Classifications

• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01S—RADIO DIRECTION-FINDING; RADIO NAVIGATION; DETERMINING DISTANCE OR VELOCITY BY USE OF RADIO WAVES; LOCATING OR PRESENCE-DETECTING BY USE OF THE REFLECTION OR RERADIATION OF RADIO WAVES; ANALOGOUS ARRANGEMENTS USING OTHER WAVES
  • G01S13/00—Systems using the reflection or reradiation of radio waves, e.g. radar systems; Analogous systems using reflection or reradiation of waves whose nature or wavelength is irrelevant or unspecified
  • G01S13/02—Systems using reflection of radio waves, e.g. primary radar systems; Analogous systems
  • G01S13/04—Systems determining presence of a target
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01S—RADIO DIRECTION-FINDING; RADIO NAVIGATION; DETERMINING DISTANCE OR VELOCITY BY USE OF RADIO WAVES; LOCATING OR PRESENCE-DETECTING BY USE OF THE REFLECTION OR RERADIATION OF RADIO WAVES; ANALOGOUS ARRANGEMENTS USING OTHER WAVES
  • G01S13/00—Systems using the reflection or reradiation of radio waves, e.g. radar systems; Analogous systems using reflection or reradiation of waves whose nature or wavelength is irrelevant or unspecified
  • G01S13/88—Radar or analogous systems specially adapted for specific applications
  • G01S13/887—Radar or analogous systems specially adapted for specific applications for detection of concealed objects, e.g. contraband or weapons
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01S—RADIO DIRECTION-FINDING; RADIO NAVIGATION; DETERMINING DISTANCE OR VELOCITY BY USE OF RADIO WAVES; LOCATING OR PRESENCE-DETECTING BY USE OF THE REFLECTION OR RERADIATION OF RADIO WAVES; ANALOGOUS ARRANGEMENTS USING OTHER WAVES
  • G01S13/00—Systems using the reflection or reradiation of radio waves, e.g. radar systems; Analogous systems using reflection or reradiation of waves whose nature or wavelength is irrelevant or unspecified
  • G01S13/88—Radar or analogous systems specially adapted for specific applications
  • G01S13/89—Radar or analogous systems specially adapted for specific applications for mapping or imaging
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01V—GEOPHYSICS; GRAVITATIONAL MEASUREMENTS; DETECTING MASSES OR OBJECTS; TAGS
  • G01V8/00—Prospecting or detecting by optical means
  • G01V8/005—Prospecting or detecting by optical means operating with millimetre waves, e.g. measuring the black losey radiation
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01Q—ANTENNAS, i.e. RADIO AERIALS
  • H01Q21/00—Antenna arrays or systems
  • H01Q21/0006—Particular feeding systems
  • H01Q21/0031—Parallel-plate fed arrays; Lens-fed arrays
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01Q—ANTENNAS, i.e. RADIO AERIALS
  • H01Q3/00—Arrangements for changing or varying the orientation or the shape of the directional pattern of the waves radiated from an antenna or antenna system
  • H01Q3/22—Arrangements for changing or varying the orientation or the shape of the directional pattern of the waves radiated from an antenna or antenna system varying the orientation in accordance with variation of frequency of radiated wave

Definitions

• the present invention relates to millimeter wave imaging units and systems.
• Metal detectors are very well known and are used extensively in security applications. An important use is in walk-through portal security devices for the detection of concealed weapons and contraband. Such portal devices are currently used at most airports for passenger screening. Metal detectors are generally subdivided into passive and active types. The passive types are designed to detect ferrous materials and are not sensitive to other metals. Active systems excite eddy currents in conductive materials and measure their magnetic response. Due to low conductivity of most ferrous materials the active systems are less effective in detecting ferrous metals. In advanced security portals individual sensors are responsible for detection of objects located at various height levels (screening sectors). The operation of an active type metal detector is explained by reference to FIG. 17. A time varying magnetic field 110 from source coil 112 produces eddy currents in conductive object 114 that in turn produce magnetic fields 116 that produce currents in detector coil 118 that indicates the presence of conductive object 114.
• X-ray systems are the principal detectors used for luggage detection. Because they emit ionizing radiation, however, they are not often mentioned as a solution for personnel screening. Some development has occurred with backscatter x-ray systems that rely on received scatter on the side (or sides in the case of a two-sided version) of the entering x- ray beam. A handheld backscatter system, however, would be impractical.
• Nuclear quadrupole resonance is a form of spectroscopy relating to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Unlike NMR, it does not rely on the presence of a strong magnetic field. Instead, it relies on nuclear spin states of some nuclei in which the positive electric charge carried by these nuclei is not distributed with perfect symmetry. In effect, the nucleus is stretched along one axis. The nuclear spin states are determined by the electrostatic interaction of nuclear charge density and the external electric potential of surrounding electron cloud. Because it relies on an inherent feature of the molecule of interest, it is inherently chemospecific to many explosives.
• NQR instruments work by applying a short pulse radio frequency (rf) magnetic field near the NQR frequency of the target molecules. The antenna then receives a return signal. If the molecules of interest are present, the instrument will sense the return signal at its specific frequency. NQR analysis has many inherent physical limitations. First, the strong outgoing pulse causes a reverberation that can interfere with the receipt of the return signal (the so-called relaxation time problem). If the return signal only lasts a short time, the return signal cannot be received.
• rf radio frequency
• TNT for example, has a delay time of less than one millisecond.
• encasing the explosive in a metal container will prevent the RF signal from reaching the explosive target to enable the generation of the return signal.
• NQR is not sensitive to liquid explosives or small amounts of explosives. There have been many attempts to overcome these limitations. For example, special circuitry has been employed to dissipate energy of the outgoing pulse. In addition, techniques have been developed to create spin echoes - in effect, mesurable return after the signal "dies" out.
• Patent 6,777,937 identifies a two-coil array that produces a more uniform magnetic field (orthogonal fields with low mutual inductance) to increase sensitivity and separate NQR signals from piezoelectric and acoustic ringing.
• a two-coil system can use a subtractive technique to compensate for unwanted RF signals.
• NQR can be a primary sensor for landmine detection.
• Most developers of NQR systems have developed systems for detection of objects, not personnel. Some have made suggestions of a handheld detector for landmine detection and perhaps for other purposes.
• Imaging systems operating at millimeter wavelengths are well known. These systems can be important because radiation at these wavelengths is not completely attenuated by substantial distances of fog or smoke, as is visible light. Radiation at millimeter wavelengths will also penetrate clothing and significant thickness of materials such as dry wood and wallboard. These millimeter wave imaging systems have therefore been proposed for aircraft to improve visibility through fog and for security applications for detection of hidden weapons and the like. Such systems are described in US Patents 5,121,124 and 5,365,237 that are assigned to Applicant's employer. The systems described in those patents utilize antennas in which the direction of collected millimeter wave radiation is a function of frequency.
• This type of antenna is referred to as a "frequency scanned" antenna.
• the collected millimeter wave radiation is analyzed in a spectrum analyzer to produce a one-dimensional image. Two dimensional images may be obtained by scanning.
• the antenna signal is used to modulate an acousto-optic device (a Bragg cell) that in turn modulates a laser beam to produce a spectral image.
• an electro-optic module is modulated by the antenna signal and the electro-optic module in turn modulates the laser beam to impose the millimeter wave spectral information on a laser beam that then is separated into spectral components by an etalon to produce an image.
• US Patent No. 4,654,666 describes an imaging system which includes a frequency scanning antenna and a spectrum analyzer for converting coded radiation distributions collected by the antenna into a time coded distribution so that a one-dimensional scene can be reproduced.
• NCJ 184432 Prior Art Concealed Weapons and Contraband Imaging and Detection Systems
• NCJ 184432 National Institute of Justice in its NIJ Guide 602-00
• This guide is available on the internet at http:/www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij. This document describes the features, both good and not so good, of the many available systems.
• the present invention provides a frequency scanned millimeter wave imaging unit and discloses imaging system comprised of one or more of these units.
• the system includes one or more millimeter wave frequency scanning antenna for collecting frequency dependent beams of millimeter wave radiation from a narrow one- dimensional field of view and millimeter wave amplifier components for amplifying the millimeter wave radiation collected by each antenna.
• Antennas can be sized according to the application. Applicants have built systems with two standard sizes, namely 4.5 inches (11.54 cm) and 26 inches (about 66 cm).
• the basic millimeter wave antenna is only 4.5 inches in length and constructed from WR-IO waveguide with inclined slots cut in one of the narrow walls at 79 mil spacing.
• This geometry (with the antenna positioned in a vertical direction) creates a frequency-scanned antenna spanning a 20 degree vertical field of view over a 75.5-93.5 GHz operational band of the sensor, starting at approximately 1 degree below horizontal at 93.5 GHz and ranging to approximately 21 degrees below horizontal at 75.5 GHz.
• a narrow, rod-shaped cylindrical lens covers the waveguide slots at each element and vertically focuses the antenna beam 19 inches from the antenna.
• the antenna is aligned along one focal axis of a vertically oriented elliptical cylinder reflector, 4.5 inches across with the second, parallel focal axis of the reflector located 19 inches from the antenna as measured along the light path.
• This arrangement gives a one-dimensional beam.
• the field of view is a little less than 1/2 inch wide and about 6 inches high.
• the system has an approximate depth of focus covering 14 inches at minimum range to about 29 inches at maximum range.
• the frequency-scan angular range corresponds to about 4.5 vertical inches at the minimum operational range of 14 inches.
• the horizontal and vertical resolution (half-power beam-width) at the center-band frequency of 84.5 GHz is about 1.57 degrees, or less than 14-inch at the 19-inch focus.
• a scan (of either the antenna or the target) in the horizontal direction is required for a two dimensional image. (If the antenna is positioned horizontally, the scan, of course, would be vertical.)
• the basic millimeter wave antenna is very similar to the above 4.5-inch antenna but its length is 26 inches in length and its focus is typically fixed at a focal line somewhere between about 5 feet (about 1.54 meters) and infinity and in some embodiments the focus is adjustable between about 5 feet and infinity.
• the system includes a beam-former that separates the amplified radiation to produce frequency dependent signals corresponding to the frequency dependent beams.
• the beam-former includes delay lines, a millimeter wave lens, and an array of millimeter wave power detectors for detecting the power in each frequency dependent beam.
• a sampling circuit reads out the frequency dependent signals to produce a one-dimensional image of the antenna field of view.
• a two dimensional image of a target may be obtained by moving the target (or having the target move) across the field of view of the scanning antenna or by moving the antenna in order to scan its line of focus over the target.
• a 2X2 Dicke switch is provided to permit sampling a reference thermal source for gain control while continuing to collect image information.
• This 2X2 Dicke switch provides a square root of 2 improvement in temperature sensitivity over a single receiver version.
• Focusing Preferred embodiments also include features for focusing the antennas and for adjusting the focus of the antennas. These adjustable focusing techniques can be manual or automatic. Also, by using arrays of units (as in the portal system) a target can be imaged from various angles simultaneously.
• a single millimeter wave amplifier may be utilized to amplify all of the radiation collected by each antenna. Collected radiation is separated into frequency dependent signals corresponding to a number of separate beams (each representing a different direction). This, in effect, produces a one-dimensional image with a number (such as 128) of separate signals corresponding to the number of separate beams.
• the separated signals are detected by a iiumber of separate detectors (such as 128 detectors in a preferred embodiment) to produce in effect image "pixels" representing millimeter wave beam directions in a first one-dimensional direction.
• Optical Processing Preferred embodiments of the present invention also includes various optical processing features to provide improved image quality and ease of recognizing sought after objects in the images. These include features include features that rotate the polarization of the millimeter wave radiation from the field of view. Other features permit the operator to view different polarization separately and to view the difference of images at the separate polarizations. Other techniques allow the operator to compare and/or combine millimeter wave images with visible light images or infrared images of a target. These comparisons or combinations can often explain questionable features of the various images.
• 60 GHz Outdoor Imaging Applicants have designed an imaging system for operating over a frequency range in the range of about 60 GHz. At this frequency background illumination from the sky is similar to background radiation from the ground, trees and buildings. Therefore, outdoor background millimeter wave illumination is much more uniform than at other millimeter wave frequency ranges. Thus distortions of image intensities resulting from background illumination can be greatly reduced in the 60 GHz range as compared to other millimeter wave ranges. This uniform image background therefore permits the development of reliable automated threat detection routines for use in security screening applications.
• Imaging Systems Preferably these frequency scanned units are utilized in imaging systems such as the following:
• a preferred imaging system is a millimeter wave portal imaging system for the detection of concealed weapons, explosives and other contraband items.
• the system includes a number (such as 64) of millimeter wave detection units each including a frequency scanning antenna and associated electronics.
• the units are mounted in four posts (16 per post) of a portal structure.
• Each unit collects frequency dependent beams of millimeter wave radiation from a narrow one-dimensional field of view.
• the collected radiation from each unit is amplified at the collected frequencies and the amplified signals are separated into frequency dependent bins with a tapped-delay beam-former. These bins are then sampled to produce a one-dimensional image of the antenna field of view.
• a two dimensional image of a portion of a person passing through the portal is obtained by moving the person (or having the person move) across the field of view of each of the frequency scanning antennas.
• the images from the antennas can be monitored separately or data from the antennas can be combined with a computer processor to form images of the person.
• the basic millimeter wave antenna is only 4.5 inches in length and constructed from WR-10 waveguide with inclined slots cut in one of the narrow walls at 79 mil spacing.
• This geometry (with the antenna positioned in a vertical direction) creates a frequency-scanned antenna spanning a 20 degree vertical field of view over a 75.5-93.5 GHz operational band of the sensor, starting at approximately 1 degree below horizontal at 93.5 GHz and ranging to approximately 21 degrees below horizontal at 75.5 GHz.
• a narrow, rod-shaped cylindrical lens covers the waveguide slots at each element and vertically focuses the antenna beam 19 inches from the antenna.
• the antenna is aligned along one focal axis of a vertically oriented elliptical cylinder reflector, 4.5 inches across with the second, parallel focal axis of the reflector located 19 inches from the antenna as measured along the light path.
• This arrangement gives a one-dimensional beam.
• the field of view is a little less than 1/2 inch wide and about 6 inches high.
• the system has an approximate depth of focus covering 14 inches at minimum range to about 29 inches at maximum range.
• the frequency-scan angular range corresponds to about 4.5 vertical inches at the minimum operational range of 14 inches.
• the horizontal and vertical resolution (half-power beam-width) at the center-band frequency of 84.5 GHz is about 1.57 degrees, or less than V4-inch at the 19-inch focus.
• a scan (of either the antenna or the target) in the horizontal direction is required for a two dimensional image.
• a hand-held imager Preferably only one 4.5-inch unit (antenna and electronics) is used in a hand-held imager. Scanning is accomplished by wrist or arm motion. In a preferred embodiment, a 6-inch X 6-inch field of view at focus is imaged with a one second scan.
• the hand held unit may also contain a built-in metal detector, preferably an active eddy cm ⁇ ent metal detector.
• the hybrid detector may also contain a built-in NQR detector (either a single coil or dual coil system). Because the radio waves emitted from the unit are so far removed from the millimeter-wave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, the NQR detector will not interfere with operation of the millimeter-wave imager. The millimeter-wave imager will identify most suspicious contraband and the NQR detector will identify most explosives that are incorporated into objects that appear innocuous with the millimeter-wave imager.
• the receiving element of the antenna is 0.6 meter in length constructed from a WR-10 slotted waveguide and a narrow, rod-shaped cylindrical lens positioned in front of the waveguide slotted wall.
• the waveguide is aligned along the short focal axis of a vertically oriented elliptical cylinder reflector having short focal length of 0.4 meter and long focal length of 5 meters.
• This imager provides a vertical one-dimensional field of view large enough, when scanned horizontally, to image a person at a focus located at a distance of 5 meters.
• Inclined slots are cut in one of the narrow walls of the waveguide at 2 millimeters spacing.
• This geometry creates a frequency-scanned antenna spanning 20 degrees in one dimensional field of view over a 75.5-93.5 GHz operational band of the receiver, starting at approximately 1 degree below the normal to the waveguide axis at 93.5 GHz and ranging to approximately 21 degrees below normal at 75.5 GHz.
• This antenna geometry provides approximately 25 millimeters (about 1 inch) horizontal and vertical spatial resolution at 5 meters from the apex of the reflector. Reflector is tilted back by 10 degrees such that frequency scanned angle (i.e. 20 degrees) of the beam varies within +10 degrees with respect to horizontal. Alternately, the antenna can be inverted and tilted forward by about 8 degrees.
• the antenna including receiving element and the reflector can be mechanically scanned in the direction perpendicular to the reflector axis. Vertical frequency-scan of the beam and horizontal rotation of the antenna produces a two dimensional raster image.
• the antenna can be held stationary while people being inspected are moved horizontally across the approximately 1-inch wide vertical field of view of the stationary antenna. This can be done with a horizontal escalator or an inexpensive treadmill.
• a "walk through" metal detector is positioned adjacent to the escalator or treadmill to check for concealed metal on the persons being inspected.
• the depth of focus covers about 500 mm (twenty inches) from 4.75 meters to 5.25 meters, so the imager can be located about 5 meters from the metal detector to obtain a focused image of a person as he passes through it.
• Close-in Whole Body Imager Another preferred imaging system is a close-in millimeter wave imaging system for security screening.
• This system includes four of the 4.5-inch millimeter wave frequency scanning antenna in a scanning head for collecting frequency dependent beams of millimeter wave radiation from a narrow one-dimensional field of view.
• a sampling circuit reads out the frequency dependent signals to produce a one-dimensional image of the antenna field of view.
• Each of the four imagers in the head generates a frequency scanned line image for a subsection of an overall width of a field of view somewhat larger than the width of persons to be screened and these four line images are combined to produce a single frequency scanned line image across the width of the person being screened.
• the scanning head is mechanically scanned vertically to generate a complete two-dimensional body image of the subject.
• Millimeter wave imaging systems with illumination can be utilized effectively for collision avoidance and aircraft landing in situations where normal vision is obstructed such as by fog or dust.
• An example is the dust kicked up by helicopters attempting to land in a sandy desert.
• FIGS. IA-I C show features of a one-dimensional frequency scanning slot antenna.
• FIGS. 2A and 2B show techniques for focusing the antenna shown in FIGS. IA - C.
• FIGS. 2C, 2D and 2E show techniques for focusing Cassegrain-type antenna.
• FIGS. 3 A and 3B show an arrangement 64 of the above antennas in a portal contraband scanner.
• FIG. 4 shows electronic circuits for converting millimeter wave signals to images.
• FIG. 4A shows features of a 2X2 Dicke switch.
• FIG. 5 shows a person passing through a screening portal.
• FIG. 6 shows an embodiment with a large depth of field.
• FIGS. 7 A and 7B show the relationship between resolution and distance between antenna and target.
• FIGS. 8A and 8B show features of a second preferred embodiment of the present invention.
• FIG. 9 is a chart of antenna patterns for the second preferred embodiment.
• FIGS. 1OA and 1OB shows techniques for focusing the antenna of the second preferred embodiment.
• FIGS. 1OC and 1OD show features of an antenna with adjustable focus.
• FIG. 11 is a block diagram describing the major elements of the second preferred embodiment.
• FIG. 12 is a drawing of the beam former for the second preferred embodiment.
• FIG. 13 shows experimental data from a prototype of the second preferred embodiment.
• FIG. 14A is a drawing showing features of the prototype of the second preferred embodiment.
• FIG. 14B is a drawing showing a preferred application of the second preferred embodiment.
• FIG. 15A-15C show sample images taken with a prototype according to the second preferred embodiment.
• FIGS. 16A and 16B show features of a hybrid security system.
• FIG. 17 show features of prior art prior art active metal detectors.
• FIGS 18A and 18B show features of a hand held imager and hand held hybrid imager- detector.
• FIGS. 19A, 19B and 19C are portal images.
• FIG. 20 shows an imaging system with millimeter wave illumination.
• FIGS 21 A and 21B show features of a con-focal system.
• FIGS. 22A and 22B compare outdoor and indoor millimeter wave images at spectral ranges not close to 60 GHz.
• FIG. 23 is a graph showing high atmospheric absorption and emission at about 60 GHz.
• FIGS. 24A and 24B show features of a preferred embodiment of the present invention.
• FIG. 25 shows an artist creation of the preferred embodiment in use.
• FIGS 26A and 26B show features of a scanning head with four imagers.
• FIG. 27 shows a single imager. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
• FIGS IA, IB and 1C are drawings showing features of a one-dimensional millimeter wave antenna according to aspects of the present invention.
• FIG. IA shows the elevation field of view of the basic antenna element 2.
• the antenna element is approximately 4.5 inches long.
• one of the narrow walls is thinned from 40 mils to 6 mils.
• each WR-10 waveguide antenna has 57 inclined slots 4 cut into its narrow wall at a spacing of 0.079", which serve as emitting elements.
• the angle of the slots increases from 9.66 degrees on the feed end to over 25 degrees at the load end to provide nearly constant field strength along the antenna length.
• the direction of the angle alternates, providing a "pi" radian phase shift between successive coupling slots.
• This geometry creates, for a vertically mounted antenna, a frequency scan spanning a 20-degree vertical field of view (over a 75.5 to 93.5 GHz operational band of the sensor) starting at 1 degree below horizontal at 93.5 GHz and ranging to approximately 21 degrees below horizontal.
• the antenna element 2 shown in FIGS. IA, IB and 1C is focused to 19 inches as shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B.
• a vertically oriented elliptical cylindrical mirror 8 4.5 inches across has one of its focal lines at the center of slots 4 of antenna element 2 that is positioned 3.5 inches from mirror 8 and its second focus 5 at 15.5 inches from mirror 8 and 19 inches from the antenna 2 as measured along the light path from focus position 5 to antenna 2 all as shown in FIG. 2A.
• a narrow rod-shaped collimating lens 6 covers waveguide slots 4 and vertically focuses the antenna beam 7 at 19 inches from the antenna as measured along the light path.
• the wavelengths of the collected radiation are about 0.14 inch (3.6 mm), corresponding to the mid-band frequency, 83.5 GHz.
• the resolution element (as described in more detail below) is somewhat larger (in the range of about 0.5 inch) in both the horizontal and vertical directions.
• Antenna element 2 along with its focusing elements is designated as antenna element 50 in FIGS. 2A, 2B, 3 A and 3B.
• the field of view of the system is a little less than 1 A inch wide and about 6 inches high. This produces a one-dimensional image since there is no resolution in the horizontal direction. A two-dimensional image is produced by scanning the antenna or the target.
• FIGS. 2C, 2D and 2E A second preferred antenna 5OA based on a modified Cassegrain design is shown in FIGS. 2C, 2D and 2E.
• a target located at a focal line 3 A emits MMW energy. Some of this MMW energy is captured by a primary reflector 8A.
• the primary reflector is elliptical along the horizontal axis and planar along the vertical axis. It refocuses the energy in the horizontal plane to a virtual point located behind a secondary reflector 9A.
• the secondary reflector is a complex surface which is concave along the vertical axis but convex along the horizontal axis.
• the concave surface follows a parabolic curve and energy from any point in the focal plane (1) is reflected as parallel rays along the vertical axis.
• the convex surface follows an elliptical curve and the reflector maps the virtual focal point of the primary reflector 8A to an antenna 2A located directly behind the primary reflector.
• the reflector system in the horizontal plane is a traditional Cassegrain reflector set-up with the antenna feed accessed through a slot cut in the middle of the primary reflector 8A. The energy emitted from the focal point is then refocused to this antenna.
• the antenna 5OA is a frequency scanned traveling wave antenna formed on a circuit board.
• the coupling angle varies with frequency from 1 to 21 degrees off-axis as the frequency varies from 93.5 GHz to 75.5 GHz.
• the entire secondary reflector 9A is oriented off -axis at an angle of 11 degrees to the antenna in the vertical plane as shown at 7A in FIG. 2E, changing the collection angle of the reflector system to +/- 10 degrees relative to normal to the primary reflector and antenna.
• the elliptical horizontal cross- section of the secondary reflector is varied along its vertical length to compensate for its varying distance from the primary reflector.
• Dicke switching is used for calibration of the imaging system.
• One preferred technique utilizes, as shown in FIG. 4 a front-end switch 20 that alternates between looking at the antenna signal and looking at a set temperature load 21.
• the front-end switch 20 switches at a rate of 3.84 kHz between the antenna and a load termination.
• the load can be heated by approximately 4OK for one switching cycle. This allows the unit to perform a two-temperature calibration in real time, compensating for gain fluctuations in the amplifiers as well as temperature offsets.
• the switch itself is a W-band microwave monolithic integrated circuit (MMIC) PESf switch fabricated by M/A- Com with a transmission loss of about 1.8 dB.
• MMIC W-band microwave monolithic integrated circuit
• Applicants use off-the-shelf 77 HGz GaAs PIN diode switch as the Dicke switch. This switch permits faster switching had produces lower signal loss than the switch described above. It does not provide for real-time calibration; however
• the system can be calibrated easily by pointing the imager to the sky for a low temperature reference (about 100 degrees Kelvin) and covering the antenna with a foam material for a room temperature reference.
• the feed-end of the slotted antenna waveguide 2 is attached to one input of a front-end 2x2 Dicke switch 2OA.
• This Dicke switch is a wideband PIN diode switch with two input and two output ports and is electronically configured to connect either input port to either output port.
• the other input port of the 2X2 Dicke switch is terminated in a matched load 21.
• the matched load may have its temperature electronically controlled.
• Each output port feeds a separate receiver channel, consisting of a low noise amplifier, frequency processor, detector diodes, and read-out electronics, as described below.
• the Dicke switch is electronically controlled such that while one receiver channel is collecting signal from the antenna, the other receiver channel is collecting power from the reference load.
• Each receiver channel is switched between reference and load, at a rate of 3.84 kHz in this preferred embodiment.
• the reference load power measurement is subtracted from the antenna power measurement in the read-out electronics, allowing the system to calibrate for changes in gain of the amplifiers.
• an off-the-shelf PIN diode switch is used as the Dicke switch.
• This is Model MA4CG6773 available from MA-COM with offices in Lynchburg, VA. It is a 77 GHz SP2T switch made from Gallium Arsenide PIN diodes and semi-insulating GaAs Substrate designed for automotive applications. They are fabricated on OMCVD epitaxial wafers using a process designed for repeatable electrical characteristics and extremely low parasitics. This is an extremely fast switch with switching speeds of 2 ns. Its prior art applications include use in transceivers, automotive cruise control and radiometry switch functions.
• the front-end switch is packaged with, and feeds directly into, a front-end amplifier unit 22.
• This front-end amplifier unit consists of two low noise MMIC amplifiers 22A and 22B, band pass filter 22C and low noise MMIC output amplifier 22D.
• the amplifiers are required to have a wide bandwidth but maintain a low noise figure, as they set the noise temperature for the entire system. They operate over an 18 GHz bandwidth, from 75.5 GHz to 93.5 GHz.
• the first two amplifiers in the chain 22A and 22B have a noise figure of approximately 4 dB over the 18 GHz band and a gain of about 19 dB.
• Band pass filter 22C separates these amplifiers from the third amplifier 22D that is of a slightly different design.
• the third amplifier 22D the output amplifier, is tuned for a gain of about 22 dB and is capable of generating output power of up to 1 mW before compressing.
• the entire gain stage has approximately 53 dB of gain and a noise output power of -11 dBm, with a noise figure averaging 7 dB. This includes losses from the filter and the transitions.
• each amplifier channel 22 provides 53 dB of gain, as well as an integrated matched load with a heater, and PIN switch for in-situ two-temperature flat field calibration.
• the MMIC amplifiers and the band pass filter are preferably fabricated using a co-planar waveguide design on an indium phosphide substrate.
• Tapped Delay Beam-former This broadband amplified antenna power is fed into a tapped-delay beam-former as shown in FIG. 4 for decomposition into frequency bins representing a vertical frequency image of the antenna field of view.
• Delay lines 26 transmit the amplified antenna signal into 32 signal ports of beam-former 24. Beginning at port 24-1 at the left side of beam- former 24, the signal to each port is delayed by 36 ps (relative to its left side neighbor port). The 36 ps delay is equivalent to three wavelengths at center band of 83.5 GHz.
• the millimeter wave frequency of 83 GHz wave in air corresponds to a wavelength of about 3.6 mm, and light travels that far in about 12 ps.
• a signal arriving at port 24- 1 at time 0 would also arrive at port 24-2 at time 36 ps, would arrive at port 24-16 at time 576 ps and would arrive at port 24-32 at 1.152 ns.
• the series of 32 taps samples a total time interval of 1.152 nanoseconds, yielding a frequency resolution of 870 MHz for the beam-former.
• the beam-former sorts the 18,000 MHz broadband signal from the antenna into 32 frequency bins represented by 32 output ports 28. This provides an average separation between frequency bins of 580 MHz, thus over sampling the vertical focal plane by about 2.4X relative to the 1408 MHz bandwidth of each antenna beam.
• Losses in the delay line, the beam forming lens, and input transition, as well as bandwidth splitting losses drop the power level at each lens output to about -36 dBm.
• a set of 32 sensitive detector diodes 30 integrates this power in the 32 frequency bins for each channel to provide a voltage signal corresponding to the intensity of the millimeter wave light collected by the antenna element at each of the 32 frequency ranges. The voltage signal from each of these diode signals is then read out by multiplexing readout integrated circuit chips on readout integrated circuit board 32.
• the beam-former is implemented in a low loss dielectric, such as polypropylene, with smooth copper cladding.
• the delay lines 26 are created at very low cost with a lithographic etching that creates the circuit pattern, which is then sandwiched between two ground planes in a heated press.
• the smoothness of the copper making up the inside surface of the delay lines is extremely important. Applicants have discovered that they could reduce the losses in these lines from 1.2 dB/inch to about 0.5 dB/inch by requiring that the copper surface roughness not exceed 300 nanometers. Prior art microwave surface roughness specifications were 1400 to 2900 nanometers.
• the signals from these 32 taps are launched into beamforming lens 24, which steers each signal frequency range into one of 32 output ports 28.
• each antenna element is 4.5 inches long (with a 0.5 inch spacing between elements) so the stacks are 80 inches high with two of the stacks 1OA and 1OB arranged to view the person's front and side and two of the stacks 10 C and 10 D arranged to view the person's side and rear all as shown in FIGS. 3 A and 3B.
• 1OB are focused on the subject's front midline. As the person moves closer to the portal, the sensor foci sweep outward from the midline as indicated at 52 to generate a full 2-D image of the front and sides of the person. At the nominal travel speed of 1.5 feet per second, the antenna beam moves through one resolution element approximately every 40 milliseconds. The imager reads out at 30 Hz, slightly over sampling the horizontal plane.
• the two antennas combine to record 60 columns of image pixels surrounding the front and two sides of the subject, separated horizontally by less than a quarter-inch projection.
• a second pair of antennas in stacks 10 C and 10 D images his/her back and sides in the same manner. Simulated portal images are shown in FIGS. 19 A, B and C.
• the 16 antenna elements making up each antenna column feed 16 receiver channels with an amplifier set and beam-former for each antenna.
• the amplified signals from the antenna elements are processed as a pair of images, one representing the front and sides of the person and the other representing the sides and rear of the person passing through the portal.
• the sensors operate at a 30 Hz rate, producing 30 images per second. If we set the passage so that the image time for both front and rear images take one second each, both front and rear images will each contain 60 pixels in the horizontal direction. For the vertical direction, each of the 16 antenna elements in each column produces 32 angular beams for a total of 512 angular beams.
• both the front and rear images will each contain about 60 pixels across and 512 pixels high, and the images will produce a wraparound view of the person traversing the portal.
• the pixel size is about 0.5 inch in the horizontal direction and about 0.16 inch in the vertical direction at a range of 7 inches from the stacks. For those portions of the person located substantially farther from the antenna stacks than 7 inches, the pixel data could be modified with computer software to accommodate the overlap to produce continuous stitched wrap-around images.
• Each of the 16 amplifiers in each column holds a switch and up to four cascaded gain stages with WR-9 inputs.
• Each amplifier includes connections for power and control signals and adequate shielding to prevent feedback in the gain stage.
• the antenna arrays When a person is not passing through the portal, the antenna arrays have nothing within their focal area and instead receive signal from a broad area beyond the focal region.
• This area can be coated with millimeter absorptive foam at ambient temperature.
• the foam acts as a blackbody at millimeter wave frequencies, emitting a fixed, broadband signal to the antennas. If the foam temperature is less than the temperature of a human body, the foam provides a good contrast to a person passing through the detector. This improves the clarity and sharpness of the generated images.
• contour contrast can be added to the images of the persons being screened by providing a cold surface above the portal that would be a source of low temperature thermal radiation.
• millimeter radiation in the band detected by the antenna elements that is reflected off the person after being emitted from the cold source will be very small compared to reflected radiation from other surrounding warmer sources.
• the scanner will see substantial contrasts on the persons scanned depending on the angular orientation of various portions of his body, his clothing and potential contraband.
• Persons skilled in the art of contraband detection will recognize that many modifications can be made to the examples presented above. For example, instead of having the person pass through the portal on a horizontal escalator as described above, the person could be required to walk through the portal at a designated pace such as about 1 A the normal walking speed.
• a millimeter wave transparent barrier 60 can be placed in the portal as shown in FIGS.
• the proposed millimeter-wave imager as described above will operate in parallel with a commercial metal detector portal such as model SMD 600 developed by CEIA Corporation or similar.
• the millimeter -wave imager and metal detector working in a tandem complement each other and bring the entire system performance to a higher level.
• the metal detector can be extremely sensitive to very small amounts of metals which cause problems due to high frequency of alarms set by benign objects such as coins, glasses, keys etc. In order to determine the cause of the alarm security personnel have to perform manual searches, which considerably slow the screening process and increase security costs.
• the millimeter-wave imager may not be as sensitive as metal detectors but it has an advantage of producing images, such that objects can be visually differentiated into either threat or no threat categories.
• the metal objects that set off a metal detector alarm are then scrutinized using millimeter -wave images within the sector or sectors that have shown the presence of such objects. The size and shape of the detected object will be used to determine if further search is required.
• the millimeter-wave imager has a capability to detect non-metal objects such as plastics, ceramics etc. that cannot be detected with metal detectors. Plastic and ceramic knives can be a significant threat and pose a great challenge to existing security systems which are largely based on the metal detection approach.
• FIGS. 16A and 16B A preferred embodiment of the mm-wave and metal detector security portal 200 is shown in FIGS. 16A and 16B.
• Metal detector portal 201 has vertical sectors 202 with individual metal sensors. Once a metal object such as 203 is detected the portal sends an alarm signal in the form of warning lights (and/or an audible alarm) to security personnel.
• two millimeter-wave imagers collect thermal radiation data from the subject on the right side (205A) and two more millimeter -wave imagers collect data from left side (205B) of the portal.
• the metal detector warning lights (or similar indicators) in certain sectors are displayed along with the thermal images from the corresponding sectors. A decision is then made either by a human operator or automatically by a computer program, whether additional screening is required. If the metal detector does not detect metals, the thermal images may still reveal the presence of suspicious objects which would give the portal security operators a signal to perform a more detailed search.
• millimeter-wave imager An important advantage of the millimeter-wave imager is that in some cases it can help resolve an alarm situation without manual search. Even if additional screening is required it can help to perform it non-invasively by requiring a subject to pass through the portal one more time and by taking more mm-wave images that may clarify the nature of suspicious objects. Even though a few extra passes take some time they will be less time consuming and will not require specially assigned security personnel to perform the work.
• FIG. 16A shows the top view of the preferred embodiment of the hybrid portal 300. It includes a metal detector portal 301 and millimeter- wave imaging portal 302A and 302B.
• the millimeter-wave portal consists of the left (302B) and right (302A) millimeter-wave imaging sensors that collect millimeter- wave radiation 310 from two opposite sides of the human subject.
• Subject 304 enters the portal system in the direction 311 and his frontal (left and right) surfaces are imaged by the sensors 302A and 302B. Then subject passes through the center 305 of the portal and the metal detectors 312 at different height levels sense the presence of metallic objects.
• the rear surface millimeter-wave images of the subjects are taken by the mm-wave sensors 302A and 302B. This completes a screening cycle. If alarms are set off, a second screening can resolve the situation without manual search.
• Another embodiment of the invention utilizes a low cost "single stick" imager.
• the unit has only one antenna which is generally as described above but in this specific case, the antenna is 26 inches long as compared to the 4.5-inch antennas used in the portal contraband screener described above and the hand-held unit described below.
• FIGS. 8 A and 8B are drawings of a one-dimensional millimeter wave antenna element according to aspects of the present invention.
• FIG. 8A shows a front view of the antenna without lens CA which is shown in the FIG. 8B side view.
• one of the narrow walls is thinned from 40 mils to 6 mils.
• 300 inclined slots 4A are cut into the narrow wall at a spacing of 2 mm, which serve as receiving apertures (this compares to 57 slots in the 5" antenna described above).
• the angle of the slots varies from 3.6 degrees at the input port 60 of the waveguide and gradually increases towards the terminated end 7 in order to provide nearly constant signal coupling along its length.
• the direction of the angle alternates, providing a 180 degrees phase shift between successive coupling slots.
• This geometry creates for a vertically mounted antenna a frequency scan spanning a 20-degree vertical field of view over a 75.5 to 93.5 GHz operational band of the system.
• the antenna receiver element In the vertical (elevation) plane the antenna receiver element produces narrow 0.2 degree wide beams at each frequency as shown in FIG. 9. In horizontal plane its beam is 120 degrees wide due to small "b" dimension of the waveguide.
• the antenna element 1 shown in FIGS. 1OA is focused to 5 meters as shown in FIGS. 1OA and 1OB.
• a vertically oriented elliptical cylindrical mirror 8 measuring 0.6 meter in width and 0.8 meters in height, has one of its focal lines located at the center of slots 5 of the receiver element 1 and its second focus 9 at 5 meters from the antenna as shown in FIG. 1OA.
• a narrow rod-shaped lens 6A covers waveguide slots 4A and vertically focuses the antenna heam 11 corresponding to a frequency 93.5 GHz at 5 meters from the antenna into a focal spot 12.
• a lower frequency beam 13 of about 75.5 GHz is focused at the same distance from the antenna but into a different focal spot 14.
• Beam geometry shown in FIG. 1OB assumes that the waveguide antenna signal is collected at the bottom port 6 of the slotted waveguide.
• the elliptical cylindrical mirror 8A as shown in FIG. 1OC may be constructed of a flexible sheet type material such as sheet aluminum.
• An array of 16 computer controlled motor driven screw drives 69A adjusts the shape of the elliptical cylindrical mirror so as to change the focus of the mirror in the range of about 5 meters to infinity.
• the focal distance of the ellipse can be changed from 5 meters to infinity by changing the reflector profile by about 4 millimeters at location 61 A and about 1 millimeter at location 61B as shown in FIG. 1OC.
• An infrared range detector can be added to provide automatic focusing.
• a computer program controlling the instrument calculates the position of the motors needed to achieve the focal length desired by the user.
• four narrow rod-shaped lenses with different focal lengths are provided. Selected lenses can be inserted in front of the antenna to match the focal distance of the elliptical reflector. In a preferred embodiment, these lenses are arranged in a circle around the antenna stick.
• a Lazy Susan type mechanism as shown ay 63 A in FIG. 1OD rotates the desired lens into position in front of the antenna. This rotation may be manual or electromechanically controlled from the computer. Sockets can also be provided so that selected lenses can be inserted manually to avoid the complication of the Lazy Susan.
• the reflector 8B is an ellipse with focal points at 0.4 m and 5 m from the center of the reflector surface.
• the stick antenna 5 position can be adjusted along the ellipse's major axis. Positioning the antenna stick at one focus of the ellipse places the system's focus at the other focal point, 5 m from the reflector. Moving the antenna stick approximately 0.75" closer to the reflector to position 5A as indicated in HG. 1OE shifts the system's focus to infinity.
• a set of motors with a 0.75" throw controls the exact positioning of the antenna stick, and thus the system's azimuth focus.
• the elevation focus of the system is adjusted by changing the curvature of the Rexolite lens placed in front of the antenna stick. This can be accomplished by using a set of discrete lenses placed on a lazy Susan wheel around the antenna stick, as described in FIG. 10D, or by using a single lens formed from a cylinder surrounding the antenna stick FIG. 1OF.
• the single lens has a curvature 130 that varies from infinite to 227" as the lens rotates on an axis around the antenna stick.
• the vertical focus of the system is set by the rotational position of this lens.
• a preferred embodiment of the passive millimeter wave imager includes a polarization rotator integrated into the slotted waveguide antenna as shown in FIG. 1OG.
• the polarization rotator in the preferred embodiment is composed of a sandwich of sheets of Arlon 880 with copper cladding.
• the copper cladding is etched into parallel wires on each sheet, and the wires on each successive sheet of the sandwich are turned at a fixed angle from those of the previous sheet.
• the top and bottom layers of the sandwich have their wires set at 90-degree angles, and the sandwich rotates the polarization of incoming millimeter wave radiation by 90 degrees as it passes through the rotator.
• the thickness of each sheet of the rotator is approximately 14 wavelength, and the entire sandwich is flexible.
• the flexible polarization rotator is formed into a half cylinder 131 of the same length as the antenna 5 and a radius large enough to encircle the antenna but not so large as to significantly mask the antenna aperture.
• the remaining half of the cylinder 132 is formed from a clear plastic material such as polyethylene.
• This cylinder is placed around the antenna stick and allows the antenna stick to collect either horizontal or vertical polarizations.
• the cylinder is rotated such that the clear plastic sheet is between the antenna stick 5 and the reflector 8.
• the clear plastic is transparent to millimeter waves and does not affect the signal polarization.
• horizontal polarization is desired, the cylinder is rotated 180 degrees such that the polarization rotator sits between the antenna and the reflector.
• the copper wires in the rotator are orientated such that horizontal polarized millimeter waves coming from the reflector are rotated to vertical polarization before passing to the antenna stick, where they are coupled through the narrow wall antenna slots.
• the polarizer is the same sandwich of sheets of Arlon 880 with copper cladding except it is shaped as a flat rectangle with the same dimension as to height and width of reflector 8B and is positioned in front of antenna 5 (i.e. between antenna 5 and the target so that radiation from the field of view passes through the polarizer before it reflects off mirror 8.
• An alternate method of achieving horizontal polarization is by cutting offset horizontal slots in the broad wall of the waveguide antenna.
• the polarization rotator is used to affect vertical polarization.
• Preferred embodiments of the present invention also includes various image processing features to provide improved image quality and ease of recognizing sought after objects in the images.
• Features permit the operator to view different polarization separately and to view the difference of images at the separate polarizations.
• Other techniques allow the operator to compare and/or combine millimeter wave images with visible light images or infrared images of a target. These comparisons or combinations can often explain questionable features of the various images.
• the calibration and amplification is the same as described above for the small antenna embodiment utilizing Dicke switching (with either a single switch or the 2X2 Dicke switch configuration described above.
• the front-end amplification is also the same as described above with amplifiers 22A and 22B, filter 22C and output amplifier 22D as shown in FIG. 4 and 4A.
• Tapped Delay Beam-Former Broadband antenna signal from antenna 2A is first amplified and then fed into a tapped- delay beam-former 66 as shown in FIG. 11 and Fig. 12 for decomposition into frequency bins representing vertical image pixels of the antenna field of view.
• the beam former includes an input line 68, a delay line network 70, a Rotman lens 72, horn arrays at the input 76 and output 78 of the lens. Signal lines connected to the output horns are terminated into mm-wave detector circuits 80 tuned to specific frequencies.
• Delay line network 70 splits signal power among the input horns 76 and creates a constant time delay between signals radiated by adjacent horns into the Rotman lens.
• the beam-former is implemented in a low loss dielectric, such as polypropylene, with smooth copper cladding.
• the delay lines 70 are created at very low cost with lithographic etching that creates the circuit pattern, which is then sandwiched between two ground planes in a heated press.
• the smoothness of the copper making up the inside surface of the delay lines is extremely important as for the embodiment described above, applicants limit losses to about 0.5 dB per inch by requiring that the copper surface roughness not exceed 300 nanometers.
• Prior art microwave surface roughness specifications were 1400 to 2900 nanometers.
• the beam-former material is responsible for approximately
• 2OdB signal loss according to the data in FIG. 13.
• an additional 2IdB signal loss due to input power splitting among 128 output channels would result in a total signal attenuation of at least 4IdB per channel.
• This very low power is then detected by channel detectors 82 as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12.
• the detector output voltage is amplified, integrated and digitized by readout chips 80.
• Very high sensitivity mm-wave detector diodes are used in the imager such as Sb- heterostructure diodes manufactured by HRL Laboratories LLC to insure that signal-to- noise performance of the imager is not degraded in the detector and readout circuitry.
• Digitized signals for each of the 128 frequency channels are received by an interface module 35 shown in FIG. 11, which communicates with computer 36 where the data is finally processed and displayed into an image.
• the computer is also responsible for setting optimum performance parameters of the imager such as channel gains, integration time etc.
• the same computer is used to control horizontal scanning of the image using a motorized rotation stage.
• a communication line 37 between computer and interface module 35 can be either wired or wireless, depending on which method is more suitable for a particular application.
• the above antenna system including mm-wave and low frequency signal processing electronics is integrated with a mechanical rotation stage to produce a two dimensional raster image of an object in the focal plane of the antenna.
• This preferred configuration of the imager is shown in FIG. 14.
• a mm-wave frequency- scanned antenna system 84 comprising a slotted- waveguide receiver 2A and reflector 8A is mounted on top of a computer controlled precision rotation stage 86.
• the base of the stage to which antenna is attached is rotated horizontally by a motor 88 in steps of 0.12 degree such that the focal spot at 5 meters from the imager shifts horizontally by approximately one half of the resolution spot width per step.
• the stage is designed to be mechanically stable to ensure that the beam angular random walk does not exceed 0.05 degree in both horizontal and vertical directions.
• the rotation base and motor drive are made part of a heavy duty tripod mount 91 for easy transportation and deployment.
• the stepper motor is powered by a motor control module 92 that receives instruction from a remote computer station 94.
• a mm-wave signal processing and sampling module 90 is attached to the same rotation stage as the antenna system.
• Image acquisition is controlled by an interface module 96 communicating with computer 94.
• Computer 94 is preferably a battery powered portable PC with a flat screen for image display. Computer characteristics have to be sufficient to perform imager control functions, signal acquisition, image processing and display in real time.
• a computer 94 communicates with the control and interface modules 92 and 96 remotely via a cable or a wireless link depending on application requirements. Connections between module 92 and motor 88, mm-wave module 90 and interface unit 96 are preferably wired.
• FIG. 14B An example of imager deployment is shown in FIG. 14B illustrating POW screening for a possibility of hidden weapons.
• An operator 98 controls imager 84 from a safe distance using a computer 100 whereas a POW subject 73 is ordered to stand in the focal plane of the imager. A full image of the subject is scanned within a few seconds and image is displayed on the computer screen 72 for hidden weapons analysis. Multiple images of various aspects of subject can be taken sequentially if necessary.
• FIG. 15A shows examples of such scanned imaged for a subject wearing a simulated pipe suicide west 104, FIG. 15B a metal knife 106 and FIG. 15C a hand gun 108.
• the antenna can be held stationary while the persons being inspected are moved horizontally across the approximately 1-inch wide vertical field of view of the stationary antenna. This can be done with a horizontal escalator or an inexpensive treadmill.
• a "walk through" metal detector is positioned adjacent to the escalator or treadmill to check for concealed metal on the persons being inspected.
• the depth of focus covers about 500 mm (twenty inches) from 4.75 meters to 5.25 meters, so the imager can be located about 5 meters from the metal detector to obtain focused images of people passing through it.
• FIG. 18A is a drawing of a hand held millimeter wave image sensor 119.
• the sensor is the basic 4.5-inch imager sensor described above (see FIGS. IA through 2B) with the antenna focused at 19 inches along the light path (15.5 inches from the back side of mirror 8) to produce a one dimensional image of a 6-inch X Vi-inch field of view located at the focus.
• the antenna is positioned horizontally so that a one dimensional horizontal image is produced by a stationary unit and a vertical scan produces the two-dimensional image.
• the frame rate of the sensor is 30 Hz, so a two dimensional image of a 6-inch X 6-inch field of view is produced by a one-second scan produced by arm motion of the operator. Scanning significantly faster than 6 inches per second produces some blurring. Scanning significantly more slowly produces better contrast but the images will be somewhat distorted.
• the sensor is contained in housing 120 with cover 122 that is transparent to millimeter waves. For best results the front of the sensor is held at about 12 inches from the surface being scanned.
• the unit weighs about 4 pounds so an ergonomic handle is provided with an arm support 124.
• the handle 125 is grasped at location 126. Images of target regions are displayed on screen 128. Batteries for the unit are contained in handle 125.
• metal detections coils 128 are included in the unit as shown in FIG. 18B and produce fluctuating magnetic fields to produce eddy currents in conducting objects producing other magnetic fields as indicated in FIG. 17. These eddy current produced magnetic fields are in turn picked up by the same coils producing currents that indicate the presence of the conducting objects. For metal detection the unit is scanned as close as feasible of the surface being scanned.
• FIGS. 24A through 27 describe a close-in millimeter wave imaging system for security screening.
• This system includes one or more millimeter wave frequency scanning antenna for collecting frequency dependent beams of millimeter wave radiation from a narrow one-dimensional field of view and millimeter wave amplifier components for amplifying the millimeter wave radiation collected by each antenna.
• the system includes a beam-former for each antenna that separates the amplified radiation to produce frequency dependent signals corresponding to the frequency dependent beams.
• the beam-former includes delay lines, a millimeter wave lens, and an array of millimeter wave power detectors for detecting the power in each frequency dependent beam.
• a sampling circuit reads out the frequency dependent signals to produce a one-dimensional image of the antenna field of view.
• a two dimensional image of a target is obtained by moving the antenna or antennas in order to scan its line of focus over the target.
• a whole body imager that accomplishes the screening by moving a scanning head across the body.
• the scanning head in this preferred embodiment consists of four individual millimeter wave imagers, each with its own antenna. Each of the four imagers in the head generates a frequency scanned line image for a subsection of an overall width of a field of view somewhat larger than the width of persons to be screened and these four line images are combined to produce a single frequency scanned line image across the width of the person being screened.
• the scanning head is mechanically scanned vertically to generate a complete two-dimensional body image of the subject.
• FIG. 24A shows the schematic top view of the scanner.
• the scanned person 300 is located at the focal distance of the imagers which is about 19 inches in front of mirror 302 indicated in FIG. 4 and as indicated in FIGS. 2A and 2B.
• the scanned person 300 is standing stationary.
• An optional passive, temperature-controlled backdrop can be placed behind or over the subject. This backdrop enhances the ability to find objects on the subject's sides.
• FIG. 24B is a front outline of the body imager.
• FIGS. 24 A and 24B show the scanning head that mount the millimeter wave imagers and the side support structure that provides linear slides and locomotion of the scanning head.
• FIG. 25 is an artist's concept of the system in use. It illustrates the subject being scanned and the resulting image being shown on a computer generated display such as a liquid crystal display. A temperature controlled backdrop is not shown.
• FIG. 26A shows four individual millimeter wave imagers as they would be mounted on the scanning head.
• FIG. 26B shows a top view of the millimeter wave imagers on the scanner head.
• the active field of view of one imager is indicated at 308.
• the imagers are spaced such that their field of view is just slightly overlapped at the focal distance.
• Each imager forms 64 pixels, giving 256 pixels across a 28-inch field of view shown for this preferred embodiment.
• FIG. 27 shows the key components of the millimeter wave imager subunit.
• the millimeter waves are gathered on the elliptical reflector 302, which focuses them on the slotted frequency-scanned antenna 310.
• the millimeter wave beams are collimated by a Rexolite lens 312 to allow the frequency-scanned antenna to operate properly.
• the signal is amplified with a low noise amplifier and then passed to the frequency processor board 314.
• the frequency processor board separates the signal into 64 frequency bins, which correspond, to the pixels across the field of view. It digitizes these signals, which are then read out by the control board and transferred over USB or other connection to a computer (not shown).
• the computer performs the conversion of the signal levels to a millimeter- wave image and displays the resulting image. For more details on the optics and electronic imaging features see the attached application.
• Preferred techniques for doing the vertical scan include use of a linear belt driven slide such as the Model No. HL3105MP 2001 unit supplied by Techno Inc. with offices in New Hyde Park, New Jersey. Other well-known linear drive systems could be used.
• security operators are physically located far enough away from the subjects being screened so that they are not in danger from bombs carried by the subjects. Images produced by the present invention can be easily transmitted to monitors viewed by the security operators. The mechanical scanning can be initiated by the persons being screened or the scanning can be controlled remotely by the operators.
• This architecture lends itself to multiple configurations that accomplish the same result e.g. a one-dimensional line scanned millimeter wave imager is moved along an axis generating a two-dimensional image.
• the preferred embodiment is shown uses vertical scanning of the scanning head with the frequency scanning antennas providing a horizontal line image. These features could be reversed so that the scanning head provides a vertical line image and the head is scanned horizontally.
• a vertically oriented scanning head could be mechanically scanned around the subject to provide a 360 degree image of him. For the vertical mechanical scan, an alternative to cut the scan time by a factor of two would be to use two scanning heads, one to scan the upper body and one to scan the lower body.
• the preferred embodiment shows a flat configuration with a single side of the body being imaged. Enhancement of objects located on the person's sides is accomplished with a temperature controlled backdrop. Alternately the scanner could have a non-planar configuration that wraps around the body to image the sides of the subject at a more normal angle. Either fusion of the millimeter wave image with an infrared image or optical image can be done by simultaneously scanning the subject with a line scan camera. The resulting finished image will show a combination of the millimeter wave image and the optical or infrared image.
• FIG. 20 provides an active-passive millimeter wave imaging system utilizing the single stick imager.
• the system utilizes a millimeter wave source 12E and a reflector 2E that reflects onto the subject 6E millimeter wave radiation from the source 12E.
• Reflector 12E also blocks natural millimeter wave illumination that would otherwise illuminate subject being monitored.
• a shutter technique (or another equivalent technique) is preferably utilized so images can be obtained with and without illumination.
• Reflector 2E preferable is about 10 to 15 feet high has a surface that reflects millimeter waves in the range detected by millimeter wave camera 8.
• the wall has a shape of an ellipse and the source is at one focal point of the ellipse and the subject is located at the other focal point.
• Single stick imager 8E is focused on the subject and is scanned horizontally across the subject to provide a two- dimensional image.
• the wall is high enough so that it blocks millimeter wave radiation from all thermal sources (other than the cold sky) that would otherwise illuminate the portion of the subject being imaged.
• reflecting material is also provided to cover the horizontal surface 10 (i.e. the ground or a floor) within the wall to reduce the thermal illumination of the subject from the horizontal surface.
• the subject will be illuminated by reflection of some millimeter wave radiation from the sky reflecting off the horizontal surface but since the sky is so cold that radiation is very minimal.
• the millimeter wave source could be a noise generator or a series of noise generators stacked vertically. Noise generators are available from Wireless Telecom Group, Inc. dba Noise Com with offices in Parsippany, New Jersey.
• the source could also be a heat source such as a heating element (a hot rod).
• the reflector can be made of a variety of materials that are good reflectors of millimeter wave radiation. A simple inexpensive reflector would be regular wall board covered with aluminum foil or plywood covered with aluminum foil. The ground within the reflector can also be covered with reflecting material such as aluminum foil to block radiation from the ground and to reflect the cold sky.
• a shutter 12 is provided that can be lowered over the source so that images can be quickly obtained with illumination and without illumination. If the source can be cut on and off quickly, then that technique can be used instead of the shutter.
• Imager software is preferably provided to obtain difference images that will especially highlight reflecting surfaces on the subject.
• the shutter could be in the form of a reflecting cone that would cover source and be quickly lifted off. The cone reflects radiation (actually the lack thereof) from the cold sky to the wall and then to the subject. If the source is a heat source the cone should be insulated so that its surface does not become hot. Alternatively, the millimeter wave source could be on a track and moved in and out of the focus.
• the source and the cone could be on the track so that one is moved in to the focus for a first image and then the other is moved into the focus for a second image.
• the imaging system should have a processor that can produce an image representing the difference between the illuminated image and the non-illuminated image.
• Infrared or visible cameras may be synchronized with the millimeter wave scanner may be adapted to provide correlated identity and reference information. Better system reliability and performance could be achieved by providing automatic system self diagnostics and settings optimization. Increasing the size of the antenna would also improve its spatial resolution. Therefore, the scope of the present invention should be determined by the appended claims and their legal equivalents.
• Con-Focal Imager finds extensive use in optical microscopy especially in cell biology owing to its high spatial resolution and ability to penetrate through many layers of tissues impossible in conventional microscopy.
• Con-focal microscopes are much less susceptible to the glare produced by illumination because the focus of the illuminator is coincident with the focus of the image forming system. This considerably reduces the amount of peripherally scattered light otherwise collected by the system and affecting the image contrast.
• High precision alignment between the illuminator and imager is accomplished by using the same focusing optics for both.
• Con-focal systems also have improved spatial resolution compared to conventional microscopes since their point spread functions is a convolution of the diffraction limited point spread functions of the illuminator and the imager.
• con-focal techniques can be applied to the millimeter wave imaging systems described above to improve performance.
• the proposed modifications are low-cost and low-risk and provide a potential for greatly enhanced performance.
• the con-focal systems are able to operate indoors and outdoors.
• the illumination power on the objects surface will be within 10 dB above natural thermal level at the room temperature and will pose no risk to health.
• FIGS. 21 A and 21B A preferred con-focal millimeter wave imager based on the single stick design is shown in FIGS. 21 A and 21B.
• a broad band millimeter wave source 4F provides millimeter wave radiation in a range that includes the single stick spectral range 75.5 GHz to 93.5 GHz.
• the output of source 4F is controlled by attenuator 8F and coupled with coupler 6F into the single stick slotted waveguide antenna 2F the output is frequency scanned and focused onto a thin vertical section of the target being imaged as indicated in FIG. 21A.
• Antenna 2F includes mirror 8 as shown in FIG. 1OB but the mirror is not shown in FIG.
• the transmitted radiation is either absorbed by the target or reflected from the target back to the antenna 2F along with millimeter wave radiation emanating naturally from the target.
• This millimeter wave radiation is collected by antenna 2F and transmitted through directivity coupler 6F to the single stick electronic and imaging components as described above in the section entitled "Single Stick Electronics and Imaging".
• controls and software are provided to obtain images with and without illumination and to obtain difference images representing the difference between images with illumination and images with illumination.
• the con-focal system requires only minimum design change to the above described systems.
• the continuous broadband source for con-focal target illumination provides image contrast enhancement independent of the environment.
• the con-focal systems improve detection of objects with varying reflectivity. Applicants' evaluations have shown that these systems will improve spatial resolution by an estimated 40% as compared to the single stick without the con-focal improvements. They provide better penetration with potential use for detection of the road side improvised explosive devices and through wall imaging.
• the required illumination power is low (i.e. -80 dBm / sq.inch/ 200MHz or less).
• the con-focal devices will also reduce the contrast of the reflection glints within focal area.
• Passive Imaging at 57-64 GHz Passive millimeter wave imaging phenomenology outdoors is strongly affected by the inhomogeneous background presented by the earth and sky.
• the earth constantly bathes a subject scene with thermal radiation across the millimeter wave spectrum at earth- ambient temperature.
• the sky is optically thin, possessing a very low density of radiating molecules and thus appearing as much as 300 degrees Kelvin colder than the terrestrial background. Reflection of the inhomogeneous background off of the subject scene leads to a large variation in the apparent brightness temperature of objects in the millimeter wave image.
• An example is
• FIG. 22A In this scene the millimeter wave thermal image of a person taken outdoors,
• ⁇ shows strong reflection of the earth (dark regions) and sky (light regions) off of the human body.
• a gun carried underneath the clothing waistband on the left hip is visible in the millimeter wave image, but is no brighter than the upper torso of the body, due to the high amount of reflection from the cold sky background.
• This effect can complicate attempts for automated detection of threat objects, for instance, in security screening applications for outdoor millimeter wave imaging.
• Indoor millimeter wave imaging phenomenology is characterized by a much more uniform background, leading to much lower scene contrast, but much more uniform subject temperature against which to detect threats.
• An example is FIG. 22B.
• This thermal image of a person taken indoors shows the same threat object against the much more uniform background of the elevated human skin temperature.
• the threat is easily detectable using simple thresholding algorithms, since the apparent brightness of the threat object does not overlap the brightness of the human body. This condition is preferable to the outdoor condition when attempting to implement a reliable automated threat detection algorithm.
• FIG. 23 shows attenuation of electromagnetic radiation by the atmosphere, as a function of frequency. Parametric curves are shown for relative humidity between 0% (bottom curve) and 100%, plus supersaturated air with as much as 0.5 g/m 3 of liquid water (top curve). Even at high humidity levels, the atmosphere provides little attenuation and thus little emission in the lower millimeter wave spectrum (30 to 115 GHz), except between 50 and 70 GHz, where absorption in molecular oxygen is prevalent.
• millimeter wave screening imagers are designed for imaging at a distance such as a few meters. At these distances, especially in large open areas, there may be a great variation in millimeter wave radiation reflected from human subjects. For example, the cold sky produces very little millimeter wave radiation, but millimeter wave radiation from hot pavement may be very large compared to millimeter wave radiation radiated from a person's skin. Guns, knives and bombs typically reflect millimeter wave radiation and reflection from skin surfaces can vary substantially depending on angles formed by the surfaces and the source of the radiation and the location of the imager.
• sources of reflected millimeter wave radiation can be minimized, millimeter wave radiation emitted from a person will typically be large compared to reflected millimeter wave radiation, so that guns, knives and bombs carried under the person's clothing will easily be identified in a millimeter wave image of the person. Therefore, sources of millimeter wave radiation should preferably be carefully controlled. Typically, such sources should be minimized to permit identification of knives, guns and bombs in contrast to millimeter wave emitting warm skin.
• one or more controlled millimeter wave sources may be used for illumination of the subject specifically for the purpose of detecting reflected millimeter wave radiation from hidden contraband. Images produced with illumination could be automatically compared to images produced without the illumination to highlight millimeter wave reflectors.
• a preferred application of the present invention as described above includes the visual examination beneath the clothing of people in search of weapons or other contraband.
• An example would be at an inspection portal at airports. This requires the examination of many innocent people.
• the images obtained show features of the peoples' warm skin. Body parts normally covered with clothing are imaged with resolutions of about 0.5 inch. Therefore, privacy issues must be recognized and dealt with.
• the portal contraband screener two separate screeners are provided, one marked "women," and one marked "men.” Inspection personnel for the women screener are female and inspection personnel for the men screener are male.
• the monitors showing images of the people being inspected are protected from public view and images that are saved for evidentiary purposes are carefully controlled by inspection personnel. Any person would have the right to not be screened by the contraband screeners but persons exercising that right would be subject to an appropriate manual search.
• computer software would be provided to blur the images at the location of sensitive body parts.
• sophisticated software is provided which provides recognition of specific contraband such as guns, knives, and bombs.
• An alarm signal (audible and/or visual) could then be provided if there is an indication of such contraband on the body of a subject so that the person could be selected for a more specific search.
• the software could also locate the suspected contraband by placing an appropriate logo on the subject's image at the position of the contraband. Alternatively, of the 64 image segments recorded only those showing skin contact anomalies are displayed.
• a millimeter wave transparent barrier 60 can be placed in the portal as shown in FIGS. 5 and 6 in order to assure the proper positioning of the persons relative to the antenna elements.
• FIGS. 7 A and 7B provide estimates of the approximate transverse resolution of the antenna as a function of distance of the between the surface being imaged and the antenna elements. Beam widths of antennas A and B are shown at 15A and 15 B respectively in FIG. 7A. The foci of the two beams are shown at A FOCUS and B FOCUS. A person approximate body position is shown with dashed lines at three positions as he passes through the portal.
• FIG. 7B is a graph showing the resolution of an elliptical cylinder antenna.
• the 4 multi-angle views may be combined to present a 3d wire frame image. These views can be combined using overlapping stereoscopic image processing, or can be combined by utilizing additional information from the portal, such as the data from a visual or an infrared camera, and or including illumination lines for contour recognition. If the wire frame resolution is purposely limited the privacy issues associated with anatomical features can be minimized. Since we have the necessary temperature information to identify those areas with anomalous temperatures, the wire frame detail can be enhanced in those areas along with the display of the temperature data.
• thermal resolution is often increased by "binning" multiple pixels to decrease noise by the square root of the number of pixels binned.
• these systems may have pixels that exhibit a wide range of different noise characteristics.
• the resulting image may appear noisier then the starting image. This is caused by the severe degradation of the "quiet” pixels, which over powers the reduction in noise on the noisy pixel.
• the most straight forward approach is to do a weighted pixel binning whereby the amount of the pixel value added into the bin is inversely proportional to the expected noise on the pixel.
• cubic spline interpolation successfully fits most of the pixel values within such an image.
• interpolation techniques besides the cubic spline which may also be used to optimize for the expected image's frequency components (adding additional orders to the curve fit allows more flexibility in dealing with more transitions in the image).
• the image pixel value can be assigned by a number of different methods that result in a lower noise image.
• the probability band of the pixel value may be combined with the probability of the predicted interpolation value to give the pixel its most likely value.
• the most likely pixel value can be weighted more significantly towards the actual pixel value.
• a controlled temperature posts positioned to complete the input and output squares can be used.
• the low cost post shown below has a temperature below background or above human temp (98.6 F). It can be used both to calibrate the systems offset and to distinguish natural gaps in the image such as that seen under the arm, from a threats e.g. bombs carried under the arm.
• a single temperature post provides offset information for calibration and can be combined with the data from people passing through to provide a type of two-point calibration to minimize gain variations within the system.
• the single temperature post relies on a Peltier cooler to create a temperature differential between a hot plate and a cold plate. Since very little of the energy used is radiated in the millimeter wave region the total energy requirements can be kept low. A cross sectional diagram is shown below.
• the Peltier cooler creates a temperature differential .between the hot plate and the cold plate.
• the millimeter wave absorber provides a cold emitter of millimeter waves, and conduction and radiation at other frequencies is blocked by the insulation. Most common of the common insulation foams such as styrene, polyethylene e are transparent in the millimeter wave region.
• a foil layer is incorporated within the insulation between the hot and cold plates to minimize energy transfer by radiation.
• a two temperature post can be built with the addition of a millimeter wave absorber on the hot side. In the simplest configuration this would be an absorber directly bonded to the hot plate, in an alternate configuration the absorber might well be separated from the hotplate and have heated airflow from the hot plate on both sides.
• To obtain two- temperature calibration data from the post it is rotated on a continuous basis at a speed such that the modulated temperature that the portal sees is modulated faster than the expected amplifier and electronic drifts.
• the rotating motion of the post can be taken advantage of.
• the post includes both a motor and a generator. The motor would rotate the post which in turn is part of a stator assembly that could be used to generate the power necessary to operate the thermal peltier coolers.
• a complete brushless system can be created with today's technologies.
• Alternate Frequency Processors use a beam forming technology similar to the Rotman lens to do real time frequency and phase separation. This allows Applicants to effectively multiplex the expensive low noise amplifiers between many pixels.
• the imaging optics uses a frequency scanned wave guide antenna. The resolution of the angular pixels is accomplished by separating the broadband signal into its separate frequency components with our beam forming technology. There are other methods to separate this signal. In general if fewer pixels (frequencies) are needed, these methods become more competitive, and as more pixels are added they become unwieldy.
• the most obvious alternative method for frequency processor which does not rely on beam forming are different applications of filtering. One approach is to use a series of individual band pass filters.
• Millimeter wave band pass filters may be created with a number of different techniques, a coupled line band pass filter is shown below. In this approach each frequency would have its own band pass filter and the broadband input signal would have taps for each of the filters. Some additional efficiency could be achieved by tuning the broadband taps to the frequency range of the following band pass filter.
• An alternative approach is to use a series of low pass or high pass filters, such that each tap represents the signal of that pixel and the subsequent pixels. By subtracting out the sequence a signal for each pixel can be derived; e.g., assume five pixels and series of five sequential low pass filters.
• the first tap represents P1+P2+P3+P4+P5
• the last tap represents P5
• This technique requires a method of proportionally tapping off the signal as it progresses down through the series of band pass filters, there are a number of different methods of achieving this goal.
• millimeter wave detector that combines all high frequency components within a compact package such that the only external interfacing signals are the incident radiation and the low frequency electronic controls and output signal.
• Millimeter wave imaging systems rely on a variety of high-frequency components that are electro-magnetically coupled with wave-guides. Because of the wave-guide constraints and the transition losses and requirements (from strip-lines to air spaced wave guides), the packages are inherently bulky and expensive thus architectures are designed to minimize the high frequency millimeter wave components. By combining all these functions into one compact low cost package many advantages can be realized. Also, the total gain requirements of the system are reduced as there no longer any losses associated with the transitions. For some applications such as a security portal scanner the desired detector configuration is a linear array. This array needs pixel elements that are approximately one wavelength (3 mm at 90 GHz) apart along the array. This puts a one dimensional spacing constraint on any design architecture that uses a fixed focal plane linear array.
• the proposed device is a pixel on a chip. It contains all the high frequency components in one package, including the antenna and the detector diode.
• the functional block diagram of the device is shown below. Certain functional blocks might well be combined into a multi-block device on the waver prior to packaging.
• the overall package is dimensioned to allow at least a 3 mm linear spacing along one axis.
• the millimeter signal is incident on the package at the dipole antenna.
• the antenna is one of the inputs to a two-way switch.
• the other input of the switch is a dummy load with a controllable heater to allow differential signal processing whereby the device background temperature noise is subtracted from the signal. This is a method for dealing with fast temporal changes in the high frequency amplifier gains.
• the heater provides a method of calibrating out longer term amplifier gain variations.
• the first stages of the high- frequency, low-noise amplifier amplify the input millimeter wave signal above the noise threshold.
• the band-pass filter limits the millimeter wave frequencies that are passed through to the high gain second stage amplifier.
• the second stage amplifiers provide enough gain to raise the signal level up to the detector diode sensitivity.
• the detector diode converts the high frequency millimeter wave signal to a low dc frequency amplitude signal.
• the analog processing circuitry provides the necessary dc signal levels to allow transition to the signal processing interconnects off the chip. Some parts of the analog signal processing can optionally be handled within the chip, these could include: integration and background subtraction.
• infrared or visible cameras synchronized with the millimeter wave screener may be adapted to provide correlated identity and reference information.
• Better resolution could be achieved by providing automatic focusing of the antenna elements.
• additional sets of elements could be provided with various focal lengths with processor software programmed to select the best focus for each portion' of the target person as he/she passes through the portal. Increasing the size of the antenna could also improve the resolution.
• the person passing through the portal could be rotated before a single stack or they could be rotated before the four stacks.
• a single element or fewer elements could be scanned across a person being screened, either automatically or by hand. Modifications to the amplifier shown in FIG. 4 could be made but preferably gains of at least 50 dB should be provided.
• the single stick imager shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B is positioned vertically and rotated horizontally. In other embodiments, these directions could be reviewed. The extent of rotation could be any amount from a few degrees for the application described above to a 360 degree complete rotation. Also, the single stick imager could be fixed in position and the subject being imaged could be moved laterally across the vertical beam. Also, the subject could be rotated in the vertical beam. Therefore, the scope of the present invention should be determined by the appended claims and their legal equivalents.

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• 2006
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