CA1288723C - Electronic decomposition of water into free radicals and free electrons withsemiconductor anode - Google Patents

Abstract

ABSTRACT OF THE DISCLOSURE

An apparatus and method for the electronic decomposition of water into its component free radical parts and free electrons. In a cell containing an aqueous fluid, an electromotive force is applied to a positive charge storage core, insulated with semi-conductive material, and a conducting cathodic connector having a limited electrolysis bridge there-between thereby inducing the formation of an aqueous condenser, the anodic section of which consists of the positive charge storage core insulated with the semi-conductive material. The formed aqueous condenser is subjected to overpotentials at which the dielectric breakdown of water occurs. The free radicals produced by such dielectric decomposition serve to treat most dissolved, suspended or precipitate substances in solution by oxidation/reduction reactions. The in-situ treatment process employs relatively low voltages and very low current intensities and is applicable in the treatment of varous aqueous fluid such as raw sewage, without the use of chemical additives.

Description

3L~31!3~7;~3 This apparatus and method involve the electronic generation of free radicals directly from water, or alternately from the waters of an aqueous fluid, the contents of which are required to be treated by oxidation/reduction reactions.
Aqueous free radicals are universally regarded as highly reactive reagents, useful in a wide variety of oxidation/reduction reactions. The most notable application of such free radical reactions to date is in wastewater treatment. These radicals have a potentially broader area of application for such purposes as desalination of water, the recovering of oxide ores from complex minerals in solution, water treatment in general and a host of other applications involving the chemical breakdown of suspended and/or dissolved mineral and organic compounds.
Aqueous ree radicals are generally classified into two groups commonly referred to as primary free radicals and secondary free radicals. The primary free radicals include only the OH and H free radicals. The secondary free radicals include the 0 radical and its variants. These variants comprise free radical complexes produced by the spontaneous combination of the free radicals with water or with each okher. The basic family of aqueous free radicals include H, OH, H202, H02, H30, and 25 03 radicals. Other complex variants are known to , , ; :

. ~ .. ~ , ~2~ 3 exist. The H and H30 radicals are regarded as weak reducing agents, while all other o the radicals are regarded as strong oxidizing agents.
These free radicals act to dismantle comple~ organic and mineral substances contained or dissolved in solution into constituents having insufficient chemical energy to react further with water. Such constituents are generally of the form of simple oxides, peroxides, hydroxides and the like, including also water and gases. With the e~ception of some of the gases formed, the constituents are passive, generally insoluble in water, and are therefore environmentally stable. Many of the reactions proceed by auto-oxidation through a free radical chain reaction mode resulting in an automatic recovery of the reagent radicals.
Such recovered radicals continue to react with reactants in solution, freely complimenting the efficiency of the process. Free radicals usually react rapidly with the reactant materials and any e~cess radicals recombine to form water. Thus, free radicals provide a viable alternative to the use of chemical reagents in many treatment processes.
The difficulty posed until now for the generation of aqueous free radicals has been the requirement for high energy systems. Previously known methods for generating aqueous free radicals include the use of ultrasonic oscillation, gamma irradiation, high intensity ultraviolet ~2~ 3 light and high voltage electrical discharge. With the exception of the ultraviolet method, which has already seen limited use ln wastewater treatment, such high energy methods have not had any practical implications.
According to the invention, an aqueous fluid containing dissolved and/or suspended reactants is subjected to oxidation/reduction treatment by aqueous free radicals in a suitable containment vessel or process cell.
The vessel is equipped with a specialized anodic charge condenser assem~ly and a cathodic connector grid, the means through which the process cell is electrically energized.
Direct current electrical energy is provided by a suitable power source. The anodic charge condenser assembly includes a semi-conductive material in contact with the aqueous fluid and includes means for restricting electrical continuity with the aqueous fluid.
A portion of the cell is devised to operate as a simple parallel-plate electrical charge condenser which serves to decompose water into aqueous free radicals and free electrons. The remaining portion of the process cell is devised to operate as an electrolysis bridge and serve~s as a mode for conducting electrical energy. The electrolysis bridge forms part of the circuit employed in energizing the process cell.
Free radicals are generated in the process cell by , ~ ., ~8~;~3 forrning in the cell a condenser similar to an electrical charge condenser which is being subjected to an electrical overload. Such an electrical overload, referred to hereinafter as "overpotential", results in the molecular breakdown of the dielectric mass or the condenser, the nature of which is duplicated in the present process cell to generate free radicals.
The formed condenser consists of the specifically devised anodic charge condenser assembly and an opposing electrically induced aqueous cathodic charge condenser plane. The electrically induced aqueous cathodic charge plane forms extremely close to the surface of the anodic charge condenser assembly creating a dielectric space of a size equivalent to that of only one or two molecules of water. Solution waters thereby act as the dielectric material and occupy the dielectric space of the condenser so formed. The extremely close spacing of the charged condenser surfaces allows for condenser overpotential to be achieved at low input voltages. When the potential applied to the process cell is such that overpotential for the Eoxmed condenser is achieved or e~ceeded, dielectric decompositin of the water in the dielectric space occurs, resulting in the formation of aqueous free radicals and the liberation of electrons. Primary free radicals are formed 2~ from individual molecules of water in accordance wit~l the mass/energy balance H20 + 12.6 eV/molecule ----- H + 0 + le- (1) where the 12.6 eV represents the standard ionization potential of one molecule of water.
The primary OH~ radical is also formed when any 37~3 available OH- ion is electronically discharyed in accordance with the mass/energy balance OH- t 13.17 eV/molecule ---~ OH ~ le- (2) where the 13.17 eV represents the standard ionization potential of one molecule of OH- ion.
Secondary O radicals are predictably yenerated at slightly higher input voltages in accordance with the following mass/energy balance.
H20 ~ 30.854 3V/molecule ----~ 0 + H2 (3) where the 30.854 eV represents the total ionization energy required to separate the component hydrogen (H2 ), or alternatively 15.437 eV per atom of hydrogen, which represents the standard ionization potential of molecular hydrogen.
The products of formula (1) above are detectable and are confirmed ~y a measurable pH rise in the solution being treated and by the measured effects of oxidation/reduction reactions on the solution, both of which are cited in Example 6. The poducts of (2) above are predicted on the basis of applica~le physical laws, bUt are not differentiable from other OH being formed in the process.
The products of (3) above are also preducted and are detectable through the presence of ozone odour.
The formed condenser functions at low energy input through the use of a special anodic charge condenser assembly ,, ~l2~3~37;; :~

comprising either an insulated highly conductive core or an uninsulated high resistance core. The core of an anodic condenser assembly comprising a highly conductive material is both insulated from the aqueous fluid and electrically biased in a manner which greatly suppresses normal electrol~tic exchanges and their associated energy losses related to the for~ation of H2 and 2 gases. Suppression of such energy loss is essential in conserving the energy required to build a useful overpotential charge on the formed condenser. A
tolerable level of electrolysis is allowed to continue in the process to serve as a built-in electrical bridge convenient in energizing the process cell. This electrolytic bridge provides the means by which the agueous cathodic charge plane is first induced to form. This brid~e also serves as the resistance in the cell circuit by which excess electrical charges are diverted to that portion of the formed condenser which is devised to generate free radicals.
The conductive core of the anodic charge condenser assembly is insulated from the aqueous fluid by a p-type semi-conductive covering material having an energy gap greater than 1.23 eV. Such insulation effectively blocks out normal electrolytic exchanges by acting as a barrier against the transfer of the low energy electrons (1/23 eV) essential for the electrolysis of water. More concisely, the insulative quality of the semi-conductive material prevents .,~ ., ~IL2~

the type of anodic contact conductivity that is essential to the electrolysis of water. Instead the p-function of the semi-conductive matsrial provides an electronic, or arc-di~charge type of conductivity which permits only the transfer of higher energy electrons liberated during the generation of the free radicals (minimum 12.6 eV). Such prevention of contact conductivity and the associated rapid energy losses to electrolysis results in the economical build-up of overpotential charges on the formed condenser.
As the radicals are formed (at the identified ionization potentials), the liberated electrons are accelerated through ntermolecular space, in the forrn of a molecular-sized arc, into the positively charged holes of the semi-conductive material. Such free electrons are then transrnitted to the conductive core of the anodic condenser assembly and ultimately dissipated to ground either by a direct grounding circuit or through the internal shunt of the power supply employed in energi~ing the cell.
The minimum input voltages required to energize the cell and to charge the aqueous condenser to the overpotentials at which free radicals are ormed are determined by the application of Kirchhoff's Second Law, which justifies that the input voltage must be equal to the sum of all back EMF's (or voltage losses) encountered in the internal circuit of the cell. Given then that the minimum 12~

insulative energy gap of the semi~conductive insulation is greater than 1.23 eV, and that the natural back EMF o water is o.4V (constant), the minimum input voltage for the generation of prima~y free radicals OH and H from water is 0.4 V ~ >1.23 eV/e + 12.6 eV~e =~ 14.23 V, and for the generation of primary radical OH from OH
ion is 0.4 V ~ >1.23 eV/e + 13.17 eV/e = ~14.80 V, and for the generation of secondary radical 0 from water through separation of the hydrogen component is 0.4 V + ~1.23 eV/e + 15.427 eV/e = >17.057 V
As discussed, electrolytic ac-tivity of tolerable and useful levels is essential to the process. Such electrolysis serves as a conductive bridge and is introduced into and maintained in the circuuit by means of a suitable contact conductive bias built into the otherwise insulative p-type covering on the anodic charge condenser plate. Functional built-in bias is afforded by any material which offers the type of contact conductivity essential to the electrolysis of water. The built-in bias may be achieved by: mixing or doping the coating material with an n-type semi-conductive material of any energy gap; mixing in or doping with other p-type semi-conductive material having an energy gap less than 1.23 eV, the inclusion of high resistance contact conductivity points suitably distributed over the area of the anodic condenser assembly; or, by the inclusion of pores in having the coating material permitting contact conductivity but restrictive as to the amount of electrolytic activity they will permit. The employment of a semi-conductive material offering both p and n functions serves as a convenient insulator by providing its own natrual contact conductivity bias. Silicon dioxide (Si02 ) is one of such materials which offer bOth functions at an energy gap greater than 1.23 eV and also a favourable proportion of p-function (approximately 20% p and 80% n by nature). Silicon dio~ide (sio2~) is used in the examples of this invention, but other natural or synthetic materials having the appropriate electronic and electrochemical properties may be used.
The tolerable level of the electrolysis and therefore the total electrical contact bias area of the electrolysis section is governed by the amount of dissolved salts (and/or acids) in the cell ~luid. Dissolved slats and acids tend to make the fluid more conductive through the development of independent ionic bridges resulting in accelerated electrolytic activity. Such highly conductive ~ridging results in undesirable energy losses to electrolysis and tends to discharge or otherwise prevent the adequate electrical charging of the all important aqueous condenser. The inclusion of such ionic bridging, as encountered in the ,, .;

~Z~B~3 process of desalination, must be compensated for by suita~ly proportional reduct ion of contact conductivity bias area relative to the concentration of ionic substances in the cell ~luid. The anodic condenser assembly is extremely effective for the removal of salt (NaCl) from salt solution because it presents only the contact conductivity available from the n-function of the SiO2 bed. THe total electrolysis is therefore limited to the electrical capacity of the semi-conductivity of the electrolysis bridge.
Anodic charge condenser assemblies can be made with cores of suitable conductive material. Where the cores comprise purely conductive or electrochemically soluble metals, total isolation of the cores from contact with cell fluids is very essential. Imperfect isolation of such metallic cores results in rapid electrolysis which short-circuits the electrical power required to drive the aqueous condenser to overpotential, thereby also preventing the generation of free radicals. Paraffin wax is one example of a material suitable for isolating a conductive core. The use of electrochemically oxidizable metals, such as lead, which can form an impervious and insoluble oxide coating which is also semi-conductive, and with the appropriate electrical . .

:
properties, requires less attention to isolation. Anodic condenser assemblies may also comprises uninsulated cores of electrochemically stable materials having high electrical resistance.
When the core of the anodic condenser assembly consists of carbon or graphitel total isolation Erom contact with cell fluids is not essential for low-salt solutions. Graphite naturally develops an extremely high surface resistance to electrical conductivity when employed in the anodic capacity during aqueous submersion. The amount o contact conductivity and electrolysis offered by graphite (carbon) is sufficiently low and therefore tolerable in the make-up of an anodic condenser assembly for applications other than desalination. A covering bed of loose granular semi-conductive material placed over a graphite core results in a very functional condenser assembly.
In the make-up of any anodic charge condenser assembly, each granule of the semi-conductive material acts independently to form a miniature aqueous condenser capable of generating free radicals while submerged and in the presence of an electrical field having the required overpotential qualities. The overall productivity of free radicals according to this invention is therefore determined by the particle or granule size of the semi-conductive ~ .

~2aB~7~3 material employed and also the depth to which it is applied. Productivity is also governed by the electron/hole mobility of the semi-conductive materials employed.
Input current and wattage are therefore also governed by the electron/hole mobility, the energy gap, and the particle or granule size of the semi-conductive material employed, and the d~pth to which it is applied. Each anodic condenser assembly therefore has its own characteristic electrical properties. The anodic condenser assembly used in current capacity of 0.0025 amperes per square inch of active surface. At 14.5 V applied potential the energy demand for the cell discussed in Examples 6 and 7 averaged 0.03625 watts per square inch. This input is considerably less than the minimum 10.5 watts per square inch required to generate free radicals from pure water by overpotentials applied to a normal electrolytic cell containing platinum electrodes.
A functional semi-conductive bed can therefore be of any depth, placed loosely, or bound into a porous matrix with suitable cementitious materials. Silica Elour and colloidal silica (being compatible with SiO2 ), are examples of such cementitious materials. The energized porous bed can ~e extended dimensionally to act as a treatment filter, as can ~e employed as one method of treating solutions in a flow-through condition.

The useful radicals generated in this invention carry zero charge. They are thereore not affected by the presence of elec~rical f ields and disperse f reely into the cell fluid. The free dispersion of the radicals permits an unlimited flexibility in the size, configuration, and orientation of both the cathodic connector and the anodic condenser assembly and the multiplicity of each and the spacing thereof. The containment vessel can therefore also have any size and configuration suitable for a holding tank (for static treatment requirements) or any size or configuration appropriate to an open or enclosed conduit for the treatment of a flowing stream. The process is therefore relatively independent of sizes, configurations, and orientations.
Because of the corrosive nature of the process, all components of the apparatus that are in contact with the cell fluid must be slected carefully. All materials employed must be insoluble, electrochemically stable and as non-reactive as possible with the free radicals or the contents of the ~luid. Corrosion of the cathodic connector ~rid (not encountered in normal electrolysis~ is very extensive under the attack of the OH radical especially if the connector is made of metal rated high in the electromotive series, such as the aluminum cited in Example 1. Metallic cathodic connectors employed should therefore be selected from, or at least p~otected by, metals rated at the lowest o~der of the electromotive series. Alternatively, protection can also ~e provided ~y semi-conductive coating adapted to provide a total electrical conductivity bias in the anodic condenser assembly. Conductive non-metals such as carbon may also be employed as cathodic connectors.
It is predicted that the process and apparatus will operate most efficiently within the voltage range in which the primary free radicals H and 0~ are generated. Higher voltage ranges simply result in the formation of the 0 free radical together with H 2 gas. The H2 gas has no practical value in the process and the associated higher voltage levels result in a less efficient use of the available energyO However, there is theoretical upper limit to the applied voltage. A wide variety of materials, configurations and sizes are possi~le in the construction of the anodic condenser assembly and also for the cathodic connector and the process vessel.
The apparatus and process of the invention can be employed in, but are not necessarily limited to: raw water and wastewater treatment; the removal of toxic metals and reagents from water; the recovery of valuahle metal oxides from natural minerals placed in aqueous solution or suspension; the desalination of brackish and salt waters;
and the general demineralization and decontamination of water to i ~

. ~'''" .

12~387Z~
provide potable and environmentally clean water while harvesting the valua~le by-product gases, metal oxides, peroxides, hydroxides, etc. The removal of the by-products of the process can be done by conventional means and, as such, does not form part of the instant process and apparatus FIGURE 1 is a schematic representation of a cell according to the invention;
FIGURE 2 through 5 are fragmentary cross-sectional schematic views o anodic condenser assemblies usable in the invention; and FIG~RE 6 is a graph of the results obtained in Example 6.
FIGURE 1 is a schematic representation of a speciEic process cell according to the invention. T~e two electrically motivated cooperating processes occurring simultaneously in the cell are, for the sake of clarity, shown as being separated within the cell. The electrolytic process, which serves to provide a conductive bridge in the energizing circuit, is presented on the schematic as the ELECTROL~SIS SECTION. The process of electronic decomposition of water into free radicals and free electrons is presented in the CONDENSER SECTION.
For the purpose of direct comparison to the cell employed in the controlled tests of Examples 6 and 7 and for the purpose of examining the relative electrical efficiency , .,~, .

~38~23 of a particular cell, the schematic representation is shown to contain an anodic condenser assembly having 80~ of its active surface inthe form of n-type contact conductivity bias which supports electrolysis, and 20% as p-type arc bias which supports the generation of free radicals. The minimum energy gap of greater than 1.23 eV is assigned to the p type arc bias. Although not absolutely necessary, except for the sake of comparison, the schematic also assumes an identical energy gap for the n-type contact bias.
A vessel 10 is provided containing an aqueous fluid stock 12 which flows through the vessel or remains static and which further contains undefined suspended and/or dissolved substances. The vessel 10 itself is provided with a bare metal wire-mesh cathodic connector grid 14 immersed in the cell fluid 12, forming thereby a wet connection with the fluid 12. The fluid 12 being electrochemically conductive, is further connected to the anodic condenser assembly 16 through the n-type contact conductivity biases symbolized by the upright pyramids 18. The 1uid which occupies ths space between the cathodic connector grid 14 and the anodic condenser assembly 16, being electrochemcially conductive, i~
hereinafter referre~ to as the electrolysis bridge.
The cathodic connector grid 14 and the anodic condenser assembly 16 are connected by suitable electrical wiring to a direct current power supply 20. The cathodic ~8~3~23 connector grid 14 is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply 20 while the anodic condenser assembly 16 is connected to the positive terminal. The anodic condenser assembly 16 is also connected to ground 22, or is otherwise grounded through the internal shunt of the power supply 20 if it is so equipped.
Allowing that the power supply 20 employed is internally shunted, and is pre-set at slightly higher input levels of current and voltage than is characteristic of the particular anodic condenser assembly 16, an electromotive force is applied to the cell and an electrical current is permitted to flow through the whole of the circuit which includes the cell~ The pre-set input voltage automatically adjusts downward to the level of the total back EMF offered by the cell when dielectric decomposition of water commences. The excess of the pre-set voltage and current are dissipated through the internal shunt of the power supply The input potential thus establishes itself as equivalent to the total of back EMFS in the ELECTROLYSIS SECTION as tabulated along line A. The input potential thus also establishes itself as equivalent to the total of back EMFs in the CONDENSER SECTION as tabulated along line B. The input voltage on the ELECTROLYSIS SECTION is also equal to the input on the CONDENSER SECTION. The input current adjusts automatically to the full current carrying capacity of the ~, . . .

anodic condenser assembly 16 relative to the applied voltage.
The ELECTROLYSIS SECTION of the cell provides a complete loop clrcuit through which driven electrons can flow from the power supply 20 by wire conductor 24 to the cathodic grid 14, from grid 14 to the fluid 12 (electrolysis bridge) by electron-to-cation transfer, from the electrolysis bridge to the n-biases 18 by contact conductive electrochemical exchange as symbolized by the arrows 26, from the n-biases 18 to the core 28 of the anodic condenser assembly 16 by semi~conduction, and from the core 28 back to the power supply 20 via the wire conductor 30. As the electromotive force is applied, a weak, negatively charged aqueous plane 32 is formed within molecular proximity of the face of the anodic condenser assembly 16. The formation of the negatively charged plane 32 is accompanied by an euqal and opposing positive charge build-up in the anodic condenser assembly 16. The oppositely charged aqueous plane 32 and condenser assembly 16 together form an electrically induced aqueous condenser. When the condenser thus for~ed acquires a charge such that the potential between its two suefaces achieves 1.23 V (as tabulated along line A) the waters of the aqueous fluid 12 in the dielectric space of the condenser commence to electrolyze, completing an electrochemically conductive bridge between the cathodic connector grid 14 and the anodic condenser assembly 16.
This bridge thus provides a unique conductive mode whereby ,~. ...
~ ,~t.

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~L281~7~3 the weakly charged Eormed aqueous condenser can be charged to higher potentials. Electrolysis cannot occur in the CONDENSER SECTION because the insulative energy gap of the p-biases symbolized ~y the inverted pyramids 34, is greater than the energy level (1.23 eV) of the electrons associated with electrolysis of water.
The applied voltage, being greater than is necessary for the electrolysis bridge to function, provides also the electromotive force whereby the aqueous condenser is charged to higher potentials. As the charge on the aqueous condenser increases to 12.6 V (tabulated along line B) diaelectric breakdown of water commences, resulting in the generation of free radicals and the liberation of electrons. When the mentioned dielectric breakdown commences, the voltage drop across the aqueous condenser stabilizes at 12.6 V and the applied cell voltage stabilizes at greater than 14.23 V. The remaining 0O4 V
drop in the CONDENSE~ SECTION (ta~ulated along line B) represents the natural back EME' of water. The remaining 11.77 V drop in ELECTROLYSIS SECTION (tabulated along line A) represents the sum of the natural back EMF of water plu,5 the cation transport losses in the electrolysis bridge.
Primary free radicals are formed from individual molecules of water in accordance with the mass/energy ~alance H20 + 12.6 eV/molecule ~ H + OH + le-;"

conforming to the standard ionization potenkial of 12.6 eV/molecule of water. The liberated electrons, being high energy electrons (12.6 eV), are discharged by arc conductivity as symbolized by the arrows 36 into the semi-conductor holes symbolized by the inverted pyramids 34, and thereby transmitted to the core 28 of the anodic condenser assembly 16, and ultimately to ground 22. The cell of Figure 1 must be grounded to prevent accumulation of the liberated electrons in the circuit~
Such excess charges in the circuit upset the input voltage and the metering thereof.
Free OH radicals are predicted to be generated from OH ion at a minimum applied cell potential of greater than 14.80 V with a 13.17 V potential drop across the aqueous condenser, conforming to the standard ionization potential of 13.17 eV per molecule of OH . Secondary free radical O is generated from individual molecules of water at the higher minimum applied cell potential of greater than 17.057 V with a 15.427 V potential drop across the aqueous condenser, conforming to the standard ionization potential of 15.427 eV for molecular hydrogen.
The free radicals thus formed have no electrical charge and disperse freely into the cell fluid to react with the substances therein.
The average voltage drops within the cell are -- ~0 --, 37z3 tabulated along line C of the schematic. These tabulated averages agree closely with the measured cell voltage losses associated with the Si02 insulated anodic condenser assembly of FIGURE 3. A cell with this anodic condenser assembly had a semi-conductor energy gap of 1.5 V and yielded a ~.easured 5.0 V drop across the condenser assembly with 9.5 V loss in the ~luid column.
The electrical efficiency of the cell of FIGURE 1 is determined from the ratio of useful energy expended per unit of time to the total energy expended for the same unit of time. Each electron moved out of the CONDENSER SECTION
requires 12.6 V of potential, or a total of 12.6 eV of electrical energy, which is considered useful energy to the process. Each electron moved through the ELECTROLYSIS
SECTION requires 1.23 V of potential, or a total of 1.23 eV
of electrical energy, which does not contribute to the generation of free radicals.
The number of electrons moved out of the CONDENSER
SECTION is a function of the relative electron/hole mobilities of the semi-conductor supporting the two processes and is therefore equivalent to the ratio of the strength of their respective electrical fields. The number of electrons moved out of the CONDENSER SECTION is 12.6 eV/1.23 eV = 10.244 times greater per unit of area than through the ELECTROLYSIS SECTION.

8~3 ~ut, eor each set o~ elec~ron,s moved out Oe t~le CONDF,NSEE~ S~CTION, there are four electrons moved throuyh the ELECTROLYSIS SECTION, being in the same proportion as n-type contact bias to p-type arc bias~ ~lso, fo~ each set S of electrons moved out of the CONDENSER SECTION, there are four cations (H~) transported through the electrolysis bridge serving the ELECTRO~YSIS SECTION or alternately through a Pield of 11.77 V potential. The electrical eEficiency of the Ee = Useful Ener~/t x 100 Total ~nergy/t __ 10.244 (12. 6ev? _ x 100=71.3~
10.244 (12.6eV) ~4(1.23eV)+4(11.77eV) Although tne p to n ratio of the hypothetical cell of FIGURE 1 (which closely approximates the tested cell) is relatively low, it is a relatively efficient and functional cell as is demonstrated in Examples 4, 5, 6 and 7.
Electrical efficiency can be made to approach 100% by reducing the energy losses in electrolysis to near 0%.
Such efEiciency is achievable by increasing the proportion oE p-type arc ~ias in relation to n-type contact conductivty bias. Insulation of the anodic condenser core 28 with 100~ p-type material is of no value since it would totally prevent electrolysis and the formation of the associated very Einely spaced aqueous condenser so valuable to the invention.

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~l2~87;~;;3 T~le overall pro~uc~iVity , of any anodic condenser assembly, regardless of its efficiency, is directly related to the total area of semi-conductive p-type surface exposes to the cell fluid. The total exposed area i.s further determined by the particle or granule size of the semi-conductive material employed and also the depth to which it is applied. Such variability is an indication that some difficulty would be encountered in the construction of anodic condenser assemblies having identical electrical characteristics and productivity rates.
FIGURE 2 illustrates an anodic condenser assembly 38 according to the invention having a 1/4'l thick untreated carbon contact conductivity plate 40 with successful layers of a 1" thick layer of loose beach sand (si02) 42 and 1"
thick layer of loose quartz sand (sio2) 44. Carbon was selected for use in an anodic hreakdown and also because it developQ an extremely high surface resistance when used in an anodic function while submerged highly suppresses contact conductivity and therefore offers only limited support f~r electrolysis and does 30 with little regard for perfection in insulation requirements. The performance of a cell having the anodlc condenser assembly 3~ is discussed in Example 3.
FIGURE 3 illustrates another anodic condenser - assemb:Ly 46~ usable in any position and por~able~ co~rising a stiEf (lucite) foundation plate 4~ suppo~ting a 1/8"
thick lead sheet 50 isolated from contact with cell fluid on all sides by a coatlng of paraffin wax 52. The lead sheet 50 is coated on one side with silica gel SiO xH 0 crystal 54 of ~10 seive size, imbedded ln the paraffin wax 52 in a manner which exposes the crystal 54 to contact with cell fluid while also maintaining physical contact with cell fluid while also maintaining physical contact with the lead core 50. Such physical contact was made conductively sound through the removal of the surface oxides from the lead sheet 50 by abrasion. Paraffin wax 52 was selected as the isolating material on the basis of its high chemical sta~ility and its workability for the construction of the very simple anodic condenser assembly 46. Lead was selected as the conductive core 50 because of its natural ability to form quickly a semi-conductive oxide useful in self-insulation where minor faults exist or otherwise develop in the protective paraffin isolating coat 52. The performance of a cell having the anodic condenser assembly 46 is discussed in Examples 4, 5, 6 and 7.
FIGURE 4 shows another anodic condenser assembly 56 which comprises a 1/4" thick carbon plate 58 the pores of which are impregnated with paraffln wax by hot soaking in melted paraffin. Excess wax ~as removed to expose suitable contact surface. Plate 58 is overlaid with a 1/2" thick bed .
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7;23 of loose upgraded commereial silica gel ~iO2 xH20 crys~l 60. The impregnation of pores in the carbon plate 58 effectively reduced electrolytic activity b~ reducing the otherwise available eontact conductivity area offered by the pores. In reducing such contact conduetivity, the assembly 56 is also sueeessful in suppressing salt bridge losses and is very effeetive in the eonversion of sodium ehloride salt into free chlorine gas (C12) and its insoluble peroxide (Na202~.
FIGURE 5 illustrates an anodie eondenser assembly 62 in whieh semi-conduetive granules are electroehemieally fused into a solid porous matrix suitable for the purpose of portability and orientations other than horizontal. The anodie eondenser assem~ly 62 comprises a 1/4" thiek earbon plate 64 impregnated with wax to suppress both eleetrolysis and salt bridge bias area. The plate 64 is overlaid with a 1/2" thiek loose bed of #20 sieve silica sand (SiO2) 66 mixed with #600 sieve-size silica flour (SiO2 ) as filler material. The loose semi-conductive bed 66 is fused into a solid porous matrix around carbon anchors 68 which are fixed to the carhon plate 6~. Fusion of the granular bed 66 is induced by addin~ colloidal silica to the cell solution (tap water) while applying the required eleetromotive foree of 14.5 V. The assembly 62 performs well in the eonversion of sodium ehloride salt to Eorm ehlorine gas (C12) and its .: , ~8~723 insoluble peroxide (Na2~2). Such ability ot GonVer~ salt serves as a good test in providing the functionality of a given anodic condenser assem~ly.
Silica (SiO2) is only one of a number of natural or synthetic semi-conductive materials usable in the apparatus and process as determined by energy gap requirements, suitability of choice of p to n proportion, and electrochemical stability.
High resistance, non-oxidizing, direct contact cores such as carbon may be used requiring little attention in regard to insulation and isolation. Such materials are useful in large volume open treatment cells employing deep horizontal beds of silica sand~ or other suitable semi-conductive granular material having the appropriate properties. Such beds of semi-conductive material may be loose or cementitiously bonded.
Conductive metallic cores may also be used. These must ~e insulated in a manner which provides a proportion of p-type arc conductivity favorable to their intended applications. The insulation must contain s~itable contact conductivity bias adequate for maintaining the levels of electrolytic activity ~eneficial to the intended applications. Such bias must also be adequate in suppressing ionic bridge conductivity losses as will be encountered in solutions containing dissolved salts, acids etc. The mentioned insulation, which includes the p-type arc conductivity bias and the direct contact conductivity bias~
must also act to isolate totally the metallic core from contact with the cell fluid to avoid electroytic short circuits. This can be achieved with a primary coating of a suitably semi-conductive nature bonded to the core with cementitious materials to form an integral sealed jacket.
The depth of the active granular bed can thereafter be increased to suit the free radical productivity requirements for the intended application. Such increase in active bed depth can be achieved by successive applications of semi-conductive granules either applied loosely or using suitable cementitious materials and methods to form an integrally attached porous matrix. The anodic condenser assemblies containing metallic cores have practical applications in smaller, open or closed, treatment systems employing multiple anodic condenser plates for high volume treatment such as the polishing of raw water for potable use.
EXAMPLE I
As an initial test, a cell similar to that described in FIGURE 1 is utilized with clean tap water. The test cell is equipped with a silica (SiO2) anodic condenser assembly having an energy gap of 1.5 eV conforming to any of th~
structures presented in FIGURES 2, 3, 4 and 5. The clean water provides the operator with a clearer view of the - 27 ~

81~7~3 - activity occurring in the cell. When the cell is placed into operation at 14.5 V cell inpu~ and according t,o the parameter~ of the invention, there is no visually apparent activity in the cell for approximately the first half hour of operation. After the elapsing of such time gassing becomes extensive at the cathodic grid while only barely detectable at the anodic condenser assembly. In the normal electrolysis of water there is no electrochemical deterioration of the cathode regardless of the metal used.
Such is not the case with the present method and apparatus. Metallic cathodic connectors (especially those in the upper ranges of the electromotive series) are subjected to severe oxidation attack from the free radicals being generated. This oxidation attack results in an incrustation on the surface of the cathodic connector grid accompanied by relatively large amounts of hydrogen gassing.
In the case of an aluminum cathodic connector the reaction appears to conform to the following electrochemical reaction equation:
2A1 + 40H ~ 2H20 -~ 4e~ A1203.3 2 2 This has not been verified hy qualitative analysis, but the incrustation is a pinkish-brown powdery residue, the colour and texture of which conforms to that oE hydrated alumina.
There was no visually apparent discoloration of the water in the cell.

lZ1~ 3 Oxidation attack on the cathodic grid is detrimental to the overall efficiency of the cell when the intended function for the free radicals is to react with substances in the cell fluid. The reaction at the cathodic yrid and its related chemical energy losses can be avoided or reduced through the application of protective coatings using metals which are in the lower ranges of the electromotiwe series, such as gold, platinum etc., or coating with electrocnemically stable semi-conductive materials of suitable electrical properties.
EXAMPLE II
Evidence of corrosion of the cathodic connector grid is indicative of a cell producing free radicals. However, more practical results can be obtained by the introduction of a soluble salt such as sodium chloride into the cell fluid.
Free radicals react with the dissolved salt to liberate chlorine gas and to bind the remaining sodium into an insoluble peroxide floc. The chlorine gas odour is noticeably detectable within about 15 minutes after the addition of the salt to the cell water. The, formation of sodium peroxide floc on the surface of the fluid commences within just several minutes.
In all probability, the reaction with salt occurs in several steps. However, the overall reaction appears to conform to the reaction equation:

~L2~38~23 2Na ~ 2Cl- ~ 20EI ~ a20~ ~ H2 -~ C12 The llberation of chlorine gas is expected because the OH radical has a greater standard electrode potential (being therefore higher in the electromotive series) than the chlorine ion and will therefore displace the chlorine out of solution resulting in sodium to oxygen bonding.
The accumulation of chlorine is visible above the surface of the anodic condenser assembly as a laminar greenish-gray discoloration. Disturbing the discolored layer will ~ring up the chlorine odour to the surface immediately. It is anticipated that the chlorine is li~erated in mid-stream, near the anodic condenser assembly where the concentration of free radicals would be the greatest in a static fluid cell.
No attempt has ~een made to substantiate the existence of hydrogen formation in this salt reaction because it is altogether too difficult to differentiate such hydrogen formation from other hydrogen gassing occurring at the cathodic connector grid as described in Example I.
EXAMPLE III
A cell fluid was prepared from organic-free clay mineral ground to pass through a ~200 sieve and mixed with pota~le tap water. As much of the mineral clay powder was mixed into the water as it would accept. The mixture was then allowed to stand for about 10 minutes to allow the 8~'7;~;3 larger particles to settle out.
ThiS test was conducted with the anodic condenser assembly described in FIGURE 2 in a vessel which was 5" wide 8" long and 5" deep. The clay suspension was decanted carefully into the cell container so as not to disturb the sand bed overlying the carbon contact plate. The vessel was filled until the cathodic connector grid was submerged. A
direct current was then permitted to flow through the cell.
After a few minutes of operation, a medium brown coloured froth commenced to collect on the surface of the solution.
This froth was collected and dried yielding a sli~htly pinkish-white powder having the consistency and texture of talcum owder. Approximately 4 hours of operation of the process yialded approximately 15 cubic centimeters of the final dry product. The 4 hour period of operation also produc~d a noticeable fusion of the sur~ace grains of the sand bed which formed a thin brittle crust.
An analysis o the powder produced suggests that the clay mineral underwent extensive oxidation. The sample, dried at 500C, contained a disproportionately high content of oxides which were free of silicat~s, and a disproportionately low content of silicon dioxide. Calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and aluminum oxide were each present at 20%, 22% and 19% by weight respectively, while the silicon dioxide content was less than 5~ by weight. The remaining ~'.

, . , lf~ 3 portion of the sample was made up of approximately 32% water (removed in drying~ and less than 3% other trace oxides.
The oxidation of the aluminum felspar component in the clay sample appears to have proceeded in accordance with the following reaction equation:

_ _ -nH20 (n-x) H20 + 2Si205(0H?4 ~ A1203.2H20 ~ 2SiO2.xH20 ~ +

_OH _ I - OH .

The reaction equation suggests that the free radical OH was reconstituted upon completion of the reaction.
Such automatic reconstitution oE the reagent radical is similar to the known process of auto-oxidation by free radical chain reaction wherein the free radical remains available to perform further reactions. The 2Sio2.xH2o was deposited onto the loose sand anodic condenser bed binding the surface granules into the thin and brittle glassy crust. The hydrated alumina, which forms as a minute floc in mid-stream of the cell, was transported to the surface of the 7;~;3 cell fluid apparently by the minute o~ygen bubbles created at the anodic condenser assembly by the suppressed electrolysis.
The above equation represents only one of the clay minerals in suspension ~i.e. the alumino-silicate). Similar equations apply to the calcium and magnesium silicates that were also present in the clay sample. The resultant by-products of the reaction (e.g. alumina and silica gel) are environmentally stable and recoverable oxides in their hydrated forms.
It should be noted that the cell had no oxidation effect on clay when the anodic section consisted solely of the 5 carbon plate.
EXAMPLE IV
A cell similar to that shown in FIGURE 1 was utilized in the treatment of water denatured with a~Monia.
The test cell was equipped with a silica gel (SiO~.xH20) anodic condenser assembly having an energy gap of 1.5 eV
conforming to the anodic assembly described in FIGURE 3. The anodic condenser assembly was of 7" ~ 15" dimension, and the cathodic connector grid of steel wire mesh was of similar dimensions.
Approximately half a cupful of ammonia solution was added to the cell filled with tap water and a potential of 14.5 V was applied to the cell. The strong odour disappeared completely in less than one hour of treatment. It is ~8~;~3 anticipated that the resultant odourless condition was brought about by oxidation of the ammonia forming water and hydrogen and nitrogen gases (all of which are odourless~
apparently conforming to the reaction equation:
2NH3 + 2OH -----~ 2H20 + 2H2 ~ ~2 EXAMPLE V
Employing the same test apparatus and method cited in Example IV, the treatment of insoluble calamine powder resulted in the formation of large quantities of pure white floc on the surface of the cell fluid and the total disappearance of the insoluble pink calamine powder which had precipitated onto the surface of the anodic condenser assembly. The reaction appears to conform to the following representation where the free xadical is again reconstituted:
15~nH20 (n-x) H20 + ~ zn2SiO4 ----~ 2znO = SiO2.xH
OH OH

EXAMPLE VI
Employing the same test apparatus and method cited in Examples IV and V a quantity of raw sewage was treated to 5 determine quantitative oxidation effects on the specific biochemical and chemical oxygen demands (BOD and COD) of the sewage. The vessel employed had a width of 7 3/4~, a length 25of 15 3/4", and a h~ight of 9". The anodic condenser .
..

;.., "

7~3 assembly was placed at the bottom of the vessel, and the cathodiclO connector grid as near the top of the vessel as possible, in a manner similar to the cell o~ FIGURE 1.
A sample of raw sewage was obtained and tested initially for BOD and COD values. The sample was then introduced into the cell and treated with conditions being monitored on an hourly basis and samples being taken every 4 hours. The cell solution was stirred lightly after all observations were made after sampling for BOD and COD.
Table 1 contains the data obtained. The data is plotted in graph form in FIGURE 6.

RESIDUAL RESIDUAL
HOURS ~ Q PH VOLTS AMPS BOD MG/L COD MG/L
0 15C 8.5 14.5 Q.l276 620 1 16C 8.5 ].4.5 0.2 2 16C 8.7 14.5 0.3 3 17C 8.9 14.4 0.4 4 17C 9.0 14.3 0.3108 260 18C g.2 14.4 0.1 6 19C 9.1 14.4 0.2 7 19C 9.1 14.4 0.1 8 19C 9.1 14.4 0.2 95 185 9 19C 9.1 14.4 0.1 19C 9.1 14.4 0.1 11 lgC 9.1 14.4 0.1 12 19C 9.1 14.3 0.1 89 155 13 20C 9.0 14.3 0.3 14 20C 9.1 14.3 0.2 20C 9.~ 14.3 0.2 16 20C 9.2 14.3 0.1 93 145 Visual observations of the contents of the cell during the 16 hours in which treatment was applied revealed that there was initially no visual reaction ~ollowed first by gassing at the cathodic connector grid and an increase in cell cloudiness. Subsequentlyj a scum buildup began on the surface of the fluid whic~ eventually increased to cover the entire surace of the fluid, followed by a gradual lightening in the colour of the solution and a noticeable decrease in odour. The o~served changes in the sewage sample were accompanied by measured increases in the pH level of the fluid from an initial pH of 8.5 to a pH of 9.2 at the conclusion of the test. Such rise in the pH level substantiates that the (OH) form is present. The reduction of BOD and COD by 66.3% and 76.6% respectively indicates that the sewage sample underwent extensive oxidation and the rise in pH indicates that the operating oxidizing agent is the OH radical.
The agent was in fact, the OH ion which was produced in mid-stream through the decay of the OH

~38~23 adical, Such decay results Erom the acyuisition of electron charge through chemical reaction with other substances in solution or through contact with the cathodic connector.
S The agent could not have been the OH- ion which is formed and reduced to oxygen and water directly at the anodic condenser assembly ~as part of the suppressed electrolysis) ~eing prevented thereby from reacting with the solution.
The pH rise represents an increase in OH
concentration of at least 10(9-2-8-5) = 10(-7) = 5.01 times. This is a significant rise considering that an equal amount of H radicals are generated and that such radicals tend to annihilate OH radicals, thus combining to reconstitute to water.
The internal back EMF of the tested cell and therefore its applied potential was 14.5 V in the earlier hours of the test, which is in keepin with the sum of 04. V back EMF
of water plus 12.6 V ionization potential plus 1.5 V
excitation loss to the energy gap of the SiO~ .xH2 0 semi-conductive insulation. In the third hour of the test the cell became slightly more conductive (as is evident from Table 1) resulting in a reduction of the total back EMF, and therefore also the input potential, by as much as 0.2 V. The reduction of cell back EMF is attributed to minor faults developing in the paraffin isolation coating resulting in . ~`~ '' ' ~2~ 3 variable amounts of electrolytic short circuiting taking place at the lead contact plate. This is confirmed by the variations in current draw by the cell. The lead, as expected developed a semi-conductive oxide coating (Pb02) at such faults with an energy gap of approximately 1.3 V (as can be deduced from the remaining applied potential of 14.3 V). The cell continued to function for the remainder of the 16 hour test but the pH rise was definitely levelling off at pH = 9.2 indicating that free radical formation had been reduced to just the area of the fault where the lead formed a secondary semi-conductive oxide coatinq. Reduction of BOD
and COD continued for the duration of the test with no apparent lowering of the pH.
The operation demonstrates that the apparatus and process of the invention are applicable and beneficial in the treatment of raw sewage to lower both the BOD and COD in the sewage.
EXAMPLE VII
Employing the same appar~tus and methad cited in Examples IV-VI, three litres of homogenized milk were tested with the balance of the vessel being filled with distilled water. Under conditions similar to those in Example VI, including similar input voltage and current, treatment of milk resulted in a first hour BOD reduction of 190 mg/l and a COD reduction of 1600 mg/l from initial concentration levels .;, ...... .

~887~

of 24,030 mg/l and 32,800 mg/l respectively. The test confirms that the oxidation/reduction reactions involving stearates and fats in the treatment of dairy wastes progress very slowly, while the more direct oxidation of mineral compounds of calcium (and other minerals) progress much more rapidly.
All tests were conducted in cells similar to the cell ; semi-described in FIG~RE 1, with the exception that the semi-conductive materials employed (SiO2 and SiO2.x H20) had an energy gap of 1.5 eV. The higher energy gap is reflected in the higher back EMF of the tested cells therefore also the test input potentials. The anodic condenser structures tested thus far were effective in the generation of free radicals at the predicted input potentials and at extremely low current intensities (approximtely 0.0025 amperes per square inch for the structure presented in FIGURE 3 and cited in Example ~, 5, 6, and 7). The siliceous insulation provided 20% of its surface area to free radical generation and 80% to normal electrolysis ~ecause the total mass of SiO2 offers only 20%
p-type arc bias and 80% n-type contact bias. As the semi-conductor mass approaches 100% p-type bias, the free radical generation would be more abundant, rendering the normal electrolysis effects proportionally insignificant.
While this invention has ~een described as having a preferred design, it is understood that it is capa~le of , -:

~L2 ~38~'72d 3 further modifîcations, uses and/or adaptations ollowing in general the principles of the invention including such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practice in the art to which the invention pertains and as may be applied to the central features hereinbefore set forth, and fall within the scope of the invention of the limits of the appended claims.

Claims (34)

1. A method for electronically decomposing water into aqueous free radicals, comprising the steps of:
a) providing a cell having therein an aqueous fluid, an anodic charge means in said aqueous fluid and a cathodic connector means in said aqueous fluid, said anodic charge means having semi-conductive material in contact with said aqueous fluid and having means for restrictive electrical continuity with said aqueous fluid;
b) applying an electromotive force to the anodic charge means and to the cathodic connector means to form electrically an aqueous condenser at said anodic charge means; and, c) subjecting the formed condenser to an electromotive force equal to or greater than 12.6 volts whereby water is decomposed into aqueous free radicals.

2. The method of Claim 1 wherein the aqueous fluid comprises a solution or suspension of substances in water for reaction with the aqueous free radicals formed.

3. The method of Claim 2 wherein the aqueous fluid comprises waste water.

4. The method of Claim 1 wherein said cathodic connector means forms a wet electrical connection with the aqueous fluid and including the step of connecting the cathodic connector means to the negative terminal of a direct current electrical power supply.

5. The method of Claim 1 wherein said electrical continuity means comprises a wet electrical connection between said anodic charge means and the aqueous fluid, and including the step of connecting said anodic charge means to the positive terminal of a direct current electrical power supply.

6. An apparatus for electronically decomposing water into aqueous free radicals, comprising:
a) a cell adapted to have an aqueous fluid therein;
b) an anodic charge means in said cell positioned to be in said aqueous fluid, said anodic charge means having semi-conductive material for contact with said aqueous fluid and having means for restrictive electrical continuity with said aqueous fluid;
c) a conductive cathodic connector means in said cell positioned to be in said aqueous fluid; and, d) means for applying an electromotive force between said anodic charge means and said cathodic connector means for forming electrically an aqueous condenser at said anodic charge means, said electromotive force means being adapted to apply an electromotive force equal to or greater than 12.6 volts to said formed condenser whereby water is decomposed into aqueous free radicals.

7. The apparatus of Claim 6 and including means for directing a moving stream of aqueous fluid through said cell.

8. The apparatus of Claim 6 wherein said cathodic connector means is positioned to be in said aqueous fluid for forming a wet connection with said aqueous fluid and said cathodic connector means is connected to the negative terminal of said electromotive force means.

9. The apparatus of Claim 6 wherein said electrical continuity means comprises a wet electrical connection means between said anodic charge means and said aqueous fluid and said anodic charge means is connected to the positive terminal of said electromotive force means.

10. The apparatus of Claim 6 wherein said electrical continuity means comprises an uninsulated conducting core adapted to be in direct contact with said aqueous fluid, and said semi-conductive material as in the form of a covering on said core.

11. The apparatus of Claim 10 wherein said core comprises an electrochemically passive material having a high electrical resistance.

12. The apparatus of Claim 11 wherein said electrochemically passive material having a high electrical resistance comprises carbon.

13. The apparatus of Claim 10 wherein said covering comprises a loose bed of semi-conductive granules.

14. The apparatus of Claim 10 wherein said covering comprises a porous matrix of bound semi-conductive granules.

15. The apparatus of Claim 6 wherein said anodic charge means includes an electrically conductive core and said semi-conductive material on said core, said coating isolating said core from direct contact with said aqueous fluid, and said electrical bias in said semi-conductive coating between said core and said aqueous fluid.

16. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said core comprises metal.

17. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said coating comprises a matrix of bound semi-conductive material.

18. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said coating comprises a chemically developed semi-conductive chemically bound surface oxide.

19. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said coating has thereon a covering comprising a loose bed of semi-conductive granules.

20. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said coating has thereon a covering comprising a porous matrix of bound semi-conductive granules.

21. The apparatus of Claim 10 wherein said semi-conductive material comprises a p-type semi-conductive material having an electrical energy gap greater than 1.23 eV and less than 12.6 eV.

22. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said insulating semi-conductive coating comprises p-type semi-conductive material having an electrical energy gap greater than 1.23 eV and less than 12.6 eV, and said electrical biasing means comprises n-type semi-conductive material.

23. The apparatus of Claim 14 wherein said semi-conductive granules comprises p-type semi-conductive material having an electrical energy gap greater than 1.23 eV and less than 12.6 eV.

24. The apparatus of Claim 20 wherein said semi-conductive granules comprises p-type semi-conductive material having an electrical energy gap greater than 1.23 eV and less than 12.6 eV.

25. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said insulating semi-conductive coating comprises p-type semi conductive material having an electrical energy gap greater than 1.23 eV and less than 12.6 eV and said electrical biasing means comprises p-type semi-conductive material having an electrical energy gap less than 1.23 eV.

26. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said insulating semi-conductive coating comprises p-type semi-conductive material having an electrical energy gap greater than 1.23 eV and less than 12.6 eV and said electrical biasing means comprises conducting material having a high electrical resistance.

27. The apparatus of Claim 15 wherein said insulating semi-conductive coating comprises p-type semi-conductive material having an electrical energy gap greater than 1.23 eV and less than 12.6 eV and said electrical biasing means comprises pores in said coating for permitting restricted conductivity.

28. The apparatus of Claim 21 wherein said semi-conductive material comprises silicon dioxide.

29. The apparatus of Claim 22 wherein said semi-conductive material comprises silicon dioxide.

30. The apparatus of Claim 23 wherein said semi-conductive material comprises silicon dioxide.

31. The apparatus of Claim 6 wherein said cathodic connector means comprises metal.

32. The apparatus of Claim 6 wherein said cathodic connector means comprises a conductive non-metal.

33. The apparatus of Claim 6 wherein said cathodic connector means comprises a conductive core having protective semi-conductive coating thereon adapted to provide a total electrical conductivity greater than that required by said anodic charge means.

34. The method of Claim 1 wherein the aqueous fluid comprises pure water for forming an aqueous solution charged with free radicals.