CN117936465A

CN117936465A - Quantum-based device including vapor chamber

Info

Publication number: CN117936465A
Application number: CN202311391424.0A
Authority: CN
Inventors: 胡安·赫布佐默; B·哈龙
Original assignee: Texas Instruments Inc
Current assignee: Texas Instruments Inc
Priority date: 2022-10-26
Filing date: 2023-10-25
Publication date: 2024-04-26

Abstract

The application relates to a quantum-based device comprising a vapor cell. In one example, a system (500) includes a first sealed container (502), a second sealed container (504), a signal coupler (506), a container housing (508), and an electromagnetic EM reflective coating (508). The first sealed container (502) encloses a first dipole gas (208). The second sealed container (504) encloses a second dipole gas (208). The signal coupler (506) is communicatively coupled between the first and second sealed containers (502, 504). The signal coupler includes a solid material or hollow sealed tube (506). The container housing (508) encloses the first and second sealed containers (502, 504) and the signal coupler (506). The EM reflective coating is inside the container housing (508) and covers at least a portion of the first container (502), at least a portion of the second container (504), and at least a portion of the signal coupler (506).

Description

Quantum-based device including vapor chamber

RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application relates to U.S. provisional patent application No. 63/419,375 to attorney docket No. T102653US01, filed on 10 months 26 of 2022, and integrated with microelectronic device (Quantum Sensor and Integration with Microelectronic Devices), and U.S. provisional patent application No. 63/383,971 to attorney docket No. T102653US02, filed on 11 months 15 of 2022, and entitled "quantum sensor and integrated with microelectronic device (Quantum Sensor and Integration with Microelectronic Devices)", the entire contents of which provisional patent applications are hereby incorporated by reference.

Technical Field

The present application relates to the technical field of semiconductors, and more particularly, to a quantum-based device comprising a vapor chamber.

Background

The vapor chamber (or physical chamber) may comprise a hermetically sealed container containing a gas. Vapor chambers may be suitable for a number of applications, including as part of a chip-scale millimeter wave atomic clock. The gas within the vapor chamber may include dipole molecules at relatively low pressures, which may be selected to provide a narrow signal absorption frequency peak indicative of quantum transition molecules as detected at the output of the cavity. Electromagnetic (EM) signals may be emitted into the cavity through electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent apertures in the cavity. Closed loop control can dynamically adjust the frequency of the signal to match the molecular quantum rotation transitions. The frequency of the quantum rotational transitions of the selected dipole molecules may be less variable due to aging of the on-chip millimeter wave atomic clock and with temperature or other environmental factors, which makes the system useful for providing accurate clock sources that also have long-term stability. It is advantageous to increase the absorption of EM signals by dipole gases, which may increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and improve the accuracy of closed loop control and transition frequency determination. One way to increase the signal absorption of the gas is to increase the propagation distance of the EM signal within the cavity.

Disclosure of Invention

In one example, a system includes a first sealed container, a second sealed container, a signal coupler, a container housing, and an Electromagnetic (EM) reflective coating. The first sealed container encloses a first dipole gas. The second sealed container encloses a second dipole gas. The signal coupler is communicatively coupled between the first sealed container and the second sealed container. The signal coupler comprises a solid material or a hollow sealed tube. The container housing encloses the first sealed container and the second sealed container and the signal coupler. The EM reflective coating is inside the container housing and covers at least a portion of the first container, at least a portion of the second container, and at least a portion of the signal coupler.

In another example, a system includes a substrate, a first sealed container, a second sealed container, a signal coupler, a container housing, and an EM reflective coating. The substrate includes a transmitter and a receiver. The first sealed container encloses a first dipole gas. The first sealed container has a first end communicatively coupled to the transmitter. The second sealed container encloses a second dipole gas. The second sealed container has a second end communicatively coupled to the receiver. The signal coupler is communicatively coupled between the first sealed container and the second sealed container. The signal coupler comprises a solid material or a hollow sealed tube. The container housing encloses the first sealed container and the second sealed container and the coupler. The EM reflective coating is inside the container housing and covers at least a portion of the first sealed container, at least a portion of the second sealed container, and at least a portion of the signal coupler.

Drawings

Fig. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector.

Fig. 2 is a diagram of an exemplary laser cutting and sealing process for sealing an inflated glass vial.

Fig. 3 is a cross-sectional top view of one end of an exemplary vial.

Fig. 4 is a plot of scattering parameters (S-parameters) showing an exemplary change in transmitted EM signal power versus frequency in the exemplary quantum transition frequency detector of fig. 1.

Fig. 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, 5E, 5F, and 5G show various perspective views of a dipole gas confinement vessel communicatively coupled by a signal coupler, wherein the vessel is held in a vessel housing parallel to one another.

Fig. 6A, 6B, 6C, and 6D show various perspective views of a dipole gas confinement vessel communicatively coupled by a signal coupler, wherein the vessel is held in a vessel housing at an incline to each other.

Fig. 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, and 7E show various perspective views of other exemplary arrangements of dipole gas confinement vessels communicatively coupled together by signal couplers.

Fig. 8A, 8B, 8C, and 8D show various perspective views of another arrangement of a dipole gas confinement vessel and a signal coupler, with a first portion of one vessel on a second portion of the other vessel, and the signal coupler positioned between and communicatively coupling respective opposing surfaces of the vessels together.

Fig. 9A, 9B, 9C, and 9D show various perspective views of another arrangement of a dipole gas confinement vessel and a signal coupler, with a first portion of one vessel on a second portion of the other vessel, and the signal coupler positioned between and coupling respective non-opposing surfaces of the vessels together.

Fig. 10A and 10B show oblique parallel projection and side views, respectively, of a portion of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector, wherein the shading represents the electric field perpendicular to the propagation direction.

11A, 11B, 11C, and 11D show various views of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector having a plurality of dipole gas confinement vessels parallel to one another and having a rectangular cross section, with the narrower sides being coplanar with one another.

Fig. 12A, 12B, 12C, and 12D show various views of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector having a plurality of dipole gas confinement vessels that are tilted with respect to one another and have a rectangular cross section, with the narrower sides being coplanar with one another.

13A, 13B, 13C, 13D, and 13E show various perspective views of respective portions of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector as a function of viewing angle and having at least four dipole gas confinement vessels and at least three signal couplers collectively arranged in an M-shaped or W-shaped configuration.

Fig. 14 is a top view of an arrangement of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector having at least six overlapping dipole gas confinement vessels communicatively coupled together using at least five signal couplers.

Fig. 15A, 15B, and 15C show oblique and side views, respectively, of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector having a dipole gas confinement vessel communicatively coupled together by a signal coupler, wherein the vessel is arranged perpendicular to (or tilted from) a PCB containing transmit and receive antennas and circuitry.

Fig. 16A, 16B, and 16C show oblique and side views, respectively, of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector having two dipole gas confinement reservoirs communicatively coupled together by a signal coupler, wherein the reservoirs are arranged perpendicular to (or oblique from) a PCB containing transmit and receive antennas and circuitry.

Figures 17A, 17B, and 17C show oblique and top views, respectively, of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector having two dipole gas confinement reservoirs communicatively coupled together by a signal coupler, wherein the reservoirs are arranged perpendicular to (or oblique from) a PCB containing transmit and receive antennas and circuitry.

Fig. 18A and 18B illustrate additional exemplary signal couplers between a dipole gas confinement vessel, wherein the vessel is communicatively coupled to another arrangement of transmit and receive antennas, which may be Vivaldi antennas.

Fig. 19 and 20 show additional examples of container shells.

The same reference numbers or other reference indicators will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like features (in function and/or structure). The figures are not necessarily drawn to scale.

Detailed Description

Fig. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 100 that may be integrated to provide a clock that is accurate to within one second, for example, within hundreds of years. In other examples, the frequency detector 100 may be used to generate a magnetic field sensor (magnetometer), an electric field sensor, or a pressure sensor. The detector 100 includes a container 102 or an assembly including a plurality of such containers. The container 102 is hermetically sealed to contain the dipole gas at a relatively low pressure, the precise pressure depending on the dipole gas used, among other factors. In some examples, the pressure is less than atmospheric pressure at sea level. In some examples, the pressure is less than one percent of atmospheric pressure at sea level. In some examples, the pressure is less than one thousandth of the atmospheric pressure at sea level. In some examples, the pressure is less than one ten thousandth of the atmospheric pressure at sea level. Suitable dipolar gases may include water vapor (H2O), acetonitrile (CH 3 CN), propionitrile (HC 3N), ammonia (NH 3), carbonyl sulfide (OCS), hydrogen Cyanide (HCN), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In some examples, the vessel 102 may be a glass (e.g., borosilicate) tube, as further described with reference to fig. 2.

The container 102 (or each container in the assembly) may be externally coated with an electromagnetically reflective (e.g., conductive) material (e.g., metal), or the container 102 (or each container in the assembly) may be placed in a housing made of or coated with an electromagnetically reflective material such that an outer wall of the container abuts (e.g., substantially contacts) the electromagnetically reflective material of the housing. As an example, the housing may be metal or metal coated plastic. As an example, the metallization of the container 102 or housing may be performed by sputtering or by evaporation. A single container, or multiple containers assembled in a housing, may form a vapor chamber. A Transmitter (TX) and Receiver (RX) antenna (104, 106) are coupled to the container 102 at an electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent window or container end access point to respectively transmit into the container 102 and receive millimeter wave electromagnetic radiation from the container 102 flowing through the container 102.

Circuitry 108 coupled to the antennas (104, 106) provides a closed loop that can scan the frequency of millimeter-wavelength electromagnetic waves (e.g., between about 20GHz and about 400GHz, e.g., between about 70GHz and about 180 GHz) radiated to dipole gas molecules confined in the container 102. The absorption at a particular frequency of the quantum transition of the dipole gas molecule may be observed as a decrease in the power transmitted between the transmitter and the receiver, and in particular as a decrease in the transmitted power at a particular frequency (or set of frequencies) within the scanned frequency range. Iteratively locking to the bottom of the dip provides a quantum transition frequency of the molecules of the confined gas, where the transition frequency may be relatively stable with respect to lifetime, temperature, and other environmental factors of the hermetic container. Stability permits detector 100 to be used to generate accurate quantum references and clocks with accuracy that does not significantly degrade with changes in the age or operating environment of the device. Circuitry 108 may include, for example, a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) or a Digitally Controlled Oscillator (DCO) to generate millimeter waves at a particular frequency that is adjusted until the frequency matches a reference peak absorption frequency (a frequency location at which the transmitted power drops).

Linear dipole molecules have a rotational quantum absorption at regular frequencies. As an example, the OCS exhibits a transition approximately once every 12.16 GHz. Vapor chambers as described herein may thus utilize any one of a number of available quantum transitions in the millimeter wave frequency range. Circuitry 108 may further include, for example, a frequency divider to divide a matched frequency, which may be tens or hundreds of gigahertz, to a lower output clock frequency, for example, about 100 MHz. The use of millimeter waves may eliminate (or reduce) the need for a laser as the quantum transition interrogation mechanism, thereby reducing the cost and complexity of detector 100 relative to devices requiring a laser. Operation in the aforementioned frequency range permits the transmitter and receiver antennas (104, 106) to be less than, for example, 10mm, 5mm or 1mm in length, depending on the quantum transition frequency of the selected dipole gas. The respective lengths of the containers 102 (or each container in the assembly for containers) may be, for example, between about 1 cm and about 20 cm, or about 2 cm and about 10 cm. The dimensions of the respective width and height of the container 102 (or each container in the assembly for containers) may be less than about 1 centimeter. Where the container 102 is shaped as a circular, oval, or rectangular cross-section tube, it may also have a diameter of less than about 1 centimeter. Because quantum absorption increases with container length, and longer container lengths increase the observed quantum transitions that are better defined, the length of the container 102 may be limited by manufacturing limitations and system-in-package size limitations. By using a curved (e.g., U-shaped) container or by coupling multiple containers together, a tortuous or serpentine vapor chamber may provide a longer effective container length within a more compact system package size.

Fig. 2 is a diagram of an exemplary laser cutting and sealing process 200 for sealing an inflated glass vial that may be used in the detector 100 of fig. 1. Prior to the cutting and sealing process 200 shown in fig. 2, a glass (e.g., borosilicate) tube may be manufactured using, for example, an extrusion process, a Danner (Danner) process, a velo (Vello) process, a drop down, or any suitable process. Next, a dipole gas is filled into the tube under low pressure to achieve a certain purity. To achieve the desired gas purity, a continuous vacuum process can be used to purge air from the interior of the tube and eliminate molecules coating the tube wall by chemisorption or physisorption. The baking process may also be used prior to the cutting and sealing process 200 to eliminate molecules absorbed into the interior surface of the tube. The process 200 achieves hermeticity by completely sealing each gas-containing glass vial as it is cut from the tube, and maintains gas purity in part by using a laser cutting process that ensures only localized heating to avoid contained gas denaturation.

In the illustrated example 200, a continuous glass (e.g., borosilicate) tube is cut and sealed by a directed laser beam 202, which may be extruded, for example, to create smaller hermetically sealed glass vials each filled with a gas at low pressure. The cross-section of the vial may be circular, as shown in fig. 2, or in other examples, the cross-section of the vial may be square, rectangular, rounded rectangular, oval, elliptical, or other shape. The laser beam 202 is shown separating the vial 206 from the tube portion 204. Previously in process 200, laser beam 202 separated vial 208 from the glass tube comprising tube portion 204 and vial 206, which was not sealed and separated at the time. Subsequently in process 200, laser beam 202 may divide tube portion 204 into additional individual sealed glass vials (not shown) containing a dipole gas. The vial 208 is shown in cross-section in fig. 2 to show the gas molecules 210 trapped inside the vial 208. The vial 208 may be cut, for example, from a tube at a thinned portion 212 of the tube, the tube including the tube portion 204 and the vial 206. Alternatively, the vials may be sealed and cut by locally heating and softening the tube (e.g., using a laser) and then clamping the softened portion of the tube using a mechanical clamp. The same holder may also cut the vials, or separate tools may be used to cut the vials.

Vials cut from the tube in process 200, e.g., vials 208 and 206, may undergo other manufacturing steps, such as external metal coating, and photolithographic etching or laser ablation into the coating of the emission and receiving windows. In some examples, the metallization of the vials is not performed, but rather, in a later part of the manufacturing process, each vial is placed into a housing made of or coated internally with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metal) such that the metal abuts (e.g., substantially contacts) the outside of the glass wall of the vial when the vial is placed in the housing.

Because the interior of the tube from which each vial is cut is filled with a dipole gas at low pressure, once the glass of the tube melts due to the laser energy, external pressure compresses the tube at the cut point and sinks it, which restores the seal after the laser beam 202 is removed. The laser beam 202 may heat the glass during cutting to a temperature greater than 650 ℃, which may be sufficient to decompose the contained dipole gases. Such decomposition may be an irreversible process that may result in a loss of ability to obtain quantum absorption at the desired frequency. However, the heating is local and does not propagate more than a few millimeters during the shorter time of application of the laser energy. Because the contained gas is at low pressure, it is not very thermally conductive. Only a small amount of gas near the laser cut may be denatured by the heating induced by the laser cutting and sealing process. Each vial that is cut and sealed during the process may be one centimeter long or longer, so most of the gas inside each vial maintains its chemical integrity during the cutting and sealing process. The thermal insulation of the glass and the thermal insulation of the low pressure gas itself protect most of the gas from thermal denaturation.

Fig. 3 is a view 300 of one end of an exemplary 2mm wide vial 302 after the laser cutting and sealing method has been used to cut and seal to confine the dipole gas at an interior 304 of the vial 302. In this example, the illustrated end of the vial 302 is blunt or flat and has an outer surface 306 and an inner surface 308. In the example shown in fig. 3, the outer surface 306 and the inner surface 308 are flat. In some other examples, the outer surface 306 may be concave and the inner surface 308 may be convex. The illustrated end of the vial 302 also has or is proximate to a window region 310 that typically displays an electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent access point that may be used to transmit into the vial 302 or receive from the vial 302, respectively. As explained with reference to fig. 1 and 2, in some examples, the window region 310 may correspond to an opening within an external metallic coating applied directly on the vial 302. In some examples, window region 310 may correspond to an opening within an electromagnetic reflective material (e.g., metallized) coating applied to an inner surface of a housing to which vial 302 is placed such that when vial 302 is placed in the housing, the metal abuts (e.g., substantially contacts) an exterior of a glass wall of vial 302, and window region 310 is proximate the illustrated end of vial 302.

Fig. 4 is a graph 400 illustrating an exemplary change in transmitted EM signal power versus frequency in the quantum transition frequency detector 100. As described above with reference to fig. 1, millimeter-wavelength EM signals are transmitted through TX antenna 104 into dipole gas-filled container 102, and the EM signals propagate through container 102 and reach RX antenna 106. When scanning the frequency of the EM signal, absorption at a particular frequency of the quantum transition of the dipole gas molecule may be observed as a decrease in the power transmitted between the transmitter and receiver, and in particular as a decrease in the transmit power at a particular frequency (or set of frequencies) within the scanned frequency range. Referring to graph 400, a drop in transmit power from 100% to 94% can be observed at 121.6GHz, which 121.6GHz can be a quantum transition frequency. The bandwidth of the drop is about 1MHz.

To improve the accuracy of the quantum transition frequency determination, it is advantageous to increase the absorption of the EM signal (and drop) by the dipole gas and to reduce the emitted power at the quantum transition frequency. Such an arrangement may reduce the likelihood of mistaking the degradation caused by noise for degradation caused by absorption of the EM signal and increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

One way to increase the absorption of EM signals by dipole gases at quantum transition frequencies is by increasing the EM signal propagation distance between TX antenna 104 and RX antenna 106 within container 102. Where the vessel 102 comprises a straight sealed tube such as shown in fig. 2, the length of the sealed tube may be increased to increase the signal propagation distance. The target size of the quantum transition frequency detector 100 (or the target size of the system comprising the quantum transition frequency detector 100) may impose a limit on the maximum length of the sealed tube. Conversely, assembling a long sealed tube as a vessel 102 into the quantum transition frequency detector 100 may also produce an unreasonable/undesirable aspect ratio of the detector 100 (or a system comprising the detector 100). The tube may bend to accommodate a particular area/aspect ratio, but the process of bending the tube may shrink the interior of the tube at the bending location and compromise the structural integrity of the tube.

As will be described in the examples below, the dipole gas may include a plurality of straight sealed vials mechanically coupled together by a signal coupler. The signal coupler may comprise a dielectric material, or the same material as the vial (e.g., plastic, epoxy, glass, etc.). The signal coupler may also be filled with a solid material (e.g., a dielectric material, or the same material as the vial), or may be filled with a gas (e.g., air). The signal coupler may be used as a waveguide, wherein an EM signal may propagate between two sealed glass vials through the dielectric signal coupler. With such an arrangement, a straight sealed glass vial and dielectric signal coupler may accommodate a particular area/aspect ratio while providing an elongated transmit path for EM signals.

Fig. 5A-5G show various perspective views of respective portions of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 500 similar in material to the detector 100 of fig. 1. For example, fig. 5A is an oblique parallel projection view of the detector 500, and fig. 5B and 5C are top and side views, respectively, of the detector 500.

The detector 500 also has at least two dipole gas confinement vessels 502, 504 communicatively coupled together by a signal coupler 506, all enclosed within a vessel housing 508. In some examples, the signal coupler 506 is in physical contact with the containers 502, 504. In some examples, the signal coupler 506 may be spaced apart from the containers 502, 504 by an air gap. The reservoir housing 508 is mechanically coupled to a substrate, such as a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) 514, or other package substrate having circuitry disposed thereon, including transmit circuitry 516 and receive circuitry 518. For example, the pod housing 508 may be mounted to the PCB 514 by pins or screws (or other fastening means), or may be glued thereto.

The gas-confining containers 502, 504 may each be similar in material to the container 102 of fig. 1, the vials 206, 208 of fig. 2, or the vial 302 of fig. 3. In this example, the receptacles 502, 504 are parallel to each other and extend along the same plane (e.g., the x-y plane) within the receptacle housing 508 along with the signal coupler 506. Signal coupler 506 has a surface 507 facing and adjacent to end surfaces 509 and 511 of containers 502 and 504, respectively, in a pi-shaped configuration. The signal coupler 506 may comprise a solid material or a hollow sealed tube. The signal coupler 506 may be made of a dielectric material (e.g., plastic, epoxy, air, combinations thereof, etc.), a glass material, etc., and may be made of the same or different materials as the containers 502 and 504. EM signals may propagate from transmit circuitry 516 through container 502, end surface 509, surface 507, signal coupler 506, surface 507, end surface 511, container 504, and to receive circuitry 518, as indicated by dotted line 519.

Fig. 5F and 5G show alternative examples of signal coupler 506. In the example shown in fig. 5F, the outer surface of the signal coupler 506, along with the outer surfaces of the containers 502 and 504, may be coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized), which is represented in phantom shading in fig. 5F, to confine the EM signal within the containers 502, 504 and the signal coupler 506. Signal coupler 506 may include openings 550 and 552 on surface 507. The opening 550 interfaces with (and may or may not be in physical contact with) the end face 509 of the container 502, and the opening 552 interfaces with the end face 511 of the container 504. Openings 550 and 552, along with end surfaces 509 and 511, may be uncoated or otherwise coated with an electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent material to allow EM signals to propagate through opening 550 and end surface 509 and through opening 552 and end surface 511.

Fig. 5G shows another example of a signal coupler 506. In the example shown in fig. 5G, the outer surfaces of the signal coupler 506, the containers 502 and 504 may be uncoated or otherwise coated with an electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent material. The signal coupler 506 may include protruding structures 560 and 562 to engage with surfaces 509 and 511 of the respective receptacles 502 and 504, respectively, and act as a waveguide. The coupler 506, along with the containers 502 and 504, may be enclosed within a container housing 508 having an inner surface coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized).

The width of signal coupler 506 (labeled "w") is selected to allow EM signals to propagate from along the width to along the length (labeled "l") and from along the length to along the width to exit through opening 552 after entering through opening 550. The dimensions (e.g., length, width, and height) of the signal coupler 506 may depend on the dielectric constant of the material of the signal coupler 506 (which may comprise a sealed container that contains a gas such as air). The size and dielectric constant of the signal coupler 506 may define the impedance of the signal coupler 506. In some examples, signal coupler 506 may be configured (based on size and/or material selection) to have an impedance (and the impedance of vessel shell 508 if an air gap exists between the vessel and the signal coupler) that matches vessels 502 and 504 to minimize reflection of EM signals as they propagate from vessel 502 to coupler 506 and from coupler 506 to vessel 504. The length and width may be selected to achieve a particular propagation mode in the signal coupler 506. In some examples, the dimensions of coupler 506 may be determined using a 3D electromagnetic simulation tool.

In some examples, the signal coupler 506 may be integrally formed as part of the pod housing 508. In some examples, the reservoir housing 508 may have a cavity configured to receive the signal coupler 506, wherein an inner surface of the cavity or an outer surface of the signal coupler 506 is at least partially coated with an electromagnetic reflective material. In some examples, a signal coupler 506 is coupled between the containers 502, 504.

Fig. 5D is an oblique view of a portion of PCB 514. A Transmitter (TX) antenna 515 is electrically coupled to transmitter circuitry 516, and a Receiver (RX) antenna 517 is electrically coupled to receiver circuitry 518. The antennas 515, 517 may be similar in material to the antennas 104, 106, respectively, of fig. 1. Circuitry 516, 518 may be included within circuitry 108 of fig. 1.

In some examples, the antennas 515, 517 may include a planar metal layer on a single plane, which may be the plane of a PCB on which the circuitry 516, 518 is mounted, such that the antennas 515, 516 may be printed on the PCB 514 and electrically coupled to the respective circuitry 516, 517 by wiring printed on the PCB 514. Millimeter electromagnetic waves for interrogating the dipole gases contained in the containers 502, 504 may be emitted directly from the PCB 514 to which the container housing 508 is coupled. The circuitry 516, 518 may be encapsulated on the PCB 514 with a molded housing. In some examples, the length and width of the PCB 514 may be approximately 5mm by 5mm. However, the PCB 514 may have any suitable dimensions.

In some examples, PCB 514 may be electrically and mechanically coupled to a larger system board (not explicitly shown). For example, the larger system board may be a motherboard of a computer system or a main system board of a mobile device (e.g., a smartphone). The PCB 514 may be electrically and mechanically coupled to the larger system board by, for example, bump bonding by which output signals may be provided from the quantum transition frequency detector 500 to the larger system board and/or input signals may be provided from the larger system board to the quantum transition frequency detector system 500.

The pod housing 508 also has a cavity that forms (or houses) a plurality of signal couplers 510, 512. Signal coupler 510 is coupled between surface 532 of container 502 and antenna 515, and signal coupler 512 is coupled between surface 534 of container 504 and antenna 517. Surfaces 532 and 534 may be parallel to the axis of extension of containers 502 and 504 (e.g., the x-y plane) and PCB 514. The signal couplers 510, 512 may support vertical transmission, with EM signals traveling vertically (e.g., along the z-axis) between the antenna 515 and the container 502 and between the antenna 517 and the container 504. In some examples, the signal couplers 510, 512 are each hollow cavities that are internally coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized), and wherein electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent window regions (e.g., window 310) are located at the top and bottom thereof. In some examples, the signal couplers 510, 512 may each incorporate a solid dielectric material (e.g., plastic) enclosed within an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized), with electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent window regions (e.g., window 310) at the top and bottom thereof. In some examples, signal couplers 510, 512 may also have the same material and solid/hollow configuration as signal coupler 506. Whether a hollow configuration or a solid configuration (including combinations thereof) is used, the signal couplers 510, 512 may act as waveguides by guiding the EM signal propagation through the configuration.

TX antenna 515 and RX antenna 517 are communicatively coupled to signal couplers 510, 512 through respective window regions 570, 572 of receptacles 502, 504 to emit and receive millimeter-wave electromagnetic radiation flowing through receptacles 502, 504 into and from receptacle housing 508, respectively. More specifically, EM signals received from transmit circuitry 516 may propagate from TX antenna 515 through signal coupler 510, through container 502, through solid dielectric signal coupler 506, through container 504, and through signal coupler 512 to RX antenna 517, which electrically communicates the received signals to receive circuitry 518.

Fig. 5E is an oblique parallel projection view of the reservoir housing 508. As shown in fig. 5E, the container housing 508 has internal cavities 520, 522, 524 configured to hold the containers 502, 504 and the signal coupler 506, respectively, in place. In some examples, cavities 520, 522, 524 are each internally coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized), and wherein an electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent window region is over windows 570 and 572. An electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metal) may abut (or substantially contact) the outer surface of each container and coupler. In some examples, the vessel shell 508 is formed by 3D printing, molding, or the like. In some examples, the reservoir housing 508 may be formed as multiple pieces (e.g., in two halves), the metallization may be selectively applied to the internal cavities 520, 522, 524 in a manner that non-metallizes the aforementioned window regions (e.g., window regions 570, 572), and the internally metallized pieces may then be sealed together.

Fig. 6A-6D show various perspective views of respective portions of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 600 similar in material to the detector 100 of fig. 1. Fig. 6A is an oblique parallel projection view of detector 600, and fig. 6B and 6C are top and side views, respectively.

The detector 600 is similar in some materials to the detector 500, including the detector 600 and has at least two dipole gas confinement vessels 502, 504 communicatively coupled together at ends 509, 511 by a signal coupler 506, all enclosed within a vessel housing 608. In detector 600, container 502 is tilted from container 504. In this example, the receptacles 502, 504 along with the signal coupler 506 extend in the same plane within the receptacle housing 608. Each receptacle may be communicatively coupled to an antenna through a signal coupler (e.g., one of signal couplers 520 or 522).

Fig. 6D is an angled parallel projection view of a vessel shell 608 that is similar in some materials to vessel shell 508. The receptacle housing 608 has internal cavities 620, 622, 624 configured to hold the receptacles 502, 504 and the signal coupler 506 such that the receptacle 502 is held at an angle (e.g., in a V-shaped configuration) with the receptacle 504.

Fig. 7A-7E show various perspective views of respective portions of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 700 similar in material to the detector 100 of fig. 1. Fig. 7A is an oblique parallel projection view of detector 700, and fig. 7B and 7C are top and side views, respectively.

The detector 700 is similar in some materials to the detector 500, including the detector 700 and having at least two dipole gas confinement vessels 702, 704 communicatively coupled together by a signal coupler 706, all enclosed within a vessel housing 708. The signal coupler 706 may comprise a solid material or a hollow sealed tube. The signal coupler 706 may be made of a dielectric material (e.g., plastic, epoxy, air, combinations thereof, etc.), a glass material, etc., and may be made of the same or different materials as the containers 702 and 704. In detector 700, container 702 has a first side surface 703, container 704 has a second side surface 705 facing the first surface, and signal coupler 706 has opposite end surfaces 713 and 715. The end face 713 of the signal coupler 704 faces the side surface 703/is opposite thereto and the end face 715 of the signal coupler 706 faces the side surface 705/is opposite thereto such that the receptacles 702, 704 and the signal coupler 706 may form an H-shaped configuration. Side surface 703 may be in physical contact with end surface 713 or may be separated by an air gap. The side surface 705 may be in physical contact with the end surface 715 or may be separated by an air gap.

EM signals may propagate from transmit circuitry 516 through container 702, side surface 703, end surface 713, signal coupler 706, end surface 715, side surface 705, container 704, and to receive circuitry 518, as indicated by dotted line 719. The dimensions and dielectric constant of the signal coupler 706 may be configured to minimize reflection of the EM signal at the side surface 703/end surface 713 and at the end surface 715 and side surface 705. The opposing first and second side surfaces 703, 705 and the opposing end surfaces 713, 715 are perpendicular to the plane of extension of the receptacles 702, 704 and the signal coupler 706. For example, the receptacles 702, 704 and signal couplers 706 extend along an x-y plane, and the first and second side surfaces 703, 705 and the end surfaces 713, 715 are in the x-z plane. In this example, the containers 702, 704 are parallel to one another. Each container has a respective window region 770/772 communicatively coupled to the antenna through a signal coupler 710/712.

Also, fig. 7D is an oblique, parallel projection view of a reservoir housing 708 that is similar in some materials to reservoir housing 508. The receptacle housing 708 has interior cavities 720, 722, 724 configured to hold the receptacles 702, 704 and the signal coupler 706 such that the signal coupler 706 couples respective opposing surfaces of the receptacles 702, 704 together (e.g., in an H-shaped configuration). The pod housing 708 also has a cavity that forms (or houses) a plurality of signal couplers 710, 712.

Fig. 7E shows an alternative configuration of receptacles 702, 704 for detector 700, wherein receptacle 702 is tilted from receptacle 704, and signal couplers 706 are positioned between and couple respective opposing surfaces of receptacles 702, 704 together. In some examples where the container 702 is tilted from the container 704, the signal coupler 706 may have a trapezoidal shape (e.g., as shown in fig. 7E) to facilitate interfacing with flat opposing surfaces of the containers 702, 704.

In some examples, the outer surface of the signal coupler 706, along with the outer surfaces of the containers 702 and 704, may be coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized). Signal coupler 706 may include openings on end surfaces 703 and 705 (similar to openings 550 and 552). The receptacle 702 may also include an opening on the side surface 713 that aligns with an opening on the end face 703 of the signal coupler 706, and the receptacle 704 may include an opening on the side surface 715 that aligns with an opening on the end face 705 of the signal coupler 706. The openings may be uncoated or otherwise coated with an electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent material to allow EM signals to propagate therethrough. In some examples, the outer surface of the signal coupler 706, along with the outer surfaces of the containers 702 and 704, are not coated with an electromagnetically reflective material. The interior surfaces of the cavities 720, 722, and 724 of the pod housing 708 may be coated with an electromagnetically reflective material to retain the EM signals within the pods 702, 704 and the signal coupler 706. An electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metal) may abut (or substantially contact) the outer surface of each container and coupler.

Fig. 8A-8D show various perspective views of another exemplary arrangement of a dipole gas container and signal coupler. Referring to fig. 8A-8D, a quantum transition frequency detector 800 includes a container 802, 804, wherein a first portion 802a of the container 802 overlies a second portion 804a of the container 804, and a signal coupler 806 is positioned between and couples respective opposing surfaces 806 and 808 of the containers 802, 804 together. In fig. 8A, the receptacles 802 and 804 may extend along an x-y plane, with the first portion 802a, signal coupler 806, and second portion 804b forming a stack along an axis (e.g., z-axis) perpendicular to the axis/plane of extension of the receptacles 802 and 804. The signal coupler 806 may comprise a solid material or a hollow sealed tube. The signal coupler 806 may be made of a dielectric material (e.g., plastic, epoxy, air, combinations thereof, etc.), a glass material, etc., and may be made of the same or different material as the containers 802 and 804. The signal coupler 806 may be in physical contact with the containers 802 and 804, or may be spaced apart by an air gap. The dimensions and dielectric constant of the signal coupler 806 may be configured to minimize reflection of EM signals between the container 802 and the signal coupler 806 and between the signal coupler 806 and the container 804.

Fig. 8D is an angled parallel projection view of a vessel shell 808 that is similar in some materials to the vessel shell 508, except that the vessel shell 808 has internal cavities 820, 822, 824 configured to position a portion 802a of the vessel 802 to cover a portion 804a of the vessel 804 and to position a signal coupler 806 between the portions 802a and 804 a. Each container may be communicatively coupled to an antenna through a signal coupler (not shown in fig. 8A-8D). In some examples, the receptacles 802, 804 and the signal coupler 806 may be coated with an electromagnetically reflective material, with the intervening windows (between the receptacle 802 and the signal coupler 806, between the receptacle 804 and the signal coupler 806, and between the receptacles 802 and 804 and the signal coupler to the antenna) being uncoated, coated with an electromagnetically translucent or substantially transparent material. In some examples, the inner surfaces of cavities 820, 822, and 824 may be coated with an electromagnetic reflective material. An electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metal) may abut (or substantially contact) the outer surface of each container and coupler.

Fig. 9A-9D show various perspective views of another exemplary arrangement of a dipole gas container and signal coupler. Referring to fig. 9A-9D, the quantum transition frequency detector 900 includes two dipole gas confinement vessels 902, 904, wherein a first portion 902a of the vessel 902 overlies a second portion 902b of the vessel 904 and forms a stack along a direction (e.g., z-axis) perpendicular to the direction of extension of the vessels 902 and 904 (e.g., along an x-y plane). And, signal coupler 906 engages end 910 of container 902 and end 914 of container 904. The signal coupler 906 may comprise a solid material or a hollow sealed tube. The signal coupler 906 may be made of a dielectric material (e.g., plastic, epoxy, air, combinations thereof, etc.), a glass material, etc., and may be made of the same or different materials as the containers 902 and 904. Signal coupler 906 may have similar features and structures as signal coupler 506, such as shown in fig. 5F and 5G. The signal coupler 806 may be in physical contact with the receptacles 902 and 904, or may be spaced apart by an air gap. The dimensions and dielectric constant of the signal coupler 906 may be configured to minimize reflection of EM signals between the container 902 and the signal coupler 906 and between the signal coupler 906 and the container 904.

Fig. 9D is an oblique, parallel projection view of a container housing 908 that is similar in some materials to container housing 508, with container housing 908 having internal cavities 920, 922, 924 configured to position a first portion of container 902 over a second portion of container 904 and to position signal couplers 906 proximate to and overlapping respective ends of containers 902, 904. Each container may be communicatively coupled to an antenna through a signal coupler (not shown in fig. 9A-9D).

Fig. 10A and 10B show oblique parallel projection and side views, respectively, of a portion of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 1000, wherein the shading represents an electric field perpendicular to the direction of propagation through a rectangular dipole gas confinement vessel 1002 (e.g., TE10 mode, where "TE" refers to a transverse electric field). The container 1002, signal coupler 1010, and TX antenna 1015 may be similar in material to corresponding components 502, 510, and 515, respectively, of the detector 500. In some examples, the container 1002 may have a rectangular cross-section with a half wavelength (λ/2) dimension across the broad side and less than half wavelength (λ/2) of the magnetic field across the narrow side. As shown in fig. 10A and 10B (and fig. 5A-9D), the wider side of the rectangular cross section of the container 1002 is parallel to the top surface of the bottom layer TX antenna 1015. In some examples, the container 1002 may be rotated (e.g., in the range of 80-100 degrees, including 90 degrees) relative to the container shown in fig. 5A-10B, where the dipole gas confinement container may have a width (e.g., along the y-axis) longer than a height/thickness (e.g., along the axis).

Fig. 11A-11D show various views of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 1100 having a plurality of dipole gas confinement vessels 1102, 1104 having widths (labeled "w" in fig. 11A along the z-axis) shorter than heights (labeled "h" in fig. 11A) and parallel and coplanar with each other such that the wider sides of the vessels are perpendicular to (or oblique from) the antenna (not shown) and PCB 514. The frequency detector 1100 may have a similar structure and arrangement as the quantum transition frequency detector 500. The frequency detector 1100 also includes a signal coupler 1106 communicatively coupled to the ends of the containers 1102 and 1104, and a container housing 1108 enclosing the containers 1102, 1104 and the signal coupler 1106. Signal coupler 1106 may have similar features/structures as signal coupler 506, such as shown in fig. 5F and 5G. The signal coupler 1106 may comprise a solid material or a hollow sealed tube. The signal coupler 1106 may be made of a dielectric material (e.g., plastic, epoxy, air, combinations thereof, etc.), a glass material, etc., and may be made of the same or different materials as the containers 1102 and 1104. The signal coupler 1106 may be in physical contact with the containers 1102 and 1104, or may be spaced apart by an air gap. The dimensions and dielectric constant of the signal coupler 1106 may be configured to minimize reflection of EM signals between the container 1102 and the signal coupler 1106 and between the signal coupler 1106 and the container 1104.

The quantum transition frequency detector 1100 may support different emission modes than, for example, quantum transition frequency detectors 500 through 1000. For example, quantum transition frequency detectors 500-1000 may support TE10 propagation, and quantum transition frequency detector 1100 may support TE01 propagation. The narrower sides of the rectangular cross-section of the containers 1102, 1104 are parallel to the x-y plane.

Fig. 11D is an oblique parallel projection view of the pod housing 1108. As shown in fig. 11D, the container housing 1108 has internal cavities 1120, 1122, 1124 configured to hold the containers 1102, 1104 and signal coupler 1106, respectively, in place. In some examples, cavities 1120, 1122, 1124 are each internally coated with an electromagnetic reflective material (e.g., metallized). In some examples, the outer surfaces of the containers 1102, 1104 and the signal coupler 1106 are coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized), as described above. An electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metal) may abut (or substantially contact) the outer surface of each container and coupler.

Fig. 12A-12D show various views of a detector 1200 having a first dipole gas confinement vessel 1202 that is tilted (e.g., in a V-shaped configuration) from a second dipole gas confinement vessel 1204, and that may have a similar structure and arrangement as the quantum transition frequency detector 600. Each of the receptacles 1202 and 1204 has a width (labeled "w" in fig. 12A along the z-axis) shorter than the height (labeled "h" in fig. 12A) and is coplanar with each other such that the wider sides of the receptacles are perpendicular to (or tilted from) the antenna (not shown) and PCB 514 to support a different emission pattern than the detector 600. The frequency detector 1200 also includes a signal coupler 1206 communicatively coupled to the ends of the containers 1202 and 1204, and a container housing 1208 enclosing the containers 1202, 1204 and the signal coupler 1206. Signal coupler 1206 may have similar features/structures as signal coupler 506, such as shown in fig. 5F and 5G. The signal coupler 1206 may comprise a solid material or a hollow sealed tube. The signal coupler 1206 may be made of a dielectric material (e.g., plastic, epoxy, air, combinations thereof, etc.), a glass material, etc., and may be made of the same or different materials as the containers 1202 and 1204. The signal coupler 1206 may be in physical contact with the containers 1202 and 1204 or may be spaced apart by an air gap. The dimensions and dielectric constant of the signal coupler 1206 may be configured to minimize reflection of EM signals between the container 1202 and the signal coupler 1206 and between the signal coupler 1206 and the container 1204.

Fig. 12D is an oblique parallel projection view of the container housing 1208. As shown in fig. 12D, the container housing 1208 has internal cavities 1220, 1222, 1224 configured to hold the containers 1202, 1204 and the signal coupler 1206, respectively, in place. In some examples, the cavities 1220, 1222, 1224 are each internally coated with an electromagnetic reflective material (e.g., metallized). In some examples, the outer surfaces of the containers 1202, 1204 and the signal coupler 1206 are coated with an electromagnetic reflective material (e.g., metallized), as described above. An electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metal) may abut (or substantially contact) the outer surface of each container and coupler.

Fig. 13A-13E show various perspective views of respective portions of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 1300 similar in material to the detector 100 of fig. 1. Fig. 13A is an oblique parallel projection view of detector 1300, and fig. 13B and 13C are top and side views thereof, respectively. The detector 1300 incorporates at least four dipole gas confinement vessels 1302, 1303, 1304, 1305 and at least three signal couplers 1306, 1307, 1309, wherein the signal coupler 1306 communicatively couples the vessels 1303, 1304 together, the signal coupler 1307 communicatively couples the vessels 1302, 1303 together, and the signal coupler 1309 communicatively couples the vessels 1304, 1305 together. In this example, containers 1302, 1304 are parallel to each other and are tilted from containers 1303, 1305, respectively. The containers 1303, 1305 are parallel to each other. In this example, the end of container 1303 is on the end of container 1302 and the end of container 1304 is on the end of container 1305. The containers 1302, 1305 may be enclosed within a first level of container housing 1308 and the containers 1303, 1304 may be enclosed within a second level of container housing, where the first and second levels of container housing 1308 are parallel to each other and the second level is on the first level. In general, the arrangement of containers 1302, 1303, 1304, 1305 may be considered to be W-shaped or M-shaped depending on the viewing angle.

In some examples, the mutual coupling of containers 1303, 1304 and signal coupler 1306 may be similar to the mutual coupling described herein with reference to containers 620, 604 and signal coupler 606; and the mutual coupling of the containers 1302, 1303 and the signal coupler 1307 may be similar to the mutual coupling described herein with reference to the containers 902, 904 and the signal coupler 906. In some examples, signal coupler 1307 may be positioned between opposing faces of containers 1302, 1303 such that signal coupler 1307 communicatively couples container 1302 to container 1303 in a manner similar to that described herein with reference to containers 802, 804 and signal coupler 806.

Fig. 13D is an oblique parallel projection view of a container housing 1308 having: internal cavities 1320, 1322, 1324, 1326 configured to hold containers 1302, 1303, 1304, 1305, respectively; and internal cavities 1321, 1323, 1325 configured to hold solid dielectric signal couplers 1307, 1306, 1309 and signal coupler 706, respectively. In some examples, the container housing 1308 is internally coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized) such that when the containers 1302, 1303, 1304, 1305 are placed in the container housing 1308, the material abuts (or substantially contacts) the outer surface of each container 1302, 1303, 1304, 1305 and each signal coupler 1306, 1307, 1309.

Fig. 13E is an oblique, parallel projection view of an alternative container housing 1350 having an interior cavity configured to hold a container having a rectangular cross section, with the container oriented within the container housing 1350 such that the narrower side is parallel to the x-y plane shown to support different emission modes, as depicted in fig. 11 and 12. The reservoir housing 1350 may be otherwise similar in material to the reservoir housing 1308.

Fig. 14 is a top view of an arrangement of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 1400 having at least six overlapping dipole gas confinement vessels 1402, 1404, 1406, 1408, 1410, 1412 and at least five signal couplers 1403, 1405, 1407, 1209, 1411. The detector 1400 and containers 1402, 1404, 1406, 1408, 1410, 1412 may be similar in material to the detector 100 and container 102 of fig. 1, respectively. The container 1402 is angled with respect to the container 1404, and the signal coupler 1403 communicatively couples the container 1402 to the container 1404 in a manner similar to that described herein with respect to the containers 802, 804 and the signal coupler 806. The container 1404 is angled from the container 1406, and the signal coupler 1405 communicatively couples the container 1404 to the container 1406 in a manner similar to that described herein with reference to the containers 802, 804 and the signal coupler 806. The container 1406 is angled with respect to the container 1408 and the signal coupler 1475 communicatively couples the container 1406 to the container 1408 in a manner similar to that described herein with reference to the containers 902, 904 and the signal coupler 906. The reservoir 1408 is angled with respect to the reservoir 1410, and the signal coupler 1409 communicatively couples the reservoir 1408 to the reservoir 1410 in a manner similar to that described herein with respect to the reservoirs 802, 804 and the signal coupler 806. The receptacle 1410 is angled with respect to the receptacle 1412, and the signal coupler 1411 communicatively couples the receptacle 1410 to the receptacle 1412 in a manner similar to that described herein with respect to the receptacles 802, 804 and the signal coupler 806.

The containers 1402, 1406, 1408, 1412 may be enclosed within a first level of container housing (not explicitly shown) and the containers 1404, 1410 may be enclosed within a second level of the same container housing, where the first and second levels of container housings are parallel to each other and the second level is on the first level. The multi-stage approach may facilitate the use of a variety of different approaches to communicatively coupling adjacent containers together, thereby minimizing the space required for the containers to collectively achieve a particular end-to-end length. For example, when two containers are communicatively coupled together within the same hierarchy (e.g., signal coupler 1407 communicatively couples container 1406 to container 1408), the signal coupler may be used to couple respective non-opposing surfaces of the containers together as described with reference to fig. 9A-9D. When two containers are communicatively coupled together within overlapping tiers (e.g., signal coupler 1403 communicatively couples container 1402 within a first tier to container 1404 within a second tier on the first tier), the signal coupler may be used to couple respective opposing surfaces of the containers together as described with reference to fig. 8A-8D. The communicative coupling of the containers 1402, 1404, 1406, 1408, 1410, 1412 to each other through the signal couplers 1403, 1405, 1407, 1209, 1411 may be further expanded by additional containers, signal couplers, or levels, thereby even further increasing the common end-to-end length of the containers within the maximum volume of the detector 1400.

Fig. 15A and 15B show oblique and side views, respectively, of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 1500 having dipole gas confinement vessels 1502 and 1504 communicatively coupled together by a signal coupler 1504, with the vessels arranged perpendicular to (or oblique from) a PCB 514 containing transmit and receive antennas and circuitry. The illustrated detector is otherwise substantially similar in material to the detector 500. Fig. 15C shows an exemplary receptacle housing 1508 having cavities 1520, 1522, and 1524 therein to hold the receptacle and signal coupler shown in fig. 15A and 15B in place. In some examples, the receptacle housing 1508 is internally coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized) such that when the receptacles 1502, 1504 and the coupler 1506 are placed in the receptacle housing 1508, the material abuts (or substantially contacts) the outer surfaces of the receptacles 1502, 1504 and the signal coupler 1506. In some examples, the outer surfaces of the containers 1502, 1504 and the signal coupler 1506 may be coated with an electromagnetic reflective material, as described above.

Fig. 16A and 16B show oblique and side views, respectively, of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 1600 having two dipole gas confinement vessels 1602 and 1604 communicatively coupled together by a signal coupler 1606, with the vessels arranged perpendicular to a PCB 514 containing transmit and receive antennas and circuitry. The illustrated detector is otherwise substantially similar in material to detector 600. Fig. 16C shows an exemplary container housing 1608 having cavities 1620, 1622, and 1624 therein to hold the container and signal coupler shown in fig. 16A and 16B in place. In some examples, the container housing 1608 is internally coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized) such that when the containers 1602, 1604 and the coupler 1606 are placed in the container housing 1608, the material abuts (or substantially contacts) the outer surfaces of the containers 1602, 1504 and the signal coupler 1606. In some examples, the outer surfaces of the containers 1602, 1604 and the signal coupler 1606 may be coated with an electromagnetic reflective material, as described above.

Fig. 17A and 17B show oblique and top views, respectively, of an exemplary quantum transition frequency detector 1700 having two dipole gas confinement vessels 1702 and 1704 communicatively coupled together by a signal coupler 1706, wherein the vessels are arranged perpendicular to a PCB 514 containing transmit and receive antennas and circuitry. The illustrated detector is otherwise substantially similar in material to the detector 700. Fig. 17C shows an exemplary container housing having cavities 1720, 1722, and 1724 therein to hold the container and signal coupler shown in fig. 17A and 17B in place. In some examples, the container housing 1708 is internally coated with an electromagnetically reflective material (e.g., metallized) such that when the containers 1702, 1704 and the coupler 1706 are placed in the container housing 1708, the material abuts (or substantially contacts) the outer surfaces of the containers 1702, 1704 and the signal coupler 1706. In some examples, the outer surfaces of the containers 1702, 1704 and the signal coupler 1706 may be coated with an electromagnetically reflective material, as described above.

Fig. 18A and 18B illustrate additional exemplary signal couplers between a dipole gas container (e.g., dipole gas containers 502 and 504 of fig. 5A-5E) and TX and RX antennas. In fig. 18A and 18B, TX and RX antennas 1825, 1827 may be Vivaldi antennas. The signal couplers 1830 and 1832 may be coplanar waveguides. The signal coupler 1830 may be coupled between side surfaces 1842 of the container 502 that are perpendicular to an axis of extension of the container 502 (e.g., an x-y plane), and the signal coupler 1832 may be coupled between side surfaces 1844 of the container 504 that are perpendicular to an axis of extension of the container 504 (e.g., an x-y plane). Antennas 1825 and 1827 and signal couplers 1830 and 1832 may replace the antennas and signal couplers (between the gas container and the antennas) of the examples of quantum transition frequency detectors described herein.

Fig. 19 and 20 show additional examples of container shells. In fig. 19, in an example where the dipole gas confinement vessel extends parallel to the PCB 514, the vessel housing 1900 may be an example of the vessel housings 508, 608, 708, 808, 908, 1108, 1208, 1308, and 1350. Also, in fig. 20, the container housing 2000 may be an example of container housings 1508, 1608, and 1708, where the dipole gas container extends perpendicular to (obliquely from) the PCB 514. In some examples, the vessel shell 1900 may be performed using 3D printing. Vessel shell 1900 may be made of a molding compound (e.g., epoxy) and may be made using a molding process (e.g., injection molding). In the case where the interior cavity of the vessel shell is coated with an electromagnetic reflective layer (e.g., a metal layer), the vessel shell may be split along the axis of extension of the gas vessel (e.g., along the x-y plane of the vessel shell 1900, along the z-x or z-y plane of the vessel shell 2000) to expose the interior surface of the cavity, and the metal layer may be coated (e.g., by spraying or other techniques) on the interior surface.

Referring to fig. 19 and 20, the pod housing 1900 may include fastening extensions 1902 and 1904 of screws/pins (or other fastening mechanisms) to fasten the pod housing 1900 to the PCB 514. Also, the container housing 1900 includes a notch portion 1906 to clamp/fit an Integrated Circuit (IC) 1910 containing millimeter wave transmit and receive antennas and circuitry (e.g., circuitry 516 and 518) on the PCB 514. The notched portion allows the reservoir housing 1900 and the IC 1910 to be assembled together, which may improve the mechanical coupling between the reservoir housing 1900 and the PCB 514 and reduce stress on the IC 1910. In some examples, a layer of insulating material may be placed between notch portion 1906 and IC 1910 to further protect/insulate IC 1910. Referring to fig. 20, the container housing 2000 may also include fastening extensions 2002 and 2004 of screws/pins (or other fastening mechanisms), and a notch portion 2006 to clamp/fit an Integrated Circuit (IC) 2010 containing millimeter wave transmit and receive antennas and circuitry (e.g., circuitry 516 and 518) on the PCB 514.

Herein, "or" is inclusive, and not exclusive, unless explicitly indicated otherwise or the context indicates otherwise. Thus, herein, "a or B" means "A, B or both" unless explicitly indicated otherwise or the context indicates otherwise. Furthermore, "and" are both conjunctive and separate unless explicitly indicated otherwise or the context indicates otherwise. Thus, herein, "a and B" means "a and B, jointly or individually," unless explicitly indicated otherwise or the context indicates otherwise. To assist the patent office and any readers of any patent issued in this application in interpreting the appended claims, the applicant notes that any appended claims are not intended to refer to 35u.s.c. ≡112 (f), as present at the date of filing of the present application, unless terms such as "means for … …" or "steps for … …" are used explicitly in the claim language.

In the previous description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details were set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of one or more examples. However, the present disclosure may be practiced without some or all of these specific details as will be apparent to one skilled in the art. In other instances, well known process steps or structures have not been described in detail in order to not unnecessarily obscure the present disclosure. In addition, while the present disclosure is described in connection with illustrative examples, the present description is not intended to limit the present disclosure to the described examples. On the contrary, the description is intended to cover alternatives, modifications and equivalents, which may be included within the spirit and scope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims.

In this specification, the term "coupled" may encompass a connection, communication, or signal path that enables a functional relationship to be consistent with the specification. For example, if device a generates a signal to control device B to perform an action, then: (a) In a first example, device a is coupled to device B through a direct connection; or (B) in a second example, device a is coupled to device B through intermediate component C, provided that intermediate component C does not alter the functional relationship between device a and device B, such that device B is controlled by device a through control signals generated by device a.

Furthermore, in this specification, the recitation of "based on" means "based at least in part on". Thus, if X is Y-based, X may depend on Y and any number of other factors.

A device "configured to" perform a task or function may be configured (e.g., programmed and/or hardwired) to perform the function when manufactured by a manufacturer, and/or may be configured (or reconfigurable) by a user after manufacture to perform the function and/or other additional or alternative functions. The configuration may be by firmware and/or software programming of the device, by construction and/or layout of hardware components and interconnections of the device, or a combination thereof.

As used herein, the terms "terminal," "node," "interconnect," "pin," and "lead" are used interchangeably. Unless specifically stated to the contrary, these terms are generally used to refer to interconnections between device elements, circuit elements, integrated circuits, devices, or other electronic or semiconductor components, or their ends.

Circuits or devices described herein as including particular components may be physically adapted to be coupled to those components to form the described circuit systems or devices. For example, structures described as including one or more semiconductor elements (e.g., transistors), one or more passive elements (e.g., resistors, capacitors, and/or inductors), and/or one or more sources (e.g., voltage sources and/or current sources) may actually include only semiconductor elements within a single physical device (e.g., a semiconductor die and/or Integrated Circuit (IC) package), and may be adapted to be coupled to at least some of the passive elements and/or sources to form the described structures at or after manufacture, such as by an end user and/or a third party.

The circuits described herein may be reconfigured to include additional components or different components to provide functionality at least partially similar to that available prior to component replacement. Unless otherwise stated, components shown as resistors generally represent any one or more elements coupled in series and/or parallel to provide the amount of impedance represented by the shown resistors. For example, a resistor or capacitor shown and described herein as a single component may alternatively be a plurality of resistors or capacitors, respectively, coupled in parallel between the same nodes. For example, a resistor or capacitor shown and described herein as a single component may alternatively be a plurality of resistors or capacitors, respectively, coupled in series between the same two nodes as a single resistor or capacitor.

While certain elements of the described examples may be included in an integrated circuit and other elements may be external to the integrated circuit, in other examples additional or fewer features may be incorporated into the integrated circuit. Additionally, some or all of the features illustrated as being external to the integrated circuit may be included in the integrated circuit and/or some of the features illustrated as being internal to the integrated circuit may be incorporated external to the integrated circuit. As used herein, the term "integrated circuit" refers to one or more circuits that: (i) incorporated in/on a semiconductor substrate; (ii) incorporated into a single semiconductor package; (iii) incorporated into the same module; and/or (iv) incorporated in/on the same printed circuit board.

In this specification, unless otherwise indicated, "about" or "substantially" preceding a parameter means within +/-10% of the parameter, or if the parameter is zero, within a reasonable range of values of about zero.

Modifications are possible in the described examples and other examples are possible within the scope of the claims.

Claims

1. An apparatus, comprising:

A first sealed container enclosing a first dipole gas;

a second sealed container enclosing a second dipole gas;

A signal coupler communicatively coupled between the first sealed container and the second sealed container, the signal coupler comprising a solid material or a hollow sealed tube;

A container housing enclosing the first and second sealed containers and the signal coupler; and

An electromagnetic EM reflective coating inside the container housing and covering at least a portion of the first sealed container, at least a portion of the second sealed container, and at least a portion of the signal coupler.

2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first sealed container has a first end face, the second sealed container has a second end face, and the signal coupler has a coupler surface opposite the first end face and the second end face.

3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the first sealed container and the second sealed container are parallel to each other.

4. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the first sealed container is tilted from the second sealed container.

5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first sealed container has a first surface, the second sealed container has a second surface facing the first surface, the signal coupler has opposing third and fourth surfaces, the third surface facing the first surface and the fourth surface facing the second surface.

6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the first sealed container and the second sealed container are parallel to each other.

7. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the first sealed container is tilted from the second sealed container.

8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein a first portion of the first sealed container covers a second portion of the second sealed container; and is also provided with

Wherein the signal coupler is located between the first portion and the second portion.

9. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the signal coupler is a first signal coupler;

Wherein the apparatus further comprises:

A third sealed container enclosing a third dipole gas;

a fourth sealed container enclosing a fourth dipole gas;

a second signal coupler communicatively coupled between the second sealed container and the third sealed container; and

A third signal coupler communicatively coupled between the third sealed container and the fourth sealed container.

10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the first sealed container is tilted from the second sealed container, the second sealed container is tilted from the third sealed container, and the third sealed container is tilted from the fourth sealed container.

11. A system, comprising:

a substrate comprising a transmitter and a receiver;

A first sealed container enclosing a first dipole gas, the first sealed container having a first end communicatively coupled to the transmitter;

a second sealed container enclosing a second dipole gas, the second sealed container having a second end communicatively coupled to the receiver;

12. The system of claim 11, wherein the first sealed container and the second sealed container are parallel to a surface of the substrate.

13. The system of claim 11, wherein the first sealed container and the second sealed container are perpendicular to a surface of the substrate.

14. The system of claim 11, wherein the container housing has a first opening in the EM reflective coating at the first end of the first sealed container and a second opening in the EM reflective coating at the second end of the second sealed container.

15. The system of claim 11, wherein the EM reflective coating is on the outer surfaces of the first and second sealed containers and the signal coupler.

16. The system of claim 11, wherein the first sealed container has a first end face on a second end opposite the first end, the second sealed container has a second end face on a third end opposite the second end, and the signal coupler has a coupler surface facing the first end face and the second end face.

17. The system of claim 11, further comprising circuitry configured to propagate an EM signal from the transmitter through the first sealed container, the signal coupler, and the second sealed container to the receiver, the EM signal having a frequency at a quantum transition frequency of the first dipole gas and the second dipole gas.

18. The system of claim 11, wherein the first sealed container and the second sealed container are parallel to each other.

19. The system of claim 11, wherein the first sealed container is tilted from the second sealed container.

20. The system of claim 11, wherein the first sealed container has a first surface, the second sealed container has a second surface facing the first surface, and the signal coupler has opposing third and fourth surfaces, the third surface facing the first surface and the fourth surface facing the second surface.

21. The system of claim 11, wherein a first portion of the first sealed container covers a second portion of the second sealed container; and is also provided with

Wherein the signal coupler is coupled between the first portion and the second portion.

22. The system of claim 11, wherein the container housing includes a fastening extension coupled to the substrate.

23. The system of claim 11, wherein the container housing includes a recessed portion to clamp an integrated circuit on the substrate.