CN105441799A - High-toughness and low-yield-ratio quenched and tempered steel plate used in low-temperature environment and manufacturing method of high-toughness and low-yield-ratio quenched and tempered steel plate - Google Patents
High-toughness and low-yield-ratio quenched and tempered steel plate used in low-temperature environment and manufacturing method of high-toughness and low-yield-ratio quenched and tempered steel plate Download PDFInfo
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- CN105441799A CN105441799A CN201510830269.7A CN201510830269A CN105441799A CN 105441799 A CN105441799 A CN 105441799A CN 201510830269 A CN201510830269 A CN 201510830269A CN 105441799 A CN105441799 A CN 105441799A
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22C—ALLOYS
- C22C38/00—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys
- C22C38/12—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys containing tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum, vanadium, or niobium
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C21—METALLURGY OF IRON
- C21D—MODIFYING THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF FERROUS METALS; GENERAL DEVICES FOR HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS METALS OR ALLOYS; MAKING METAL MALLEABLE, e.g. BY DECARBURISATION OR TEMPERING
- C21D8/00—Modifying the physical properties by deformation combined with, or followed by, heat treatment
- C21D8/02—Modifying the physical properties by deformation combined with, or followed by, heat treatment during manufacturing of plates or strips
- C21D8/0221—Modifying the physical properties by deformation combined with, or followed by, heat treatment during manufacturing of plates or strips characterised by the working steps
- C21D8/0226—Hot rolling
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C21—METALLURGY OF IRON
- C21D—MODIFYING THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF FERROUS METALS; GENERAL DEVICES FOR HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS METALS OR ALLOYS; MAKING METAL MALLEABLE, e.g. BY DECARBURISATION OR TEMPERING
- C21D8/00—Modifying the physical properties by deformation combined with, or followed by, heat treatment
- C21D8/02—Modifying the physical properties by deformation combined with, or followed by, heat treatment during manufacturing of plates or strips
- C21D8/0247—Modifying the physical properties by deformation combined with, or followed by, heat treatment during manufacturing of plates or strips characterised by the heat treatment
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22C—ALLOYS
- C22C38/00—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys
- C22C38/02—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys containing silicon
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22C—ALLOYS
- C22C38/00—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys
- C22C38/04—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys containing manganese
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22C—ALLOYS
- C22C38/00—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys
- C22C38/14—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys containing titanium or zirconium
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22C—ALLOYS
- C22C38/00—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys
- C22C38/18—Ferrous alloys, e.g. steel alloys containing chromium
Abstract
The invention discloses a high-toughness and low-yield-ratio quenched and tempered steel plate used in a low-temperature environment. The high-toughness and low-yield-ratio quenched and tempered steel plate comprises, by weight, 0.045-0.068% of C, 0.13-0.25% of Si, 1.55-1.74% of Mn, smaller than or equal to 0.020% of P, smaller than or equal to 0.0015% of S, 0.25-0.33% of Cr, 0.14-0.21% of Cu, 0.18-0.25% of Ni, 0.035-0.044% of Nb, 0.033-0.049% of V, 0.010-0.016% of Ti and the balance Fe and inevitable impurities. The invention further discloses a manufacturing method of the high-toughness and low-yield-ratio quenched and tempered steel plate used in the low-temperature environment. A proper number of alloy elements such as Cu, Cr and Ni are added to the steel plate on the basis of a low-C and high-Mn system, and Nb, V and Ti are adopted for microalloying. Due to a pass reduction schedule and an offline heat treatment regime in the hot rolling process are optimized, quenched and tempered type pipeline steel which is high in low-temperature-environment toughness and low in yield ratio and is used for a straight seam welded pipe is finally obtained.
Description
Technical field
The present invention relates to chemical technology field, refer to it is a kind of low temperature environment high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate and preparation method thereof particularly.
Background technology
Oil, Sweet natural gas are the important energy source of the national economic development, and the proportion in energy expenditure increases day by day.Current Cemented filling is still that oil, Sweet natural gas are the most economical, safety, efficiently long distance delivery mode.Along with Oil And Gas Exploration And Development is to the high latitude, area, the subnival belt iterative method that comprise polar region, the exploitation of low temperature environment middle and long distance transport pipe steel becomes focus.
Low temperature environment middle and long distance line of pipes navigates within complicated geological, the low cold seasonal form of weather condition or long-term type frozen soil layer under artesian condition.The various rock containing ice below frozen soil layer nulling degree Celsius and soil, its strength property is very responsive to temperature.
For the frost-heaving and thawing avoiding frozen soil layer to be brought out by temperature variation, ensure the Transport Safety of frozen soil layer roughing-in, require that the pipe line steel that this region uses has low yield tensile ratio to obtain sufficient deformation nargin.For the conveying of frozen soil layer pipe high-pressure in the urgent need to, it is significant for meeting requirement of engineering that exploitation has the pipe line steel of high strength, high tenacity, low yield strength ratio and good welds performance.
For a long time, the standard of natural-gas transfer pipeline mainly follows the design criteria based on stress, namely requires that the yielding stress that the stress of load generation suffered by guarantee pipeline is less than tubing is multiplied by design ratio.This method of design ensures that the actual bearer ability of pipeline is in the scope of safe and reasonable, for conventional pipeline design effort provides good safety control.
Along with easily exploiting petering out of hydrocarbon resources, exploratory development has started to the high latitude comprising polar region, area, subnival belt iterative method.Low temperature environment middle and long distance line of pipes navigates within the frozen soil layer of complicated geological under artesian condition, and the frozen soil layer Strength Changes caused due to temperature variation likely causes pipe shape to change.According to the design criteria based on stress, when this situation occurs, pipeline bears pressure and is no more than design requirements, but the abnormal deformation of pipeline then likely causes intensity timeliness, brings out security incident.Therefore, for ensureing the Transport Safety containing permafrost region roughing-in, require that pipe line steel must have low yield tensile ratio on the basis with excellent obdurability simultaneously, thus ensure that pipeline has sufficient deformation nargin.
Conventional high-strength line-pipe steel all adopts TMCP technology to produce, and namely adopts two benches controlled rolling technology to be rolled, and controls by speed of cooling the tissue obtaining design.The method can obtain the phase-change organization of refinement by improving cooling rate, and remains the high dislocation density produced in the operation of rolling, is easier to the pipe line steel obtaining high-intensity performance.But the pipe line steel yield tensile ratio that the method is produced is higher, and also present increase trend along with the rising yield tensile ratio of intensity.High yield tensile ratio means that steel carries out the ability reduction of viscous deformation more than yield-point, is not suitable for the requirement based on stress design criterion.
Through retrieval, application number is that the modified Pipeline Steel Plate that CN201110150172, CN20110328126, CN201310183600, CN20130733707, CN201410665149 relate to adopts Ni+Mo or Ni+Mo+B system, and production cost is higher.The steel plate that above-mentioned patent relates to all adopts plate of moderate thickness or individual production of wide and heavy plate mill, and its production efficiency is lower, and steel plate thickness precision controlling level is lower.
Summary of the invention
Object of the present invention will provide a kind of low temperature environment high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate and preparation method thereof exactly, and the present invention adopts reasonable component design and fabrication technology, and the steel plate developed has excellent low temperature obdurability and low yield strength ratio performance.
For achieving the above object, the high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate of low temperature environment provided by the invention, is characterized in that: its chemical component weight per-cent is: C:0.045-0.068%; Si:0.13-0.25%; Mn:1.55-1.74%; P≤0.020%; S≤0.0015%; Cr:0.25-0.33%; Cu:0.14-0.21%; Ni:0.18-0.25%; Nb:0.035-0.044%; V:0.033-0.049%; Ti:0.010-0.016%; Other is Fe and inevitable impurity.
Preferably, the high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate of low temperature environment provided by the invention, is characterized in that: its chemical component weight per-cent is: C:0.052%; Si:0.18%; Mn:1.65%; P:0.019%; S:0.0013%; Cr:0.28%; Cu:0.18%; Ni:0.22%; Nb:0.042%; V:0.038%; Ti:0.015%; Other is Fe and inevitable impurity.
The present invention also provides a kind of and prepares the method for above-mentioned low temperature environment with high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate, it is characterized in that: the key process parameter of the method controls as follows:
(1) slab reheating temperature is 1160-1190 DEG C, and roughing finishing temperature is 1010-1030 DEG C, and rough rolling step tires out draft >=80%, and finish rolling finishing temperature is 850-880 DEG C, and coilcooling mode is air cooling;
(2) coils of hot-rolled steel is through opening Heisei hot-rolled steel sheet, and it adopts quenching and average tempering technique to obtain quenching and tempering type steel plate;
(3) quenching temperature is 880-910 DEG C, Quenching Soaking Time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t, and tempering temperature is 505-545 DEG C, tempering insulation time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t; Described t is thickness of slab, unit mm;
(4) organization type of hardened and tempered steel plate is tempering bainite+quasi-polygonal ferrite+M/A island;
(5) low temperature environment of employing mentioned component and explained hereafter by high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate mechanical property is: the yield strength >=450MPa of hardened and tempered steel plate, tensile strength >=550MPa, yield tensile ratio≤0.85,-40 DEG C of ballistic work KV2 >=320J ,-20 DEG C of drop weight tearing toughness SA >=90%.
Further, in described (1), slab reheating temperature is 1165 DEG C, and roughing finishing temperature is 1020 DEG C, and rough rolling step tires out draft 84%, and finish rolling finishing temperature is 880 DEG C, and coilcooling mode is air cooling;
In described (2), coils of hot-rolled steel is through opening Heisei hot-rolled steel sheet, and it adopts quenching and average tempering technique to obtain quenching and tempering type steel plate;
In described (3), quenching temperature is 885 DEG C, Quenching Soaking Time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t, and tempering temperature is 520 DEG C, tempering insulation time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t; Described t is thickness of slab, unit mm.
The present invention ensures that the low temperature environment performance of high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate reaches goal of the invention, and in chemical composition design process, emphasis considers following factor: strength property, low-temperature flexibility and the impact on organization type.According to the factor of this three aspect in detail the effect of each element and the reason of limited amount in the present invention are described in detail below:
Carbon C:C is basic, the most most economical strengthening element, is effectively improved the intensity of steel by solution strengthening and precipitation strength.Not obvious to the intensity effect of steel when C content is too low, then can reduce the plasticity of steel, toughness and weldability when content is too high, and the banded structure rank in steel can be increased the weight of.In the present invention, the content of C controls as 0.040-0.070% (weight percentage, following element is identical).
Silicon Si:Si mainly improves the intensity of steel with solution strengthening form, be also the deoxidant element in steel, but when content is too low, strengthening effect is not obvious simultaneously, unfavorable to the toughness of steel again during too high levels.In the present invention, the content of Si controls as 0.12-0.27%.
Manganese Mn:Mn is solution strengthening element important in steel, can expand austenite phase transformation district, is conducive to obtaining tiny low temperature phase change product, improves the low-temperature flexibility of steel.In the present invention, the content of Mn controls as 1.53-1.74%.
Chromium Cr:Cr can improve hardening capacity and the intensity of steel effectively, suppresses low intensive polygonal ferrite and perlite to produce, promotes the middle temperature transformation of tissue.Test of many times causes the impelling strength of steel obviously to decline after finding that Cr content is more than 0.33%.Therefore, in the present invention, Cr content controls at 0.23-0.33%.
Copper Cu, nickel: copper add intensity and the erosion resistance that can be improved steel alloy by the mode of solution strengthening, increase the hardening capacity of steel simultaneously.In order to avoid the hot-short phenomenon caused due to the segregation of copper, add the Ni of corresponding proportion to reduce the segregation of Cu, and improve the hardening capacity of steel further.Therefore, Cu0.14-0.21% in the present invention; Ni0.17-0.25%.
Niobium Nb:Nb has strong Grain Refinement Effect, produces solute drageffect by enrichment near austenite grain boundary, hinders the process of growing up of austenite crystal.By the abundant deformation in recrystallize stage, the austenite of fine uniform can be obtained, thus be conducive to refinement and the homogenizing of modified rear phase-change organization.Nb element has precipitation strength effect to a certain degree simultaneously, is conducive to the strength level of raising steel and improves yield tensile ratio.In the present invention, Nb content controls as 0.035-0.045%.
Vanadium V, titanium Ti:V and Ti are important microalloy elements.V can supplement the deficiency of Nb precipitation strength in steel, improves the yield tensile ratio level of quenched and tempered steel.Ti forms TiN in smelting process, avoids free atom N to weaken the toughness of steel.Meanwhile, TiN particle can hinder the alligatoring of austenite crystal in heat-processed, thus the phase-change product of refinement steel, improve the toughness of steel and heat affected zone thereof.Add appropriate Ti in addition and also help lend some impetus to Nb performance solid solution strengthening effect.In the present invention, V content controls as 0.03-0.05%, Ti content controls as 0.010-0.016%.
Phosphorus P, sulphur S:P can reduce the low-temperature flexibility of steel, worsen welding property, and P easily segregation in steel, promote the generation of banded structure.S easily and Mn form strip MnS and be mingled with, affect low-temperature flexibility and the corrosion resistance characteristic of steel.Therefore, the content that the present invention should reduce P, S is as far as possible to reduce its disadvantageous effect to steel, and the content of P controls as P≤0.020%, and the content of S controls as S≤0.0015%.
Advantage of the present invention is as follows: the steel plate in the present invention, on the basis of low C height Mn system, by with the addition of the alloying elements such as appropriate Cu, Cr, Ni, adopts Nb, V, Ti to carry out microalloying.By optimizing passage reduction schedule and off-line heat treating regime in hot rolling process, final acquisition has the longitudinal welded pipe quenching and tempering type pipe line steel of superior low-temperature environment obdurability and low yield strength ratio.
The production process route that the present invention adopts controlled rolling-roll bending Kai Ping-off-line modified, refinement and the homogenizing that recrystallize realizes austenite crystal is made full use of in the controlled rolling stage, and then impel the tiny of Quench and temper stage phase-change product and many distribution of orientations, improve obdurability and the anisotropy of quenched and tempered steel.By optimizing hardening and tempering process, adding the hard phase MA tissue that a certain amount of hardening capacity element can obtain small and dispersed, can not disappear at this tissue of tempering stage, and the carbide morphology in quenching structure changing, comprehensively improve obdurability and the yield tensile ratio of steel.Meanwhile, a large amount of disperse educts of microalloy element, while raising hardness of steel, effectively can improve the yield tensile ratio of steel, and can not cause the deterioration of its low-temperature flexibility.
The Pipeline Steel Plate mechanical property that the present invention relates to is: yield strength >=450MPa, tensile strength >=550MPa, yield tensile ratio≤0.85 ,-40 DEG C of ballistic work KV2 >=320J ,-20 DEG C of drop weight tearing toughness SA >=90%.The organization type of the Pipeline Steel Plate that the present invention relates to is tempering bainite+quasi-polygonal ferrite+M/A island.
Embodiment
Below in conjunction with specific embodiment, the present invention is described in further detail.
Table 1 is the value list of various embodiments of the present invention and comparative example;
Table 2 is the main technologic parameters list of various embodiments of the present invention and comparative example;
Table 3 is various embodiments of the present invention and the list of comparative example mechanics properties testing situation;
Various embodiments of the present invention are produced according to following steps:
(1) slab reheating temperature is 1160-1190 DEG C, and roughing finishing temperature is 1010-1030 DEG C, and rough rolling step tires out draft >=80%, and finish rolling finishing temperature is 850-880 DEG C, and coilcooling mode is air cooling.
(2) coils of hot-rolled steel is through opening Heisei hot-rolled steel sheet, and it adopts quenching and average tempering technique to obtain quenching and tempering type steel plate.
(3) quenching temperature is 880-910 DEG C, Quenching Soaking Time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t (t is thickness of slab, unit mm, lower same), and tempering temperature is 505-545 DEG C, tempering insulation time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t.
Table 1 various embodiments of the present invention and compared steel chemical composition (wt%)
The main processes of table 2 embodiment of the present invention and comparative example
Table 3 various embodiments of the present invention and the list of comparative example mechanical property
From table 3 data, the mechanical property performance of the embodiment of the present invention is all better than comparative example.
The Pipeline Steel Plate mechanical property that the present invention relates to is: yield strength >=450MPa, tensile strength >=550MPa, yield tensile ratio≤0.85 ,-40 DEG C of ballistic work KV2 >=320J ,-20 DEG C of drop weight tearing toughness SA >=90%.
Above-described embodiment is only the best and exemplifies, and is not the restriction to embodiments of the present invention.In addition to the implementation, the present invention also has other embodiments.All employings are equal to the technical scheme of replacement or equivalent transformation formation, all drop on the protection domain of application claims.
Claims (4)
1. the high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate of low temperature environment, is characterized in that: its chemical component weight per-cent is: C:0.045-0.068%; Si:0.13-0.25%; Mn:1.55-1.74%; P≤0.020%; S≤0.0015%; Cr:0.25-0.33%; Cu:0.14-0.21%; Ni:0.18-0.25%; Nb:0.035-0.044%; V:0.033-0.049%; Ti:0.010-0.016%; Other is Fe and inevitable impurity.
2. the high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate of low temperature environment, is characterized in that: its chemical component weight per-cent is: C:0.052%; Si:0.18%; Mn:1.65%; P:0.019%; S:0.0013%; Cr:0.28%; Cu:0.18%; Ni:0.22%; Nb:0.042%; V:0.038%; Ti:0.015%; Other is Fe and inevitable impurity.
3. prepare the method for low temperature environment as claimed in claim 1 or 2 with high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate, it is characterized in that: the key process parameter of the method controls as follows:
(1) slab reheating temperature is 1160-1190 DEG C, and roughing finishing temperature is 1010-1030 DEG C, and rough rolling step tires out draft >=80%, and finish rolling finishing temperature is 850-880 DEG C, and coilcooling mode is air cooling;
(2) coils of hot-rolled steel is through opening Heisei hot-rolled steel sheet, and it adopts quenching and average tempering technique to obtain quenching and tempering type steel plate;
(3) quenching temperature is 880-910 DEG C, Quenching Soaking Time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t, and tempering temperature is 505-545 DEG C, tempering insulation time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t; Described t is thickness of slab, unit mm;
(4) organization type of hardened and tempered steel plate is tempering bainite+quasi-polygonal ferrite+M/A island;
(5) low temperature environment of employing mentioned component and explained hereafter by high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate mechanical property is: the yield strength >=450MPa of hardened and tempered steel plate, tensile strength >=550MPa, yield tensile ratio≤0.85,-40 DEG C of ballistic work KV2 >=320J ,-20 DEG C of drop weight tearing toughness SA >=90%.
4. the low temperature environment according to claim 3 method of high tough low yield strength ratio hardened and tempered steel plate, is characterized in that:
In described (1), slab reheating temperature is 1165 DEG C, and roughing finishing temperature is 1020 DEG C, and rough rolling step tires out draft 84%, and finish rolling finishing temperature is 880 DEG C, and coilcooling mode is air cooling;
In described (2), coils of hot-rolled steel is through opening Heisei hot-rolled steel sheet, and it adopts quenching and average tempering technique to obtain quenching and tempering type steel plate;
In described (3), quenching temperature is 885 DEG C, Quenching Soaking Time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t, and tempering temperature is 520 DEG C, tempering insulation time 1.5-1.8min/mm × t; Described t is thickness of slab, unit mm.
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Cited By (8)
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| CN106191690A (en) * | 2016-07-22 | 2016-12-07 | 柳州科尔特锻造机械有限公司 | A kind of high-strength alloy steel heat treatment process |
| CN106367685A (en) * | 2016-08-30 | 2017-02-01 | 江阴兴澄特种钢铁有限公司 | X80 and below steel grade pipeline steel for deep-sea drilling marine riser and preparation method thereof |
| CN109628832A (en) * | 2018-12-28 | 2019-04-16 | 首钢集团有限公司 | A kind of pipe fitting high-strength tenacity steel plate and its manufacturing method that pole low temperature environment is on active service |
| CN110842484A (en) * | 2019-11-28 | 2020-02-28 | 河北恒通管件集团有限公司 | Process for manufacturing hot-pressing low-temperature tee joint by utilizing X60 steel plate |
| CN113106346A (en) * | 2021-04-12 | 2021-07-13 | 达力普石油专用管有限公司 | High-strength seamless line pipe and preparation method thereof |
| EP3878996A4 (en) * | 2018-11-08 | 2022-01-05 | Posco | High strength steel plate for structure with good seawater corrosion resistant property and method of manufacturing same |
| CN114875297A (en) * | 2022-05-13 | 2022-08-09 | 张家港宏昌钢板有限公司 | Production method of fatigue-resistant steel plate with ultimate specification and low yield ratio |
| CN114892081A (en) * | 2022-04-28 | 2022-08-12 | 湖南华菱湘潭钢铁有限公司 | Large-thickness 460 MPa-grade steel plate with excellent low-temperature toughness for ocean engineering and production method thereof |
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| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
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| CN106191690A (en) * | 2016-07-22 | 2016-12-07 | 柳州科尔特锻造机械有限公司 | A kind of high-strength alloy steel heat treatment process |
| CN106367685A (en) * | 2016-08-30 | 2017-02-01 | 江阴兴澄特种钢铁有限公司 | X80 and below steel grade pipeline steel for deep-sea drilling marine riser and preparation method thereof |
| CN106367685B (en) * | 2016-08-30 | 2018-08-07 | 江阴兴澄特种钢铁有限公司 | The effective X80 of deep-sea drilling water proof and following Grade Pipeline Steel and preparation method thereof |
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| CN110842484A (en) * | 2019-11-28 | 2020-02-28 | 河北恒通管件集团有限公司 | Process for manufacturing hot-pressing low-temperature tee joint by utilizing X60 steel plate |
| CN113106346A (en) * | 2021-04-12 | 2021-07-13 | 达力普石油专用管有限公司 | High-strength seamless line pipe and preparation method thereof |
| CN114892081A (en) * | 2022-04-28 | 2022-08-12 | 湖南华菱湘潭钢铁有限公司 | Large-thickness 460 MPa-grade steel plate with excellent low-temperature toughness for ocean engineering and production method thereof |
| CN114875297A (en) * | 2022-05-13 | 2022-08-09 | 张家港宏昌钢板有限公司 | Production method of fatigue-resistant steel plate with ultimate specification and low yield ratio |
| CN114875297B (en) * | 2022-05-13 | 2023-08-18 | 张家港宏昌钢板有限公司 | Production method of fatigue-resistant limit-specification low-yield-ratio steel plate |
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