and carbon nanostructure.

[0027] Figure 2 is an illustration of a general structure for a molecule with an attached anthraquinone functional moiety for CNT surface functionalization.

[0028] Figure 3 is an illustration of a hydrophilic CNT nanostructure surface with controllable density of anthraquinone moieties.

[0029] Figure 4 is a graphical depiction of a square wave voltammogram overlay of CNT nanostructures functionalized with different ratios of polyoxyethylene alkyl ether anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid conjugate and C12EG30 for the formation of a second layer, demonstrating the control of functional moiety (anthraquinone) density on functionalized CNT nanostructure surface.

[0030] Figure 5 is a schematic illustration of controlling the number of -OH groups in a bipolar molecule used for the formation of a second layer on a functionalized CNT surface.

[0031] Figure 6 is a schematic illustration of depositing a polyoxyethylene dialkyl ether on a CNT surface to form a second layer on a functionalized CNT surface.

[0032] Figure 7 is an illustration of an exemplary structure of a hydrophilic CNT nanostructure surface and a covalent functionalization of surface -OH groups with an activated anthraquinone ester.

[0033] Figure 8 is a graphical depiction of a square wave voltammogram overlay of differently functionalized CNT nanostructure electrodes.

[0034] Figure 9 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary layer-by-layer introduction of various functional groups onto a CNT nanostructure surface. [0035] Figure 10 is a graphical depiction of a square wave voltammogram overlay for various embodiments of the present subject matter.

[0036] Figure 11 is a graphical depiction of a square wave voltammogram overlay of a CNT nanostmcture electrode functionalized with anthraquinone in buffer solutions at various pHs.

[0037] Figure 12 is a plot of anthraquinone square wave voltammogram redox peak potential versus buffer solution pH for a CNT nanostmcture electrode

functionalized via an embodiment of the present subject matter.

[0038] Figure 13 is a graphical depiction of an open circuit potential of a CNT nanostmcture electrode functionalized using an embodiment of the present subject matter.

[0039] Figure 14 is a plot of open circuit potential versus pH for flowing tap water using an embodiment of the present subject matter.

[0040] Figure 15 is a depiction of how untreated CNTs exhibit poor wettability.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0041] With reference to the figures, where like elements have been given like numerical designations to facilitate an understanding of the present subject matter, the various embodiments of devices and methods for layer-by-layer carbon nanostmcture surface functionalization are described.

[0042] Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) possess high tensile strength and elastic modulus but are somewhat subject to oxidation reactions. Such oxidation reactions may arise from the vulnerability of covalent sp bonds between individual carbon atoms in CNTs to oxidation when the bonds are not part of aromatic conjugation system. Further, defects in CNT nanostmctures are especially prone to oxidative damage and the electronic properties of CNTs may be severely affected by stmctural damages in CNTs.

Accordingly, there is a need to protect CNTs from oxidation to preserve the stmctural and electronic integrity of the CNTs on substrates. While CNTs are generally regarded as a superior electrode material, grown CNTs are typically hydrophobic. While reference may be made to specific CNTs herein, the claims appended herewith should not be so limited as it is envisioned that embodiments of the present subject matter are applicable to any type CNT such as, but not limited to, fullerene nanostmctures, single-walled CNTs (SWCNT), multi-walled CNTs (MWCNT), conductive, semi-conductive, or insulated CNTs, and chiral, achiral, open headed, capped, budded, coated, uncoated,

functionalized, anchored, or unanchored CNTs, and the like. Hydrophobicity may present a wetting problem when CNTs are used as an electrode material in an aqueous medium as untreated CNT surfaces may behave as non-conducting or resistive due to the lack of contact with electrolyte solution. Figure 15 is a depiction of how untreated CNTs exhibit poor wettability. With reference to Figure 15, as-grown CNT patterns may trap air bubbles rendering the surfaces of individual CNTs inaccessible to an electrolytic aqueous solution. As a result, it may be difficult to control the effective electrode surface area for electrochemical detection. Further, a low current response may result in difficult calibration of an associated sensor or device and difficult quantification of analyte concentration in a respective aqueous solution. Thus, for CNTs to remain conductive in aqueous medium, it may be necessary to control their surface hydrophobicity. Thus, hydrophobicity may make such CNTs unsuitable for aqueous applications, especially in aqueous solutions with low ionic concentrations. Embodiments of the present subject matter, however, may chemically modify a CNT surface to impart a certain degree of hydrophilicity. Additionally, the use of CNTs as an electrode material is challenging as good contact between the CNT and a conductive surface or electric lead structure must be established. In this regard, CNTs have been used in a composite format with carbon powder on glassy carbon as an electrode material; however, such a mixture of CNT with carbon powder and a composite binder may result in uncertain electrical properties for the CNT.

[0043] Another issue with hydrophobic CNTs is non-specific adsorption. For example, as foreign material is non-specifically and uncontrollably adsorbed onto the nanostructure surface, electrical and optical properties of the nanostructure may be altered thus resulting in poor long-term stability for a respective sensing element. Further, an uncontrolled thickness of surface deposition of polymers or proteins (e.g., protein multi-layers) may also effectively block access to or shield a CNT from the environment thereby rendering the CNT inoperable as a sensing element.

[0044] Embodiments of the present subject matter may grow CNTs on a substrate with an established electric contact. For example, a metal catalyst such as, but not limited to, nickel on top of a titanium adhesion/barrier layer may be deposited on a silicon substrate and annealed at a high temperature to form small catalyst particles. Of course, any type of metal catalyst may be employed in embodiments of the present subject matter and the claims appended herewith should not be limited to the example above. Using chemical vapor deposition techniques, CNTs may grow from the catalyst particles and establish electric contact between the grown CNT and substrate. In copending International Application No. PCT/US2010/056350, entitled, "Protection and Surface Modifications of Carbon Nanostructures," having an international filing date of November 11, 2010, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference, the use of an alkyl protective moiety forming an alkyl protective moiety layer to protect the metal catalyst particles (i.e., the electric contact between CNT and substrate) is described. This application generally describes a carbon nanostructure employed as an electrode for the determination of free chlorine and total chlorine concentrations in water.

[0045] Figure 1 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary layer-by-layer approach to provide surface functionalization to a CNT and carbon nanostructure. With reference to Figure 1, to exploit the superior electrical and optical properties of CNTs,

embodiments of the present subject matter may covalently attach additional functional groups or functional moieties such as redox mediators and enzyme molecules on top of an exemplary protective layer for the detection of other analytes of interest using a layer- by-layer approach. In step one, grown CNTs 10 on a substrate 12 may be contacted with a composition comprising an alkyl protective moiety under conditions that permit the formation of an alkyl protective layer 15 disposed directly adjacent to at least a portion of the metal catalyst 14 and/or the carbon nanotubes 16. An exemplary alkyl protective moiety may include, but is not limited to, a compound such as an alkane. Non-limiting examples of alkanes include n-octadecane, n-dodecane, eicosane and hexatriacontane. Of course, these examples of alkanes should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith. The alkyl protective layer 15 may have a thickness in the range of, for example, from about 1 nm to about 500 nm, about 10 nm to about 300 nm, about 50 nm to about 250 nm, or about 50 nm to about 100 nm. At this stage, the CNT surface having the first protective layer 15 may be hydrophobic.

[0046] One non-limiting method for the deposition of the first hydrophobic protective layer on an exemplary CNT nanostructure on a substrate may include depositing a solution comprising n-octadecane (10 mM in tetrahydrofuran (THF), 2 x 5μΙ ) onto CNTs on a silicon substrate using standard procedures. Upon drying the solvent in air, the treated sample may be placed in a small vial (I.D. ~2.5 cm) and the vial purged with an Argon stream for 30 seconds and then securely capped. This capped vial may be heated at 120°C for 16-24 h, and the sample then cooled to ambient temperature in the capped vial. The sample may then be removed from the vial with forceps and rinsed with THF before drying in air. At this stage, the CNT may be highly hydrophobic with the alkyl protective layer (first layer) in place. Of course, this exemplary method should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith and is presented simply for representative purposes only.

[0047] In step two, other functional groups 17 and functional moieties may then be introduced above this first protective, hydrophobic layer 15, leading to the formation of a second layer 18. One non-limiting method for the second layer functionalization of a CNT nanostructure on a substrate may include providing a CNT nanostructure on a silicon substrate with the first alkyl protective layer in place, followed by depositing a solution of bipolar molecules or a mixture of bipolar molecules with desired functional groups or functional moieties onto the first layer (e.g., 10 mM in THF, 2 x 5μΙ ). Upon drying the solvent in air, the treated sample may be placed in a small vial (I.D. ~2.5 cm) and the vial purged with an Argon stream for 30 seconds and then securely capped. This capped vial may be heated at 80~120°C for 16-24 h, and the sample cooled to ambient temperature in the capped vial. The sample may then be removed from the vial with forceps and rinsed with a solvent to remove excess deposition before drying in air.

Again, this exemplary method should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith and is presently simply for representative purposes only. With the second layer in place, the CNT nanostmcture on the substrate may be used as an electrode if no additional functional groups derivatization is required.

[0048] In one embodiment, it may be advantageous to use a bipolar molecule (or a mixture of bipolar molecules) where favorable hydrophobic-hydrophobic interaction assists the anchoring of the bipolar molecule onto the first layer 15 with the polar groups exposed for additional manipulation if necessary. An exemplary bipolar molecule may be represented by a compound having the general formula (I):

(I)

in which:

Ri represents hydrogen or a Ci_-50 straight or branched alkyl or alkenyl, which is optionally substituted with one or more halogen atoms;

R₂ represents a single bond, an aromatic or alicyclic group, -(OCH₂CH₂)_m-,

- (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_M-, or -[OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_M- where m and n are each independently 0 to 500;

X represents hydrogen, halogen, maleimido group, epoxide, -C=CH, -N_;

CN, -OH, -OSO₃ ^", -OR, -SH, -SR, -S-S-R, -SO₃H, -SO₃R, -SO₃ ^~, -PO₃H₂, -PO₃H^~, - (PO₃)^2~, -P(=O)(-OR)(OR"), -OPO₃H₂, -OPO₃H^", -O(PO₃)^2", -CHO, -COR, -COOH, - COO^", -COOR, -CONRR", -CONHNH₂, -NH₂, -NRR", -N(COR)R", -N⁺RR"R"', - N⁺C₅¾, - (OCH₂CH₂)_M-OR, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_M-OR, - [OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_M-OR, a polyol, a monosaccharide, a disaccharide or a polyethylene oxide derivative thereof;

R may be R_h R_JCCH^R, or -(CH₂)_NR₂X;

R, R", R" may each be independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl and cycloalkyl substituted by one or more hydroxyl groups, alkyl and cycloalkyl substituted by one or more carboxylic groups, - (CH₂CH₂O)_nR, - (CH₂CH₂CH₂O)_nR, or -[CH₂CH(CH₃)O]_nR;

p, q may each be independently an integral number between 0 and 10;

r, s may each be an integral number between 1 and 4, and 1< r+s <= 4; and V represents a single bond, C, CH, CH₂, Si, N, NH, P, (P=O) or O.

[0049] Any polyol may be selected for use as the X substituent in a compound of the formula (I) above. Polyols are compounds having multiple hydroxyl functional groups and may be, for example, diols, triols, tetrols, pentols, and the like. Non-limiting examples of polyols also include polyethylene glycol, pentaerythritol, ethylene glycol, glycerin pentaerythrityl, polyglycerol, sorbitan, polyethylene oxide derivatives of sorbitan, sugar alcohols, trimethylolethane, and trimethylolpropane, among others.

[0050] In another embodiment, the bipolar molecule may be represented by a compound having the eneral formula (II) with two sub-units connected by a linker:

in which:

R₂ represents a single bond, an aromatic or alicyclic group, -(OCH₂CH₂)_m-, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-, or -[OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m-, where m and n are each independently 0 to 500;

X represents hydrogen, halogen, maleimido group, epoxide, -C≡CH, -N₃, - CN, -OH, -OSO₃ ^", -OR, -SH, -SR, -S-S-R, -SO₃H, -SO₃R, -SO₃ ^~, -PO₃H₂, -PO₃H^", - (PO₃)^2", -P(=O)(-OR')(OR"), -OPO₃H₂, -OPO₃H^", -O(PO₃)^2~, -CHO, -COR, -COOH, - COO^", -COOR, -CONRR", -CONHNH₂, -NH₂, -NRR", -N(COR)R", -N⁺RR"R^m, - N⁺C₅¾, - (OCH₂CH₂)_m-OR, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-OR, - [OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m-OR, a polyol, a monosaccharide, a disaccharide or a polyethylene oxide derivative thereof;

R may be R_h R^CH^R, or -(CH₂)_nR₂X;

p, q may each be independently an integral number between 0 and 10;

t, v may each be an integral number between 1 and 3, u and w may each be an integral number between 0 and 2, and 1 <= t+u <= 3, and 1 <= v+w <= 3;

Wi, W₂ may be independently C, CH, CH₂, Si, N, NH, P, (P=O) or O;

Y represents a single bond or a divalent linker that comprises: C_1-50 alkyl, alkenyl or aromatic group which is optionally substituted with one or more X; - (OCH₂CH₂)_m- -(OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m- or - [OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m- where m and n may each be independently 0 to 500.

[0051] Any polyol may be selected for use as the X substituent in a compound of the formula (II) above. Exemplary polyols may be, but are not limited to, diols, triols, tetrols, pentols, polyethylene glycol, pentaerythritol, ethylene glycol, glycerin

pentaerythrityl, polyglycerol, sorbitan, polyethylene oxide derivatives of sorbitan, sugar alcohols, trimethylolethane, and trimethylolpropane, and the like.

[0052] In a further embodiment, the bipolar molecule may be a compound similar to the compound represented by formula (II) above but may include more than two sub- units connected with multiple linker groups. For example, a bipolar molecule having three sub-units connected with two linker groups in a linear manner may be utilized. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that a bipolar molecule with three or more sub-units may be connected with three or more linker groups to form a macro-ring structure as well and such examples should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith.

[0053] Through judicious selection of an exemplary chemical structure of the bipolar molecule, embodiments may introduce an array of functional groups onto a CNT surface above the hydrophobic alkyl protective layer 15. For the CNT nanostructure to be a useful electrode material with long-term stability in aqueous applications, the functionalized CNT surface should, however, be resistant to non-specific adsorption. Additionally, for many surface electrochemical reactions that require participation of H⁺, OH^" or H₂O, the functionalized CNT surface should also be highly hydrophilic.

[0054] Polyethylene glycol may generally resist non-specific adsorption when deposited on a surface and may render a respective surface hydrophilic to a certain degree. Polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers may also be suitable to be deposited above the hydrophobic alkyl protective layer or first layer 15 on an exemplary CNT to form a hydrophilic polyethylene glycol layer or second layer 18. For example, polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers possess the general formula:

R₃-(OCH₂CH₂)_m-OH (III)

in which:

Pv₃ represents an optionally substituted, linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated, carbo- or heteroalkyl chain bearing 4 to 50 carbon atoms; and

m represents an integer of 1 to 500, and preferably 4 to 200.

[0055] Exemplary polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers include, but are not limited to, tetraethyleneglycol monooctyl ether (designated as C8EG4), hexaethyleneglycol monododecyl ether (C12EG6), heptaethyleneglycol monohexadecyl ether (C16EG7) and commercially available detergents, identified by the trade names Brij®30 (C12EG4), Brij®52 (C16EG2), or Brij®56 (C16EG10), Brij®58 (C16EG20), Brij®35 (C12EG30), Brij®78 (C18EG20), Brij®S 100 (C18EG100), Brij®S 200 (C18EG200) (Croda

International PLC, East Yorkshire, England). [0056] Embodiments of the present subject matter may employ a myriad of processes to synthesize exemplary bipolar molecules having various functional groups and functional moieties. It should be noted, however, that the subsequent processes detailed below are exemplary only and should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith. For example, a first process may be used to synthesize N-( 6-hydroxy-n-hexyl)7-decylbenzamide represented by the general formula:

2.471 g, 1 1.98 mmol) to a CH₂C1₂ solution (30 mL) ofp-decylbenzoic acid (3.143 g, 1 1.98 mmol), N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS, 1.406 g, 12.218 mmol) and triethylamime (Et₃N, 1.67 mL, 1 1.98 mmol) resulting in a white slurry. After approximately 16 hours at room temperature, the slurry may be filtered using a Buchner filter funnel and rinsed with additional CH₂C1₂ (30 mL). The filtrate ( -decylbenzoic acid NHS ester) may then be combined and used for subsequent reaction without further purification. A portion of the this filtrate (0.71 1 mmol) may be mixed with 6-aminohexan-l-ol (0.1755 g, 1.5 mmol) upon stirring. After approximately 2 hours, the reaction mixture may be loaded onto a SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. The fractions containing the desired product may be combined and concentrated to yield a white solid (0.239 g, 93%).

[0058] A second process may be used to synthesize N, N'-[2,2'-(ethylenedioxy) bis(ethyl)] di(/?-decylbenzamide) represented by the general formula:

[0059] The process may include adding 2,2'-(ethylenedioxy) bis(ethylamine)

(0.104 mL, 0.71 1 mmol) to a CH₂C1₂ solution (8mL) of p-decylbenzoic acid NHS ester (1.422 mmol) and Et₃N (0.198 mL, 1.422 mmol). The mixture may be stirred at room temperature for approximately 16 hours before loading onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. The fractions containing the desired product may be combined and concentrated to yield a white solid (0.326 g, 72%) [0060] A third process may be used to synthesize N-( 1 1 -hydroxy-3 ,6,9- trioxaundecyl) /?-decylbenzamide represented by the general formula:

[0061] The process may include adding 1 l-amino-3,6,9-trioxaundecan- l-ol (0.2 g, 1.0 mmol) to a CH₂C1₂ solution (7 mL) ofp-decylbenzoic acid NHS ester (1.0 mmol) and Et₃N (0.14 mL, 1.0 mmol). The mixture may be stirred at room temperature for approximately 1 hour before loading onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. The fractions containing the desired product may be combined and concentrated to yield a solid with a low melting point (0.31 g, 71%).

[0062] A fourth process may be used to synthesize N-( 1 1 -hydroxy-3 ,6,9- trioxaundecyl) octadecanamide represented by the general formula:

O (VII) [0063] The process may include adding DCC (2.512 g, 12.173 mmol) to a CH₂C1₂ solution (30 mL) of stearic acid (3.463 g, 12.173 mmol), NHS (1.429 g, 12.416 mmol) and Et₃N (1.7 mL, 12.173 mmol) resulting in an opaque solution, which may slowly turn into a white slurry. After approximately 16 hours at room temperature, a white solid may be filtered using a Buchner filter funnel and rinsed with additional CH₂C1₂ (30 mL) whereby the filtrate (stearic acid NHS ester) may be combined and used for subsequent reaction without further purification. A portion of the filtrate (2.815 mmol) may be mixed with 1 l-amino-3,6,9-trioxaundecan-l-ol (0.483 g, 2.5 mmol) and Et₃N (0.39 mL, 2.82 mmol) upon stirring. The mixture may then be concentrated to ~5 mL and then loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. The fractions containing the desired product may be combined and concentrated to yield a white solid (0.772 g, 72%).

[0064] A fifth process may be used to synthesize C16EG10CH₃ represented by the general formula:

[0065] The process may include dissolving waxy solid Brij®56 (a mixture designated as C16EG10) (1.808 g, 2.65 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (6 mL). Upon the addition of NaH (57% oil dispersion, 0.223 g, 5.29 mmol), the mixture may turn slightly foamy with gas evolution. After introduction of CH₃I (0.66 mL, 10.6 mmol), the reaction may become warm and gas evolution subside. After approximately 5 hours, the solvent may be removed in vacuo and the resultant white residue suspended in CH₂C1₂ (2 mL) and then loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. After removal of the solvent, the desired product may be obtained as a white waxy solid (0.963 g, 53% yield).

[0066] A sixth process may be used to synthesize C16EG10C6 represented by the general formula: [0067] The process may include dissolving waxy solid Brij®56 (C16EG10) (3.53 g, 5.17 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (10 mL), followed by adding NaH (57% oil dispersion, 1.088 g, 25.84 mmol). 1-bromohexane (4.354 mL, 31.02 mmol) may then be introduced to the mixture resulting in a slurry which may be stirred at room temperature in a sealed flask after gas evolution subsides. After approximately 16 hours, the solvent may be removed in vacuo and the resultant white residue mixed with an ethyl acetate/hexanes mixture solvent (EtO Ac/hex, 1 : 1 v/v, ~5 mL). This mixture may then be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with EtO Ac/hex (1 : 1 v/v) and then 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. The fractions containing the product may be combined to yield a waxy solid (-3.15 g) and may then be subjected to a second SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to yield a white waxy solid (2.872 g, 72% yield).

[0068] A seventh process may be used to synthesize heptaethylene glycol dihexadecyl ether (C16 rmula:

[0069] The process may include dissolving waxy solid heptaethylene glycol monohexadecyl ether (pure compound from Sigma- Aldrich, designated as C16EG7) (0.11 g, 0.2 mmol) in anhydrous DMF with NaH (57% oil dispersion, 42 mg, 1.0 mmol), followed by the addition of 1-bromohexadecane (0.366 g, 1.2 mmol). The resulting mixture may be stirred at room temperature for approximately 16 hours in a sealed flask before removal of the solvent in vacuo and suspension of the resultant white residue in an ethyl acetate/hexanes mixture solvent (EtO Ac/hex, 1 : 1 v/v, ~2 mL). The suspension may then be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with EtO Ac/hex (1 : 1 v/v) and then 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford the desired product as a waxy film (0.147 g, 95% yield).

[0070] An eighth process may be used to synthesize C18EG20C16 represented by the general formula:

[0071] The process may include mixing waxy solid Brij®78 (a mixture designated as C18EG20) (2.302 g, 2.0 mmol) with anhydrous DMF (10 mL), followed by the addition of NaH (57% oil dispersion, 0.21 g, 5.0 mmol). The mixture may be heated whereby gas evolution may commence and the mixture may become free-flowing. After approximately 15 minutes, 1-bromohexadecane (1.832 g, 6.0 mmol) may be introduced and the resulting slurry stirred at room temperature in a sealed flask. After approximately 16 hours, the solvent may be removed in vacuo and the white residue mixed with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ (5 mL) and SiO₂ (2 g). The slurry may then be loaded onto an SiO₂ column, and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. Less polar fractions of the product may be discarded, and the more polar fractions of product may be combined and concentrated in vacuo to afford a white waxy solid (1.619 g, 59%).

[0072] A ninth process may be used to synthesize C12EG30C12 represented by the general formula:

[0073] The process may include mixing white solid Brij®35 (a mixture designated as C12EG30) (2.624 g, 1.741 mmol) with anhydrous DMF (10 rnL), followed by adding NaH (57% oil dispersion, 0.183 g, 4.35 mmol). The mixture may be heated whereby gas evolution may commence and the mixture may become free-flowing. After

approximately 15 minutes, l-bromododecane (1.252 mL, 5.223 mmol) may be introduced and the resulting slurry stirred at room temperature in a sealed flask. After approximately 16 hours, the solvent may be removed in vacuo and the white residue was mixed with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ (5 mL) and SiO₂ (2 g). The slurry may then be loaded onto an SiO₂ column, and eluted with 1 % MeOH in CH₂C1₂, 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 8% MeOH in CH₂CI₂. The fractions containing the desired product may be combined and concentrated in vacuo to afford a white solid (2.91 g, 100%).

[0074] A tenth process may be used to synthesize C16EG9CH₂CH₂N₃ represented by the general formu

[0075] The process may include dissolving waxy solid Brij®56 (C16EG10) (6.20 g, 9.078 mmol) in anhydrous THF (30 rnL), followed by adding Et₃N (1.9 mL, 13.62 mmol) thereto. Toluenesulfonyl chloride (1.904 g, 10.0 mmol) may be introduced to the mixture resulting in a slurry which may be stirred at room temperature in a sealed flask. After approximately 3 days, a solid may be filtered using a Buchner filter funnel and the filtrate concentrated to afford a milky liquid (8.16 g). Anhydrous DMF (10 mL) and NaN₃ (0.649 g, 10.0 mmol) may be mixed with the milky liquid and then stirred at 80°C in a sealed flask for approximately 24 hours. The solvent may then be removed in vacuo and the residue mixed with EtO Ac/hex (1 : 1 v/v) (~10 mL) and SiO₂ (5 g). The resulting slurry may be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with EtO Ac/hex (1 : 1 v/v), 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 5% MeOH in CH₂C1 . Fractions containing the desired product may be combined to afford a light yellow waxy solid (5.3 g, 82%).

[0076] An eleventh process may be used to synthesize C16EG9CH₂CH₂NH₂ represented by the general formula:

[0077] The process may include dissolving a light yellow waxy solid (a mixture designated as C16EG9CH₂CH₂N₃) (1.87 g, -2.63 mmol) in THF (20 mL), followed by adding a Raney Ni suspension (50% slurry in H₂O, ~1 mL). Upon gas evolution subsiding, the solid may be filtered using glass wool in a pipette and rinsed with THF. The filtrate may then be concentrated and loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂, then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then MeOH/CH₂Cl₂/saturated NH₃ aqueous solution (1 :5:0.1 v/v/v). The desired product may be obtained as a white solid (1.006 g, 56%).

[0078] A twelfth process may be used to synthesize (C16EG9CH₂CH₂S)₂ represented by the general formula:

[0079] The process may include dissolving waxy solid Brij®56 (C16EG10) (1.282 g, 1.877 mmol) in anhydrous CH₂C1₂ (10 mL), followed by adding Et₃N (0.53 mL, 3.75 mmol) thereto. Methanesulfonyl chloride (0.22 mL, 2.82 mmol) may be introduced to the mixture at 0°C resulting in a suspension which may be stirred at room temperature in a sealed flask for approximately 30 min. This reaction mixture may then be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. The fractions may be combined and concentrated to afford a waxy solid (1.27 g), which may be mixed with anhydrous DMF (5 mL) and KSAc (0.381 g, 3.338 mmol). This mixture may be stirred at 80°C in a sealed flask for approximately 24 hours resulting in a gel-like suspension. The suspension may be cooled to room temperature and mixed with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ (5 mL) and SiO₂ (5 g) and then loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. Fractions containing the product may be combined and concentrated into a red oil, and the red oil subjected to a second SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford a pale yellow waxy solid (1.186 g). This solid may then be dissolved in MeOH (5 mL) and then treated with NaOH (0.134 g, 3.34 mmol), stirred at room temperature in a sealed flask for approximately 16 hours, and then stirred in open air for approximately 16 hours to oxidize any free thiol -SH to its corresponding disulfide. The resulting solid may then be mixed with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ (3 mL) and SiO₂ (2 g) resulting in a slurry. This slurry may be loaded onto a SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂. The product may be obtained as a pale yellow solid (1.04 g, 79% yield). [0080] A thirteenth process may be used to synthesize CI6EGIOSO₃ ^" represented by the general formula:

Θ

(XVI)

[0081] The process may include mixing solid Brij®56 (C16EG10) (0.8829 g, 1.293 mmol) with a solid sulfur trioxide trimethylamine complex (SO₃NMe₃, 0.201 g, 1.44 mmol) in a sealed flask under Argon. The mixture may then be warmed at 90°C for approximately 16 hours resulting in a white slurry which slowly turns into a clear oil, indicating the consumption of SO₃ NMe₃. The oil may then turn into a white solid upon cooling. As the solid is not soluble in THF, this indicates conversion of C16EG10 to its sulfate C16EG10SO₃ ^". The resultant solid is soluble in a THF/MeOH (1 : 1 v/v) mixture solvent and may be employed for CNT nanostmcture surface functionalization without further purification.

[0082] A fourteenth process may be used to synthesize C18EG20SO₃ ^" represented by the general formula:

^^^^^^^v^ - ^, ,< - os<?

^* (XVII)

[0083] The process may include mixing Brij®78 (C18EG20) (1.331 g, 1.157 mmol) with a solid sulfur trioxide trimethylamine complex (SO₃ NMe₃, 0.177 g, 1.272 mmol) in a sealed flask under Argon. The mixture may then be warmed at 90°C for approximately 16 hours turning into a clear oil which indicates the consumption of SO₃NMe₃. The oil may then turn into a white solid upon cooling which is soluble in a THF/MeOH (1 : 1 v/v) mixture solvent for CNT nanostmcture surface functionalization.

[0084] A fifteenth process may be used to synthesize C12EG30SO₃ ^" represented by the general formula:

(XVIII)

[0085] The process may include mixing Brij®35 (C12EG30) (1.574 g, 1.044 mmol) with a solid sulfur trioxide trimethylamine complex (SO₃ NMe₃, 0.16 g, 1.149 mmol) in a sealed flask under Argon. The mixture may then be warmed at 90°C for approximately 16 hours turning into a clear oil which indicates the consumption of SO₃NMe₃. The oil may then turn into a white waxy solid upon cooling which is soluble in a THF/MeOH (1 : 1 v/v) mixture solvent for CNT nanostructure surface

functionalization.

[0086] A sixteenth process may be used to synthesize C16EG7SO₃ ^~ represented by the general formula:

[0087] The process may include mixing solid heptaethylene glycol monohexadecyl ether (C16EG7, 0.712 g, 1.293 mmol) with a solid sulfur trioxide trimethylamine complex (SO₃NMe₃, 0.198 g, 1.42 mmol) in a sealed flask under Argon. The mixture may then be warmed at 90°C for approximately 16 hours turning into a clear oil which indicates the consumption of SO₃ NMe₃. The oil may then turn into a white waxy solid upon cooling which is soluble in a THF/MeOH (1 :1 v/v) mixture solvent for CNT nanostructure surface functionalization.

[0088] A seventeenth process may be used to synthesize C8EG3CH₂CH₂N₃ represented by the general formula:

(XX)

[0089] The process may include adding toluenesulfonyl chloride (0.482 g, 2.53 mmol) to a THF solution (8 mL) of tetraethylene glycol monooctyl ether (pure compound from Sigma- Aldrich designated as C8EG4) (0.646 g, 2.11 mmol) and Et₃N (0.593 mL, 4.22 mmol) resulting in a slurry. This slurry may be stirred in a sealed flask at room temperature for approximately 24 hours whereby an additional 0.2 eq of toluenesulfonyl chloride may be introduced followed by additional stirring at 40°C for approximately 16 hours. The solvent may then be removed, and the residue loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with EtO Ac/hex 1 :2 then 1 : 1 to yield an oil (0.865 g, 89%). This oil

(tetraethylene glycol monooctyl ether tosylate) (0.216 g, 0.469 mmol) may be mixed with anhydrous DMF (5 mL) and NaN₃ (46 mg, 0.704 mmol) and then stirred at 85°C in a sealed flask for approximately 24 hours. The solvent may be removed in vacuo and the residue mixed with EtO Ac/hex (1 :2 v/v) (~2 mL) resulting in a slurry. This slurry may be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with EtO Ac/hex (1 : 1 v/v) to afford the desired product as a clear oil (0.156 g, 100%).

[0090] An eighteenth process may be used to synthesize C8EG3CH₂CH₂NH₂ represented by the general formula:

(XXI)

[0091] The process may include mixing an oil C8EG3CH₂CH₂N₃ (0.156 g, 0.469 mmol) with THF (3 mL), H₂O (20 μΕ) and triphenyl phosphine (0.185 g, 0.704 mmol). The resulting mixture may then be stirred at room temperature under Argon in a sealed flask for approximately 16 hours. The solvent may be removed and residue loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ with a 1 % saturated NH₃ aqueous solution to afford the desired product as a clear film (0.11 g, 77% yield).

[0092] A nineteenth process may be used to synthesize 12-(n-octyl)-12-aza-3,6,9- trioxa-l-eicosanol represented b the general formula:

[0093] The process may include mixing dioctylamine (0.71 mL, 2.37 mmol) with tetraethylene glycol monotosylate (0.412 g, 1.18 mmol) in a sealed flask. The mixture may be stirred and warmed at 80°C for approximately 16 hours resulting in a slurry. Upon cooling, the slurry may be suspended in CH₂C1₂ (5 mL), followed by adding Et₃N (0.164 mL, 1.18 mmol) and acetic anhydride (0.112 mL, 1.18 mmol) at 0°C. After approximately 30 min, the reaction mixture may be diluted with MeOH (1.0 mL) and then concentrated whereby the residue may be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to yield the desired product as a clear oil (0.402 g, 82% yield). [0094] A twentieth process may be used to synthesize N, N-di-(«-octyl)-N-(l 1- hydroxy-3,6,9-trioxaundec l) succinamide represented by the general formula: (XXIII)

[0095] The process may include mixing dioctylamine (0.302 mL, 1.0 mmol) with succinic anhydride (0.1 1 g, 1.1 mmol) and diisopropylethylamme (DIPEA, 0.348 mL, 2.0 mmol) in CH₂CI₂ (2 mL). After approximately 16 hours, the solution may be treated with l l-amino-3,6,9-trioxaundecan-l-ol (0.193 g, 1.0 mmol) and 3-diethoxyphosphoryloxy- l,2,3-benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (0.329 g, 1.1 mmol) resulting in a light yellow solution. This solution may be stirred at room temperature for approximately 4 hours before quenching with ethylene diamine (0.1 mL) to form a yellow suspension. The suspension may be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford the desired product as a clear oil (0.306 g, 59% yield over two steps).

[0096] A twenty first process may be used to synthesize N, N-di-(«-octadecyl)-N - (1 l-hydroxy-3,6,9-trioxaundecyl) succinamide represented by the general formula:

(XXIV)

[0097] The process may include mixing dioctadecylamine (0.261 g, 0.5 mmol) with succinic anhydride (0.055 g, 0.55 mmol) and diisopropylethylamme (DIPEA, 0.174 mL, 1.0 mmol) in CH₂C1₂ (1 mL). After approximately 16 hours, the solution may be treated with 1 l-amino-3,6,9-trioxaundecan-l-ol (0.0966 g, 0.5 mmol) and 3- diethoxyphosphoryloxy-l,2,3-benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (0.165 g, 0.55 mmol) resulting in a light yellow solution. This solution may be stirred at room temperature for

approximately 4 hours before quenching with ethylene diamine (0.15 mL) to form a yellow suspension. The suspension may be loaded onto a SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford the desired product as a clear oil (0.355 g, 89% yield over two steps). [0098] A twenty second process may be used to synthesize N, N-di-(n-octadecyl)- N'-(6-hydroxyhexyl) succinamide represented by the general formula:

[0099] The process may include mixing dioctadecylamine (0.261 g, 0.5 mmol) with succinic anhydride (0.055 g, 0.55 mmol) and diisopropylethylamme (DIPEA, 0.174 mL, 1.0 mmol) in CH₂CI₂ (1 mL). After approximately 16 hours, the solution may be treated with 6-amino-hexan-l-ol (0.0585 g, 0.5 mmol) and 3-diethoxyphosphoryloxy- l,2,3-benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (0.165 g, 0.55 mmol) resulting in a light yellow solution. This solution may be stirred at room temperature for 16 hours before quenching with ethylene diamine (0.15 mL) to form a yellow suspension. The suspension may be loaded onto a SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford the desired product as a clear oil (0.305 g, 86% yield over two steps).

[00100] A twenty third process may be used to synthesize 12-(n-octadecyl)-12-aza- 3,6,9-trioxa-l-triacontanol represented by the general formula:

[00101] The process may include mixing solid dioctadecylamine (0.367 g, 0.703 mmol) with tetraethylene glycol monotosylate (0.223 g, 0.639 mmol) in a sealed flask. The mixture may then be stirred at 90°C for approximately 16 hours to form an amber oil. Upon cooling, the resultant yellow solid may be suspended in 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ (5 mL) followed by adding Et₃N (0.21 mL, 1.5 mmol) and acetic anhydride (0.0354 mL, 0.375 mmol) resulting in a clearly slurry. After approximately 30 min, the reaction mixture may be quenched with ethylenediamine (0.15 mL) and loaded onto an S1O₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂, 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to yield the desired product as a waxy solid (0.212 g, 48% yield). [00102] A twenty fourth process may be used to synthesize 3a, 7a, 12a-trihydroxy 5 -cholan-24- ic acid N, N-di-(n-octadecyl) amide represented by the general formula:

(XXVII)

[00103] The process may include introducing diisopropylethylamine (0.082 mL, 0.472 mmol) and 3-diethoxyphosphoryloxy-l,2,3-benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (77.7 mg, 0.26 mmol) to a slurry of 3a, 7a, 12a-trihydroxy-5P-cholan-24-oic acid (96.5 mg, 0.236 mmol) and dioctadecylamine (123.3 mg, 0.236 mmol) in CH₂CI₂ (5 mL) turning the slurry into a clear yellow solution after approximately 16 hours of stirring.

Ethylenediamine (0.025 mL) may then be added to the slurry and mixed with SiO₂ (1 g) and then loaded onto a SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to yield the desired product as a white solid (0.186 g, 86% yield).

[00104] A twenty fifth process may be used to synthesize (2,2,2- trimethylol) azidoethane tri(3 -tetraoxaeicosanyl) ether represented by the general formula: (XXVIII)

[00105] The process may include stirring (2-bromomethyl)-(2-hydroxymethyl)- 1,3- propanediol (2.5747 g, 12.93 mmol) with aN₃ (1.163 g, 17.9 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (10 mL) in a sealed flask at 85°C for approximately three days. The solvent may be removed in vacuo, and the resulting white slurry purified by loading onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 20% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to yield the desired product (2-azidomethyl)-(2 -hydro xymethyl)-l,3-propanediol as a white soft solid upon standing (2.059 g, 99% yield). (2-azidomethyl)-(2-hydroxymethyl)- 1,3 -propanediol (57.4 mg, 0.357 mmol) may then be mixed with NaH (57% oil dispersion, 68 mg, 1.61 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (5 mL). Tetraethylene glycol monooctyl ether tosylate (0.525 g, 1.14 mmol) may then be introduced into the mixture resulting in a slurry. The slurry may then be stirred in a sealed flask at room temperature for approximately 24 hours, and additional NaH (57% oil dispersion, 42 mg) introduced followed by the addition of tetraethylene glycol monooctyl ether tosylate (0.10 g). This reaction mixture may then be stirred at room temperature for approximately three days whereupon the solvent may be removed and residue loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with EtO Ac/hex (1 :2 v/v) then 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to yield the desired product (2,2,2-trimethylol) azidoethane tri(3,6,9,12 tetraoxaeicosanyl) ether as a clear oil (0.37 g).

[00106] A twenty sixth process may be used to synthesize (2,2,2-trimethylol) ethylamine tri(3,6,9,12-tetraoxaeicosan l) ether represented by the general formula:

[00107] The process may include subjecting the clear oil (2,2,2-trimethylol) azidoethane tri(3,6,9, 12-tetraoxaeicosanyl) ether (0.37 g, -0.357 mmol) to reduction with triphenyl phosphine (0.14 g, 0.536 mmol) in THF (3 mL) with H₂O (10 mg) in a sealed flask under Argon upon stirring for approximately 24 hours. The solvent may then be removed and the residue mixed with CH₂C1₂ (1 mL) and then loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂, and then a mixture solvent of

MeOH/CH₂Cl₂/saturated aqueous ammonia (10:90: 1 v/v/v) to afford the desired product (2,2,2-trimethylol) ethylamine tri(3 ,6,9, 12-tetraoxaeicosanyl) ether as a clear oil (0.26 g, 73% yield).

[00108] A twenty seventh process may be used to synthesize

C12EG29CH₂CH₂NHCH₂CH₂OH re resented by the general formula:

[00109] The process may include mixing pellets of Brij®35 (C12EG30) (9.042 g, 6.0 mmol) with Et₃N (1.254 mL, 9.0 mmol) in THF (4 mL). The mixture may be heated to a clear solution and toluenesulfonyl chloride (1.258 g, 6.6 mmol) introduced thereto resulting in a milky slurry. The slurry may be stirred at room temperature for approximately three days and a solid filtered using glass wool in a glass pipette. The solid may then be rinsed with THF (-1 0 mL) and the filtrate concentrated to a viscous oil in vacuo which may then be mixed with ethanolamine (3.62 mL, 60 mmol) in a sealed flask upon stirring at 90°C for approximately 16 hours resulting in a slightly yellow reaction mixture. Upon cooling the mixture may become a waxy solid whereupon the solid may be dissolved in 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂, loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂, 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂, and then a mixture solvent of MeOH/CH₂Cl₂/saturated aqueous ammonia (10:90: 1 followed by 20:80:2 v/v/v) to yield the desired product as a slightly yellow waxy solid (6.408 g, 69%).

[001 10] A twenty eighth process may be used to synthesize N-(C 16EG9CH₂CH₂) (±)-a-lipoic (XXXI)

[001 1 1] The process may include introducing C16EG9CH₂CH₂NH₂ (0.1076 g, 0.1577 mmol) to a solution of (±)-a-lipoic acid (39 mg, 0.189 mmol) and

diisopropylethylamine (55 μΐ_^, 0.315 mmol) in CH₂C1₂ (2 mL), followed by adding 3- diethoxyphosphoryloxy-l,2,3-benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (56.6 mg, 0.189 mmol) resulting in a yellow solution. After approximately 16 hours, ethylenediamine (15 μΐ_^) may be added to the solution resulting in a slurry which may be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂, 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford the desired product as a light yellow waxy solid (0.103 g, 75% yield).

[001 12] A twenty ninth process may be used to synthesize N-(C16EG9CH₂CH₂) anthraquinone-2-carboxylic acid amide represented by the general formula: (XXXII) [001 13] The process may include introducing C16EG9CH₂CH₂NH₂ (0.101 g, 0.149 mmol) to a solution of anthraquinone-2-carboxylic acid (45 mg, 0.178 mmol) and diisopropylethylamine (52 μΐ_^, 0.297 mmol) in CH₂C1₂ (2 mL), followed by adding 3- diethoxyphosphoryloxy-l,2,3-benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (53.4 mg, 0.178 mmol) resulting in a yellow solution. After approximately 3 hours, ethyl enediamine (10 μΐ_^) may be added to the solution resulting in a slurry which may be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 3% MeOH in CH₂C1₂, 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford the desired product as a light yellow waxy solid (93 mg, 68% yield).

[001 14] A thirtieth process may be used to synthesize N-(C 12EG29CH₂CH₂)-N-(2- hydroxyethyl) anthraquinone-2-carboxylic acid amide represented by the general formula:

(XXXIII)

[001 15] The process may include introducing C 12EG29CH₂CH₂NHCH₂CH₂OH (0.203 g, 0.131 mmol) to a solution of anthraquinone-2-carboxylic acid (33 mg, 0.131 mmol) and diisopropylethylamine (46 μΐ_^, 0.262 mmol) in CH₂C1₂ (1 mL), followed by adding 3-diethoxyphosphoryloxy-l,2,3-benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (39.2 mg, 0.131 mmol) resulting in a yellow solution. After approximately 16 hours, ethyl enediamine (10 μΐ_^) may be added to the solution resulting in a slurry which may be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford the desired product as a light yellow waxy solid (172 mg, 75% yield).

[001 16] A thirty first process may be used to synthesize N-(C 12EG29CH₂CH₂)-N- (2-hydroxyethyl) 3-(2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)propionic acid amide represented by the general formula:

(xxxrv)

[001 17] The process may include introducing C12EG29CH₂CH₂NHCH₂CH₂OH (0.576 g, 0.371 mmol) to a solution of 3-(2,5dimethoxyphenyl) propionic acid (78.08 mg, 0.371 mmol) and diisopropylethylamine (129 μΐ_^, 0.742 mmol) in CH₂CI₂ (4 mL), followed by adding 3-diethoxyphosphoryloxy-l,2,3-benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (1 1 1 mg, 0.371 mmol) resulting in a yellow solution. After approximately 16 hours,

ethylenediamine (30 μΐ_^) may be added to the solution resulting in a slurry which may be loaded onto an SiO₂ column and eluted with 5% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ and then 10% MeOH in CH₂C1₂ to afford the desired product as a light yellow waxy solid (0.42 g, 65% yield).

[001 18] With continued reference to Figure 1 and the aforementioned examples, an exemplary CNT nanostructure can be functionalized using a layer-by- layer approach, i.e., forming a first protective (e.g., alkyl) layer followed by a second layer of

polyoxyethylene alkyl ether or other layer. These embodiments may be employed as an electrode for free chlorine concentration determination in tap water, as a potentiometric pH sensor, an amperometric pH sensor, a biometric sensor or electrode, or a voltammetric pH sensor or other sensor or electrode.

[001 19] It should be noted that polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers may be derivatized to form bipolar molecules with additional functionalities. For example, the -OH group in polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers may react with SO₃ or P₂O₅ to create a bipolar molecule which can be used to introduce -OSO₃ ^" or -OPO₃H₂ groups onto an exemplary CNT electrode surface. It should also be noted that an -OH group can form esters with various carboxylic acids and may undergo a variety of transformations to be replaced by groups such as, but not limited to, -N₃, -NH₂ and -SH or -S-S-, to name a few.

[00120] Additionally, in one embodiment polyoxyethylene alkyl ether may be converted to a respective mesylate or tosylate, which could then be substituted with nucleophilic groups including, but not limited to, halide, azide, sulfide or masked thiol such as thioacetate, NH₃, primary amine, secondary amine and tertiary amine. In yet another embodiment, polyoxyethylene alkyl ether may react in the presence of NaH with activated acetate such as tert-butyl bromoacetate followed by deprotection of tert-butyl ester to yield polyoxyethylene alkyl ether with a terminal -COOH group. Another embodiment may employ polyoxyethylene alkyl ether with a terminal -NH₂ group to react with succinic anhydride to introduce a terminal -COOH group. [00121] A terminal -NH₂ or -NH- group in derivatized polyoxyethylene alkyl ether may react with various carboxylic acids via an amide bond formation. Thus, a range of exemplary redox mediator moieties may be covalently linked to polyoxyethylene alkyl ether. Exemplary, non-limiting mediators include anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid, 3- (2,5-dimethoxyphenyl) propionic acid and (±)-a-lipoic acid. In the case of 3-(2,5- dimethoxyphenyl) propionic acid, the hydroquinone moiety may be protected with methyl groups and hence the hydroquinone/benzoquinone redox pair would not be present after the second layer deposition. After a few scans of cyclic voltammetry, the 2,5-dimethoxyphenyl moiety may then be oxidized to generate a desired

hydroquinone/benzoquinone redox pair for electrochemical sensing of solution pH. It should be noted that many other masked/protected functional groups or functional moieties may be unmasked/deprotected electrochemically once they are introduced onto an exemplary CNT electrode surface, thus, such examples should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith.

[00122] Figure 2 is an illustration of a general structure for a molecule with an attached anthraquinone functional moiety for CNT surface functionalization. With reference to Figure 2, a molecule 20 is provided having a polyoxyethylene alkyl ether covalently attached with redox mediators [e.g., anthraquinone (AQ)] or another functional group (e.g., polyoxyethylene alkyl ether conjugate) to form an exemplary second layer 18 above the first protective layer 15 on a CNT structure (see Figure 1). Peak potential of the respective redox mediators may be used to determine solution pH according to the Nernst Equation.

[00123] Figure 3 is an illustration of a hydrophilic CNT nanostructure surface with controllable density of anthraquinone moieties. With reference to Figure 3, the density of exemplary functional groups may be, in one embodiment, controlled by mixing polyoxyethylene alkyl ether containing a first functional group with polyoxyethylene alkyl ether containing a second functional group. For example, polyoxyethylene alkyl ether derivatized with a terminal -NH₂ or -NH- group can be mixed with a non- derivatized polyoxyethylene alkyl ether to control the density of the surface -NH₂ or - NH- group. Similarly, polyoxyethylene alkyl ether anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid conjugate may be diluted with non-derivatized polyoxyethylene alkyl ether to control the density of anthraquinone functional moieties on a CNT surface as illustrated in Figure 3.

[00124] Figure 4 is a graphical depiction of a square wave voltammogram overlay of CNT nanostructures functionalized with different ratios of polyoxyethylene alkyl ether anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid conjugate and C12EG30 for the formation of a second layer. With reference to Figure 4, when N-(C 12EG29CH₂CH₂)-N-(2-hydroxyethyl) anthraquinone-2-carboxylic acid amide and C12EG30 were mixed in different ratios (1 :0, 1 :4, 1 :9 and 1 : 19) for the formation of a second layer on a CNT, it was discovered that the redox signal amplitude in square wave voltammetry (SWV) could be modulated. It should be noted that while the mixtures of only two compounds (N-(C12EG29CH₂CH₂)- N-(2-hydroxyethyl) anthraquinone-2-carboxylic acid amide and C12EG30) are

demonstrated in Figure 4, this should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith as it is envisioned that mixtures of three or more compounds, including but not limited to the aforementioned compounds, may also be employed to introduce three or more functional groups or functional moieties with controlled density of each functional group or functional moiety.

[00125] Surface hydrophilicity of exemplary functionalized CNT nanostructures is important for such nanostructures to be used as electrodes since many electrochemical reactions in aqueous solutions require the participation of H⁺ or OH^". It follows that one may then control the degree of surface hydrophilicity at the molecular level. Thus, by increasing the number of terminal -OH groups in the polyoxyethylene alkyl ether chain, the degree of hydrophilicity of the subsequently functionalized CNT surface may be increased. For example, the tosylate of polyoxyethylene alkyl ether may be treated with ethanolamine, 2-amino-l,3-propandiol, 3-amino-l ,2-propandiol and tris(hydroxymethyl) amino methane to introduce 1 , 2 and 3 terminal -OH groups onto the polyoxyethylene alkyl ether chain. Figure 5 is a schematic illustration of controlling the number of -OH groups in a bipolar molecule used for the formation of a second layer on a functionalized CNT surface. Of course, many other aminopolyols may be used in embodiments of the present subject matter including, but not limited to, amino saccharides that can be covalently linked to polyoxyethylene alkyl ether chain in similar fashion and such an example should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith. When used to form the second layer on a CNT surface, these derivatized polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers may lead to a surface having various degrees of hydrophilicity due to the presence of different numbers of terminal -OH groups. Further, the use of primary aminoalcohols may also provide for subsequent derivatization of a resulting secondary amino group with various carboxylic acids including anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid, 3-(2,5-dimethoxyphenyl) propionic acid and (±)-a-lipoic acid via amide bond formation. It should be noted that other functional groups and functional moieties such as, but not limited to, redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides (DNAs and RNAs), DNA or RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, quantum dots and nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, and other cellular components, may be covalently attached to the hydrophilic surface via ester or amide bond formation.

[00126] With continued reference to Figure 5, when surface hydrophilicity is of concern, the tosylate of polyoxyethylene alkyl ether may react with various alcohols in the presence of NaH to afford polyoxyethylene alkyl ether with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or more -OH groups per polyoxyethylene alkyl ether chain. Exemplary, non-limiting alcohols may be any monoalkyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, glycerol, erythritol, threitol, pentaerythritol, inositol, xylitol, mannitol and other sugar alcohols. Certain embodiments may also glycosylate the terminal -OH group in polyoxyethylene alkyl ether to covalently link various sugar alcohols or polyols to the polyoxyethylene alkyl ether chain. When such exemplary bipolar molecules are used in the second layer of a CNT nanostructure according to embodiments of the present subject matter, the density of -OH groups may be controlled and the surface hydrophilicity modulated as desired.

[00127] One embodiment may modulate and/or control the density of various surface functional groups and functional moieties by mixing a bipolar compound containing the functional groups and/or functional moieties described herein with a similar bipolar compound containing no such functional groups and/or functional moieties according to a specific ratio (e.g., 1 : 1, 1 :2, etc.) in a solution used for the second layer functionalization of an exemplary CNT surface. Further, more than two compounds may also be utilized to simultaneously introduce functional groups with desired density.

[00128] Due to the size and/or polarity of a respective functional group, it may be difficult to construct a second layer structure having certain functional groups attached to the polyoxyethylene alkyl ether chain and/or it may be difficult to ensure that certain functional groups are exposed on the outer surface of the second layer. For example, when the functional moiety of a prospective functional group is an enzyme molecule, it may be difficult to eliminate a hydrophobic interaction between the alkyl chain in the polyoxyethylene alkyl ether and the enzyme molecule if the enzyme molecule is first covalently attached to the polyoxyethylene alkyl ether simply due to the sheer size of the enzyme molecule. Further, if the polarity of a certain functional group is similar to the alkyl chain in a polyoxyethylene alkyl ether, when forming the second layer above the protective first layer on an exemplary CNT surface the hydrophobic functional group may not necessarily separate from the alkyl chain and as a result may be buried underneath the hydrophilic polyoxyethylene structure. Figure 6 is a schematic illustration of depositing a polyoxyethylene dialkyl ether on a CNT surface to form a second layer on a functionalized CNT surface. With reference to Figure 6, the surface of an exemplary functionalized CNT nanostructure electrode 60, having a protective first layer 62 and a polyoxyethylene dialkyl ether C18EG20C16 in the second layer 64, may be hydrophilic thereby providing an indication that the polyoxyethylene portion thereof is exposed on the outermost surface. In other instances, when the prospective functional group is relatively unstable under the conditions for the formation of the second layer, it may be desirable that the functional group be covalently attached after the second layer structure is established on the CNT surface.

[00129] Figure 7 is an illustration of an exemplary structure of a hydrophilic CNT nanostructure surface and a covalent functionalization of surface -OH groups with an activated anthraquinone ester. With reference to Figure 7, an exemplary method may establish a hydrophilic platform on a CNT nanostructure 10 amenable for subsequent covalent attachment of various functional groups regardless of their size, polarity, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, and/or stability under elevated temperatures. In one embodiment, an exemplary CNT nanostructure electrode 10 may be protected with n- octadecane to form the first protective layer, followed by the deposition of molecules such as C12EG30, (2,2,2-trimethylol) ethylamine tri(3,6,9,12-tetraoxaicosanyl) ether or dioctadecylamine [(n-Ci₈H₃₈)₂NH] to form a second layer with -OH groups (see Figure 7) or -NH₂ or -NH- groups. Of course, such exemplary groups may be useful for covalent attachment of other functional groups or functional moieties. For example, various carboxylic acids may be introduced to the surface via ester and amide bond formation, and other functional groups and functional moieties including, but not limited to, redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides (DNAs and RNAs), DNA or RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, peptides and proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, quantum dots and nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, and other cellular components, may also be covalently linked to the amino and/or hydroxyl groups on the hydrophilic surface.

[00130] Figure 8 is a graphical depiction of a square wave voltammogram overlay of differently functionalized CNT nanostructure electrodes. With reference to Figure 8 and continued reference to Figure 7 to illustrate certain principles underlying

embodiments of the present subject matter, a series of CNT nanostructures 10 were used to demonstrate the covalent nature of an exemplary functionalization process with functional groups such as -OH and -NH₂ in the second layer. These CNT nanostructures 10 were first protected with n-octadecane in the first layer 62 and then deposited with C12EG30 to form the second layer 64 with -OH groups on the surface thereof. When the surface was treated with an activated AQ ester, the CNT nanostructure electrode 10 yielded a strong redox signal for the AQ as graphically illustrated by a first trace 82. When a similar surface was treated with a solution with anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid methyl ester (AQ methyl ester) and a trace of the activated AQ ester, the CNT

nanostructure electrode 10 subsequently yielded a considerably smaller redox signal for the AQ as graphically illustrated by a second trace 84. When a CNT nanostructure 10 was only protected with n-octadecane and no deposition of C12EG30 occurred for the second layer (hence no -OH groups on the nanostructure surface), subsequent treatment of the electrode with activated AQ ester under identical condition resulted in no redox signal for the AQ as illustrated by a third trace 86. Finally, another CNT nanostructure 10 having n-octadecane and then C12EG30 deposition was treated with only

anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid methyl ester, and the resulting CNT nanostructure electrode 10 subsequently did not produce a redox signal for the AQ as graphically illustrated by a fourth trace 88 thereby indicating no non-specific adsorption of anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid methyl ester onto the hydrophilic surface. These experiments indicate the covalent nature of the hydrophilic surface functionalization of certain embodiments of the present subject matter and provide evidence that exemplary CNT nanostructures according to embodiments of the present subject matter having poly(ethylene glycol) functionality on the surface thereof following a layer-by-layer process may be resistant to non-specific adsorption.

[00131] Figure 9 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary layer-by-layer introduction of various functional groups onto a CNT nanostructure surface. With reference to Figure 9, ring opening reactions of epoxide may be advantageously employed using a CNT surface having a second layer with -OH groups or -NH₂ or -NH- groups that readily react with polyetheneglycol diglycidyl ether and trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether. Other glycidyl ethers can also be used including trimethylolethane triglycigyl ether, glycerol diglycidyl ether, glycerol triglycidyl ether, glycerol

polyglycidyl ether, diglycerol polyglycidyl ether, polyglycerol polyglycidyl ether, pentaerythritol glycidyl ether, pentaerythritol polyglycidyl ether, sorbitol polyglycidyl ether and so on. Exemplary cross-linking 92 may result in a new polymeric layer (e.g., third layer) 94 with excess epoxide groups. When treated with amino alcohols such as ethanolamine, 2-amino-l,3-propandiol, 3-amino-l,2-propandiol and

tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane, secondary amine -NH- and 1, 2 or 3 terminal -OH groups may be introduced onto the CNT surface. Of course, many other aminopolyols including, but not limited to, aminosaccharides may be employed in similar fashion and such a disclosure should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith. The resulting amino and/or hydroxyl groups may also be derivatized with various carboxylic acids including 3-(anthracen-9-yl) propionic acid, anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid, 3- (2,5-dimethoxyphenyl) propionic acid and (±)-a-lipoic acid. Similarly, other functional groups and functional moieties including, but not limited to, redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides (DNAs and RNAs), DNA or RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, peptides and proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, quantum dots and nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, and other cellular components, may also be covalently linked to the amino and/or hydroxyl groups on the hydrophilic surface layer 96.

[00132] In embodiments of the present subject matter where it may be necessary to further derivatize functional groups or functional moieties in the second layer on a CNT surface, the CNT nanostmcture may be treated with reagents in an appropriate solvent, e.g., activated AQ ester in CH₂C1₂ for a predetermined period as described in examples above. Upon completion of this further reaction, the CNT nanostmcture on the respective substrate may be rinsed with a solvent (e.g., THF), dried in air, and then wire- bonded and assembled for testing. In an alternative embodiment, a CNT nanostmcture functionalized with the first layer and second layer may be treated with reagents to form a third layer (e.g., via cross-linking) followed by subsequent transformations to incorporate additional functional groups or functional moieties. For example, after the formation of a C12EG30 layer on top of a first n-octadecane layer, a CNT nanostmcture on a substrate may be treated with a mixture solution of polyethylene glycol diglycidyl ether

(PEGDGE) and trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether (TMPTGE) in THF (25mM/25mM, 2 x 5 μΕ), dried in air, and then warmed at 120°C in a tightly capped vial under Argon for approximately five hours. The CNT nanostmcture on the substrate may then be cooled to room temperature, rinsed with THF to remove excess PEGDGE and TMPTGE on the substrate. The CNT nanostmcture may then be dried in air and placed in a tightly capped vial with a mixture of Tris (121 mg) in DMF (1 mL) under Argon atmosphere and warmed at 80°C for approximately 24 hours before removal from the DMF solution. This nanostructure may then be rinsed with MeOH and THF and dried in air. In a separate vial, anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid (9 mg, 0.0356 mmol) may be mixed with diisopropylethylamine (10.4 μΐ_^, 0.071 mmol) and 3-diethoxyphosphoryloxy- 1,2,3- benzotriazin-4(3H)-one (10.6 mg, 0.0356 mmol) resulting in a yellow solution. The CNT nanostructure may then be placed in the yellow solution for approximately 16 hours and rinsed with THF and dried. An exemplary CNT nanostructure functionalized in this manner may then, for example, be used as voltammetric pH sensor with long-term stability. Of course, such a process is exemplary only and should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith.

[00133] Exemplary fullerene nanostructures on a substrate according to

embodiments of the present subject matter may be employed as an electrochemical sensor to detect analytes in a fluid. Analytes of interest may include, but are not limited to, hydrogen ions, hydroxide ions, free chlorine, total chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine, iodine, ozone, dissolved oxygen, sulfide, sulfite, nitrite, hydrogen peroxide, dopamine, uric acid, ascorbic acid, /?-aminophenol, 1-naphthol, oxidized 3,3 ',5,5'- tetramethylbenzidine, quinones, and combinations thereof. Exemplary fullerene nanostructures may be, but are not limited to, buckminsterfullerenes, nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanohorns, nanobipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, 2D graphene structures, 3D graphene structures, and combinations thereof. For example, an auxiliary electrode, a reference electrode, and a working or sensing electrode any of which comprise exemplary fullerene nanostructures fabricated according to embodiments of the present subject matter may be exposed to a solution with an electrochemically active analyte of interest. A voltage (e.g., about -0.5 V to about 1 V) may then be applied between the working electrode and the reference electrode for a suitable period of time or continuously whereby a current can be generated between the working electrode and the auxiliary electrode. Current generated as a result of the application of voltage may then be measured, and the analyte concentration in the sample solution determined using methods known to those skilled in the art. Other analytes such as trace metal ions including, e.g., Cd²⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Tl³⁺ may also be detected in a similar fashion or by other

electrochemical methods commonly practiced by those skilled in the art.

[00134] Exemplary fullerene nanostructures on a substrate according to

embodiments of the present subject matter may also be employed as a voltammetric pH sensor. For example, SWV measurements may be recorded using a Reference 600 potentiostat 5.61 with a standard three-electrode configuration having a Ag/AgCl reference electrode, a carbon rod auxiliary counter electrode, and a fullerene

nanostructure on a substrate as working electrode in a specially designed electrochemical cell. As described above, the fullerene nanostructure may be functionalized with redox mediator molecules via a layer-by-layer process and then exposed to different pH solutions in the electrochemical cell. SWV may be performed with the appropriate parameters to obtain the redox peak potential at various pH. Plotting the peak potential against solution pH would then generate a linear, Nerstian response.

[00135] Exemplary fullerene nanostructures on a substrate according to

embodiments of the present subject matter may be employed as a potentiometric pH sensor. For example, OCP may be used to sense solution pH whereby exemplary fullerene nanostructures can be functionalized via a layer-by-layer approach with polyethylene glycol alkyl ether, and then exposed to flowing tap water (after filtration over activated carbon to remove free chlorine in tap water) at different pH. OCP may be measured between the fullerene nanostructure working electrode and the Ag/AgCl reference electrode whereby a plot of the OCP against flowing tap water pH would produce a linear response.

[00136] Figure 10 is a graphical depiction of a square wave voltammogram overlay for various embodiments of the present subject matter. With reference to Figure 10 and continued reference to Figure 9, in another embodiment a series of bipolar molecules having -OH, -NH₂ and secondary amine groups may be used for the deposition of the second layer on an exemplary CNT surface. For example, (2,2,2-trimethylol) ethylamine tri(3,6,9,12-tetraoxaeicosanyl) ether was employed for this purpose as schematically illustrated by the generic process depicted in Figure 9. Dialkyl amine including dioctadecylamine may also be applied to achieve a similar level of layer-by-layer surface functionalization. Polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers such as, but not limited to, C12EG30 and C12EG30NHCH₂CH₂OH may also be used as the second layer material for crosslinking to construct an exemplary third layer on a CNT surface. Upon subsequent epoxide ring opening and covalent bond formation with an activated AQ ester, a strong redox signal may be observed by a first and second trace 1010, 1012 in Figure 10. When no cross- linking step was employed as illustrated by a third trace 1014, subsequent treatment with tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris) in dimethylformamide (DMF) at an elevated temperature (80°C for 16 h) resulted in the removal of uncrosslinked C12EG30 and thus little or no -OH groups remained on the CNT surface for AQ functional moiety attachment which appears to explain the small redox signal for the AQ observed in the third trace 1014. These results provide an indication of the formation of a third layer by cross-linking on the CNT surface. Additionally, a cross-linked third layer may also stabilize the anchoring of functional groups and functional moieties on an exemplary CNT surface and may maintain the structural integrity of the surface layers thereby rendering the surface less prone to non-specific adsorption. Exemplary CNT surfaces functionalized in this fashion may provide excellent long-term stability and are suitable for subsequent introduction of proteins and enzymes. Of course, other cross-linking and polymerization approaches may be employed by embodiments of the present subject matter for the construction of a third layer and such an example should not limit the scope of the claims appended herewith. For example, it is envisioned that polymer brushes may be grown on top of the second or third layer of an exemplary CNT surface following the layer-by-layer approach and, with the appropriate chemistries, construction of a multilayer, organized structure possessing a controlled layer thickness may be performed.

[00137] Figure 11 is a graphical depiction of a square wave voltammogram overlay of a CNT nanostmcture electrode functionalized with anthraquinone in buffer solutions at various pHs. Figure 12 is a plot of an anthraquinone square wave voltammogram redox peak potential versus buffer solution pH for a CNT nanostmcture electrode fimctionalized via an embodiment of the present subject matter. With reference to Figures 11 and 12, exemplary functionalized carbon nanostructures may be used as sensing elements in various applications. For example, a voltammetric pH sensor was fabricated using a CNT nanostructure on a silicon substrate functionalized using an exemplary layer-by-layer approach with anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid. When subjected to square-wave voltammetry (SWV) in a 0.05 M phosphate buffer solution with 0.1 M NaClO₄ as a supporting electrolyte at various pHs (2.0, 4.36, 7.0, 10.0 and 11.88), the sensor electrode generated symmetrical redox peaks for the respective pHs. In this embodiment of a surface functionalized CNT nanostructure as a voltammetric pH sensor, SWV measurements were recorded using a Reference 600 potentiostat 5.61 with a standard three-electrode configuration, consisting of a Ag/AgCl reference electrode, a carbon rod auxiliary counter electrode, and a CNT nanostructure on Si substrate as working electrode in a specially designed electrochemical cell. The exemplary CNT nanostructure was functionalized with redox mediator molecules using an exemplary layer-by-layer approach, and then exposed to different pH solutions (about 5 mL) in an electrochemical cell. Different pH solutions were then prepared in deionized water as follows: pH 2.0, 0.05 M H₃PO₄ adjusted with 10% NaOH solution; pH 4.36, 0.05 M NaH₂PO₄; pH 7.0, 0.05 M Na₂HPO₄ adjusted with 0.05 M NaH₂PO₄; pH 10.0, 0.05 M Na₂HPO₄ adjusted with 10% NaOH solution; pH 11.88, 0.05 M Na₂HPO₄ adjusted with 10% NaOH solution. NaClO₄ may be added into these solutions as a supporting electrolyte to a concentration of 0.1 M. The pH values of these solutions may be obtained using a pH meter. SWV were performed with the following parameters:

frequency 10 Hz, step potential 2 mV, amplitude 25 mV within the potential range of -1.0 V and 0.5 V. Square wave (SW) voltammograms recorded using an AQ functionalized CNT nanostructure electrode were overlaid and are illustrated in Figure 1 1. These voltammograms indicate that as pH increases from pH 2 to pH 11.88, the AQ redox peak shifts to more negative potential.

[00138] A plot of redox peak potential against pH illustrated in Figure 12 provides a linear, Nernstian response having a slope of -55.8 mV/pH and linearity R of 0.9993, substantially close to the theoretical slope of -59.1 mV/pH. Figure 12 thus reflects the plot of the AQ redox peak potential versus solution pH demonstrating a linear response from pH 2 to pH 1 1.88 with a slope of -55.788 mV per pH unit. It is apparent that an exemplary CNT nanostmcture electrode functionalized using a layer-by-layer approach with redox mediator molecules such as, but not limited to, AQ may be advantageously utilized as pH sensors for aqueous solutions.

[00139] Figure 13 is a graphical depiction of an open circuit potential of a CNT nanostmcture electrode functionalized using an embodiment of the present subject matter. Figure 14 is a plot of open circuit potential versus pH for flowing tap water using an embodiment of the present subject matter. With reference to Figures 13 and 14, a potentiometric pH sensor was fabricated using a CNT nanostmcture on a silicon substrate functionalized using an exemplary layer-by-layer approach with n-octadecane for the first layer and then polyoxyethylene alkyl ether Brij®35 (C12EG30) for the second layer. The stmcture was then placed in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) flow cell and used as a potentiometric pH sensor for flowing tap water with low conductivity. As shown in Figure 13, open circuit potential (OCP) was measured against an Ag/AgCl reference electrode (RE-6, BASi Analytical Instmments) placed 3 mm above the CNT

nanostmcture electrode. To generate the results depicted in Figure 13, OCP

measurements were recorded using a Reference 600 potentiostat 5.61 with a two- electrode configuration having an Ag/AgCl reference electrode and a CNT nanostmcture on a silicon substrate as working electrode in a specially designed PDMS flow cell. The CNT nanostmcture may be functionalized using an exemplary layer-by-layer approach and then exposed to flowing tap water (after filtration over activated carbon to remove free chlorine in tap water) at different pH. The pH of the flowing tap water may be monitored using a glass pH meter and adjusted in a reservoir with dilute HC1 or NaOH solutions upon constant stirring. Thus, Figure 13 illustrates the OCP change with different water pH whereby at a given pH, the CNT nanostmcture electrode possessed a definite potential. It is shown that the potential shifted to more negative as the solution pH increased. [00140] As illustrated in Figure 14, it was discovered that the OCP of the CNT electrode provided a linear response to pH in flowing tap water. This plot of the OCP against flowing tap water pH produced a linear response (R = 0.9928) with a gradient of -45.2 mV per pH unit between pH 3 and 12. Thus, the use of an exemplary CNT nanostmcture electrode as a potentiometric pH sensor is evident, and such an exemplary potentiometric pH sensor may find utility in water or other aqueous solutions with low ionic concentrations as well as under pressure.

[00141] As noted above functionalized CNTs such as fullerene nanostructures may be employed as sensing elements in various applications. Exemplary fullerene nanostructures may be, but are not limited to, buckminsterfullerenes, nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanohorns, nanobipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, 2D graphene structures, 3D graphene structures, and combinations thereof. For example, an exemplary fullerene nanostmcture on a substrate functionalized via a layer-by-layer approach with

polyethylene glycol alkyl ethers may be used as an electrode to detect hydrogen ions, hydroxide ions, free chlorine, total chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine, iodine, ozone, sulfide, sulfite, nitrite, hydrogen peroxide, dopamine, uric acid, ascorbic acid, p- aminophenol, 1-naphthol, oxidized 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine, quinones, trace metal ions (e.g., Cd²⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Tl³⁺, etc.), and combinations thereof in a fluid. Such an exemplary electrode may resist non-specific adsorption and fouling on the electrode surface leading to an electrode possessing long-term stability.

[00142] An exemplary fullerene nanostmcture on a substrate functionalized via a layer-by-layer approach with a pH-dependent redox mediator may also be used as a voltammetric pH sensor. For example, when subjected to SWV in aqueous buffer solutions at various pH, such a sensor electrode may generate well defined, symmetrical redox peaks. A plot of the redox peak potential against pH may thus produce a linear, Nernstian response with a slope close to the theoretical slope of -59.1 mV/pH. Further, an exemplary fullerene nanostmcture on a substrate functionalized via a layer-by-layer approach with n-octadecane (first layer) and then polyoxyethylene alkyl ether Brij®35 (C12EG30) (second layer) may also be used as a potentiometric pH sensor for flowing tap water with low conductivity. The OCP may be measured against a Ag/AgCl reference electrode placed above the fullerene nanostructure electrode and may thus produce a linear response to pH in flowing tap water. Such an exemplary potentiometric pH sensor may find broad applications in water with low ionic concentrations as well as under pressure. Exemplary starting materials may be comprised of a variety of materials including, but not limited to, carbide ceramic, aluminum carbide, boron carbide, chromium carbide, iron carbide, silicon carbide, and combinations thereof.

[00143] In one aspect of the present subject matter, electrodes comprising fullerene nanostructures may be produced via a catalyst- free process where the nanostructure surface has been modified by contacting the nanostructures with a composition

comprising an alkyl moiety under conditions that permit the formation of an alkyl moiety layer and by introducing various functional groups and functional moieties to form a second layer above the first layer. These functional groups and functional moieties may further undergo transformations to covalently incorporate additional layers and/or functionalities to the fullerene nanostructure surface. Exemplary functionalities include, but are not limited to, redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides (DNAs and RNAs), DNA or RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, quantum dots and nanoparticles either before or after the formation of the second layer on fullerene nanostructure surfaces. Such exemplary electrodes may be included in a sensing element, a

voltammetric pH sensor, a potentiometric pH sensor, an electrode, an amperometric pH sensor, a biometric sensor, a biometric electrode, an intracorporeal sensor, and/or an intracorporeal electrode.

[00144] In another aspect, an exemplary method may be provided to detect electrochemical species in a fluid. The method may include applying a voltage between a working or sensing electrode and a reference electrode to produce a current between the sensing electrode and an auxiliary electrode where the working electrode may include exemplary fullerene nanostructures produced via a catalyst-free process. In one embodiment, the fullerene nanostructures may include an alkyl moiety layer adjacent the nanostructure surface and a second layer with various functionalities on top of the first layer whereby measured current may be proportional to a concentration of the

electrochemical species in the fluid.

[00145] In a further aspect, an exemplary method may be provided for detecting electrochemical species in an aqueous fluid. The method may include forming a solution comprising said aqueous fluid and a reagent and contacting a working or sensing electrode, an auxiliary electrode, and a reference electrode with the solution. An exemplary sensing electrode may include fullerene nanostructures as described herein. The method may further include applying a voltage between the sensing electrode and the reference electrode to generate a current between the working electrode and the auxiliary electrode. This current may be measured and correlated to an amount of the

electrochemical species present in the fluid. Exemplary electrochemical species include, but are not limited to, hydrogen ions, hydroxide ions, free chlorine, total chlorine, or both, chlorine dioxide, bromine, iodine, ozone, dissolved oxygen, sulfide, sulfite, nitrite, hydrogen peroxide, dopamine, uric acid, ascorbic acid, /?-aminophenol, 1-naphthol, oxidized 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine, quinones, and trace metal ions including Cd , Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Tl³⁺, to name a few.

[00146] In one aspect, a method is provided to detecting electrochemical species in a fluid in a two-electrode system. The method may include applying a voltage between sensing and auxiliary electrodes to produce a current between the sensing electrode and an auxiliary electrode. An exemplary sensing electrode may include fullerene

nanostructures as described above where the current is proportional to the concentration of the electrochemical species in the fluid.

[00147] While embodiments have been heretofore described in connection with amperometric pH sensors, potentiometric pH sensors, voltammetric pH sensors, electrodes and other sensors, the scope of the claims appended herewith should not be so limited. For example, it is envisioned that embodiments of the present subject matter may find utility in the biometric industry and as intracorporeal electrodes and sensors. [00148] Additionally, data, commands and other information or messages may be sent or received, wirelessly or via wire-line depending upon the application, from or to various electrodes and/or sensors utilizing an exemplary system. For example, an exemplary monitoring system may collect information from a sensor monitoring the pH of a remote or local fluid system and may provide such information to a user or to a database for real-time or stored use. Further, an exemplary monitoring system may collect information transmitted wirelessly from an intracorporeal sensor or matrix of sensors or electrodes. Such provision (i.e., transmission) of information may be via any known mode of transmission (e.g., wireless or wire-line, as applicable). Such

information may also be provided directly to a user or may be provided to a user via a processor for manipulation and/or storage thereof. Of course, the processor and supporting systems may also be employed to provide messages and/or commands to the remote or local sensor or electrode as the need arises. Thus, it is envisioned that embodiments may be implemented using a general purpose computer programmed in accordance with the principals discussed herein. It is also envisioned that embodiments of the subject matter and the functional operations described in this specification may be implemented in or utilize digital electronic circuitry, or in computer software, firmware, or hardware, including the structures disclosed in this specification and their structural equivalents, or in combinations of one or more of them. Thus, embodiments of the subject matter described in this specification can be implemented in or utilize one or more computer program products, i.e., one or more modules of computer program instructions encoded on a tangible program carrier for execution by, or to control the operation of, data processing apparatus. The tangible program carrier can be a computer readable medium. The computer readable medium can be a machine-readable storage device, a machine-readable storage substrate, a memory device, or a combination of one or more of them.

[00149] To note, the term "processor" encompasses all apparatus, devices, and machines for processing data, including by way of example a programmable processor, a computer, or multiple processors or computers. The processor can include, in addition to hardware, code that creates an execution environment for the computer program in question, e.g., code that constitutes processor firmware, a protocol stack, a database management system, an operating system, or a combination of one or more of them.

[00150] A computer program (also known as a program, software, software application, script, or code) can be written in any form of programming language, including compiled or interpreted languages, or declarative or procedural languages, and it can be deployed in any form, including as a standalone program or as a module, component, subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in a computing environment. A computer program does not necessarily correspond to a file in a file system. A program can be stored in a portion of a file that holds other programs or data (e.g., one or more scripts stored in a markup language document), in a single file dedicated to the program in question, or in multiple coordinated files (e.g., files that store one or more modules, sub programs, or portions of code). A computer program can be deployed to be executed on one computer or on multiple computers that are located at one site or distributed across multiple sites and interconnected by a communication network.

[00151] Of course, the general processes described by monitoring systems herein may be performed by one or more programmable processors executing one or more computer programs to perform functions by operating on input data and generating output. These processes may also be performed by special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., a field programmable gate array (FPGA) or an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). Processors suitable for the execution of an exemplary computer program include, by way of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, and any one or more processors of any kind of digital computer. Generally, a processor will receive instructions and data from a read only memory or a random access memory or both. The essential elements of a computer are a processor for performing instructions and one or more data memory devices for storing instructions and data. Generally, a computer will also include, or be operatively coupled to receive data from or transfer data to, or both, one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g., magnetic, magneto optical disks, or optical disks. However, a computer need not have such devices. Moreover, a computer can be embedded in another device, e.g., a mobile telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a mobile audio or video player, a game console, a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, to name just a few.

[00152] Computer readable media suitable for storing computer program

instructions and data include all forms of data memory including no n- volatile memory, media and memory devices, including by way of example semiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks; magneto optical disks; and CD ROM and DVD- ROM disks. The processor and the memory can be supplemented by, or incorporated in, special purpose logic circuitry.

[00153] To provide for interaction with a user, exemplary systems according to embodiments of the subject matter may be implemented on a computer having a display device, e.g., a cathode ray tube (CRT) or liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor, for displaying information to the user and a keyboard and a pointing device, e.g., a mouse or a trackball, by which the user can provide input to the computer. Other kinds of devices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well; for example, input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input.

[00154] Embodiments of the subject matter described in this specification may also be implemented in a computing system that includes a back end component, e.g., as a data server, or that includes a middleware component, e.g., an application server, or that includes a front end component, e.g., a client computer having a graphical user interface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with an implementation of the subject matter described is this specification, or any combination of one or more such back end, middleware, or front end components. The components of the system may be interconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication, e.g., a

communication network. Examples of communication networks include a local area network (LAN) and a wide area network (WAN), e.g., the Internet. The computing system may also include clients and servers as the need arises. A client and server are generally remote from each other and typically interact through a communication network. The relationship of client and server arises by virtue of computer programs running on the respective computers and having a client-server relationship to each other.

[00155] It may be emphasized that the above-described embodiments, particularly any "preferred" embodiments, are merely possible examples of implementations, merely set forth for a clear understanding of the principles of the disclosure. Many variations and modifications may be made to the above-described embodiments of the disclosure without departing substantially from the spirit and principles of the disclosure. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of this disclosure and the present disclosure and protected by the following claims.

[00156] While this specification contains many specifics, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the claimed subject matter, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific to particular embodiments. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable sub-combination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a sub-combination.

[00157] As shown by the various configurations and embodiments illustrated in Figures 1-15, devices and methods for layer-by-layer carbon nanostructure surface functionalization have been described.

[00158] While preferred embodiments of the present subject matter have been described, it is to be understood that the embodiments described are illustrative only and that the scope of the invention is to be defined solely by the appended claims when accorded a full range of equivalence, many variations and modifications naturally occurring to those of skill in the art from a perusal hereof.

Claims

What is claimed is:

1. A method of fimctionalizing a fullerene nanostructure comprising the steps of:

producing a fullerene nanostructure on a substrate using a catalyst-free process; forming a first protective layer on a surface of the fullerene nanostructure; and forming a functional second layer over the first protective layer,

wherein the second layer comprises a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

2. The method of Claim 1 wherein the catalyst- free process is a carbo thermal carbide conversion process.

3. The method of Claim 1 wherein the starting material includes a material selected from the group consisting of a carbide ceramic, aluminum carbide, boron carbide, chromium carbide, iron carbide, silicon carbide, and combinations thereof.

4. The method of Claim 1 wherein the fullerene nanostructure is selected from the group consisting of buckminsterfullerenes, nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanohorns, nanobipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, 2D graphene structures, 3D graphene structures, and combinations thereof.

5. The method of Claim 1 wherein the step of providing a fullerene

nanostructure further comprises contacting the fullerene nanostructures with a

composition comprising an alkyl protective moiety under conditions that permit the formation of an alkyl protective layer.

6. The method of Claim 5 wherein the alkyl protective moiety is selected from the group consisting of linear alkanes, branched alkanes, alkenes, alkenes containing 10 to 50 carbon atoms, alkenes substituted with one or more halogen atoms, n-octadecane, n- dodecane, eicosane and hexatriacontane, and combinations thereof.

7. The method of Claim 1 wherein the bipolar molecule comprises a compound having the general formula: wherein

R₂ represents a single bond, an aromatic or alicyclic group, -(OCH₂CH₂)_m-, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-, or -[OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m- where m and n are each independently 0 to 500;

X represents hydrogen, halogen, maleimido group, epoxide, -C≡CH, -N₃, -CN, - OH, -OSO₃ ^", -OR, -SH, -SR, -S-S-R, -SO₃H, -SO₃R, -SO₃ ^", -PO₃H₂, -PO₃H^~, - (PO₃)^2~, -P(=O)(-OR)(OR"), -OPO₃H₂, -OPO₃H^", -O(PO₃)^2", -CHO, -COR, -COOH, - COO^", -COOR, -CONRR", -CONHNH₂, -NH₂, -NRR", -N(COR)R", -N⁺RR"R^m, - N⁺C₅H₅, - (OCH₂CH₂)_m-OR, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-OR, - [OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m-OR, a polyol, a monosaccharide, a disaccharide or a polyethylene oxide derivative thereof;

R represents R_{1 ?} R_!(CH₂)_nR₂ or -(CH₂)_nR₂X;

R', R", R'" are each hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl and cycloalkyl substituted by one or more hydroxyl groups, alkyl and cycloalkyl substituted by one or more carboxylic groups, - (CH₂CH₂O)_nR, - (CH₂CH₂CH₂O)_nR, or -[CH₂CH(CH₃)O]_nR;

p, q are each an integral number between 0 and 10;

r, s are each an integral number between land 4, and 1< r+s <= 4; and

V represents a single bond, C, CH, CH₂, Si, N, NH, P, (P=O) or O.

8. The method of Claim 1 wherein the bipolar molecule comprises a compound with two linked subunits having the general formula:

wherein

R₂ represents a single bond, an aromatic or alicyclic group, -(OCH₂CH₂)_m-, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-, or -[OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m- where m and n are each independently 0 to

500;

X represents hydrogen, halogen, maleimido group, epoxide, -C=CH, -N₃, -CN, - OH, -OSO₃ ^", -OR, -SH, -SR, -S-S-R, -SO₃H, -SO₃R, -SO₃ ^", -PO₃H₂, -PO₃H^~, - (PO₃)^2~, -P(=O)(-OR)(OR"), -OPO₃H₂, -OPO₃H^", -O(PO₃)^2", -CHO, -COR, -COOH, - COO^", -COOR, -CONRR", -CONHNH₂, -NH₂, -NRR", -N(COR)R", -N⁺RR"R^m, - N⁺C₅H₅, - (OCH₂CH₂)_m-OR, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-OR, - [OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m-OR, a polyol, a monosaccharide, a disaccharide or a polyethylene oxide derivative thereof;

R represents R_{1 ?} R_!(CH₂)_nR₂ or -(CH₂)_nR₂X;

R', R", R" are each hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl and cycloalkyl substituted by one or more hydroxyl groups, alkyl and cycloalkyl substituted by one or more carboxylic groups, - (CH₂CH₂O)_nR, - (CH₂CH₂CH₂O)_nR, or -[CH₂CH(CH₃)O]_nR;

p, q are each an integral number between 0 and 10;

t, v are each an integral number between 1 and 3, u and w are each an integral number between 0 and 2, and 1 <= t+u <= 3, and 1 <= v+w <= 3;

Wi, W₂ each represents C, CH, CH₂, Si, N, NH, P, (P=O) or O; and Y represents a single bond or a divalent linker that comprises: Ci_-50 alkyl, alkenyl or aromatic group which is optionally substituted with one or more X; -(OCH₂CH₂)_m-, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-, or - [OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m- where m and n may each be independently 0 to 500.

9. The method of Claim 8 wherein the bipolar molecule further comprises a compound with more than two subunits connected in linear or cyclical fashion with multiple linker groups.

10. The method of Claim 1 wherein the functional groups or functional moieties are selected from the group consisting of redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, DNA apatmers, RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins, enzymes, antibodies, quantum dots, nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, or other cellular components, and combinations thereof.

11. The method of Claim 1 further comprising the step of derivatizing the functional groups or functional moieties in the second layer to form covalent bonds with other functional groups or moieties.

12. The method of Claim 11 wherein the other functional groups or moieties are selected the group consisting of redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, DNA apatmers, RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins, enzymes, antibodies, quantum dots, nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, or other cellular components, and combinations thereof.

13. The method of Claim 1 wherein the step of forming a functional second layer further comprises controlling the density of the functional groups or functional moieties by applying bipolar molecules having a predetermined ratio of functional groups or functional moieties.

14. The method of Claim 13 further comprising the step of dictating subsequent reactions using the controlled density of the functional groups or functional moieties to introduce additional functional groups or functional moieties.

15. The method of Claim 14 wherein the additional functional groups or moieties are selected from the group consisting of redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, DNA apatmers, RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins, enzymes, antibodies, quantum dots, nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, or other cellular components, and combinations thereof, each with a controlled density.

16. The method of Claim 1 further comprising the step of modulating the surface hydrophilicity of the fullerene nanostructure using polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers having one or more hydro xyl groups.

17. The method of Claim 1 further comprising the step of cross-linking the functional groups or functional moieties in the second layer to form a third layer on the surface of the fullerene nanostructure.

18. The method of Claim 1 further comprising the step of performing additional reactions on the functional groups or functional moieties in the second layer to introduce additional functional groups or functional moieties onto the fullerene nanostructure.

19. The method of Claim 1 wherein the functionalized fullerene nanostructure is selected from the group consisting of a sensing element, a voltammetric pH sensor, a potentiometric pH sensor, an electrode, an amperometric pH sensor, a biometric sensor, a biometric electrode, an intracorporeal sensor, and an intracorporeal electrode.

20. A nanostructure comprising:

(a) a substrate having one or more fullerene structures situated on a surface of the substrate;

(b) a first protective layer covering portions of said fullerene structures and the substrate; and

(c) a functional second layer over the first protective layer,

21. The nanostructure of Claim 20 wherein the fullerene structure is produced using a carbo thermal carbide conversion process.

22. The nanostructure of Claim 20 wherein the substrate includes a material selected from the group consisting of a carbide ceramic, aluminum carbide, boron carbide, chromium carbide, iron carbide, silicon carbide, and combinations thereof.

23. The nanostructure of Claim 20 wherein the fullerene structure is selected from the group consisting of buckminsterfullerenes, nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanohorns, nanobipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, 2D graphene structures, 3D graphene structures, and combinations thereof.

24. The nanostructure of Claim 20 wherein the nanostructure is selected from the group consisting of a sensing element, a voltammetric pH sensor, a potentiometric pH sensor, an electrode, an amperometric pH sensor, a biometric sensor, a biometric electrode, an intracorporeal sensor, and an intracorporeal electrode.

25. The nanostructure of Claim 20 wherein the first protective layer comprises an alkyl protective moiety.

26. The nanostructure of Claim 25 wherein the alkyl protective moiety is selected from the group consisting of linear alkanes, branched alkanes, alkenes, alkenes containing 10 to 50 carbon atoms, alkenes substituted with one or more halogen atoms, n- octadecane, n-dodecane, eicosane and hexatriacontane, and combinations thereof.

27. The nanostructure of Claim 20 wherein the bipolar molecule comprises a compound having the general

formula:

wherein

Ri represents hydrogen or a Ci_-50 straight or branched alkyl or alkenyl, which is optionally substituted with one or more halogen atoms; R₂ represents a single bond, an aromatic or alicyclic group, -(OCH₂CH₂)_m-, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-, or -[OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m- where m and n are each independently 0 to 500;

R represents R_{1 ?} R_!(CH₂)_nR₂ or -(CH₂)_nR₂X;

R', R", R'" are ach hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl and cycloalkyl substituted by one or more hydroxyl groups, alkyl and cycloalkyl substituted by one or more carboxylic groups, - (CH₂CH₂O)_nR, - (CH₂CH₂CH₂O)_nR, or -[CH₂CH(CH₃)O]_nR;

p, q are each independently an integral number between 0 and 10;

r, s are each an integral number between 1 and 4, and 1< r+s <= 4; and

V represents a single bond, C, CH, CH₂, Si, N, NH, P, (P=O) or O.

28. The nanostructure of Claim 20 wherein the bipolar molecule comprises a compound with two linked subunits havin the general

formula:

wherein

Ri represents hydrogen or a C_1-50 straight or branched alkyl or alkenyl, which is optionally substituted with one or more halogen atoms; R₂ represents a single bond, an aromatic or alicyclic group, -(OCH₂CH₂)_m-, - (OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-, or -[OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m- where m and n are each independently 0 to 500;

R represents R_{1 ?} R_!(CH₂)_nR₂ or -(CH₂)_nR₂X;

p, q are each an integral number between 0 and 10;

Wi, W₂ each represent C, CH, CH₂, Si, N, NH, P, (P=O) or O; and

Y represents a single bond or a divalent linker that comprises: Ci_-50 alkyl, alkenyl or aromatic group which is optionally substituted with one or more X; -(OCH₂CH₂)_m-, -

(OCH₂CH₂CH₂)_m-, or - [OCH₂CH(CH₃)]_m-, where m and n may each be independently

0 to 500.

29. The nanostructure of Claim 28 wherein the bipolar molecule further comprises a compound with more than two subunits connected in linear or cyclical fashion with multiple linker groups.

30. The nanostructure of Claim 20 wherein the functional groups or functional moieties are selected from the group consisting of redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, DNA apatmers, RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins, enzymes, antibodies, quantum dots, nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, or other cellular components, and combinations thereof.

31. The nanostructure of Claim 20 further comprising a third layer on the surface of the fullerene structure.

32. A method for sensing an electrochemical species in an environment comprising the steps of:

providing an electrochemical sensor, the sensor having a reference electrode and a sensing electrode, the sensing electrode comprising a fullerene nanostructure and disposed between a first contact and a second contact;

applying a potential across the reference and sensing electrodes;

measuring current resulting from the applied potential; and

determining the concentration of an electrochemical species in the environment as a function of the measured current.

33. The method of Claim 32 wherein the electrochemical species is selected from the group consisting of free chlorine, total chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine, iodine, ozone, dissolved oxygen, sulfide, sulfite, nitrite, hydrogen peroxide, dopamine, uric acid, ascorbic acid, /?-aminophenol, 1-naphthol, oxidized 3,3', 5,5'- tetramethylbenzidine, quinones, trace metal ions, hydrogen ions, hydroxide ions, and combinations thereof.

34. The method of Claim 32 wherein the electrochemical sensor is selected from the group consisting of a sensing element, a voltammetric pH sensor, a

potentiometric pH sensor, an amperometric pH sensor, a biometric sensor, and an intracorporeal sensor.

35. The method of Claim 32 wherein the fullerene nanostructure is selected from the group consisting of buckminsterfullerenes, nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanohorns, nanobipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, 2D graphene structures, 3D graphene structures, and combinations thereof.

36. The method of Claim 32 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises a first layer thereon having an alkyl protective moiety selected from the group consisting of linear alkanes, branched alkanes, alkenes, alkenes containing 10 to 50 carbon atoms, alkenes substituted with one or more halogen atoms, n-octadecane, n- dodecane, eicosane and hexatriacontane, and combinations thereof.

37. The method of Claim 36 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises a second layer having a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

38. The method of Claim 36 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises functional groups or functional moieties are selected from the group consisting of redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, DNA apatmers, RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins, enzymes, antibodies, quantum dots, nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, or other cellular components, and combinations thereof.

39. The method of Claim 32 wherein the step of providing an electrochemical sensor further comprises the step of producing the fullerene nanostructure using a carbo thermal carbide conversion process.

40. The method of Claim 32 wherein the environment is a fluid.

41. The method of Claim 40 wherein the fluid is under pressure.

42. A device for measuring electrochemical species in a fluid comprising: a reference electrode in communication with a fluid;

a sensing electrode in communication with the fluid and disposed between a first electrical contact and a second electrical contact;

wherein the sensing electrode includes one or more fullerene nano structures functionalized with a chemically stable moiety that measures concentration of an electrochemical species when a potential is applied across the first and second electrical contacts to thereby provide a current proportional to the concentration of the

electrochemical species.

43. The device of Claim 42 wherein the electrochemical species is selected from the group consisting of free chlorine, total chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine, iodine, ozone, dissolved oxygen, sulfide, sulfite, nitrite, hydrogen peroxide, dopamine, uric acid, ascorbic acid, /?-aminophenol, 1-naphthol, oxidized 3,3', 5,5'- tetramethylbenzidine, quinones, trace metal ions, hydrogen ions, hydroxide ions, and combinations thereof.

44. The device of Claim 42 wherein the fullerene nanostructure is selected from the group consisting of buckminsterfullerenes, nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanohorns, nanobipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, 2D graphene structures, 3D graphene structures, and combinations thereof.

45. The device of Claim 42 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises a first layer thereon having an alkyl protective moiety selected from the group consisting of linear alkanes, branched alkanes, alkenes, alkenes containing 10 to 50 carbon atoms, alkenes substituted with one or more halogen atoms, n-octadecane, n- dodecane, eicosane and hexatriacontane, and combinations thereof.

46. The device of Claim 45 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises a second layer having a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

47. The device of Claim 45 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises functional groups or functional moieties selected from the group consisting of redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, DNA apatmers, RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins, enzymes, antibodies, quantum dots, nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, or other cellular components, and combinations thereof.

48. A device for measuring electrochemical species in a fluid comprising:

a reference electrode in communication with a fluid;

an auxiliary electrode;

a sensing electrode in communication with the fluid;

wherein the sensing electrode includes one or more fullerene nano structures functionalized with a chemically stable moiety that measures concentration of an electrochemical species when a potential is applied across the reference and sensing electrodes to thereby provide a current between the sensing and auxiliary electrodes, the current correlating to the concentration of the electrochemical species present in the fluid.

49. The device of Claim 48 wherein the electrochemical species is selected from the group consisting of free chlorine, total chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine, iodine, ozone, dissolved oxygen, sulfide, sulfite, nitrite, hydrogen peroxide, dopamine, uric acid, ascorbic acid, /?-aminophenol, 1-naphthol, oxidized 3,3', 5,5'- tetramethylbenzidine, quinones, trace metal ions, hydrogen ions, hydroxide ions, and combinations thereof.

50. The device of Claim 48 wherein the fullerene nanostructure is selected from the group consisting of buckminsterfullerenes, nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanohorns, nanobipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, 2D graphene structures, 3D graphene structures, and combinations thereof.

51. The device of Claim 48 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises a first layer thereon having an alkyl protective moiety selected from the group consisting of linear alkanes, branched alkanes, alkenes, alkenes containing 10 to 50 carbon atoms, alkenes substituted with one or more halogen atoms, n-octadecane, n- dodecane, eicosane and hexatriacontane, and combinations thereof.

52. The device of Claim 48 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises a second layer having a bipolar molecule with functional groups or functional moieties.

53. The device of Claim 48 wherein the fullerene nanostructure further comprises functional groups or functional moieties selected from the group consisting of redox mediator molecules, crown ethers, catalysts, boric acids, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, DNA apatmers, RNA aptamers, peptide aptamers, proteins, enzymes, antibodies, quantum dots, nanoparticles, cells, cell organelles, or other cellular components, and combinations thereof.