CN106446459A - Pre-tightening optimization method of bolt connecting component - Google Patents
Pre-tightening optimization method of bolt connecting component Download PDFInfo
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- CN106446459A CN106446459A CN201610947285.9A CN201610947285A CN106446459A CN 106446459 A CN106446459 A CN 106446459A CN 201610947285 A CN201610947285 A CN 201610947285A CN 106446459 A CN106446459 A CN 106446459A
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Abstract
The invention provides a pre-tightening optimization method of a bolt connecting component. The bolt connecting component comprises two connecting pieces, the two connecting pieces are fixedly connected with each other through a bolt component, a flexible graphite metal wave gear composite gasket is arranged between the contact surfaces of the two connecting pieces, wherein the pre-tightening force of a bolt affected by negative elastic interaction is corrected by a correction factor in the process of tightening the connecting pieces through the bolt. According to the pre-tightening optimization method disclosed by the invention, the bolt force obtained by the bolt after every round of loading is finished is close to the target bolt force and is in concentrated distribution, and the inner side and the outer side of the gasket can obtain uniform contact stress.
Description
Technical field
The present invention relates to a kind of pretension optimization method of bolt connection assembly is and in particular to one kind is to using soft graphite gold
Belong to the pretension optimization method that the pretightning force of the Flanged Connection System of corrugated serrated compound gasket is modified.
Background technology
The Bolted Flanged Connection structure that bolt, flange and pad are constituted is that the widely used one kind of petroleum chemical industry is quiet
Seal form, is usually used in being tightly connected of pressure vessel, pressure pipeline and valve.Survey data shows, a large-scale petroleum
Work enterprise there is sealing structure quantity up to dozens or even hundreds of ten thousand.The sealing leak of bolt-flange-pad attachment structure is not
But increased the energy consumption of device, pollute environment, also the safety and stability directly affecting production equipment device operates and production operation
The safety and Health of personnel.In recent years, flange seal lost efficacy result in many major accidents, for example, Yanshan Petrochemical, Qilu Petrochemical,
Frequently there is flange seal failure in the petroleum chemical enterprise such as Plant of Tianjin Petrochemical Company S-Zorb device, lead to fire incident, equipment to be stopped work, cause
Serious economic loss.
Therefore, Bolted Flanged Connection system sealing performance improve improve and influence factor research and assessment all have non-
Often important construction value.
Content of the invention
For above-mentioned technical problem, present invention offer is a kind of to be loaded to every wheel during the pretension of this bolt connection assembly
Bolt load be modified, to guarantee that bolt connection assembly has the pretension optimization side of the bolt connection assembly of high sealing performance
Method.
The technical solution used in the present invention is：
The present invention provides a kind of pretension optimization method of bolt connection assembly, and described bolt connection assembly includes two connections
Part, described two connectors are fixedly connected by bolt group, are provided with soft between the contact surface of described two connectors
Property graphite metal corrugated serrated compound gasket, wherein, during described connector being tightened using bolt, to by elasticity
The pretightning force of the bolt of interaction negative interaction impact is modified, and described pretension optimization method includes：
(1) input the parameter of each element and material in described bolt connection assembly in finite element software in a computer to belong to
Property, the non-linear factor relation of comprehensive described bolt connection assembly, set up three-dimensional bolt connection assembly finite element analysis model；
(2) determine the pretension scheme of bolt group, take turns including the target load of bolt group, pretension round, load mode and often
The prefastening load applying, and determine the elastic interaction coefficient matrix being made up of correction factor；
(3) in described bolt connection assembly finite element analysis model, during being chosen at pretension, it is subject to elasticity interaction negative
One bolt of effect, as reference bolt, is pressed, according to the target pretension scheme determining, the load mode determining and is applied to bolt group
Prefastening load, investigates the bolt power situation of change of this reference bolt, obtains the bolt power change profile figure of this reference bolt；
(4) correction of elastic interaction coefficient matrix is determined according to the bolt power change profile figure of described reference bolt
Coefficient, revises elastic interaction coefficient matrix to determine, and using this correction elastic interaction coefficient matrix in pretension
During affected by negative interaction and lead to the prefastening load of all bolts in the bolt fluctuation big pretension round of change to carry out
Revise, so that it is determined that required actually applied correction bolt load under pretension condition during pretension.
Preferably, in the bolt power change profile in figure of reference bolt, analyze when tightening the ortho position bolt of reference bolt,
The rapid drawdown amplitude that the bolt power of described reference bolt is occurred is determining described correction factor.
Preferably, by equation below, the prefastening load of the bolt being affected by negative interaction during pretension is repaiied
Just：
[A]n×n{Fi}n×1={ Ff}n×1
Wherein, { Fi}n×1For revising bolt load under pretension condition column matrix；{Ff}n×1For bolt target load matrix；[A]n×n
For revising elastic interaction coefficient matrix；N is number of bolts.
Preferably, so that first tightening the referred to as elasticity interaction positive interaction of the bolt power increase of bolt during pretension, and
Make the referred to as elastic interaction negative interaction that the bolt power first tightening bolt reduces.
Preferably, the pretension scheme of bolt group is determined according to ASME PCC-1-2010 standard.
Preferably, described connector is flange, and each bolt in described bolt group includes stud and the spiral shell cooperating
Female.
Preferably, the size of soft graphite metal wave tooth Composition spacer to be chosen with reference to GB/T 19066.1-2008 standard.
Due to make use of soft graphite metal wave tooth Composition spacer in Flanged Connection System in the present invention, and to flange even
Bolt power during the pretension of welding system is corrected so that often wheel loads the bolt power terminating rear bolt acquisition close to mesh
Mark bolt power, and it is distributed concentration, thus greatly improving the sealing property of the Flanged Connection System after connection.
Brief description
Fig. 1 is the structural representation of the bolt connection assembly of the present invention.
Fig. 2 is the brief schematic flow sheet of the pretension optimization method of bolt connection assembly of the present invention.
The FEM (finite element) model that Fig. 3 to Fig. 7 is respectively the bolt connection assembly of the present invention sets up figure.
Fig. 8 is the pretightning force loading sequence figure of the bolt connection assembly of one embodiment of the invention.
The bolt power change profile figure of the reference bolt that Fig. 9 chooses for the present invention.
The bolt group stress that Figure 10 and Figure 11 is respectively before and after the bolt connection assembly optimization of one embodiment of the invention divides
Cloth schematic diagram.
Figure 12 and Figure 13 is respectively the gasket stress distribution before and after the bolt connection assembly optimization of one embodiment of the invention
Schematic diagram.
Specific embodiment
Below in conjunction with accompanying drawing, the specific embodiment of the present invention is introduced.
Fig. 1 is the structural representation of the bolt connection assembly of the present invention.As shown in figure 1, the bolt connection assembly of the present invention
Including two connectors 1, described two connectors are fixedly connected by bolt group 3, in the contact of described two connectors 1
It is provided with pad 2 between face.In the present invention, connector can be flange, and bolt group 3 is multiple, including stud and matched
Nut.So, the bolt connection assembly of the present invention is also referred to as Bolted Flanged Connection structure, and this structure is mainly passed through to twist
Clamping force produced by tight bolt makes to be formed between upper and lower flange and gasket seal and closely connects, and compresses sealing surface, thus real
Existing attachment structure sealing purpose.The connection sealing system that bolt, flange and pad are constituted is that petroleum chemical industry widely uses
A kind of static seal form, be usually used in being tightly connected of pressure vessel, pressure pipeline and valve, it is desirable, therefore, to assure that this structure
Sealing property.
In one embodiment of this invention, pad can be soft graphite metal wave tooth Composition spacer, the knot of this Composition spacer
Structure is identical with the structure of soft graphite metal wave tooth Composition spacer defined in the art, therefore here is omitted and it is discussed in detail.
Soft graphite corrugated serrated compound gasket is attained by good sealing effectiveness in the sealing occasion such as high temperature, low temperature, high pressure, corrosion, and
And the compression of such pad is less than pressure ratio metallic gasket.When using, because soft graphite easily occurs plastic deformation, thus energy
Enough defects effectively filling flange sealing surface, so soft graphite corrugated serrated compound gasket is thick to the flange sealing surface that matches
Rugosity requires ratio relatively low, has good economy.The size of soft graphite metal wave tooth Composition spacer is with reference to GB/T
19066.1-2008 standard is choosing.
However, Bolted Flanged Connection system during pretension because bolt is tightened in a certain order, between bolt
There is reciprocal action so that having differences between the bolt power that obtained after the completion of tightening of bolt, bolt exists tightens deficiency
The problems such as disperse with bolt power, thus affecting pretensioning effect, and then lead to sealing property bad.In bolt rundown process, make
Tighten what the bolt power of bolt increased, the positive interaction of referred to as elastic interaction, conversely, the negative work of referred to as elastic interaction
With referred to as " positive interaction " and " negative interaction ", negative interaction occurs between the bolt of ortho position.Accordingly, it would be desirable to connect to the bolt of the present invention
The prefastening load of the generation negative interaction in the pretension operating mode of connected components is optimized, for this reason, the present invention provides a kind of optimization bolt
The method of the pretension of coupling assembly, is below introduced.
Fig. 2 is the brief schematic flow sheet of the pretension optimization method of bolt connection assembly of the present invention.The enforcement of the present invention
Example provides a kind of pretension optimization method of bolt connection assembly, in order to the bolt using soft graphite metal wave tooth Composition spacer
The pretension operating mode of flange connection is optimized, specifically, during described connector being tightened using bolt,
The pretightning force of the bolt being affected by elasticity interaction negative interaction is modified.As shown in Fig. 2 described pretension optimization method bag
Include：
S100：Set up finite element analysis model
The parameter of each element and material properties in described bolt connection assembly are inputted in finite element software in a computer,
The non-linear factor relation of comprehensive described bolt connection assembly, sets up three-dimensional described bolt connection assembly finite element analyses mould
Type.
S200：Determine pretension scheme
Determine the pretension scheme of bolt group, including the target load of bolt group, pretension round, load mode and often wheel applying
Prefastening load, and determine the elastic interaction coefficient matrix being made up of correction factor；Can be marked according to ASME PCC-1-2010
Standard is determining the pretension scheme of bolt group.
S300：Determine bolt power change profile figure
In described bolt connection assembly finite element analysis model, during being chosen at pretension, it is subject to elasticity interaction negative interaction
A bolt as reference bolt, for example, first bolt of pretension in the first pretension round, but be not restricted, also may be used
To be other bolts of other rounds etc..Then, the load mode determining is pressed to bolt group according to the target pretension scheme determining
Apply prefastening load, investigate the bolt power situation of change of this reference bolt, obtain the bolt power change profile figure of this reference bolt.
S400：Determine correction factor and optimize
The correction system of elastic interaction coefficient matrix is determined according to the bolt power change profile figure of described reference bolt
Number, revises elastic interaction coefficient matrix to determine, and using this correction elastic interaction coefficient matrix in pretension mistake
Affected by negative interaction in journey and lead to the prefastening load of all bolts in bolt fluctuation change pretension round greatly to carry out
Revise, so that it is determined that required actually applied correction bolt load under pretension condition during pretension.Specifically need to those bolts
Prefastening load be modified, can be determined according to practical situation.In one embodiment of this invention, if often wheel loads, phase
The dispersion of adjacent bolt each bolt in rundown process greater than about 10%～30%, then need this wheel is modified, but simultaneously
It is not limited to this.
In the present invention, finite element analysis model is based on Finite Element Method, using ANSYS software to flange connection
Pretension operating mode carry out finite element modelling, the deformation of flange, bolt and pad and stressing conditions in analysis bolt group rundown process,
May include herein below：
1) flange model, bolt model and shim models are set up respectively, specific model structure is based on the actual spiral shell selected
Bolt flange connection is determining；
2) select the unit of Bolted Flanged Connection structural model：3D solid unit is simulated using Solid185；
Prets179 unit is used to define two-dimentional or three-dimensional pretension section in the structure of gridding；Inter195 unit is used for mould
Intend gasket construction；It is right that the contact area of bolt and flange selects Conta174 to contact with the formation of Targe170 unit.
3) stress and strain model select the material properties of Bolted Flanged Connection structural model：Using 2) in unit model is entered
Row stress and strain model, different position to carry out network division from different units, material properties select the actual bolt selected,
Flange, gasket material；
4) model boundary condition determines with contacting setting：When building model, in order to eliminate the stress for flange for the pipeline
The impact of analysis is it is considered to add duct length L, therefore when analyzing flange structure stress, only constrains the displacement in lowermost end section；This
The outer logarithm that it is thus necessary to determine that implementing in bolt rundown process in Flanged Connection System, upper and lower flange surface is contacted with nut, rub
Wipe coefficient and contact type.
The pretension scheme of bolt group can determine according to ASME PCC-1-2010 standard, you can according to practical situation come root
Determine the target load of bolt group, pretension round, load mode and the pretension load often taking turns applying according to ASME PCC-1-2010 standard
Lotus, and determine the elastic interaction coefficient matrix being made up of correction factor.
By equation below 1, the prefastening load of the bolt being affected by negative interaction during pretension can be modified：
【Formula 1】
[A]n×n{Fi}n×1={ Ff}n×1
Wherein, { Fi}n×1For revising bolt load under pretension condition column matrix；{Ff}n×1For bolt target load matrix；[A]n×n
For revising elastic interaction coefficient matrix；N is number of bolts.
For the different Bolted Flanged Connection structure selecting, elastic interaction coefficient matrix can be different, for example, for passing through
The Bolted Flanged Connection structure that 8,12,16 and 20 bolts are attached, elastic interaction coefficient matrix is respectively：
Wherein, a is correction factor, according to specific Bolted Flanged Connection structure, is determined using above-mentioned optimization method.?
When determining correction factor a, can be according to the bolt power change profile figure of the reference bolt chosen, the neighbour of reference bolt is being tightened in analysis
During the bolt of position, the rapid drawdown amplitude that the bolt power of described reference bolt is occurred is determining.
【Embodiment】
Hereinafter, taking DN50 Bolted Flanged Connection structure as a example, optimization method is tightened to the bolt of the present invention and is introduced.
The first step：Based on Finite Element Method, using ANSYS software, finite element is carried out to the pretension operating mode of flange connection
Simulation, specifically includes：
(1) set up geometric model
1) flange model
It is DN50 according to the flange that HG/T 20592-2009 steel pipe flanges standard is chosen, PN100 convex flange, flange
The concrete size of model is as shown in Figure 3.In Fig. 3 each a size of：1) A=57mm；2) D=195mm；3) K=145mm；4) d=
102mm；5) L=26mm；6) C=28mm；7) N=90mm；8) S=3.2mm；9) H1=10mm；10) H=68mm
2) bolt model：Bolt is M24, and quantity is 8.
3) shim models：Using pad be band positioning earrings soft graphite corrugated serrated compound gasket, with reference to GB/T
19066.1-2008 standard, Composition spacer moulded dimension is as shown in Figure 4.
(2) stress and strain model
Stress and strain model is carried out using Solid185 unit to model, the grid cell a size of 4mm of flange section, bolt/
The grid cell of nut a size of 3mm, the grid cell a size of 2mm of pad, model meshes divide such as Fig. 5 (a) to Fig. 5 (d)
Shown, Fig. 5 (a) is overall structure grid, and Fig. 5 (b) is flange grid, and Fig. 5 (c) is bolt group grid, and Fig. 5 (d) is pad net
Lattice.
(3) material properties divide
The material that flange adopts is rustless steel, the trade mark 316.Stud/nut material is rustless steel 35CrMoA, the property of material
Parameter can be shown in Table 1.Pad parameter is：Graphite linings thickness 1.3mm, ripple tooth depth 0.6mm, ripple tooth width 2.5mm.
Table 1：Flange and the material model of bolt and nut
| Elastic modulus E/MPa | Poisson's ratio μ | Yield limit σs/MPa | |
| Flange | 2.0×105 | 0.3 | 205 |
| Stud/nut | 1.85×105 | 0.3 | 640 |
(4) boundary condition determines with contacting setting
When building model, in order to eliminate pipeline for the impact of the force analysis of flange it is considered to add duct length L,
Therefore when analyzing flange structure stress, the only displacement in constraint lowermost end section, as shown in Figure 6.
Implement in bolt rundown process in Flanged Connection System, upper and lower flange surface is contacted with nut, has 16 groups and connects
It is right to touch, and coefficient of friction is set to 0.3, and contact type is set to rough, as shown in Figure 7.
Second step：According to ASME PCC-1-2010 standard, Flanged Connection System bolt group is carried out with five wheel rundown process real
Apply pretension.Front three-wheel carries out the applying of pretightning force using the bolt group that star is tightened in scheme logarithm value model, and 8 bolt flanges are even
The bolt power applying order of welding system is as shown in Figure 8；Then two-wheeled is implemented to twist to Flanged Connection System using sequentially load mode
Tightly.Pretension round during prefastening load applying and often wheel prefastening load FiAccount for applied target load FtRatio be shown in Table 2.
Table 2
| Round | Prefastening load applies ratio (Fi/Ft) | Loading sequence |
| 1 | 20% 30% | As shown in Figure 7 |
| 2 | 50% 70% | As shown in Figure 7 |
| 3 | 100% | As shown in Figure 7 |
| 4 | 100% | Clockwise (1# → 8#) |
| 5 | 100% | Clockwise (1# → 8#) |
3rd step：Choose 1# bolt in DN50 Bolted Flanged Connection system first run loading procedure as reference bolt and right
Its bolt power is analyzed.The target bolt power that the first run loads is Ft=11kN, and bolt power F1 of 1# bolt, is vertical with F1/Ft
Coordinate, bolt power situation of change under star load mode and sequentially load mode for the 1# bolt is as shown in Figure 9.
As shown in figure 9, when bolt group is tightened using star load mode, bolt power distribution can be divided into four areas
Domain, from a left side to by being divided into region I～IV, region I and region III inner bolt power do not have big fluctuation, and distribution is shallower；Region
II and region IV be bolt power decline region, from tighten bolt numbering, when tighten bolt for 1# about ortho position bolt when, 1#
Bolt all can occur the dip of bolt power, and the range of decrease is more than 35%.
Using when sequentially load mode is tightened, bolt power distribution can be divided into three regions, from left to right to bolt group
Be divided into region I～III, region I and region III be bolt power decline area, region II be bolt power meadow, region I and
The down ratio approximately equal of region III bolt power, about 30%.Due to sequentially load be three wheel star shape loading procedure it
Afterwards, applying ratio is target prefastening load, and force process is relatively steady, each bolt fluctuation very little.Therefore not to sequentially loading
During pretightning force be modified.However, it is possible to be modified to sequentially loading procedure.
Accordingly, it can be determined that the correction factor in star loading procedure is 0.35.
4th step：Correction factor 0.35 is substituted in the elastic interaction coefficient matrix of DN50, formed and revise elasticity interaction system
Matrix number, and according to determine often take turns set by prefastening load, determine pretension prioritization scheme, result using above-mentioned formula 1
As shown in table 3：
Table 3：Pretension prioritization scheme
It should be noted that can be determined based on the Bolted Flanged Connection structure identical optimization method with DN50 specification
The Bolted Flanged Connection structure identical optimization method of DN100, DN200, DN300 specification.
Optimum results sunykatuib analyses
(1) bolt group stress distribution
Carry out bolt group using the pretension operating mode embodiment after optimizing to tighten, this process is simulated by ANSYS, analysis is real
Apply the stress distribution situation of pretension operating mode embodiment rear flange, bolt and the pad of optimization.
Before and after bolt power applies revision of option, take the first round (R1)～the 5th wheel (R5) to load and terminate rear DN50 flange connection
The bolt power of each bolt of system is analyzed.Bolt power under the conditions of former scheme is as shown in Figure 10, and new departure condition
Lower bolt power is as shown in figure 11.Compared by Figure 10 and Figure 11, in front three-wheel loading procedure, new pretension operating mode is implemented
Under scheme, the bolt power of each bolt is different with the regularity of distribution under original scheme, is not " W " shape and the distribution of " N " shape.
New bolt is tightened scheme and has been carried out related correction just for negative interaction, does not add for the positive interaction in bolt loading procedure and repaiies
Just, so because the bolt power that positive interaction effect makes some bolts significantly increases in bolt rundown process, by rear two-wheeled
Sequentially loading procedure, positive interaction is revised, and bolt power distribution tends to be steady, the bolt power distribution obtaining under more former loading scheme
Have and significantly improve.
Under the former loading scheme of relative analyses and new loading scheme, third round loads, to the 5th wheel, the bolt terminating that bolt obtains
The ratio of power meansigma methodss, bolt power meansigma methodss and target bolt power and bolt power dispersion, are shown in Table 4.
The former scheme of table 4 DN50 and new departure Comparative result
By table 4, can be made up by increasing the bolt power being subject to negative interaction often bolt during often wheel loads
Its weakening effect being subject in loading procedure, i.e. the effectiveness of new loading scheme.
(2) gasket stress distribution
Take loading to terminate rear four kinds of sized bolt Flanged Connection System to divide in loading end after the gasket inner side and outer side stress
Cloth analysis bolt tightens pad distribution of contact before and after scheme changes, the such as Figure 12 of the gasket stress distribution under the conditions of former scheme institute
Show, the stress distribution of new departure condition lower gasket is as shown in figure 13.
Before and after contrast loading scheme improves, final distribution of contact Figure 12 obtaining of pad and 13 understands, new departure condition
The uniform contact stress of lower gasket inner side and outer side all acquisitions in circumferential direction, pad in DN50 specification Flanged Connection System
Obtain contact stress and improve 30～40MPa.
Although having been described for the preferred embodiment of the application, those skilled in the art once know basic creation
Property concept, then can make other change and modification to these embodiments.So, claims are intended to be construed to including excellent
Select embodiment and fall into being had altered and changing of the application scope.
Obviously, those skilled in the art can carry out various changes and modification without deviating from this Shen to the embodiment of the present application
Please embodiment spirit and scope.So, if these modifications of the embodiment of the present application and modification belong to the application claim
And its within the scope of equivalent technologies, then the application is also intended to comprise these changes and modification.
Claims (7)
1. a kind of pretension optimization method of bolt connection assembly is it is characterised in that described bolt connection assembly includes two connections
Part, described two connectors are fixedly connected by bolt group, are provided with soft between the contact surface of described two connectors
Property graphite metal corrugated serrated compound gasket, wherein, during described connector being tightened using bolt, to by elasticity
The pretightning force of the bolt of interaction negative interaction impact is modified, and described pretension optimization method includes：
(1) parameter of each element and material properties in described bolt connection assembly are inputted in finite element software in a computer,
The non-linear factor relation of comprehensive described bolt connection assembly, sets up three-dimensional bolt connection assembly finite element analysis model；
(2) determine the pretension scheme of bolt group, including the target load of bolt group, pretension round, load mode and often wheel applying
Prefastening load, and determine the elastic interaction coefficient matrix being made up of correction factor；
(3) in described bolt connection assembly finite element analysis model, during being chosen at pretension, it is subject to elasticity interaction negative interaction
A bolt as reference bolt, the load mode determining is pressed according to the target pretension scheme determining to bolt group and applies pretension
Load, investigates the bolt power situation of change of this reference bolt, obtains the bolt power change profile figure of this reference bolt；
(4) the correction system of elastic interaction coefficient matrix is determined according to the bolt power change profile figure of described reference bolt
Number, revises elastic interaction coefficient matrix to determine, and using this correction elastic interaction coefficient matrix in pretension mistake
Affected by negative interaction in journey and lead to the prefastening load of all bolts in bolt fluctuation change pretension round greatly to carry out
Revise, so that it is determined that required actually applied correction bolt load under pretension condition during pretension.
2. the pretension optimization method of bolt connection assembly according to claim 1 is it is characterised in that spiral shell in reference bolt
Bolt power change profile in figure, when tightening the ortho position bolt of reference bolt, the bolt power of described reference bolt is occurred for analysis
Rapid drawdown amplitude is determining described correction factor.
3. pretension optimization method according to claim 1 is it is characterised in that be subject to during pretension by equation below
Prefastening load to the bolt of negative interaction impact is modified：
[A]n×n{Fi}n×1={ Ff}n×1
Wherein, { Fi}n×1For revising bolt load under pretension condition column matrix；{Ff}n×1For bolt target load matrix；[A]n×nFor repairing
Positive elastic interaction coefficient matrix；N is number of bolts.
4. pretension optimization method according to claim 1 is it is characterised in that so that first tightening bolt during pretension
The referred to as elasticity interaction positive interaction that increases of bolt power, and make the referred to as elastic interaction that the bolt power first tightening bolt reduces
Negative interaction.
5. pretension optimization method according to claim 1 is it is characterised in that determine according to ASMEPCC-1-2010 standard
The pretension scheme of bolt group.
6. pretension optimization method according to claim 1 it is characterised in that described connector be flange, described bolt group
In each bolt include the stud and the nut that cooperate.
7. pretension optimization method according to claim 1 is it is characterised in that the chi of soft graphite metal wave tooth Composition spacer
Very little to choose with reference to GB/T 19066.1-2008 standard.
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| CN110991118B (en) * | 2019-12-30 | 2023-08-25 | 杭州电子科技大学 | Method for designing pretightening force of overhead pipeline bolt based on finite element analysis |
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