AU2005304284A1 - Method of diagnosing cancer and reagents therefor - Google Patents

Description

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 1 Method of diagnosing cancer and reagents therefor FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the epigenetic state of a region of chromatin within the 5 region of Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 and its use to diagnose and/or monitor and/or prognose cancer BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION General 10 This specification contains nucleotide and amino acid sequence information prepared using PatentIn Version 3.3, presented herein after the claims. Each nucleotide sequence is identified in the sequence listing by the numeric indicator <210> followed by the sequence identifier (e.g. <210>1, <210>2, <210>3, etc). The length and type of sequence (DNA, protein (PRT), etc), and source organism for each nucleotide 15 sequence, are indicated by information provided in the numeric indicator fields <211>, <212> and <213>, respectively. Nucleotide sequences referred to in the specification are defined by the term "SEQ ID NO:", followed by the sequence identifier (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 1 refers to the sequence in the sequence listing designated as <400>1). 20 The designation of nucleotide residues referred to herein are those recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission, wherein A represents Adenine, C represents Cytosine, G represents Guanine, T represents thymine, Y represents a pyrimidine residue, R represents a purine residue, M represents Adenine or Cytosine, K represents Guanine or Thymine, S represents Guanine or Cytosine, W represents 25 Adenine or Thymine, H represents a nucleotide other than Guanine, B represents a nucleotide other than Adenine, V represents a nucleotide other than Thymine, D represents a nucleotide other than Cytosine and N represents any nucleotide residue. As used herein the term "derived from" shall be taken to indicate that a specified 30 integer may be obtained from a particular source albeit not necessarily directly from that source. Throughout this specification, unless the context requires otherwise, the word "comprise", or variations such as "comprises" or "comprising", will be understood to 35 imply the inclusion of a stated step or element or integer or group of steps or elements WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 2 or integers but not the exclusion of any other step or element or integer or group of elements or integers. Throughout this specification, unless specifically stated otherwise or the context 5 requires otherwise, reference to a single step, composition of matter, group of steps or group of compositions of matter shall be taken to encompass one and a plurality (i.e. one or more) of those steps, compositions of matter, groups of steps or group of compositions of matter. 10 Each embodiment described herein is to be applied mutatis mutandis to each and every other embodiment unless specifically stated otherwise. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the invention described herein is susceptible to variations and modifications other than those specifically described. It is to be 15 understood that the invention includes all such variations and modifications. The invention also includes all of the steps, features, compositions and compounds referred to or indicated in this specification, individually or collectively, and any and all combinations or any two or more of said steps or features. 20 The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiments described herein, which are intended for the purpose of exemplification only. Functionally-equivalent products, compositions and methods are clearly within the scope of the invention, as described herein. 25 The present invention is performed without undue experimentation using, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of molecular biology, microbiology, virology, recombinant DNA technology, peptide synthesis in solution, solid phase peptide synthesis, and immunology. Such procedures are described, for example, in the following texts that are incorporated by reference: 30 1. Sambrook, Fritsch & Maniatis, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, New York, Second Edition (1989), whole of Vols I, II, and III; 2. DNA Cloning: A Practical Approach, Vols. I and II (D. N. Glover, ed., 1985), IRL Press, Oxford, whole of text; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 3 3. Oligonucleotide Synthesis: A Practical Approach (M. J. Gait, ed., 1984) IRL Press, Oxford, whole of text, and particularly the papers therein by Gait, ppl-22; Atkinson et al., pp35-81; Sproat et al., pp 83-115; and Wu et al., pp 135-151; 4. Nucleic Acid Hybridization: A Practical Approach (B. D. Hames & S. J. 5 Higgins, eds., 1985) IRL Press, Oxford, whole of text; and 5. Perbal, B., A Practical Guide to Molecular Cloning (1984). 2. Description of the related art Cancer is a major cause of morbidity throughout the world. For example, in 2001, the 10 American Cancer Society estimated that 553,768 Americans died from a form of cancer. Cancer is responsible for 22.9 percent of all American deaths and is exceeded only by heart disease as a cause of mortality. All studied forms of cancer share the characteristics abnormal cell division, growth, 15 and differentiation. The initial clinical manifestations of cancers are generally heterogeneous, with over 70 types of cancer arising in each of a number of organs and tissues of the human body. Moreover, while some cancers may appear clinically similar they may actually represent different molecular diseases. This diversity in clinical and molecular characteristics make cancer difficult to diagnose. As a consequence, a 20 variety of assays are required to detect even a small number of the known cancers. Family history still remains the most reliable diagnostic procedure for identifying patients at risk of cancer. 25 Cancer surveillance has been effective for detecting some cancers in which risk can be identified, for example colorectal cancer in familial adenomatous polyposis coli and hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (Markey et al., Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep. 4: 404-413, 2002), but these syndromes cumulatively account for less than 1% of cancer patients (Samowitz et al., Gastroenterology 121: 830-838, 2001). Nevertheless, 30 genetics is thought to contribute substantially to cancer risk, since the odds ratio for malignancy increases in patients with first degree relatives with cancer, e.g., 2 to 3-fold in colorectal cancer (Fuchs et al., N. Engl. J Med. 331: 1669-1674, 1994). Therefore, there remains a need to develop genetic tests to identify these patients. 35 The detection of microsatellite instability as a diagnostic for cancer, requires the patient to have a detectable tumor beforehand and, as a consequence, is not an early test that WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 4 can lead to early effective treatment. Microsatellite instability compares microsatellite marker length between the monoclonal tumor.cell population and normal tissue derived from the same patient. As microsatellites are unstable in the population, an assay measuring such instability must include a control sample from the same subject. This 5 leads to increased cost, as a number of samples must be assayed for each diagnosis performed. Genetic changes that are associated with cancer include gene mutation in critical tumor-associated genes, as well as gene deletion or loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of 10 larger regions harboring tumor suppressor genes. In addition to genetic changes it is clear that epigenetic changes are also a common hallmark of cancer DNA, with changes in both DNA methylations and histone modification of the CpG island regions spanning the promoters of tumor suppressor genes (Jones and Baylin, Nat. Rev. Genet. 3: 415-428, 2002). However, it is not clear as to the extent and nature of these 15 epigenetic changes in cancer cells. Changes in the state of methylation of DNA have been observed in cancer cells (Feinberg et al., Nature, 301: 89-92, 1983), including the loss of methylation at normally methylated sequences (hypomethylation) and the gain of methylated 20 sequences at sites that are usually non-methylated (hypermethylation). For example, global hypomethylation has been reported in almost every human malignancy studied to date (Feinberg et al., supra and Bedford et al., Cancer Res., 47: 5274-5276, 1987). More particularly, Gama-Sosa et al., (Nucl. Acids Res., 11: 6883-6894) measured the levels 5-methylcytosine content by HPLC and showed a reduced level in cancer tissues 25 compared to control tissues. However, the 5-methylcytosine content of a cell is not necessarily a measure of the level or extent of chromatin modification in these cells. Accordingly, the assay of Gama-Sosa et al., does not provide an accurate measurement of chromatin changes that are associated with cancer. 30 The major site for methylation in mammals is a cytosine located next to a guanine (5' CpG-3'), including a so-called "CpG island". Generally, these targets of methylation are not distributed equally in the genome, but found in long GC-rich sequences present in satellite repeat sequences, middle repetitive rDNA sequences and centromeric repeat sequences. CpG islands are generally recognised as sequences of nucleic acid that 35 comprise a GC content of over 50% (in contrast to a genome-wide average in humans of about 40%) and an observed over expected ration of CpG of 0.6 or greater (Gardiner WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 5 -Garden and Frommer, J Mol. Biol., 196: 261 to 281, 1987; Takai and Jones, Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA, 99: 3740-3745, 2002). CpG islands can become de novo methylated in a cancer cell and this is associated with 5 gene silencing. DNA hypermethylation of the CpG island region is also accompanied by local changes in histone modification, including de-acetylation and methylation of the lysine 9 residue of Histone H3 (K9-H3). For example, CpG islands within the promoter regions of specific genes can be 10 hypermethylated in some cancers, e.g., in the case of BRCA1 promoter hypermethylation in breast cancer (Dobrovic et al., Cancer Res., 57: 3347-3350, 1997) and the VHL gene promoter hypermethylation in clear cell renal carcinomas (Herman et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91: 9700-9704). However, the methylation of these genes is limited to discrete regions of these genes and shown to be useful only in 15 relation to the detection of specific cancers (Plass, Hum. Mol. Genet., 11: 2479-2488, 2002). It is widely recognized that simple and rapid tests for the early detection of cancers, especially multiple cancer types, have considerable clinical potential. In view of the 20 heterogeneity of cancers, it is difficult to produce a single diagnostic that is useful for different cancer types. Such tests have potential use for an initial diagnosis, as well as for determining prognostic outcomes e.g., for detecting tumor recurrence following surgical resection and/or chemotherapy. A molecular diagnostic approach that identifies patients with cancer or at risk of cancer, would offer a decisive advantage for 25 intervention and treatment. Summary of invention In work leading up to the present invention the inventors sought to identify changes in the human genome that occur in one or more cancers, to identify those regions of the 30 genome in which changes are epigenetic and not necessarily limited to specific genes. Using samples from colon cancer subjects and cell models of prostate cancer and breast cancer as models of cancer generally, the inventors identified a short segment of chromosome 2 that is hypermethylated in tumors compared to healthy tissues or cells. This segment, designated the "Z fragment", showed increased levels of methylation in 35 63% of colorectal samples compared to normal matched controls. The Z fragment was mapped to an intergenic region of the human genome, located at map position 2q14.2.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 6 Thus, in contrast to the prior art, hypermethylation of the Z fragment was not located in a specific gene, let alone in the nucleic acid forming the promoter region of a specific gene. 5 The inventors subsequently investigated changes in methylation of nucleic acid in the region flanking the Z fragment i.e., from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3, that contains a number of discrete CpG islands. The inventors showed that these CpG islands are extensively methylated in colorectal cancer tumor samples in addition to breast cancer and prostate cancer cell lines. For example, CpG islands associated with 10 one or more of Engrailed-1 gene and/or secretin receptor gene and/or inhibin P3-B gene was(were) methylated in 96% colorectal cancer samples tested and 96% of breast cancer samples tested. CpG islands associated with the Engrailed-1 gene and/or secretin receptor gene were methylated in 71% of ovarian cancer samples tested, 91% of prostate cancer samples tested and 78% of breast cancer samples tested. 15 Accordingly, the modified methylation pattern in tumor samples was not limited to the Z fragment per se. The inventors also showed that the degree of methylation of nucleic acid within the region of Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 was 20 predictive of the probability of survival of a subject suffering from cancer. For example, hypermethylation of a GpG island associated with the SCTR gene is predictive of an increased probability of survival in colorectal cancer subjects. The inventors additionally demonstrated that the expression of several genes in the 25 vicinity of the hypermethylated region of Chromosome 2 was reduced, indicating epigenetic effects in this region of the genome. In particular, the inventors showed reduced expression of genes in the region extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in tumor cell lines and colorectal cancer samples. This suppression of gene expression in tumor cells is irrespective of the methylation status 30 of the promoter region of the gene(s) in this region. Extending the studies further, the inventors showed that histones associated with the hypermethylated DNA were also modified (e.g., methylated and/or de-acetylated). The inventors showed histone modifications along a region of Chromosome 2 from about 35 map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in tumor cell lines and colorectal cancer samples.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 7 As methylation of gene promoters (or regions thereof) and histones is associated with gene silencing, the inventors determined the effect of a methylation inhibitor and/or a histone deacetylase inhibitor on expression of genes within this region of the genome. 5 Both of these compounds were effective in enhancing gene expression levels from their repressed levels in cancer cells. In particular, using a global methylation approach, AIMS (Amplification of Inter Methylated Sites; Frigola et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 30: e28, 2002) and chromatin 10 immunoprecipitation (Strizaker et al., Cancer Res., 64: 3871-3877, 2004), the inventors have shown that epigenetic changes in cancer are not restricted to individual discrete CpG islands associated genes, but encompass multiple neighbouring CpG islands and genes. They demonstrate co-ordinate gene suppression across an entire 4Mb cytogenetic band on human Chromosome 2q14.2 in colorectal cancer cells, and this 15 suppression is relieved by "epigenetic therapy" using demethylation and de-acetylation treatment. The inventors demonstrate for the first time that epigenetic silencing in cancer can encompass large chromosomal regions, with equivalent implications in global gene silencing as that exhibited by gross genetic changes. The data provided suggest that aberrant DNA and histone methylation of large chromosomal regions are 20 under co-ordinate control leading to concomitant epigenetic silencing of multiple linked genes in cancer cells. These findings provide the basis for a novel method and reagents for diagnosing and/or prognosing cancer. Preferably, the method is for the early diagnosis of cancer or a 25 predisposition therefor. For example, the present inention provides a method for diagnosing cancer or a predisposition therefor comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject epigenetic modification, including DNA methylation and histone H3 lysine 9 (K-9) methylation relative to. a non-cancerous sample within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map 30 position 2q14.3 and/or modified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said e of the gene or nucleic acid is associated with said modified chromatin, and wherein said epigenetic modification and/or said modified expression is indicative of cancer or a predisposition therefor. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 8 In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method for diagnosing a cancer or a predisposition therefor in a subject comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject: (i) modified chromatin relative to a non-cancerous sample said modified 5 chromatin being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3; and/or (ii) modified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said modified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is S10 associated with said modified chromatin; wherein said modified chromatin and/or said modified expression is indicative of a cancer or a predisposition therefor in the subject. 15 Preferably, the present invention provides a method for diagnosing a cancer in a subject or a predisposition thereforcomprising: (i) providing or obtaining a biological sample comprising nucleic acid and/or protein from the subject; and (ii) identifying or detecting using a detecting means modified chromatin relative to a 20 non-cancerous sample within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 and/or modified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 wherein said modified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is associated with 25 said modified chromatin, wherein said modified chromatin and/or said modified expression is indicative of cancer or a predisposition therefor. As used herein, the term "diagnosis", and variants thereof, such as, but not limited to 30 "diagnose" or "diagnosing" shall include, but not be limited to, a primary diagnosis of a clinical state or any primary diagnosis of a clinical state. A diagnostic assay described herein is also useful for assessing the remission of a patient, or monitoring disease recurrence, or tumor recurrence, such as following surgery, radiation therapy, adjuvant therapy or chemotherapy, or determining the appearance of metastases of a primary 35 tumor. All such uses of the assays described herein are encompassed by the present invention.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 9 As used herein, the term "cancer" shall be taken to include a disease that is characterized by uncontrolled growth of cells within a subject. The term "cancer" shall not be limited to cancer of a specific tissue or cell type. 5 Those skilled in the art will be aware that as a carcinoma progresses, metastases occur in organs and tissues outside the site of the primary tumor. For example, in the case of many cancers, metastases commonly appear in a tissue selected from the group consisting of lymph nodes, lung, breast, liver, kidney and/or bone. Accordingly, the 10 term "cancer" as used herein shall be taken to include a metastasis of a cancer in addition to a primary tumor. Preferably, a cancer diagnosed using the method of the present invention comprises a cell characterized in having uncontrolled cell growth and having modified chromatin 15 within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 and/or modified expression relative to a non-cancerous cell of a gene positioned within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 compared to a non-cancerous cell. 20 In a preferred embodiment, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of a colon cancer, a prostate cancer, a breast cancer, an ovarian cancer or a pancreatic cancer. For example, the cancer is a colon cancer, a prostate cancer or a breast cancer. For example, the cancer is a colon cancer. Alternatively, the cancer is a prostate cancer. Alternatively, the cancer is a breast cancer. 25 As used herein, the term "chromatin" shall be taken to mean nucleic acid including a complex of nucleic acid (e.g., genomic DNA) and protein (e.g., one or more histones) such as a nucleosome. As will be understood by the skilled artisan, nucleic acid and protein e.g., histones, are generally packaged to form nucleosomes that form in the 30 interphase nucleus of a cell It will be apparent from the disclosure herein that the state of chromatin can be determined for nucleic acid bound to protein, e.g., histone or in its naked form. As used herein, the term "modified chromatin" shall be taken to mean a change in the 35 relative amount of euchromatin and heterochromatin in a biological sample (e.g., a cell or a cell extract) from a subject produced by any means including reduced expression WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 10 of a gene, hypermethylation or deacetylation of nucleic acid and/or histone. In the present context, modified chromatin is generally determined with reference to a baseline such as a non-cancerous sample, including a non-cancerous matched sample from a subject known to have a tumor. 5 As used herein, the term "unmodified chromatin" shall be taken to mean, for example, the that a gene is expressed at a level similar to or the same as a non-cancerous cell; and/or that the level of methylation of a nucleic acid is similar or the same as a non cancerous cell; and/or that the level of acetylation/methylation of a histone that is the 10 same or similar to a non-cancerous cell. As will be apparent tot eh skilled person from the foregoing, "less-modified" chromatin will be altered to a smaller degree and/or only be altered in some aspects compared to modified chromatin. E.g., less modified chromatin may comprise nucleic acid that is 15 hypermethylated, yet associated histones are not modified. Alternatively, or in addition, less modified chromatin comprises, for example, nucleic acid that is methylated to a degree less than that observed in modified chromatin. The modified chromatin may include coding or non-coding nucleic acid. Non-coding 20 nucleic acid is understood in the art to include an intron, a 5'- untranslated region, a 3' untranslated region, a promoter region of a genomic gene, or an intergenic region. "Heterochromatin" is a region of chromatin that is highly condensed and associated with relatively low gene expression, i.e. substantially or completely inactive with 25 respect to transcription. Without being bound by theory or mode of action, regions of DNA and some proteins (e.g., histones) in heterochromatin are often methylated and/or acetylated and these changes are thought to be associated with transcriptional inactivation and/or the condensation of the chromatin. 30 "Euchromatin" is a region of chromatin other than heterochromatin. Often euchromatin is poorly condensed and does not stain or stains poorly with compounds that bind to DNA. Euchromatin is associated with transcriptional activity in the genome. Furthermore, proteins associated with euchromatin may be modified, e.g., histones may be acetylated. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 11 As used herein, the term "non-cancerous sample" shall be taken to include any sample from or including a normal or healthy cell or tissue, or a data set produced using information from a normal or healthy cell or tissue. For example, the non-cancerous sample selected from the group consisting of: 5 (i) a sample comprising a non-cancerous cell; (ii) a sample from a normal tissue; (iii) a sample from a healthy tissue; (iv) an extract of any one of (i) to (iii); (v) a data set comprising measurements of modified chromatin and/or gene 10 expression for a healthy individual or a population of healthy individuals; (vi) a data set comprising measurements of modified chromatin and/or gene expression for a normal individual or a population of normal individuals; and (vii) a data set comprising measurements of the modified chromatin and/or gene expression from the subject being tested wherein the measurements are determined in a 15 matched sample having nonnral cells. Preferably, the non-cancerous sample is (i) or (ii) or (v) or (vii). As will be apparent to the skilled artisan from the preceding discussion, the modified chromatin region comprises a nucleic acid comprising at least a nucleotide sequence at 20 least about 80% identical to the nucleotide sequence of the human Z fragment set forth in SEQ ID NO: 8. The present inventors have also identified a number of genes within the region of chromatin modified in cancer. These genes within the diagnostic region of modified 25 chromatin to which this invention relates comprise, for example, nucleic acid encoding one or more polypeptides selected from the group consisting of RALBB (SEQ ID NO: 35), DDX18 (SEQ ID NO: 37), secretin receptor (SCTR, SEQ ID NO: 39), engrailed-1 (SEQ ID NO: 41), Translin (SEQ ID NO: 43), macrophage receptor (MARCO, SEQ ID NO: 49), PTPN (SEQ ID NO: 51), insulin induced gene 2 (INSIG2, SEQ ID NO: 53), 30 inhibin beta B (SEQ ID NO: 55), Gli2 (SEQ ID NO: 57), MGC13033 (SEQ ID NO: 59), TSAP6 (SEQ ID NO: 61), diazepam binding inhibitor (DBI, SEQ ID NO: 63), MGC10993 (SEQ ID NO: 65), EPB41L5 (SEQ ID NO: 67), FLJ14816 (SEQ ID NO: 69) and LBP9 (SEQ ID NO: 71). 35 Within the diagnostic region of modified chromatin, the present inventors have also identified a number of CpG islands that are hypermethylated in tumor samples relative WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 12 to non-cancerous samples. The nucleotide sequences of these CpG islands are set forth herein as SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33. The coordinates of CpG islands in the human genome as represented by the GenBank database of human genome sequences and Genome Browser (UCSC) locations as at July, 2003 are set forth in Table 1. The present 5 invention clearly extends to using nucleic acid comprising one or more of said CpG islands to diagnose cancer in a subject. Table 1 :Sites of CpG islands methylated in cancer subjects. Genbank Accession Mapped position on Number at Coordinates in Genbank Identity Chromosome 2 at July 2003 July 2003 record at July 2003 DDX18 (CpG48) chr2:118667127-118667901 AC009312 201413-202187 INSIG2 (CpG 49) chr2:118940686-118941441 AC009303 157655-158410 CpG41.2 chr2:119038455-119039000 AC093901 58772-59317 CpG61 chr2:119076852-119077882 AC093901 97169-98199 CpG29 chr2:119626840-119628285 AC018686 189282-190727 20Kb chr2:119661060-119661652 AC012665 141-733 Z(sma) chr2:119686319-119686515 AC012665 25400-25596 Z chr2:119686019-119687415 AC012665 25100-26496 CpG104 chr2:119688704-119689260 AC012665 27785-28341 CpG103 chr2:119694395-119696364 AC012665 33476-35445 CpG128 chr2:119697350-119701288 AC012665 36431-40369 CpG41 chr2:119702407-119703207 AC012665 41488-42288 CpG173 chr2:119709884-119710640 AC012665 48965-49721 CpG48 chr2:119711250-119712200 AC012665 50331-51281 CpG48rv chr2:119711663-119712200 AC012665 51281-50744 5'-MARCO chr2:119794483-119795616 AC013457 9525-10658 CpG229 chr2:120009984-120010587 AC016673 81784-82387 TSAP6 (CpG 85) chr2:120076135-120077048 AC016673 147935-148848 DBI (CpG 85) chr2:120219365-120220719 AC016736 107832-109186 CpG85 chr2:120283727-120285081 AC013275 24310-25664 SCTR (CpG 67) chr2:120376560-120377666 AC013275 117143-118249 PTPN4 (CpG 86) chr2:120611869-120613338 AC069154 162700-164169 CpG102 chr2:120865458-120866450 AC016691 56072-57064 RALBB (CpG115) chr2:121104831-121106601 AC012363 96835-98605 INHBB(CpG285) chr2:121196743-121199830 AC012363 188747-191799 CpG26 chr2:121374777-121375541 AC073257 61909-62673 CpG206 chr2:121587789-121589963 AC017033 3450-5624 CpG22 chr2:121840762-121842394 AC016764 74536-76168 LBP9(CpG112) chr2:122137046-122138393 AC079988 155212-156560 CpG51 chr2:122382616-122383915 AC012447 130012-131311 CLASP1(CpG104) chr2:122501452-122502919 AC018737 42832-44299 CpG37 chr2:122589132-122589784 AC018737 130512-131164 TSN(CpGS9) chr2:122607889-122608968 AC018737 149269-150348 In this respect, the accession numbers and locations of the CpG islands described supra 10 have been provided to describe the site of modified chromatin in cancer. These WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 13 accession numbers and genome locations are those recorded by the Genome Browser at July 2003. The skilled artisan will be aware that the accession numbers and Chromosomal locations will vary depending on the database accessed. The skilled person will also be capable of determining the location and/or sequence of each CpG 5 island using a different database (e.g., Unigene) based on the disclosure herein and/or the accession numbers and/or Chromosomal locations discussed supra. In a preferred embodiment, the diagnostic region of modified chromatin comprises each of the CpG regions referred to in Table 1. Preferably, the region of chromatin 10 extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises a nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences referred to in Table 1 selected from the group consisting of CpG61, CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5'-MARCO, CpG229, CpG67, INHBB(CpG285), CpG26, CpG206 and CpG22. 15 In another embodiment, the chromatin within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 comprises one or more CpG islands comprising one or more nucleotide sequence(s) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID 20 NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO: 20, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 22, SEQ ID NO: 23, SEQ ID NO: 24, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 26, SEQ ID NO: 27, SEQ ID NO: 28, SEQ ID NO: 29, SEQ ID NO: 25 30, SEQ ID NO: 31, SEQ ID NO: 32, SEQ ID NO: 33. More preferably, the region of modified chromatin comprises a nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences set forth in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 21. Even more preferably, the region of modified chromatin comprises a nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID 30 NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 28. 35 The present inventors have also shown that compounds useful for the treatment of a cancer also return the modified chromatin to a relatively normal or healthy state. For example, the present inventors have shown that treatment of a cancer cell with a histone WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 14 de-acetylase inhibitor and/or a methylation inhibitor reduces the degree of modified chromatin in the region identified by the inventors. Accordingly, these findings also provide the basis of screening method for determining the efficacy of treatment of a subject for cancer. For example, in one embodiment, the present invention provides a 5 method for monitoring the efficacy of treatment of a subject receiving treatment for a cancer, said method comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject: (i) unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin relative to a non-cancerous sample said unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin being positioned within 10 Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3; and/or (ii) unmodified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said unmodified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is 15 associated with said unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin; wherein said unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin and/or said unmodified expression indicates that the treatment is effective. In another embodiment, the present invention provides method for monitoring the 20 efficacy of treatment of a subject receiving treatment for a cancer, said method comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject: (i) modified chromatin relative to a non-cancerous sample said modified chromatin being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3; and/or 25 (ii) modified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said modified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is associated with said modified chromatin wherein said modified chromatin and/or said modified expression indicates that the 30 treatment is not effective. The inventors also demonstrated that the degree of chromatin modification (e.g., nucleic acid methylation) within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 is predictive of the probability of survival 35 of a subject suffering from a cancer. Accordingly, another embodiment of the invention provides method for determining the likelihood of survival of a subject WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 15 suffering from a cancer, said method comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject (i) modified chromatin relative to a non-cancerous sample said modified chromatin being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about 5 map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3; and/or (ii) modified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said modified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is associated with said modified chromatin; 10 wherein said modified chromatin and/or said modified expression indicates that the subject is likely to survive.. Preferably, the prognostic assay of the present invention permits determination of the likelihood that a subject being tested will survive to the short term (i.e., in the period up 15 to about 1 year from primary diagnosis) or medium term (i.e., in the period up to about 1-3 years from primary diagnosis or longer). For example, the modified chromatin and/or said modified expression indicates that the subject is likely to survive for at least about 3 years or 4 years or 5 years. In this respect, the likelihood of survival is relative to a subject that has unmodified chromatin/less-modified chromatin and/or unmodified 20 expression/less-modified expression. Suitable nucleic regions of Chromosome 2 will be apparent to the skilled artisan from the description herein in respect of any embodiment of the present invention. 25 In one embodiment, modified chromatin is detected or identified by performing a process comprising determining the level of heterochromatin relative to euchromatin in the sample, wherein an enhanced level of heterochromatin relative to euchromatin is indicative of modified chromatin. Preferably, the method of the invention additionally comprises determining the level of heterochromatin relative to euchromatin in the non 30 cancerous sample. As will be apparent tot eh skilled person, a method for detercting or identifying modified chromatin in a sample relative to a non-cancerous sample may comprise comparing (i) the level of heterochomatin relative to euchromatin the sample from the 35 subject and (ii) the level of heterochromatin relative to euchromatin in the non cancerous sample, wherein an enhanced level of heterochomatin relative to WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 16 euchromatin in the sample from the subject compared to the non-cancerous sample is indicative of modified chromatin in the sample relative to the non-cancerous sample. As will be apparent from the preceding discussion, detecting modified chromatin shall 5 be taken to include detecting a marker of modified chromatin, such as, for example, detecting the level of methylation of nucleic acid and/or hypermethylation of nucleic acid in the chromatin, detecting the level of methylation and/or de-acetylation of one or more histones (e.g., histone H3) in the chromatin and/or detecting the level of expression of a gene or nucleic acid of one positioned within the chromatin. Suitable 10 methods for the detection of such markers are known in the art and/or described herein. For example, the method of the invention comprises: (i) determining modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a sample from said 15 subject; (ii) determining the chromatin modification within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a non cancerous sample; and (iii) comparing the modified chromatin at (i) compared to (ii). 20 In one embodiment, modified chromatin or unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising identifying and/or detecting methylation of nucleic acid in the sample from the subject relative to a non-cancerous sample, wherein said nucleic acid is positioned within Chromosome 2 of 25 the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, and wherein enhanced methylation in the sample relative to the non-cancerous sample is indicative of modified chromatin and the same level or a reduced level of methylation in the sample from the subject relative to the non-cancerous sample is indicative of unmodified or less modified chromatin.. For example, methylation of nucleic acid is 30 determined by: (i) indentifying and/or detecting the level of methylation of a nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in the sample derived from the subject; (ii) identifying and/or detecting the level of methylation of the nucleic acid within 35 Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a non-cacnerous sample; and WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 17 (ii) comparing the degree of methylation at (i) compared to (ii), Preferably, the modified methylation is identified and/or detected in one or more nucleic acid(s) comprising one or more nucleotide sequence(s) selected from the group 5 consisting of SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 28. 10 Alternatively, or in addition, the modified methylation is identified and/or detected in one or more nucleic acid(s) comprising one or more nucleotide sequence(s) referred to in Table 1. For example, a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of CpG61, CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5'-MARCO, CpG229, CpG67, 15 INHBB(CpG285), CpG26, CpG206 and CpG22. In this respect, the present inventors have clearly demonstrated the detection of a large proportion of cancer samples tested by detecting or identifying and/or detecting modified methylation of a plurality of CpG islands or nucleic acids disclosed herein. 20 Accordingly, in one embodiment, the present invention comprises identifying and/or detecting modified methylation in a plurality of nucleic acids described herein. Nucleic acids that are methylated in cancer described herein in respect of any one or more embodiments of the invention are to be taken to apply mutatis mutandis to this embodiment of the invention. 25 Preferably, the modified methylation is identified and/or detected in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11 (or designated CpG128 in Table 1), a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21 (or designated CpG67 in Table 1), and a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide 30 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25 (or designated INHBB(CpG285) in Table 1). Even more preferably, the modified methylation is identified and/or detected in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11 (or designated CpG128 in Table 1) and a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set 35 forth in SEQ ID NO: 25 (or designated CpG67 in Table 1).

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 18 In one embodiment, the methylation of a nucleic acid is identified and/or detected by performing methylation-sensitive endonuclease digestion of DNA from the sample. In another embodiment, the method for identifying and/or detecting the methylation of 5 a nucleic acid comprises treating nucleic acid from the sample with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates non-methylated cytosine residues in nucleic acid under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis. For example, the compound is a metal salt of bisulphite, e.g., sodium bisulphite or potassium bisulphite. 10 The method of the invention may also comprise amplifying nucleic acid using primers that flank or are adjacent to a methylated cytosine residue or mutated residue at an equivalent position in non-methylated nucleic acid. For example, the primers flank or adjacent to a nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, 15 SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 28 or nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences referred to in Table 1 selected from the group consisting of CpG61, CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, 20 CpG48, CpG48rv, 5'-MARCO, CpG229, CpG67, INHBB(CpG285), CpG26, CpG206 and CpG22. By way of exemplification only, a primer comprises a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 72 to 199. As exemplified herein, the present inventors have also determined the nucleotide 25 sequence of the amplified nucleic acid to thereby detect and/or identify modified methylated nucleic acid. Alternatively, or in addition, the inventors have also determined a temperature at which the amplified nucleic acid denatures, wherein said temperature is indicative of the methylation of the nucleic acid. 30 In another embodiment, the method for detecting and/or identifying methylation of a nucleic acid comprises detecting the amplified fragments with a nucleic acid probe capable of specifically hybridizing to the amplified fragment, for example, the nucleic acid probe is capable of selectively hybridizing to a nucleic acid comprising one or more methylated cytosine residues. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 19 The present inventors have also used head-loop PCR to identify and/or detect modified methylation of one or a plurality of CpG sites in colorectal cancer, breast cancer or prostate cancer. Accordingly, the present invention additionally encompasses a method comprising: 5 (i) treating the nucleic acid with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereby producing a mutated nucleic acid; (ii) performing an amplification reaction with nucleic acid primers comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence flanking or adjacent to a 10 methylated cytosine residue or mutated residue at an equivalent position in non methylated nucleic acid, wherein at least one of said probes or primers comprises a region that selectively hybridizes to an amplicon comprising a nucleotide sequence complementary to the mutated residue produced in the amplification reaction thereby forming a hairpin nucleic acid and preventing further amplification of said nucleic acid; 15 (iii) detecting the amplified nucleic acid. In another embodiment of the invention, modified chromatin or unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising identifying and/or detecting a modified histone in the sample from the 20 subject relative to the non-cancerous sample, wherein said modified histone is positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 and wherein an enhanced level of said modified histone in the sample relative to the non-cancerous sample is indicative of modified chromatin and-the same or a reduced level of said modified histone in the sample from 25 the subject relative to the non-cancerous tissue is indicative of unmodified or less modified chromatin. For example, a histone modification selected from the group consisting of methylation of a histone, acetylation of a histone, de-acetylation of a histone, phosphorylation of a histone and mixtures thereof is determined. Preferably, the histone modification is methylation of a histone or de-acetylation of a histone. In a 30 particularly preferred embodiment, the histone modification is methylation of a lysine residue in Histone H3. In one embodiment, modified histone is identified and/or detected by performing a method comprising: WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 20 (i) identifying and/or detecting modified histone in chromatin within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q1 4 .1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a sample from the subject; (ii) identifying and/or detecting modified histone in chromatin within Chromosome 2 5 of the human genome from about map position 2q1 4 .1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a non-cacnerous sample; and (iii) comparing the level of modified histone at (i) and (ii) In this respect, the present inventors have identified and/or detected modified 10 chromatin using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). Accordingly, one embodiment of the invention provides a method for determining modified chromatin in a sample, comprising: (i) contacting a biological sample comprising chromatin within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 with 15 an antibody that selectively binds to a modified histone for a time and under conditions sufficient for an antibody-antigen complex to form; and (ii) determining the amount of nucleic acid from within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 bound to the antibody-antigen complex, 20 wherein the amount of said nucleic acid is indicative of the amount of modified histone in chromatin within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3. For example, the amount of nucleic acid is determined using an amplification reaction, e.g., PCR. Preferably, said amplification reaction is performed using a probe or primer (e.g., comprising one or more nucleotide 25 sequence selected from the group consisting of in SEQ ID NOs: 236-255) labeled with a detectable marker to facilitate determining the amount of said nucleic acid. The present inventors have also demonstrated that modified expression of a gene or nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map 30 position 2q14.3 of the human genome in a sample from a subject relative to a non cancerous cell is indicative of an enhanced degree of chromatin modification. For example, modified expression is determined by performing a method comprising: (i) determining the level of expression of a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 of the 35 human genome in the sample derived from a subject; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 21 (ii) determining the level of expression of a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 of the human genome in a suitable control sample, wherein a reduced level of expression at (i) compared to (ii) is indicative of an 5 enhanced degree of chromatin modification. As exemplified herein, the present inventors have determined the level of mRNA encoded by a number of nucleic acid located within the diagnostic region of chromatin. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the method comprises determining the level of 10 expression of a nucleic acid is selected from the group consisting of RALBB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816, LBP9 and mixtures thereof. In this respect, the level of expression of the nucleic acid is, preferably, determined by 15 performing a process comprising hybridizing a nucleic acid probe or primer capable of specifically hybridizing to a transcript of a nucleic acid positioned within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 to a nucleic acid in a biological sample derived from a subject and detecting the level of hybridization by a detection means. For example, the detection means is a hybridization reaction or an 20 amplification reaction (e.g. PCR). Suitable probes and/or primers will be apparent to the skilled artisan based on the description herein. For example, the probe or primer comprises a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 200-219. Preferably, such a probe 25 or primer is labeled with a detectable marker (e.g., a fluorescent marker) to thereby facilitate determining the level of expression of a nucleic acid. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises identifying and/or detecting the level of expression of gene or nucleic acid compared to a non-cancerous 30 sample said nucleic acid or gene being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein a reduced level of expression indicates that the subject suffers from cancer or has a predisposition therefor or that the treatment is not effective or that the subject has a high probability of survival and wherein an enhanced level of expression indiccates that 35 the subject does not suffer from cancer or does not have a predisposition therefor or that the treatment is effective or that the subject has a low probability of survival.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 22 In another embodiment, the level of expression of a nucleic acid is determined by determining the level of a polypeptide encoded by said nucleic acid. In accordance with this embodiment, the level of expression of the nucleic acid is determined by 5 performing a process comprising: (i) contacting a biological sample derived from a subject with an antibody capable of specifically binding to a protein encoded by a nucleic acid located within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 for a time and under conditions sufficient for an antibody/ligand complex to form; 10 and (ii) determining the amount of said complex, wherein the amount of said complex is indicative of the level of expression of said nucleic acid. 15 Preferably, protein is selected from the group consisting of RALBB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9. The present invention also provides a process for diagnosing a cancer or a 20 predisposition therefor or monitoring the efficacy of treatment or determining the likelihood of survival comprising recommending the method of the invention as described in any embodiment herein to a subject. Preferably, this process further comprises performing a method of the present invention as described in any one or more embodiments. 25 Accordingly, in one embodiment, the present invention provides a process of diagnosing a cancer or a predisposition therefor or monitoring the efficacy of treatment or determining the likelihood of survival, said process comprising: (i) detecting a marker associated with a cancer in a subject; and 30 (ii) recommending or performing a method for diagnosing a cancer or a predisposition therefor or monitoring the efficacy of treatment or determining the likelihood of survival of the invention as described in any embodiment herein. 35 In another embodiment, the process comprises: WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 23 (i) performing a method for diagnosing a cancer or a predisposition therefor or monitoring the efficacy of treatment or determining the likelihood of survival of the invention as described in any embodiment herein; and (ii) recommending or performing a method to detect one or more markers associated 5 with a cancer in the subject. Preferably, the method of the previous two embodiments comprises performing a method of the invention as described in any one or more embodiments herein and performing a method to detect one or more markers associated with a cancer in the 10 subject. The present invention also clearly contemplates a multi-analyte assay for diagnosing cancer. For example, such a multi-analyte assay comprises detecting a plurality of markers described herein. For example, the multi-analyte assay detects one or more 15 markers described herein in any one or more embodiments of the present invention and detecting one or more additional markers of a cancer. As the methods of the present invention are useful for determining whether or not a subject is likely to suffer from a cancer, these methods are also useful in methods of 20 treatment of cancer. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treatment comprising: (i) performing a method described herein for diagnosing a cancer or a predisposition therefor; and (ii) administering or recommending a therapeutic for the treatment or prophylaxis of 25 cancer. Preferably, the administration or recommendation of a therapeutic for the treatment of a cancer is based upon the diagnosis of a cancer. 30 As discussed supra, the present inventors have shown that compounds useful for the treatment of cancer reduce the degree of chromatin modification in the region of chromatin identified by the inventors. These findings also provide the basis for a screening method for identifying compounds useful for the treatment of cancer. Accordingly, in another embodiment, the presenter invention provides a method for 35 determining a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer comprising: WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 24 (i) administering a candidate compound to a cancer cell and determining the level of modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in said cell; (ii) determining the level of modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about 5 map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a non-cancerous cell; and (iii) comparing the level of modified chromatin at (i) and (ii), wherein a similar level of modified chromatin at (i) relative to (ii) indicates that the compound is a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer. Preferably, the cells at (i) and (ii) are derived from the same tissue type and, more preferably, the cells at (i) 10 and (ii) are the same cell type. The present invention also provides a method for determining a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer comprising: (i) administering a candidate compound to a cancer cell and determining the level of 15 modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in said cell; (ii) determining the level of modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a cancer cell in the absence of the candidate compound; and 20 (iii) comparing the level of modified chromatin at (i) and (ii), wherein a reduced level of modified chromatin at (i) relative to (ii) indicates that the compound is a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer. Preferably, the cells at (i) and (ii) are of the same type. 25 The present inventors have also produced a number of probes and/or primers for determining the degree of chromatin modification in a sample and/or for diagnosing a cancer in said subject. Accordingly, the present invention additionally provides an isolated nucleic acid probe or primer that is capable of selectively hybridizing to a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about 30 map position 2q14.3 that is methylated in a cancer. Also provided is an isolated nucleic acid probe or primer that is capable of selectively hybridizing to a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 that is bound by a modified histone in a cancer. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 25 The present invention also provides an isolated nucleic acid probe or primer that is capable of selectively hybridizing to a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 that is expressed at a modified level in a cancer. 5 For example, the present invention provides an isolated nucleic acid probe or primer consisting of a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 72-219 or 224-259. 10 Brief description of the drawings Figure 1 is a copy of a photographic representation showing polyacrylamide gels on which nucleic acid isolated using the AIMS method has been electrophoresed. Lanes labeled "N" contain nucleic acid from normal non-cancerous samples and lanes labeled "T" contain nucleic acid from tumor samples. 15 Figure 2 is a copy of a photographic representation showing gels on which nucleic acid isolated using the AIMS method has been electrophoresed. Lanes labeled "N" contain nucleic acid from normal non-cancerous samples and lanes labeled "T" contain nucleic acid from tumor samples. The Z fragment discussed herein is indicated by the arrow. 20 Figure 3 is a diagrammatic representation showing the chromosomal location on 2q14.2 of the differentially methylated Z fragment sequence (*), in the context of the location of the genes and CpG islands identified via Genome Browser (July 2003). An expanded view of the region encompassing the Z fragment shows it is positioned 1.2kb upstream from a 25 25Kb region that contains 11 discrete CpG islands, as indicated by green filled squares and one defined gene Engrailed-1 (EN1). Dark lines represent CpG islands greater than 300bp in length and light lines CpG islands less than 300bp. The CpG number indicates the number of CpG sites per island. 30 Figure 4 is a graphical representation showing results of direct bisulphite sequencing electrophoretograms of EN1 promoter (CpG 128) in two colon cancer cell lines HCT116 and SW480 and a matched normal and tumour pair (165T and 165N) (as indicated at the left-hand side of the figure). The CpG sites are numbered relative to the start of the PCR fragment. The percent methylation at each CpG site, as determined by 35 the relative C to T peak heights is indicated below the sequence profile.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 26 Figure 5a is a graphical representation showing results of real-time PCR dissociation melting temperature analysis. The temperature at which the PCR product dissociates is indicative of unmethylated (U) DNA, methylated (M) DNA or a mixture of both methylated and unmethylated DNA. In the example shown, (U) indicates the melt 5 curve of unmethylated control DNA; (M) indicates the melt temperature of methylated control DNA. Figure 5b is a graphical representation showing results of real-time PCR dissociation melting temperature analysis. The temperature at which the PCR product dissociates is 10 indicative of unmethylated (U) DNA, methylated (M) DNA or a mixture of both methylated and unmethylated DNA. The graph shown indicates the melt curve of the EN1 promoter from HCT116 and SW480 bisulphite treated DNA. Figure 5c is a graphical representation showing results of real-time PCR dissociation 15 melting temperature analysis. The temperature at which the PCR product dissociates is indicative of unmethylated (U) DNA, methylated (M) DNA or a mixture of both methylated and unmethylated DNA. The graph shown indicates the melt curve of the EN1 promoter from bisulfite treated DNA from matched tumour and normal pairs (9N /9T and 165N/165T). 20 Figure 5b is a graphical representation showing results of a PCR melting dissociation temperature assay in which nucleic acid comprising a CpG island is amplified using PCR following bisulfite treatment and the melting temperature of the PCR product is determined. In the sample shown the majority of the DNA was amplified from 25 methylated (M) DNA thereby causing dissociation at a single temperature. Figure 5c is a graphical representation showing results of a PCR melting dissociation temperature assay in which nucleic acid comprising a CpG island is amplified using PCR following bisulfite treatment and the melting temperature of the PCR product is 30 determined. In the sample shown there is a mixture of methylated (M) and unmethylated (U) DNA thereby causing dissociation at different temperatures. Figure 6 is a tabular representation showing a summary of the DNA methylation profile across the 83kb region encompassing the Z fragment. The degree of methylation was 35 determined by direct PCR sequencing in 2 colorectal cell lines (HCT1 16 and SW480) and 2 pairs of cancer (9T and 16T) and matched normal samples (9N and 165N). The WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 27 name of the CpG islands are indicated (and correspond to those in Figure 3), as are the co-ordinates from Genome Browser Human (July 2003) and the distance in kilobases (Kb) from the Z fragment. CpGi denotes presence or absence of a CpG island. A white square indicates about 0-25% methylation, a dotted pale grey square indicates about 25 5 50% methylation, a grey square indicates about 50-75% methylation and a black square indicates about 75-100% methylation. Figure 7 is a graphical representation showing results of genomic bisulphite sequencing of individual clones across the 83kb region encompassing the Z fragment. Selected PCR 10 fragments were sequenced from 2 colorectal cell lines (HCT1 16 and SW480) and 2 pairs of cancer (9T and 16T) and matched normal samples (9N and 165N). Each square denotes a CpG site. Black squares indicate a methylated CpG site, and white squares indicate an unmethylated CpG site. 15 Figure 8a is a graphical representation showing the chromosomal location of 2q14.2 on chromosome 2. The location of genes and CpG islands within Chromosome position 2q14.2 are indicated in the panels (identified using Genome Browser, July 2003). The dotted lines indicate the region spanning the Z fragment that was analysed as shown in Figures 3-7. 20 Figure 8b is a graphical representation showing the location of genes (top panel) and CpG islands (bottom panel) within Chromosome position 2q14.2 (identified using Genome Browser, July 2003). The circle indicates the region spanning the Z fragment that was analysed as shown in Figures 3-7. 25 Figure 8c is a graphical representation showing a detailed analysis of the location of the defined genes and associated CpG islands across the 4 Mb region of Chromosome 2 shown in Figures 8a and 8b. In the upper panel the 10 defined genes are indicated in dark letters and the grey letters represent the provisional genes, based on data in the 30 SWISS-PROT database. The lower panel shows the location of the CpG islands, the islands that have been bisulfite sequenced (n=31) in this study are indicated in black and the CpG islands not analyzed in grey (n=15). Figure 9a is a graphical representation showing a summary of results of genomic 35 bisulphite direct sequencing of the CpG island associated with the EN1 gene using DNA from the colorectal cell line HCT116 and SW480 and in the cancer and matched normal WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 28 (165N and 165T and 9N and 9T) samples. The CpG sites are numbered; the % methylation at each CpG sites is plotted on each graph. Figure 9b is a graphical representation showing a summary of results of genomic 5 bisulphite direct sequencing of the CpG island associated with the INHBB gene using DNA from the colorectal cell line HCT116 and SW480 and in the cancer and matched normal (165N and 165T and 9N and 9T) samples. The CpG sites are numbered; the % methylation at each CpG sites is plotted on each graph. 10 Figure 9c is a graphical representation showing a summary of results of genomic bisulphite direct sequencing of the CpG island associated with the SCTR gene using DNA from the colorectal cell line HCT 16 and SW480 and in the cancer and matched normal (165N and 165T and 9N and 9T) samples. The CpG sites are numbered; the % methylation at each CpG sites is plotted on each graph. 15 Figure 10a is a graphical representation showing genomic bisulphite sequencing of individual clones of the CpG sites INSIG2, CpG61, 20Kb, Z fragment and CpG104 linked to Chromosoome position 2q14.2 (as indicated). For each CpG island 10 -12 clones derived from a pool of 3 independent PCRs were sequenced. DNA was analysed from two 20 colorectal cell lines (HCT116 and SW480) and two pairs of cancer and matched normal samples (9N and 9T, 165N and 165T) as indicated. White squares indicate an unmethylated CpG site; black squares denote a methylated CpG site. Figure 10b is a graphical representation showing genomic bisulphite sequencing of 25 individual clones of the CpG sites EN1, CpG41, CpG48, SCTR, RALBB and INI-IBB linked to Chromosome position 2q14.2 (as indicated). For each CpG island 10 -12 clones derived from a pool of 3 independent PCRs were sequenced. DNA was analysed from two colorectal cell lines (HCTl 16 and SW480) and two pairs of cancer and matched normnnal samples (9N and 9T, 165N and 165T) as indicated. White squares indicate an unmethylated 30 CpG site; black squares denote a methylated CpG site. Figure 11 is a tabular representation showing a summary of the DNA methylation profile across the 4 Mb region of chromosome 2q14.2. Direct PCR sequencing methylation analysis of the CpG islands and CpG depleted regions in two colorectal cell lines (HCT116 35 and SW480) and two pairs of cancer and matched normal samples (9N/9T, 165N/165T). CpGi denotes presence or absence of a CpG island. The distance in kilobases (Kb) from WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 29 the Z fragment is also indicated. The names and status of the defined and provisional and predicted genes are also indicated. Average overall methylation of the CpG island is indicated as follows: a white square, about 0-25% methylation; a dotted pale grey square, about 25-50% methylation; a grey square, about50-75% methylation; and a black square, 5 about 75-100% methylation. Figure 12a is a tabular representation showing DNA methylation of the following CpG sites: CpG128 (EN1 promoter), SCTR (SCTR) and INHBB (INHBB) in 26 colorectal samples. Methylation status was determined using direct PCR sequencing. Sample 10 number, age, sex and Duke stage is also indicated. A methylated CpG island is indicated by a black square and an unmethylated CpG island is indicated by a white square. Figure 12b is a tabular representation showing DNA methylation of the following CpG sites: Z fragment, EN1, SCTR and INHBB in 50 colorectal samples. Methylation status 15 was determined using heat-dissociation real-time PCR. A methylated CpG island is indicated by a black square and an unmethylated CpG island is indicated by a white square. Figure 13 is a tabular representation showing results of direct PCR bisulphite sequencing of the CpG islands, CpG128 (EN1 promoter), SCTR (SCTR) and INHBB (INHBB) in 13 20 colon cancer cell lines. A methylated CpG island is indicated by a black square and an unmethylated CpG island is indicated by a white square. Figure 14 is a graphical representation showing mRNA expression levels of EN1, SCTR and INHBB as determined by RT-PCR from HCT116 cells and compared to the expression 25 levels of RNA isolated from pooled (10) colorectal tumour tissue samples and the corresponding pooled (10) normal tissue samples. The level of expression by RT-PCR was normalised with 18s expression. Figure 15 is a graphical representation showing the level of mRNA expression of all the 30 known genes (DDX18, INSIG2, EN1, MARCO, SCTR, PTPN4, RALBB, INHIBB, GLI2 and TSN, as indicated) in the 2q14.2 cytogenic band as determined by RTPCR. Expression levels were determined HCT116 cells, pooled tumour and pooled matched normal samples as indicated. 35 Figure 16a is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of a control gene, p21. RNA was isolated from WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 30 untreated HCT116 cells, and HCT1 16 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. 5 Figure 16b is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of EN1. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT116 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse 10 transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. Figure 16c is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of SCTR. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT1 16 15 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. 20 Figure 16d is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of INHBB. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT1 16 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s 25 RNA expression. Figure 16e is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of MAL4RCO. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT116 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a 30 combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. Figure 16f is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine 35 (Aza) and TSA on the expression of GLI2. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT116 cells, and HCT 16 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 31 combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. 5 Figure 16g is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of DDX18. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT116 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s 10 RNA expression. Figure 16h is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of INSIG2. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT116 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a 15 combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. Figure 16i is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine 20 (Aza) and TSA on the expression of PTPN. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT116 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. 25 Figure 16j is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of RALBB. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT116 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse 30 transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. Figure 16k is a graphical representation showing the effect of 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza) and TSA on the expression of TSN. RNA was isolated from untreated HCT116 35 cells, and HCT116 cells treated with 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA). RNA was reverse WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 32 transcribed and expression was quantitated by real-time PCR and normalised using 18s RNA expression. Figure 17a is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin 5 immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of 10 immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding of dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for a control gene, p21. 15 Figure 17b is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was 20 immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding of dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for EN1. 25 Figure 17c is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti 30 dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding of 35 dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for SCTR.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 33 Figure 17d is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti 5 dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding of 10 dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for INHBB. Figure 17e is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT 116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA 15 and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the 20 graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding of dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for MARCO. Figure 17f is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT1 16 cells that were either 25 untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to 30 the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT 116 untreated cells. The relative binding of dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for GLI2. Figure 17g is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin 35 immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 34 and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to 5 the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT1 16 untreated cells. The relative binding of dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for DDX18. Figure 17h is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin 10 immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of 15 immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT1 16 untreated cells. The relative binding of dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for INSIG2. 20 Figure 17i is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was 25 immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT1 16 untreated cells. The relative binding of dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for PTPN. 30 Figure 17j is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti 35 dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 35 immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding of dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for RALBB. 5 Figure 17k is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti 10 dimethylated lys 9 Histone 3 antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by Real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA is calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding of 15 dimethylated H3-K9 is shown for TSN. Figure 18a is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA 20 and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to 25 HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for the control gene p21. Figure 18b is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA 30 and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to 35 HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for EN1.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 36 Figure 18c is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti 5 acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the innunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for SCTR. 10 Figure 18d is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti 15 acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for INHBB. 20 Figure 18e is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti 25 acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for MARCO. 30 Figure 18f is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT 16 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti 35 acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 37 calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT1 16 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for GLI2. 5 Figure 18g is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was 10 quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for DDX18. 15 Figure 18h is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was 20 quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for INSIG2. 25 Figure 18i is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT 16 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was 30 quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for PTPN. 35 Figure 18j is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT 16 cells that were either WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 38 untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was 5 calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for RALBB. Figure 18k is a graphical representation showing results of a chromatin 10 immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Chromatin from HCT116 cells that were either untreated, or treated with Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza), TSA or a combination of TSA and 5-Aza-2' deoxycytidine (Aza/TSA) was immunoprecipitated with an anti acetylated histone antibody. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated was quantified by real-Time PCR, and the amount of immunoprecipitated target DNA was 15 calculated as a ratio of immunoprecipitated DNA to the total amount of input DNA used for the immunoprecipitation. All the results in the graph are expressed relative to HCT116 untreated cells. The relative binding is shown for TSN Figure 19a is a graphical representation showing the methylation of CpG dinucleotides 20 in breast cancer cell lines (T47D, MDA MB453, MDA MB 468, SKBR3, KPL1, MDA MB 231, DU4475, MCF-7, MDA MB 157 and MCF-10A) and prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP and DU145). Each box in a row represents a distinct CpG dinucleotide. Each box in a column represents the result obtained from a distinct clone. The CpG island tested was the Z fragment as set forth in Table 1. Dark shading and/or the 25 symbol "+" represents a methylated CpG dinucleotide. Light shading and/or the symbol "-" represents an unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. The symbol "B" represents a clone that was blocked and could not be scored by sequencing. Figure 19b is a graphical representation showing the methylation of CpG dinucleotides 30 in breast cancer cell lines (T47D, MDA MB453, MDA MB 468, SKBR3, KPL1, MDA MB 231, DU4475, MCF-7, MDA MB 157 and MCF-10A) and prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP and DU145). Each box in a row represents a distinct CpG dinucleotide. Each box in a column represents the result obtained from a distinct clone. The CpG island tested was CpG128 as set forth in Table 1. Dark shading and/or the symbol "+" 35 represents a methylated CpG dinucleotide. Light shading and/or the symbol "-" WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 39 represents an unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. The symbol "B" represents a clone that was blocked and could not be scored by sequencing. Figure 19c is a graphical representation showing the methylation of CpG dinucleotides 5 in breast cancer cell lines (T47D, MDA MB453, MDA MB 468, SKBR3, KPL1, MDA MB 231, DU4475, MCF-7, MDA MB 157 and MCF-10A) and prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP and DU145). Each box in a row represents a distinct CpG dinucleotide. Each box in a column represents the result obtained from a distinct clone. The CpG island tested was CpG48 as set forth in Table 1. Dark shading and/or the symbol "+" 10 represents a methylated CpG dinucleotide. Light shading and/or the symbol "-" represents an ur-nethylated CpG dinucleotide. The symbol "B" represents a clone that was blocked and could not be scored by sequencing. Figure 19d is a graphical representation showing the methylation of CpG dinucleotides 15 in breast cancer cell lines (T47D, MDA MB453, MDA MB 468, SKBR3, KPL1, MDA MB 231, DU4475, MCF-7, MDA MB 157 and MCF-10A) and prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP and DU145). Each box in a row represents a distinct CpG dinucleotide. Each box in a column represents the result obtained from a distinct clone. The CpG island tested was SCTR as set forth in Table 1. Dark shading and/or the symbol "+" 20 represents a methylated CpG dinucleotide. Light shading and/or the symbol "-" represents an unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. The symbol "B" represents a clone that was blocked and could not be scored by sequencing. Figure 20a is a tabular representation showing the methylation status of three CpG 25 islands in the ovarian cancer cell lines SW626, OVCA420, A2780, TOV21G, IGROV1, SKOV3, OV90, TOV112 and HOSE6-3, as indicated. The CpG islands tested were EN1, INHBB and SCTR, as indicated and correspond to the CpG islands described herein. Methylation status was determined using heat-dissociation real-time PCR (columns labeled with only the name of the CpG island) or headloop PCR 30 (columns labeled with HL). Dark grey indicates methylation detected in duplicate assays (also indicated by the symbol "M/M"). Light grey indicates methylation detected in one of two assays (also indicated by the symbol "U/M"). White indicates no methylation across the CpG island (also indicated by the symbol "U/U"). 35 Figure 20b is a tabular representation showing the methylation status of two CpG islands in 27 ovarian cancer samples. The CpG islands tested were ENI and SCTR, as WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 40 indicated and correspond to the CpG islands described herein. Methylation status was determined using headloop PCR (columns labeled with HL). Dark grey indicates methylation detected in duplicate assays (also indicated by the symbol "M/M"). Light grey indicates methylation detected in one of two assays (also indicated by the symbol 5 "U/M"). White indicates no methylation across the CpG island (also indicated by the symbol "U/U"). Figure 21 is a graphical representation showing results of a headloop PCR analysis of the CpG island associated with the CpG island associated with Enl using control 10 nucleic acid (labeled as Serological and Roche) or from prostate cancer samples (labeled Prostate 1 and Prostate 7). The symbol "U" indicates unmethylated DNA and the symbol "M" indicated methylated DNA. Figure 22a is a tabular representation showing the methylation status of two CpG 15 islands in 8 breast cancer cell lines (T47D, MDAMB453, MDAMB468, SKBR3, MDAMB231, MCF-10OA, MDAMB157 and MCF-7) and two prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP and DU145). The CpG islands tested were EN1 and SCTR, as indicated and correspond to the CpG islands described herein. Methylation status was determined using headloop PCR (columns labeled with HL). Dark grey indicates methylation 20 detected in duplicate assays (also indicated by the symbol "M/M"). Light grey indicates methylation detected in one of two assays (also indicated by the symbol "U/M"). White indicates no methylation across the CpG island (also indicated by the symbol "U/U"). 25 Figure 22b is a tabular representation showing the methylation status of two CpG islands in 12 prostate cancer samples and matched control samples. The CpG islands tested were EN1 and SCTR, as indicated and correspond to the CpG islands described herein. Methylation status was determined using heat-dissociation real-time PCR (columns labeled with only the name of the CpG island) or headloop PCR (columns 30 labeled with HL). Dark grey indicates methylation detected in duplicate assays (also indicated by the symbol "M/M"). Light grey indicates methylation detected in one of two assays (also indicated by the symbol "U/M"). White indicates no methylation across the CpG island (also indicated by the symbol "U/U"). 35 Figure 22c is a tabular representation showing the methylation of CpG dinucleotides in normal prostate epithelium for the CpG islands tested were EN1 and SCTR. Each box WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 41 in a row represents a distinct CpG dinucleotide. Each box in a column represents the result obtained from a distinct clone. Dark shading and/or the symbol "+" represents a methylated CpG dinucleotide. Light shading and/or the symbol "-" represents an unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. 5 Figure 22d is a tabular representation showing the methylation status of two CpG islands in 100 breast cancer samples. The CpG islands tested were EN1 and SCTR, as indicated and correspond to the CpG islands described herein. Methylation status was determined using heat-dissociation real-time PCR (columns labeled with only the name 10 of the CpG island) or headloop PCR (columns labeled with HL). Dark grey indicates methylation detected in duplicate assays (also indicated by the symbol "M/M"). Light grey indicates methylation detected in one of two assays (also indicated by the symbol "U/M"). White indicates no methylation across the CpG island (also indicated by the symbol "U/U"). 15 Figure 22e is a tabular representation showing the methylation of CpG dinucleotides in normal breast tissue for the CpG islands tested were EN1 and SCTR. Each box in a row represents a distinct CpG dinucleotide. Each box in a column represents the result obtained from a distinct clone. Dark shading and/or the symbol "+" represents a 20 methylated CpG dinucleotide. Light shading and/or the symbol "-" represents an unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. Figure 22f is a tabular representation showing the methylation of CpG dinucleotides in normal breast tissue for the CpG islands tested were EN1 and SCTR. Each box in a 25 row represents a distinct CpG dinucleotide. Each box in a column represents the result obtained from a distinct clone. Dark shading and/or the symbol "+" represents a methylated CpG dinucleotide. Light shading and/or the symbol "-" represents an unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. 30 Figure 23 is a tabular representation showing the methylation status of three CpG islands in 100 breast cancer samples. The CpG islands tested were EN1, INHBB and SCTR, as indicated and correspond to the CpG islands described herein. Methylation status was determined using heat-dissociation real-time PCR (columns labeled with only the name of the CpG island) or headloop PCR (columns labeled with HL). Dark 35 grey indicates methylation detected in duplicate assays (also indicated by the symbol "M/M"). Light grey indicates methylation detected in one of two assays (also indicated WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 42 by the symbol "U/M"). White indicates no methylation across the CpG island (also indicated by the symbol "U/U"). Figure 24 is a graphical representation showing Kaplan-Meier survival curves for 5 subjects suffering from colorectal cancer. The dark line indicates the survival of subjects suffering from colorectal cancer in which the CpG island associated with SCTR is methylated. The light line indicates the survival of subjects suffering from colorectal cancer in which the CpG island associated with SCTR is not methylated. 10 Detailed description of the preferred embodiments Suitable cancers The present invention encompasses the diagnosis of any cancer. For example, the present invention contemplates the diagnosis of a cancer selected from the group consisting of a breast cancer, a prostate cancer, a lung cancer, a cancer of the bronchus, 15 a colon cancer, a rectal cancer, a cancer of the urinary bladder, a kidney cancer, a cancer of the renal pelvis, a pancreatic cancer, a head and/or neck cancer, a laryngeal cancer, a oropharyngeal cancer, a cancer of the tongue, an ovarian cancer, a thyroid cancer, a stomach cancer, a brain tumor, a cancer of the brain, a multiple myeloma, a cancer of the esophagus, a liver cancer, a cancer of the intrahepatic bile duct, a cervical 20 cancer, a chronic lymphocytic leukemia, a soft tissue cancer, a heart cancer, a Hodgkin lymphoma, a non-Hodgkin lymphoma, a testicular cancer, a cancer of the small intestine, a cancer of the anus, a cancer of the anal canal, a cancer of the anorectum, a vulval cancer, a cancer of the gallbladder, a malignant mesothelioma, a bone cancer, a Ewing's sarcoma, an osteosarcoma, a rhabdomyosarcoma, a soft-tissue sarcoma, a 25 cancer of the hypopharynx, a cancer of the eye, an orbital cancer, a cancer of the nasal cavity, a cancer of the middle ear, a cancer of the ureter, a gastrointestinal carinoid tumor, an adrenal cancer, a parathyroid cancer, a pituitary cancer, a gastric cancer, a hepatoma, an endometrial cancer, a uterine cancer, a gestational trophoblastic disease, a choriocarcinoma, a vaginal cancer, a fallopian tube cancer, an acute lymphocytic 30 leukemia (ALL), an acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), a chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), a chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), a hairy cell leukemia, a myeloproliferative disorder, a mesothelioma, a non-small cell lunger cancer, a small cell lung cancer, an AIDS related lymphoma, a cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, a mucosis fungoides, a Kaposi's sarcoma and a melanoma. As will be apparent to the skilled 35 artisan several of the cancers listed supra encompass multiple forms of cancer. The present invention is not to be limited to any one specific form of a cancer.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 43 Modified chromatin on Chromosome 2 As discussed herein the present inventors have identified a region of chromatin on Chromosome 2 that is modified in cancerous cells compared to non-cancerous cells. 5 This region of chromatin extends from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3. Preferably, the region of modified chromosome comprises or is contained within nucleic acid that extends from about nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 comprising the gene DDX18 to about nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 comprising the gene TSN. 10 As used herein, the term "DDX18" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.1-2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-humnan animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a 15 human DDX18 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 36. Preferably, the percentage identity to SEQ ID NO: 36 is at least about 85%, more preferably at least about 90%, even more preferably at least about 95% and still more preferably at least about 99%. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the DDX18 20 gene is a human DDX18 gene. In determining whether or not two nucleotide sequences fall within a particular percentage identity limitation recited herein, those skilled in the art will be aware that it is necessary to conduct a side-by-side comparison or multiple alignment of sequences. 25 In such comparisons or alignments, differences may arise in the positioning of non identical residues, depending upon the algorithm used to perform the alignment. In the present context, reference to a percentage identity between two or more nucleotide sequences shall be taken to refer to the number of identical residues between said sequences as determined using any standard algorithm known to those skilled in the art. 30 For example, nucleotide sequences may be aligned and their identity calculated using the BESTFIT program or other appropriate program of the Computer Genetics Group, Inc., University Research Park, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America (Devereaux et al, Nucl. Acids Res. 12, 387-395, 1984). 35 Alternatively, a suite of commonly used and freely available sequence comparison algorithms is provided by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 44 Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) (Altschul et al. J Mol. Biol. 215: 403 410, 1990), which is available from several sources, including NCBI, Bethesda, Md. The BLAST software suite includes various sequence analysis programs including "blastn," that is used to align a known nucleotide sequence with other polynucleotide 5 sequences from a variety of databases and "blastp" used to align a known amino acid sequence with one or more sequences from one or more databases. Also available is a tool called "BLAST 2 Sequences" that is used for direct pairwise comparison of two nucleotide sequences. 10 As used herein, the term "TSN" or "Translin" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 2q14.3 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding 15 region of a human TSN as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 42. Preferably, the percentage identity to SEQ ID NO: 42 is at least about 85%, more preferably at least about 90%, even more preferably at least about 95% and still more preferably at least about 99%. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the TSN gene is 20 a human TSN gene. For the purposes of nomenclature the sequence of any gene set forth herein relates to the cDNA sequence or protein coding region of said gene. The person skilled in the art will be aware of the means to obtain the nucleotide sequence of the relevant genomic 25 gene. For example, the sequence of the genomic genes on human Chromosome 2 are set forth in GenBank Accession Number NT086626, and obtainable from NCBI. In another embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises one or more known or predicted genes or transcribed 30 regions within Chromosome 2 between about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein the gene is selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, secretin receptor (SCTR), engrailed-1 (EN1), Translin (TSN), macrophage receptor (MARCO), PTPN, insulin induced gene 2 (INSIG2), inhibin beta B, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, diazepam binding inhibitor (DBI), MGC10993, EPB41L5, 35 FLJ14816 and LBP9.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 45 In another embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises an intergenic region between any two of the previously described genes. Alternatively, the region comprises a plurality of genes and associated intergenic regions. 5 As used herein, the term "RALB" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at 10 least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human RALBB as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 34. As used herein, the term "SCTR" or "secretin receptor" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 15 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human SCTR as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 38. 20 As used herein, the term "EN1I" or "engrailed 1" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a 25 human EN1 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 40. As used herein, the term "MARCO" or "macrophage receptor" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic 30 gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human MARCO as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 48. As used herein, the term "PTPN4" or "protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 35 4" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 46 thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human PTPN as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 50. 5 As used herein, the term "INSIG2" or "insulin induced gene 2" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.1-2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein 10 coding region of a human INSIG2 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 52. As used herein, the term "INHBB" or "inhibin beta B" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA 15 transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human INHBB as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 54. As used herein, the term "Gli2" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any 20 genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human Gli2 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 56. 25 As used herein, the term "MGC13033" or "FLJ10996" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.1-2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a 30 nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human MGC13033 or FLJ10996 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 58. As used herein, the term "TSAP6" or "dudulin 2" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of 35 the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 47 having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human TSAP as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 60. As used herein, the term "DBI" or "diazepam binding inhibitor" shall be taken to mean 5 a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human DBI as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 62. 10 As used herein, the term "MGC10993" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at 15 least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human MGC10993 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 64. As used herein, the term "EPB41L5" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human 20 genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human EPB41L5 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 66. 25 As used herein, the term "FLJ14816" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human 30 FLJ14816 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 68. As used herein, the term "LBP9" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid, including any genomic gene, that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2 of the human genome, or any mRNA transcript thereof, or any genomic gene or mRNA transcript 35 from a human or non-human animal that comprises a nucleotide sequence having at WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 48 least about 80% identity to the sequence of the protein coding region of a human LBP9 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 70. As will be apparent from the foregoing, each of the genes referred to herein are to be 5 taken to encompass expression products of said genes. However, in the context of determining nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 14.3 it will be apparent to the skilled artisan that the genomic gene is contemplated. 10 Preferably, the percentage identity to any of the previously described nucleotide sequences is at least about 85%, more preferably at least about 90%, even more preferably at least about 95% and still more preferably at least about 99%. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the RALB, DDX18, secretin receptor (SCTR), engrailed-1 (EN1), Translin (TSN), macrophage receptor (MARCO), PTPN, insulin 15 induced gene 2 (INSIG2), inhibin beta B, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, diazepam binding inhibitor (DBI), MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 or LBP9 gene is a human RALB, DDX18, secretin receptor (SCTR), engrailed-1 (EN1), Translin (TSN), macrophage receptor (MARCO), PTPN, insulin induced gene 2 (INSIG2), inhibin beta B, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, diazepam binding inhibitor (DBI), MGC10993, EPB41L5, 20 FLJ14816 orLBP9 gene. In a preferred embodiment, a region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises all of the RALB, DDX18, secretin receptor (SCTR), engrailed-1 (EN1), Translin (TSN), macrophage receptor (MARCO), PTPN, insulin 25 induced gene 2 (INSIG2), inhibin beta B, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, diazepam binding inhibitor (DBI), MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9 genes. In another embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises one or more of the following nucleic acids: 30 (i) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to INSIG2; or (ii) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to EN1; or (iii) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to MARCO; or (iv) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to TSAP6; or (v) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to LOC165257; or 35 (vi) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to DBI; or (vii) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to SCTR; or WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 49 (viii) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to PTPN4; or (ix) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to EPB41L5; or (x) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to RALB; or (xi) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to INHBB; or 5 (xii) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to GLI2; or (xiii) nucleic acid extending from DDX1 8 to LBP9; or (xiv) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to CLASP 1; or (xv) nucleic acid extending from DDX18 to TSN; or (xvi) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to EN1; or 10 (xvii) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to MARCO; or (xviii) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 toTSAP6; or (xix) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to LOC165257; or (xx) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to DBI; or (xxi) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to SCTR; or 15 (xxii) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to PTPN4; or (xxiii) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 toEPB41L5; or (xxiv) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to RALB; or (xxv) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to INHBB; or (xxvi) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to GLI2; or 20 (xxvii)nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to LBP9; or (xxviii)nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to CLASP 1; or (xxix) nucleic acid extending from INSIG2 to TSN; or (xxx) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to MARCO; or (xxxi) nucleic acid extending from EN1 toTSAP6; or 25 (xxxii)nucleic acid extending from EN1 to LOC165257; or (xxxiii) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to DBI; or (xxxiv) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to SCTR; or (xxxv) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to PTPN4; or (xxxvi) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to EPB41L5; or 30 (xxxvii) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to RALB; or (xxxix) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to INHBB; or (xl) nucleic acid extending from EN1 toGLI2; or (xli) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to LBP9; or (xlii) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to CLASP1; or 35 (xliii) nucleic acid extending from EN1 to TSN; or (xliv) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to TSAP6; or WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 50 (xlv) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to LOC165257; or (xlvi) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to DBI; or (xlvii) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to SCTR; or (xlviii)nucleic acid extending from MARCO to PTPN4; or 5 (xlix) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to EPB41L5; or (1) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to RALB; or (li) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to INHBB; or (lii) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to GLI2; or (liii) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to LBP9; or 10 (liv) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to CLASP1; or (lv) nucleic acid extending from MARCO to TSN; or (lvi) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to LOC165257; or (lvii) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to DBI; or (lviii) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to SCTR; or 15 (lix) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to PTPN4; or (lx) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to EPB41L5; or (lxi) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to RALB; or (lxii) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to INHBB; or (lxii) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to GLI2; or 20 (lxiii) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to LBP9; or (lxiii) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to CLASP1; or (lxix) nucleic acid extending from TSAP6 to TSN; or (lxx) nucleic acid extending from LOC16527 to DBI; or (lxxi) nucleic acid extending from LOC16527 to SCTR; or 25 (lxxii) nucleic acid extending from LOC16527 to PTPN4; or (lxxiii) nucleic acid extending from LOC 16527 to EPB41L5; or (lxxiv) nucleic acid extending from LOC16527 to RALB; or (lxxv) nucleic acid extending from LOC16527 to INHBB; or (lxxvi) nucleic acid extending from LOC 16527 to GLI2; or 30 (lxxvii)nucleic acid extending from LOC16527 to LBP9; or (lxxviii) nucleic acid extending from LOC16527 to CLASP 1; or (lxxix) nucleic acid extending from LOC16527 to TSN; or (lxxx) nucleic acid extending from DBI to SCTR; or (lxxxi) nucleic acid extending from DBI to PTPN4; or 35 (lxxxii)nucleic acid extending from DBI to EPB41L5; or (lxxxiii) nucleic acid extending from DBI to RALB; or WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 51 (lxxxiv) nucleic acid extending from DBI to INHBB; or (lxxxv)nucleic acid extending from DBI to GLI2; or (lxxxvi) nucleic acid extending from DBI to LBP9; or (lxxxvii) nucleic acid extending from DBI to CLASP 1; or 5 (lxxxvii) nucleic acid extending from DBI to TSN; or (lxxxix) nucleic acid extending from SCTR to PTPN4; or (xc) nucleic acid extending from SCTR to EPB41L5; or (xci) nucleic acid extending from SCTR to RALB; or (xcii) nucleic acid extending from SCTR to INHBB; or 10 (xciii) nucleic acid extending from SCTR to GLI2; or (xciv) nucleic acid extending from SCTR to LBP9; or (xcv) nucleic acid extending from SCTR to CLASP1; or (xcvi) nucleic acid extending from SCTR to TSN; or (xcvii) nucleic acid extending from PTPN4 to EPB41L5; or 15 (xcviii)nucleic acid extending from PTPN4 to RALB; or (xcix) nucleic acid extending from PTPN4 to INHBB; or (c) nucleic acid extending from PTPN4 to GLI2; or (ci) nucleic acid extending from PTPN4 to LBP9; or (cii) nucleic acid extending from PTPN4 to CALSP 1; or 20 (ciii) nucleic acid extending from PTPN4 to TSN; or (civ) nucleic acid extending from EPB41L5 to RALB; or (cv) nucleic acid extending from EPB41L5 to INHBB; or (cvi) nucleic acid extending from EPB41L5 to GLI2; or (cvii) nucleic acid extending from EPB41L5 to LBP9; or 25 (cviii) nucleic acid extending from EPB41L5 to CLASP1; or (cix) nucleic acid extending from EPB41L5 to TSN; or (cx) nucleic acid extending from RALB to INHBB; or (cxi) nucleic acid extending from RALB to GLI2; or (cxii) nucleic acid extending from RALB to LBP9; or 30 (cxiii) nucleic acid extending from RALB to CLASP 1; or (cxiv) nucleic acid extending from RALB to TSN; or (cxv) nucleic acid extending from INHBB to GLI2; or (cxvi) nucleic acid extending from INHBB to LBP9; or (cxvii) nucleic acid extending from INHBB to CLASP 1; or 35 (cxviii)nucleic acid extending from INHBB to TSN; or (cxix) nucleic acid extending from GLI2 to LBP9; or WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 52 (cxx) nucleic acid extending from GLI2 to CLASP 1; or (cxxi) nucleic acid extending from GLI2 to TSN; or (cxxii) nucleic acid extending from LBP9 to CLASP 1; or (cxxiii)nucleic acid extending from LBP9 to TSN; or 5 (cxxiv)nucleic acid extending from CLASP1 to TSN. In another embodiment, the region of Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.2 comprises one or more CpG rich regions or CpG islands. In a preferred embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 10 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises a nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences set forth in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1. In one embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises a nucleic acid comprising all of the nucleotide sequences set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 and/or referred to in Table 1. 15 Alternatively, the region of Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.2 comprises a plurality of a nucleic acid comprising all of the nucleotide sequences set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 and/or referred to in Table 1 and any intervening nucleic acid. 20 In a preferred embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises a nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences set forth in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 2 to 25. Alternatively, the nucleotide sequence is designated as INSIG2, (CpG 49), CpG41.2, CpG61,CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpGl03, CpGl28, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5' 25 MARCO, CpG229, TSAP6 (CpG 85), DBI (CpG 85), CpG85, SCTR (CpG 67), PTPN4 (CpG 86), CpG102, RALBB (CpG1 15) or INHBB(CpG285) in Table 1. In an even more preferred embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises a nucleic acid comprising one or more 30 nucleotide sequences set forth in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 21. Alternatively, the nucleotide sequence is designated as CpG61,CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5'-MARCO, CpG229, TSAP6 (CpG 85), DBI (CpG 85), CpG85 or SCTR (CpG 67) in Table 1. 35 In an even more preferred embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises a nucleic acid comprising one or more WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 53 nucleotide sequences set forth in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 6 to 17. Alternatively, the nucleotide sequence is designated as 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5'-MARCO and CpG229 in Table 1. 5 In another preferred embodiment, the region of chromatin extending from about map position 2q14.1 to about 2q14.3 comprises the Z fragment. As used herein the term "Z fragment" shall be taken to mean a nucleic acid that is linked to or positioned at map position 2q14.2-2q14.3 of the human genome having a nucleotide sequence at least 10 about 80% identical to the nucleotide sequence of the human Z fragment set forth in SEQ ID NO: 8. Preferably, the Z fragment comprises .a plurality of CpG dinucleotides so as to enable methylation by a DNA methyl transferase enzyme. 15 Diagnostic assay formats I. Detection of methylation of nucleic acid The present inventors have clearly demonstrated a number of changes to chromatin of Chromosome 2 that are enhanced in cancer cells compared to control non-cancerous 20 cells. Accordingly, a method for detecting modified chromatin shall be taken to include detecting a marker of modified chromatin, such as, for example, detecting the level of methylation of nucleic acid and/or hypermethylation of nucleic acid in the chromatin, detecting the level of methylation and/or acetylation and/or de-acetylation of one or more histones (e.g., histone H3) in the chromatin. Suitable methods for the 25 detection of such markers are known in the art and/or described herein. In a preferred embodiment, the degree or level of methylation of nucleic acid or hypermethylation of nucleic acid is detected in a region of Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 comprising one or more nucleotide 30 sequences set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 and/or referred to in Table 1 in diagnosing cancer in a subject. Alternatively, or in addition, the degree or level of methylation of nucleic acid or hypermethylation of nucleic acid is determined in a plurality of nucleic acids, each nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 and/or referred to in Table 1. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 54 The term "methylation of nucleic acid" shall be taken to mean the addition of a methyl group by the action of a DNA methyl transferase enzyme to a CpG island of nucleic acid, e.g., genomic DNA. As described herein, there are several methods known to those skilled in the art for determining the level or degree of methylation of nucleic 5 acid. By "enhanced" is meant that there are a significantly larger number of methylated CpG dinucleotides in the subject diagnosed than in a suitable control sample. The present invention is not to be limited by a precise number of methylated residues that are 10 considered to be diagnostic of cancer in a subject, because some variation between patient samples will occur. The present invention is also not limited by positioning of the methylated residue. The term "hypermethylated nucleic acid" and equivalents shall be taken to mean that a 15 plurality of CpG dinucleotides in a specific or defined region of nucleic acid is methylated. In a preferred embodiment, the degree of methylation is determined in a region of Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 20 comprising any one or more combinations of nucleotide sequences described herein with reference to any embodiment of the invention. Preferably, the degree of methylation is determined in a region of Chromosome 2 comprising one or more nucleotide sequence(s) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 25 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 28. Alternatively, or in addition, the method of the invention determines the degree of methylation at any one or more nucleic acids comprising one or more nucleotide sequences set forth in the previous sentence. For example, the degree of methylation is 30 determined in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 4; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 5; a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 6; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 7; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 8; or a nucleic acid 35 comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 9; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 10; or a nucleic acid WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 55 comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 12; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 13; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 14; or a nucleic acid 5 comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 15; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 16; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 17; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21; or a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25; or a nucleic acid 10 comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 28. In a preferred embodiment, the degree of methylation is determined in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11 and a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21 and nucleic acid 15 comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25. Alternatively, the degree of methylation is determined in nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11; or the degree of methylation is determined in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21; or the degree of methylation is determined in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth 20 in SEQ ID NO: 25. Alternatively, the degree of methylation is determined in a region of Chromosome 2 comprising one or more nucleotide sequence(s) referred to in Table 1 selected from the group consisting of CpG61, CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, 25 CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5'-MARCO, CpG229, CpG67, INHIBB(CpG285), CpG26, CpG206 and CpG22. Alternatively, or in addition, the method of the invention determines the degree of methylation at any one or more nucleic acids comprising one or more nucleotide sequences set forth in the previous sentence. For example, the degree of methylation is determined in CpG61; or in CpG29; or in 20Kb; or in 30 Z(sma)or in Z; or in CpG104; or in CpG103 or in CpG128 or in CpG41; or in CpG173 or in CpG48 or in CpG48rv; or in 5'-MARCO; or in CpG229; or in CpG67; or in INHBB(CpG285); or in CpG26; or in CpG206; or in CpG22. In a preferred embodiment, the degree of methylation is determined in a nucleic acid 35 comprising the sequence of CpG128 referred to in Table 1; and in a nucleic acid WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 56 comprising the sequence of CpG67 referred to in Table 1; a nucleic acid comprising the sequence of INHBB(CpG285) referred to in Table 1 a. Probe or primer design and/or production 5 Several methods described herein for the diagnosis of a cancer use one or more probes and/or primers. Methods for designing probes and/or primers for use in, for example, PCR or hybridization are known in the art and described, for example, in Dieffenbach and Dveksler (Eds) (In: PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, NY, 1995). Furthermore, several software packages are publicly available 10 that design optimal probes and/or primers for a variety of assays, e.g. Primer 3 available from the Center for Genome Research, Cambridge, MA, USA. Clearly, the potential use of the probe or primer should be considered during its design. For example, should the probe or primer be produced for use in, for example, a 15 methylation specific PCR or ligase chain reaction (LCR) assay the nucleotide at the 3' end (or 5' end in the case of LCR) should correspond to a methylated nucleotide in a nucleic acid. Probes and/or primers useful for detection of a marker associated with a cancer are 20 assessed, for example, to determine those that do not form hairpins, self-prime or form primer dimers (e.g. with another probe or primer used in a detection assay). Furthermore, a probe or primer (or the sequence thereof) is often assessed to determine the temperature at which it denatures from a target nucleic acid (i.e. the melting 25 temperature of the probe or primer, or Tm). Methods for estimating Tm are known in the art and described, for example, in Santa Lucia, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95: 1460-1465, 1995 or Bresslauer et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 83: 3746-3750, 1986. Methods for producing/synthesizing a probe or primer of the present invention are 30 known in the art. For example, oligonucleotide synthesis is described, in Gait (Ed) (In: Oligonucleotide Synthesis: A Practical Approach, IRL Press, Oxford, 1984). For example, a probe or primer may be obtained by biological synthesis (e.g. by digestion of a nucleic acid with a restriction endonuclease) or by chemical synthesis. For short sequences (up to about 100 nucleotides) chemical synthesis is preferable. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 57 For longer sequences standard replication methods employed in molecular biology are useful, such as, for example, the use of M13 for single stranded DNA as described by Messing Methods Enzymol, 101, 20-78, 1983. 5 Other methods for oligonucleotide synthesis include, for example, phosphotriester and phosphodiester methods (Narang, et al. Meth. Enzymol 68: 90, 1979) and synthesis on a support (Beaucage, et al Tetrahedron Letters 22: 1859-1862, 1981) as well as phosphoramidate technique, Caruthers, M. H., et al., "Methods in Enzymology," Vol. 154, pp. 287-314 (1988), and others described in "Synthesis and Applications of DNA 10 and RNA," S. A. Narang, editor, Academic Press, New York, 1987, and the references cited therein. Probes comprising locked nucleic acid (LNA) are synthesized as described, for example, in Nielsen et al, J Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans., 1: 3423, 1997; Singh and 15 Wengel, Chem. Commun. 1247, 1998. While, probes comprising peptide-nucleic acid (PNA) are synthesized as described, for example, in Egholm et al., Am. Chem. Soc., 114: 1895, 1992; Egholm et al., Nature, 365: 566, 1993; and Orum et aL., Nucl. Acids Res., 21: 5332, 1993. 20 b. Methylation-sensitive endonuclease digestion of DNA In one embodiment, the enhanced methylation in a subject sample is determined using a process comprising treating the nucleic acid with an amount of a methylation sensitive restriction endonuclease enzyme under conditions sufficient for nucleic acid to be digested and then detecting the fragments produced. Exemplary methylation 25 sensitive endonucleases include, for example, HpaI or HpaII. Preferably, assays include internal controls that are digested with a methylation insensitive enzyme having the same specificity as the methylation-sensitive enzyme employed. For example, the methylation-insensitive enzyme MspI is an isoschizomer 30 of the methylation-sensitive enzyme Hpall. Hybridization assay formats In one embodiment, the digestion of nucleic acid is detected by selective hybridization of a probe or primer to the undigested nucleic acid. Alternatively, the probe selectively 35 hybridizes to both digested and undigested nucleic acid but facilitates differentiation between both forms, e.g., by electrophoresis. Suitable detection methods for achieving WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 58 selective hybridization to a hybridization probe include, for example, Southern or other nucleic acid hybridization (Kawai et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 14, 7421-7427, 1994; Gonzalgo et al., Cancer Res. 57, 594-599, 1997). 5 The term "selectively hybridizable" means that the probe is used under conditions where a target nucleic acid, e.g., a nucleic acid comprising or contained within one or more nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1, hybridizes to the probe to produce a signal that is significantly above background (i.e., a high signal-to-noise ratio). The intensity of hybridization is measured, for example, by 10 radiolabeling the probe, e.g. by incorporating [X- 3 5 S] and/or [c- 32 P]dNTPs, [y- 3 2 P]ATP, biotin, a dye ligand (e.g., FAM or TAMRA), a fluorophore, or other suitable ligand into the probe prior to use and then detecting the ligand following hybridization. Suitable hybridization conditions are determined based on the melting temperature 15 (Tm) of a nucleic acid duplex comprising the probe, e.g., as described supra. The skilled artisan will be aware that optimum hybridization reaction conditions should be determined empirically for each probe, although some generalities can be applied. Preferably, hybridizations employing short oligonucleotide probes are performed at low 20 to medium stringency. For the purposes of defining the level of stringency to be used in these diagnostic assays, a low stringency is defined herein as being a hybridization and/or a wash carried out in about 6 x SSC buffer and/or about 0.1% (w/v) SDS at about 28 0 C to 25 about 40 0 C, or equivalent conditions. A moderate stringency is defined herein as being a hybridization and/or washing carried out in about 2 x SSC buffer and/or about 0.1% (w/v) SDS at a temperature in the range of about 45 0 C to about 65'C, or equivalent conditions. 30 In the case of a GC rich probe or primer or a longer probe or primer a high stringency hybridization and/or wash is preferred. A high stringency is defined herein as being a hybridization and/or wash carried out in about 0.1 x SSC buffer and/or about 0.1% (w/v) SDS, or lower salt concentration, and/or at a temperature of at least 65'C, or equivalent conditions. Reference herein to a particular level of stringency encompasses 35 equivalent conditions using wash/hybridization solutions other than SSC known to those skilled in the art.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 59 Generally, the stringency is increased by reducing the concentration of SSC buffer, and/or increasing the concentration of SDS and/or increasing the temperature of the hybridization and/or wash. Those sdkilled in the art will be aware that the conditions for 5 hybridization and/or wash may vary depending upon the nature of the hybridization matrix used to support the sample DNA, and/or the type of hybridization probe used and/or constituents of any buffer used in a hybridization. For example, formamide reduces the melting temperature of a probe or primer in a hybridization or an amplification reaction. 10 Conditions for specifically hybridizing nucleic acid, and conditions for washing to remove non-specific hybridizing nucleic acid, are understood by those sdkilled in the art. For the purposes of further clarification only, reference to the parameters affecting hybridization between nucleic acid molecules is found in Ausubel et al. (Current 15 Protocols in Molecular Biology, Wiley Interscience, ISBN 047150338, 1992), which is herein incorporated by reference. For detecting fragments produced by endonuclease digestion using a hybridization assay format, any suitable hybridization probe derived from a nucleic acid comprising 20 or contained within a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1 can be used in accordance with standard procedures. This is because the detection involves hybridization to all fragments produced, as opposed to a selective hybridization, and then comparing the fragments produced in the test sample to those fragments produced for a suitable control sample. 25 Preferred hybridization probes will comprise at least about 18 contiguous nucleotides in length from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1, more preferably at least about 50 contiguous nucleotides from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1, preferably incorporating one or more CpG dinucleotides that are hypermethylated in cancer. 30 Alternatively, the probe or primer is adjacent to the site of cleavage of a methylation sensitive endonuclease thereby enabling detection of cleaved nucleic acid. Preferred probes will hybridize to a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1 or a sequence that is complementary thereto, or a portion thereof including one or more CpG dinucleotides 35 that are hypermethylated in cancer.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 60 As will be known to the skilled artisan, longer probes are preferred, because these generally produce higher signal-to-noise ratio than shorter probes and/or permit higher stringency hybridization and wash conditions to be employed. Accordingly, it is preferably to use hybridization probes that comprise at least about 100 contiguous 5 nucleotides from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1 and even more preferably at least about 200 contiguous nucleotide residues. As will be apparent to the skilled artisan the entire of the sequence of the probe need not necessarily be set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1, rather a portion of the sequence of the probe is preferably, set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or 10 referred to in Table 1. In this respect, it is preferred that the portion of the probe or primer comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1 is sufficient to permit detection of a nucleic acid, and preferably, differentiation between a methylated and a non-methylated nucleic acid. 15 In accordance with the present embodiment, a difference in the fragments produced for the test sample and a negative control sample is indicative of the subject having cancer. Similarly, in cases where the control sample comprises data from a tumor, cancer tissue or a cancerous cell or pre-cancerous cell, similarity, albeit not necessarily absolute identity, between the test sample and the control sample is indicative of a positive 20 diagnosis (i.e. cancer). Amplification assay formats In an alternative embodiment, the fragments produced by the restriction enzyme are detected using an amplification system, such as, for example, polymerase chain 25 reaction (PCR), rolling circle amplification (RCA), inverse polymerase chain reaction (iPCR), in situ PCR (Singer-Sam et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 18, 687,1990), strand displacement amplification (SDA) or cycling probe technology. Methods of PCR are known in the art and described, for example, by McPherson et al., 30 PCR: A Practical Approach. (series eds, D. Rickwood and B.D. Hames), IRL Press Limited, Oxford. ppl-253, 1991 and by Dieffenbach (ed) and Dveksler (ed) (In: PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbour Laboratories, NY, 1995), the contents of which are each incorporated in their entirety by way of reference. Generally, for PCR two non-complementary nucleic acid primer molecules comprising 35 at least about 18 nucleotides in length, and more preferably at least 20-30 nucleotides in length are hybridized to different strands of a nucleic acid template molecule at their WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 61 respective annealing sites, and specific nucleic acid molecule copies of the template that intervene the annealing sites are amplified enzymatically. Amplification products may be detected, for example, using electrophoresis and detection with a detectable marker that binds nucleic acids. Alternatively, one or more of the oligonucleotides are 5 labeled with a detectable marker (e.g. a fluorophore) and the amplification product detected using, for example, a lightcycler (Perkin Elmer, Wellesley, MA, USA). Strand displacement amplification (SDA) utilizes oligonucleotide primers, a DNA polymerase and a restriction endonuclease to amplify a target sequence. The 10 oligonucleotides are hybridized to a target nucleic acid and the polymerase is used to produce a copy of the region intervening the primer annealing sites. The duplexes of copied nucleic acid and target nucleic acid are then nicked with an endonuclease that specifically recognizes a sequence at the beginning of the copied nucleic acid. The DNA polymerase recognizes the nicked DNA and produces another copy of the target 15 region at the same time displacing the previously generated nucleic acid. The advantage of SDA is that it occurs in an isothermal format, thereby facilitating high-throughput automated analysis. Cycling Probe Technology uses a chimeric synthetic primer that comprises DNA 20 RNA-DNA that is capable of hybridizing to a target sequence. Upon hybridization to a target sequence the RNA-DNA duplex formed is a target for RNaseH thereby cleaving the primer. The cleaved primer is then detected, for example, using mass spectrometry or electrophoresis. 25 Preferred amplification primers will comprise at least about 18 contiguous nucleotides in length from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1, preferably, flanking or adjacent to or comprising a methylation-sensitive endonuclease recognition site. 30 For primers that flank or are adjacent to a methylation-sensitive endonuclease recognition site, it is preferred that such primers flank only those sites that are hypermethylated in cancer to ensure that a diagnostic amplification product is produced. In this regard, an amplification product will only be produced when the restriction site is not cleaved, i.e., when it is methylated. Accordingly, detection of an 35 amplification product indicates that the CpG dinucleotide/s of interest is/are methylated.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 62 As will be known to the skilled artisan, the precise length of the amplified product will vary depending upon the distance between the primers. 5 Clearly this form of analysis may be used to determine the methylation status of a plurality of CpG dinucleotides provided that each dinucleotide is within a methylation sensitive restriction endonuclease site. In these methods, one or more of the primers may be labeled with a detectable marker 10 to facilitate rapid detection of amplified nucleic acid, for example, a fluorescent label (e.g. Cy5 or Cy3) or a radioisotope (e.g. 32 p). The amplified nucleic acids are generally analyzed using, for example, non-denaturing agarose gel electrophoresis, non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, mass 15 spectrometry, liquid chromatography (e.g. HPLC or dHPLC), or capillary electrophoresis. (e.g. MALDI-TOF). High throughput detection methods, such as, for example, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF), electrospray ionization (ESI), mass spectrometry (including tandem mass spectrometry, e.g. LC MS/MS), biosensor technology, evanescent fiber-optics technology or DNA 20 chip technology (e.g., WO98/49557; WO 96/17958; Fodor et al., Science 767-773, 1991; U.S. Pat. No. 5,143,854; and U.S. Patent No. 5,837,832, the contents of which are all incorporated herein by reference), are especially preferred for all assay formats described herein. 25 Alternatively, amplification of a nucleic acid may be continuously monitored using a melting curve analysis method as described herein and/or in, for example, US 6,174,670, which is incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, or in addition, the nucleotide sequence of the amplified DNA is 30 determined according to standard procedures. c. other assay formats In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, the enhanced methylation in a subject sample is determined by performing a process comprising treating the nucleic 35 acid with an amount of DNaseI under conditions sufficient for nucleic acid to be digested and then detecting the fragments produced.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 63 This assay format is predicated on the understanding that methylated DNA, e.g., hyper methylated DNA, has a more tightly-closed conformation than non-hyper methylated DNA and, as a consequence, is less susceptible to endonuclease digestion by DNase I. 5 In accordance with this embodiment, DNA fragments of different lengths are produced by DNase I digestion of methylated compared to non-methylated DNA. Such different DNA fragments are detected, for example, using an assay described supra. 10 Alternatively, the DNA fragments are detected using PCR-SSCP essentially as described, for example, in Gregory and Feil Nucleic Acids Res., 27, e32i-e32iv, 1999. In adapting PCR-SSCP to the present invention, amplification primers flanking or comprising one or more CpG dinucleotides in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1 that are resistant to 15 DNase I digestion in a cancer sample but not resistant to DNase I digestion in a healthy/normal control or healthy/normal test sample are used to amplify the DNase I generated fragments. In this case, the production of a specific nucleic acid fragment using DNase I is diagnostic of cancer, because the DNA is not efficiently degraded. In contrast, template DNA from a healthy/normal subject sample is degraded by the action 20 of DNase I and, as a consequence, amplification fails to produce a discrete amplification product. Alternative methods to PCR-SSCP, such as for example, PCR dHPLC are also known in the art and contemplated by the present invention. d. Selective mutagenesis of non-methylated DNA 25 In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, the enhanced methylation in a subject sample is determined using a process comprising treating the nucleic acid with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue within a CpG dinucleotide under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis. 30 Preferred compounds mutate cytosine to uracil or thymidine, such as, for example, a metal salt of bisulfite, e.g., sodium bisulfite or potassium bisulfite (Frommer et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 1827-1831, 1992). Bisulfite treatment of DNA is known to distinguish methylated from non-methylated cytosine residues, by mutating cytosine residues that are not protected by methylation, including cytosine residues that 35 are not within a CpG dinucleotide or that are positioned within a CpG dinucleotide that is not subject to methylation.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 64 c(i) sequence based detection In one embodiment, the presence of one or more mutated nucleotides or the number of mutated sequences is determined by sequencing mutated DNA. One form of analysis 5 comprises amplifying mutated nucleic acid using an amplification reaction described herein, for example, PCR. The amplified product is then directly sequenced or cloned and the cloned product sequenced. Methods for sequencing DNA are known in the art and include for example, the dideoxy chain termination method or the Maxam-Gilbert method (see Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual (2nd Ed., 10 CSHP, New York 1989) or Zyskind et al., Recombinant DNA Laboratory Manual, (Acad. Press, 1988)). As the treatment of nucleic acid with a compound, such as, for example, bisulfite results in non-methylated cytosines being mutated to uracil or thymidine, analysis of 15 the sequence determines the presence or absence of a methylated nucleotide. For example, by comparing the sequence obtained using a control sample or a sample that has not been treated with bisulfite, or the known nucleotide sequence of the region of interest with a treated sample facilitates the detection of differences in the nucleotide sequence. Any thymine residue detected at the site of a cytosine in the treated sample 20 compared to a control or untreated sample may be considered to be caused by mutation as a result of bisulfite treatment. Suitable methods for the detection of methylation using sequencing of bisulfite treated nucleic acid are described, for example, in Frommer et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 1827 - 1831, 1992 or Clark et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 22: 2990-2997, 1994. 25 Preferred primers for amplification and/or sequencing comprise at least about 18 contiguous nucleotides in length from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1, preferably encompassing one or more CpG dinucleotides that is/are hypermethylated in nucleic acid in a cancer cell. 30 For example, for any detection format described herein, e.g., bisulfite sequencing, that comprises an amplification step, the primers used may be a combination selected from the group consisting of: (i) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 72 and a primer 35 comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 73; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 65 (ii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 74 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 75; (iii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 76 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 77; 5 (iv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 78 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 79; (v) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 80 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 81; (vi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 82 and a primer 10 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 83; (vii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 84 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 85; (viii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 86 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 87; 15 (ix) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 88 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 89; (x) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 90 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 91; (xi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 92 and a primer 20 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 93; (xii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 94 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 95; (xiii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 96 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 97; 25 (xiv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 98 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 99; (xv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 100 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 101; (xvi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 102 and a primer 30 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 103; (xvii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 104 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 105; (xviii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 106 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 107; 35 (xix) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 108 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 109; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 66 (xx) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 110 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 111; (xxi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 112 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 113; 5 (xxii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 114 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 115; (xxiii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 116 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 117; (xxiv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 118 and a primer 10 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 119; (xxv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 120 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 121; (xxvi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 122 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 123; 14xxvii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 124 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 125; (xxviii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 126 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 127; (xxix) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 128 and a primer 20 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 129; (xxx) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 130 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 131; (xxxi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 132 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 133; 2(xxxii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 134 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 135; (xxxiii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 136 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 137; (xxxiv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 138 and a primer 30 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 139; (xxxv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 140 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 141; (xxxvi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 142 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 143; gixxvii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 144 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 145; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 67 (xxxviii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 146 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 147; (xxxix) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 148 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 149; 5 (xl) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 150 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 151; (xli) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 152 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 153; (xlii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 154 and a primer 10 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 155; (xliii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 156 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 157; (xliv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 158 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 159; 15 (xlv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 160 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 161; (xlvi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 162 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 163; (xlvii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 164 and a primer 20 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 165; (xlviii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 166 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 167; (xlix) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 168 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 169; 25 (1) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 170 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 171; (li) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 172 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 173; (lii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 174 and a primer 30 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 175; (liii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 176 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 177; (liv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 178 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 179; 35 (lv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 180 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 181; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 68 (lvi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 182 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 183; (lvii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 184 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 185; 5 (lviii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 186 and a primer comprising the sequence set forthin SEQ ID NO: 187; (lix) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 188 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 189; (lx) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 190 and a primer 10 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 191; (lxi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 192 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 193; (lxii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 194 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 195; 15 (lxiii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 196 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 197; and (lxiv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 198 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 199. 20 It is to be understood that the detection step or amplification step of an assay format described herein clearly encompass the use of multiple rounds of amplifications and/or combinations of amplification, for example nested PCR, and classical nucleic acid hybridization steps, in any order. For example, as exemplified herein, nucleic acid linked to Chromosome 2 is amplified using a combination of primers set forth in the 25 following groups of primers (primer groups are listed supra): (i) Group (i) and Group (ii); (ii) Group (iii) and Group (iv); (iii) Group (v) and Group (vi); (iv) Group (vii) and Group (viii); 30 (v) Group (ix) and Group (x); (vi) Group (xi) and Group (xii); (vii) Group (xiii) and Group (xiv); (viii) Group (xv) and Group (xvi); (ix) Group (xvii) and Group (xviii); 35 (x) Group (xix) and Group (xx); (xi) Group (xxi) and Group (xxii); WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 69 (xii) Group (xxiii) and Group (xxiv); (xiii) Group (xxv) and Group (xxvi); (xiv) Group (xxvii) and Group (xxviii); (xv) Group (xxix) and Group (xxx); 5 (xvi) Group (xxxi) and Group (xxxii); (xvii) Group (xxxiii) and Group (xxxiv); (xviii) Group (xxxv) and Group (xxxvi); (xix) Group (xxxvii) and Group (xxxviii); (xx) Group (xxxix) and Group (xl); 10 (xxi) Group (xli) and Group (xlii); (xxii) Group (xliii) and Group (xliv); (xxiii) Group (xlv) and Group (xlvi); (xxiv) Group (xlvii) and Group (xlviii); (xxv) Group (xlix) and Group (1); 15(xxvi) Group (li) and Group (lii); (xxvii) Group (liii) and Group (liv); (xxviii) Group (lv) and Group (lvi); (xxix) Group (lvii) and Group (lviii); (xxx) Group (lix) and Group (lx); 20(xxxi) Group (lxi) and Group (lxii); (xxxii) Group (lxiii and Group (lxiv); (xxxiii) Group (lxv) and Group (lxvi); (xxxiv) Group (lxvii) and Group (lxviii); (xxxv) Group (lxix) and Group (lxx); 2(xxxvi) Group (lxxi) and Group (lxxii); and (xxxvii) Group (lxxiii) and Group (lxxiv); The performance of each and every of the above-mentioned second series of amplification reactions simultaneously or contemporaneously is also encompassed by 30 the present invention. Other primer combinations are also not to be excluded when using multiple amplifications to detect nucleic acid, the only requirement being that the primers are selected such that they comprise nucleotide sequences that occur within SEQ ID NOs: 35 1 to 33 and/or Table 1 at a position between the two amplification primer sequences used for the first series of amplifications. The skilled artisan will readily be capable of WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 70 determining the nucleotide sequence of suitable amplification primers to perform this embodiment based upon the disclosure in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 and/or Table 1. 5 Furthermore, any of the primers described herein, e.g., those set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 72 to 199 are useful for sequencing an amplified PCR product. Preferably, the primer used to sequence a nucleic acid was used in the amplification of the nucleic acid and/or hybridizes to the amplified nucleic acid. 10 In another embodiment, the presence of a mutated or non-mutated nucleotide in a bisulfite treated sample is detected using pyrosequencing, such as, for example, as described in Uhlmann et al., Electrophoresis, 23: 4072 -4079, 2002. Essentially this method is a form of real-time sequencing that uses a primer that hybridizes to a site adjacent or close to the site of a cytosine that is methylated in a cancer cell. Following 15 hybridization of the primer and template in the presence of a DNA polymerase each of four modified deoxynucleotide triphosphates are added separately according to a predetermined dispensation order. Only an added nucleotide that is complementary to the bisulfite treated sample is incorporated and inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) is liberated. The PPi then drives a reaction resulting in production of detectable levels of 20 light. Such a method allows determination of the identity of a specific nucleotide adjacent to the site of hybridization of the primer. Methods of solid phase pyrosequencing are known in the art and reviewed in, for example, Landegren et al., Genome Res., 8(8): 769-776, 1998. Such methods enable 25 the high-throughput detection of methylation of a number of CpG dinucleotides. A related method for determining the sequence of a bisulfite treated nucleotide is methylation-sensitive single nucleotide primer extension (Me-SnuPE) or SNaPmeth. Suitable methods are described, for example, in Gonzalgo and Jones Nucl. Acids Res., 30 25: 2529-2531 or Uhlmann et al., Electrophoresis, 23: 4072 -4079, 2002. An oligonucleotide is used that hybridizes to the region of a nucleic acid adjacent to the site of a cytosine that is methylated in a cancer cell. This oligonucleotide is then used in a primer extension protocol with a polymerase and a free nucleotide diphosphate or dideoxynucleotide triphosphate that corresponds to either or any of the possible bases 35 that occur at this site following bisulfite treatment (i.e., thymine or cytosine). Preferably, the nucleotide-diphosphate is labeled with a detectable marker (e.g. a WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 71 flurophore). Following primer extension, unbound labeled nucleotide diphosphates are removed, e.g. using size exclusion chromatography or electrophoresis, or hydrolyzed, using for example, alkaline phosphatase, and the incorporation of the labeled nucleotide to the oligonucleotide is detected, indicating the base that is present at the site. 5 Clearly other high throughput sequencing methods are encompassed by the present invention. Such methods include, for example, solid phase minisequencing (as described, for example, in Syvimen et al, Genomics, 13: 1008-1017, 1992), or minisequencing with FRET (as described, for example, in Chen and Kwok, Nucleic 10 Acids Res. 25: 347-353, 1997). c(ii) Restriction Endonuclease-based assay format In one embodiment, the presence of a non-mutated sequence is detected using combined bisulfite restriction analysis (COBRA) essentially as described in Xiong and 15 Laird, Nucl. Acids Res., 25: 2532-2534, 2001. This method exploits the differences in restriction enzyme recognition sites between methylated and unmethylated nucleic acid after treatment with a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue, e.g., bisulfite. 20 Following bisulfite treatment a region of interest comprising one or more CpG dinucleotides that are methylated in a cancer cell and are included in a restriction endonuclease recognition sequence is amplified using an amplification reaction described herein, e.g., PCR. The amplified product is then contacted with the restriction enzyme that cleaves at the site of the CpG dinucleotide for a time and under 25 conditions sufficient for cleavage to occur. A restriction site may be selected to indicate the presence or absence of methylation. For example, the restriction endonuclease TaqI cleaves the sequence TCGA, following bisulfite treatment of a non methylated nucleic acid the sequence will be TTGA and, as a consequence, will not be cleaved. The digested and/or non-digested nucleic acid is then detected using a 30 detection means known in the art, such as, for example, electrophoresis and/or mass spectrometry. The, cleavage or non-cleavage of the nucleic acid is indicative of cancer in a subject. Clearly, this method may be employed in either a positive read-out or negative read-out 35 system for the diagnosis of a cancer.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 72 (c)(iii) Positive read-out assay format In one embodiment, the assay format of the invention comprises a positive read-out system in which DNA from a cancer sample that has been treated, for example, with bisulfite is detected as a positive signal. Preferably, the non-hypermethylated DNA 5 from a healthy or normal control subject is not detected or only weakly detected. In a preferred embodiment, the enhanced methylation in a subject sample is determined using a process comprising: (i) treating the nucleic acid with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates 10 a non-methylated cytosine residue under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereby producing a mutated nucleic acid; (ii) hybridizing a nucleic acid to a probe or primer comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence comprising a methylated cytosine residue under conditions such that selective hybridization to the non-mutated 15 nucleic acid occurs; and (iii) detecting the selective hybridization. In this context, the term "selective hybridization" means that hybridization of a probe or primer to the non-mutated nucleic acid occurs at a higher frequency or rate, or has a 20 higher maximum reaction velocity, than hybridization of the same probe or primer to the corresponding mutated sequence. Preferably, the probe or primer does not hybridize to the non-methylated sequence carrying the mutation(s) under the reaction conditions used. 25 For positive read-out assay formats that detect DNA from a cancer subject sample as a positive signal following treatment with bisulfite, it is preferred to use probes and/or primers derived from nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or referred to in Table 1, in which cytosine residues are retained as cytosine other than those cytosine residues within a CpG dinucleotide that 30 in not methylated in a cancer subject sample. Hybridization-based assay format In one embodiment, the hybridization is detected using Southern, dot blot, slot blot or other nucleic acid hybridization means (Kawai et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 14, 7421-7427, 35 1994; Gonzalgo et al., Cancer Res. 57, 594-599, 1997). Subject to appropriate probe WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 73 selection, such assay formats are generally described herein above and apply mutatis mutandis to the presently described selective mutagenesis approach. Preferably, a ligase chain reaction format is employed to distinguish between a mutated 5 and non-mutated nucleic acid. Ligase chain reaction (described in EP 320,308 and US 4,883,750) uses at least two oligonucleotide probes that anneal to a target nucleic acid in such a way that they are juxtaposed on the target nucleic acid (i.e., a nucleic acid comprising one or more sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33). In a ligase chain reaction assay, the target nucleic acid is hybridized to a first probe that is 10 complementary to a diagnostic portion of the target sequence (the diagnostic probe) e.g., a nucleic acid comprising one or more methylated CpG dinucleotide(s), and with a second probe that is complementary to a nucleotide sequence contiguous with the diagnostic portion (the contiguous probe), under conditions wherein the diagnostic probe remains bound substantially only to the target nucleic acid. The diagnostic and 15 contiguous probes can be of different lengths and/or have different melting temperatures such that the stringency of the hybridization can be adjusted to permit their selective hybridization to the target, wherein the probe having the higher melting temperature is hybridized at higher stringency and, following washing to remove unbound and/or non-selectively bound probe, the other probe having the lower melting 20 temperature is hybridized at lower stringency. The diagnostic probe and contiguous probe are then covalently ligated such as, for example, using T4 DNA ligase, to thereby produce a larger target probe that is complementary to the target sequence, and the probes that are not ligated are removed by modifying the hybridization stringency. In this respect, probes that have not been ligated will selectively hybridize under lower 25 stringency hybridization conditions than probes that have been ligated. Accordingly, the stringency of the hybridization can be increased to a stringency that is at least as high as the stringency used to hybridize the longer probe, and preferably at a higher stringency due to the increased length contributed by the shorter probe following ligation. 30 It is preferred to melt the target-probe duplex, elute the dissociated probe and confirm that is has been ligated, e.g., by determining its length using electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, nucleotide sequence analysis, gel filtration, or other means known to the skilled artisan. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 74 In another preferred mode, one or both of the probes is labeled such that the presence or absence of the target sequence can be tested by melting the target-probe duplex, eluting the dissociated probe, and testing for the label(s). Where both probes are labeled, different ligands are used to permit distinction between the ligated and unligated 5 probes, in which case the presence of both labels in the same eluate fraction confirms the ligation event. If the target nucleic acid is bound to a solid matrix e.g., in a Southern hybridization, slot blot, dot blot, or microchip assay format, the presence of both the diagnostic and 10 contiguous probes can be determined directly. Probes suitable for such an assay format are readily derived from the description herein. 15 In accordance with this embodiment, the diagnostic probe and preferably also the contiguous probe should be selected such that they selectively hybridize to wild type sequences comprising one or more nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 and/or table 1 that are methylated in samples from subjects having cancer and thereby protected from mutation. By "selectively hybridize" in this context is meant 20 that the probe(s) anneal at a significantly higher frequency under the conditions employed to a mutated target sequence of a hypermethylated CpG dinucleotide derived from a cancer sample compared to a mutated target sequence of a nucleic acid derived from a healthy or normal control sample, thereby producing a high signal-to-noise ratio in the assay. Preferably, the probe(s) have 3'-terminal and/or 5'-terminal sequences 25 that comprise a CpG dinucleotide that is hypermethylated in cancer compared to a healthy or normal control sample, such that the diagnostic probe and contiguous probe are capable of being ligated only when the cytosine of the CpG dinucleotide has not been mutated to thymidine e.g., in the case of a methylated cytosine residue. 30 Alternatively, the diagnostic probe hybridizes to a site comprising a plurality of CpG dinucleotides that are methylated in a cancer sample and not in a normal or control sample. Accordingly, under stringent conditions, the probe is incapable of hybridizing to the test nucleic acid. 35 Methylation specific microarrays (MSO) are also useful for differentiating between a mutated and non-mutated sequence. A suitable method is described, for example, in WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 75 Adorjin et al, Nucl. Acids Res., 30: e21, 2002. MSO uses nucleic acid that has been treated with a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue (e.g., bisulfite) as template for an amplification reaction that amplifies both mutant and non-mutated nucleic acid. The amplification is performed with at least one primer that 5 comprises a detectable label, such as, for example, a fluorophore, e.g., Cy3 or Cy5. To produce a microarray for detection of mutated nucleic acid oligonucleotides are spotted onto, for example, a glass slide, preferably, with a degree of redundancy (for example, as described in Golub et al., Science, 286: 531-537, 1999). Preferably, for 10 each CpG dinucleotide analyzed two different oligonucleotides are used. Each oligonucleotide comprises a sequence N 2 -16CGN 2 -1 6 or N 2 -16TGN 2 -16 (wherein N is a number of nucleotides adjacent or juxtaposed to the CpG dinucleotide of interest) reflecting the methylated or non-methylated status of the CpG dinucleotides. 15 The labeled amplification products are then hybridized to the oligonucleotides on the microarray under conditions that enable detection of single nucleotide differences. Following washing to remove unbound amplification product, hybridization is detected using, for example, a microarray scanner. Not only does this method allow for determination of the methylation status of a large number of CpG dinucleotides, it is 20 also semi-quantitative, enabling determination of the degree of methylation at each CpG dinucleotide analyzed. As there may be some degree of heterogeneity of methylation in a single sample, such quantification may assist in the diagnosis of cancer. 25 Amplification-based assay format In an alternative embodiment, the hybridization is detected using an amplification system. In methylation-specific PCR formats (MSP; Herman et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 9821-9826, 1992), the hybridization is detection using a process comprising amplifying the bisulfite-treated DNA. In positive read-out formats, 30 methylation of cytosine residues within the CpG dinucleotides of sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1 of a cancer sample is enhanced and, as a consequence, protected from mutation. Accordingly, by using one or more probe or primer that anneals specifically to the unmutated sequence under moderate and/or high stringency conditions an amplification product is only produced using a sample comprising a 35 methylated nucleotide.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 76 Any amplification assay format described herein can be used, such as, for example, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), rolling circle amplification (RCA), inverse polymerase chain reaction (iPCR), in situ PCR (Singer-Sam et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 18, 687,1990), strand displacement amplification, or cycling probe technology. 5 PCR techniques have been developed for detection of gene mutations (Kuppuswamy et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:1143-1147, 1991) and quantitation of allelic-specific expression (Szabo and Mann, Genes Dev. 9: 3097-3108, 1995; and Singer-Sam et al., PCR Methods Appl. 1: 160-163, 1992). Such techniques use internal primers, which 10 anneal to a PCR-generated template and terminate immediately 5' of the single nucleotide to be assayed. Such as format is readily combined with ligase chain reaction as described herein above. The use of a real-time quantitative assay format is particularly preferred. 15 Subject to the selection of appropriate primers, such assay formats are generally described herein above and apply mutatis mutandis to the presently described selective mutagenesis approach. 20 Methylation-specific melting-curve analysis (essentially as described in Worm et al., Clin. Chem., 47: 1183-1189, 2001) and exemplified herein is also contemplated by the present invention. This process exploits the difference in melting temperature in amplification products produced using bisulfite treated methylated or unmethylated nucleic acid. In essence, non-discriminatory amplification of a bisulfite treated sample 25 is performed in the presence of a fluorescent dye that specifically binds to double stranded DNA (e.g., SYBR Green I). By increasing the temperature of the amplification product while monitoring fluorescence the melting properties and thus the sequence of the amplification product is determined. A decrease in the fluorescence reflects melting of at least a domain in the amplification product. The 30 temperature at which the fluorescence decreases is indicative of the nucleotide sequence of the amplified nucleic acid, thereby permitting the nucleotide at the site of one or more CpG dinucleotides to be determined. As the sequence of the nucleic acids amplified using the present invention 35 The present invention also encompasses the use of real-time quantitative forms of PCR, such as, for example, TaqMan (Holland et al., Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 88, 7276- WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 77 7280, 1991; Lee et al., Nucleic Acid Res. 21, 3761-3766, 1993) to perform this embodiment. For example, the MethylLight method of Eads et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 28: E32, 2000 uses a modified TaqMan assay to detect methylation of a CpG dinucleotide. Essentially, this method comprises treating a nucleic acid sample with 5 bisulfite and amplifying nucleic acid comprising one or more CpG dinucleotides that are methylated in a cancer cell and not in a control sample using an amplification reaction, e.g., PCR. The amplification reaction is performed in the presence of three oligonucleotides, a forward and reverse primer that flank the region of interest and a probe that hybridizes between the two primers to the site of the one or more methylated 10 CpG dinucleotides. The probe is dual labeled with a 5' fluorescent reporter and a 3' quencher (or vice versa). When the probe is intact, the quencher dye absorbs the fluorescence of the reporter due to their proximity. Following annealing of to the PCR product the probe is cleaved by 5' to 3' exonuclease activity of, for example, Taq DNA polymerase. This cleavage releases the reporter from the quencher thereby resulting in 15 an increased fluorescence signal that can be used to estimate the initial template methylation level. By using a probe or primer that selectively hybridizes to unmutated nucleic acid (i.e. methylated nucleic acid) the level of methylation is determined, e.g., using a standard curve. 20 Alternatively, rather than using a labeled probe that requires cleavage, a probe, such as, for example, a Molecular BeaconTM is used (see, for example, Mhlang and Malmberg, Methods 25: 463-471, 2001). Molecular beacons are single stranded nucleic acid molecules with a stem-and-loop structure. The loop structure is complementary to the region surrounding the one or more CpG dinucleotides that are methylated in a cancer 25 sample and not in a control sample. The stem structure is formed by annealing two "arms" complementary to each other, which are on either side of the probe (loop). A fluorescent moiety is bound to one arm and a quenching moiety that suppresses any detectable fluorescence when the molecular beacon is not bound to a target sequence is bound to the other arm. Upon binding of the loop region to its target nucleic acid the 30 arms are separated and fluorescence is detectable. However, even a single base mismatch significantly alters the level of fluorescence detected in a sample. Accordingly, the presence or absence of a particular base is determined by the level of fluorescence detected. Such an assay facilitates detection of one or more unmutated sites (i.e. methylated nucleotides) in a nucleic acid. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 78 Fluorescently labeled locked nucleic acid (LNA) molecules or fluorescently labeled protein-nucleic acid (PNA) molecules are useful for the detection of nucleotide differences (e.g., as described in Simeonov and Nikiforov, Nucleic Acids Research, 30(17): 1-5, 2002). LNA and PNA molecules bind, with high affinity, to nucleic acid, 5 in particular, DNA. Flurophores (in particular, rhodomine or hexachlorofluorescein) conjugated to the LNA or PNA probe fluoresce at a significantly greater level upon hybridization of the probe to target nucleic acid. However, the level of increase of fluorescence is not enhanced to the same level when even a single nucleotide mismatch occurs. Accordingly, the degree of fluorescence detected in a sample is indicative of the 10 presence of a mismatch between the LNA or PNA probe and the target nucleic acid, such as, in the presence of a mutated cytosine in a methylated CpG dinucleotide. Preferably, fluorescently labeled LNA or PNA technology is used to detect at least a single base change in a nucleic acid that has been previously amplified using, for example, an amplification method known in the art and/or described herein. 15 As will be apparent to the skilled artisan, LNA or PNA detection technology is amenable to a high-throughput detection of one or more markers by immobilizing an LNA or PNA probe to a solid support, as described in Orum et al., Clin. Chem. 45: 1898-1905, 1999. 20 Alternatively, a real-time assay, such as, for example, the so-called HeavyMethyl assay (Cottrell et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 32: elO, 2003) is used to determine the presence or level of methylation of nucleic acid in a test sample. Essentially, this method uses one or more non-extendible nucleic acid (e.g., oligonucleotide) blockers that bind to 25 bisulfite-treated nucleic acid in a methylation specific manner (i.e., the blocker/s bind specifically to unmutated DNA under moderate to high stringency conditions). An amplification reaction is performed using one or more primers that may optionally be methylation specific but that flank the one or more blockers. In the presence of unmethylated nucleic acid (i.e., non-mutated DNA) the blocker/s bind and no PCR 30 product is produced. Using a TaqMan assay essentially as described supra the level of methylation of nucleic acid in a sample is determined. As exemplified herein, another amplification based assay useful for the detection of a methylated nucleic acid following treatment with a compound that selectively mutates a 35 non-methylated cytosine residue makes use of head loop PCR technology (e.g., as described in published PCT Application No. PCT/AU03/00244; WO 03/072810). This WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 79 form of amplification uses a probe or primer that comprises a region that binds to a nucleic acid and is capable of amplifying nucleic acid in an amplification reaction whether the nucleic acid is methylated or not. The primer additionally comprises a region that is complementary to a portion of the amplified nucleic acid enabling this 5 region of the primer to hybridize to the amplified nucleic acid incorporating the primer thereby forming a hairpin. The now 3' terminal nucleotide/s of the annealed region (i.e. the most 5' nucleotide/s of the primer) hybridize to the site of one or more mutated cytosine residues (i.e., unmethylated in nucleic acid from a cancer subject). Accordingly, this facilitates self priming of amplification products from unmethylated 10 nucleic acid, the thus formed hairpin structure blocking further amplification of this nucleic acid. In contrast, the complementary region may or may not by capable of hybridizing to an amplification product from methylated (mutated) nucleic acid, but is unable to "self prime" thereby enabling further amplification of this nucleic acid (e.g., by the inability of the now 3' nucleotide to hybridize to the amplification product). 15 This method may be performed using a melting curve analysis method to determine the amount of methylated nucleic acid in a biological sample from a subject. Other amplification based methods for detecting methylated nucleic acid following treatment with a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue 20 include, for example, methylation-specific single stranded conformation analysis (MS SSCA) (Bianco et al., Hum. Mutat., 14: 289-293, 1999), methylation-specific denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (MS-DGGE) (Abrams and Stanton, Methods Enzymol., 212: 71-74, 1992) and methylation-specific denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (MS-DHPLC) (Deng et al, Chin. J Cancer Res., 12: 171-191, 25 2000). Each of these methods use different techniques for detecting nucleic acid differences in an amplification product based on differences in nucleotide sequence and/or secondary structure. Such methods are clearly contemplated by the present invention. 30 As with other amplification-based assay formats, the amplification product is analyzed using a range of procedures, including gel electrophoresis, gel filtration, mass spectrometry, and in the case of labeled primers, by identifying the label in the amplification product. In an alternative embodiment, restriction enzyme digestion of PCR products amplified from bisulfite-converted DNA is performed essentially as 35 described by Sadri and Hornsby, Nucl. Acids Res. 24, 5058-5059, 1996; and Xiong and Laird, Nucl. Acids Res. 25, 2532-2534, 1997), to analyze the product formed.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 80 High throughput detection methods, such as, for example, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF), electrospray ionization (ESI), Mass spectrometry (including tandem mass spectrometry, e.g. LC MS/MS), biosensor 5 technology, evanescent fiber-optics technology or DNA chip technology, can also be employed. As with the other assay formats described herein that utilize hybridization and/or amplification detection systems, combinations of such processes as described herein 10 above are particularly contemplated by the selective mutagenesis-based assay formats of the present invention. In a preferred embodiment, the enhanced methylation is detected by performing a process comprising: (i) treating the nucleic acid with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue within a CpG dinucleotide under conditions 15 sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereby producing a mutated nucleic acid; (ii) hybridizing the nucleic acid to two non-overlapping and non-complementary primers each of which comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in the DNA comprising a methylated cytosine residue under conditions such that hybridization to the non-mutated nucleic acid occurs; 20 (iii) amplifying nucleic acid intervening the hybridized primers thereby producing a DNA fragment consisting of a sequence that comprises a primer sequence; (iv) hybridizing the amplified DNA fragment to a probe comprising a nucleotide sequence that corresponds or is complementary to a sequence comprising a methylated cytosine residue under conditions such that hybridization to the non 25 mutated nucleic acid occurs; and (v) detecting the hybridization. (c)(ii) Negative read-out assays In an alternative embodiment, the assay format comprises a negative read-out system in 30 which reduced methylation of DNA from a healthy/normal control sample is detected as a positive signal and preferably, methylated DNA from a cancer sample is not detected or is only weakly detected. In a preferred embodiment, the reduced methylation is determined using a process 35 comprising: WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 81 (i) treating the nucleic acid with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue within a CpG island under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereby producing a mutated nucleic acid; (ii) hybridizing the nucleic acid to a probe or primer comprising a nucleotide 5 sequence that is complementary to a sequence comprising the mutated cytosine residue under conditions such that selective hybridization to the mutated nucleic acid occurs; and (iii) detecting the selective hybridization. 10 In this context, the term "selective hybridization" means that hybridization of a probe or primer to the mutated nucleic acid occurs at a higher frequency or rate, or has a 'higher maximum reaction velocity, than hybridization of the same probe or primer to the corresponding non-mutated sequence. Preferably, the probe or primer does not hybridize to the methylated sequence (or non-mutated sequence) under the reaction 15 conditions used. For negative read-out assay formats that detect DNA from a healthy/normal control subject sample as a positive signal following treatment with bisulfite, it is preferred to use probes and/or primers derived from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1, in 20 which cytosine residues within a CpG dinucleotide have been mutated to thymidine other than those cytosine residues within a CpG dinucleotide that appears to be methylated in a healthy/normal control subject. Hybridization-based assay format 25 In one embodiment the hybridization is detected using Southern, dot blot, slot blot or other nucleic acid hybridization means (Kawai et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 14, 7421-7427, 1994; Gonzalgo et al., Cancer Res. 57, 594-599, 1997). Subject to appropriate probe selection, such assay formats are generally described herein above and apply mutatis mrnutandis to the presently described selective mutagenesis approach. 30 Preferably, a ligase chain reaction format is employed to distinguish between a non mutated and mutated nucleic acid comprising a sequence included in a sequence set forth in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1. In this respect, the assay requirements and conditions are as described herein above for positive read-out assays 35 and apply minutatis mutandis to the present format. However the selection of probes WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 82 will differ. For negative read-out assays, one or more probes are selected that selectively hybridize to the mutated sequence rather than the non-mutated sequence. Preferably, the ligase chain reaction probe(s) have 3'-terminal and/or 5'-terminal 5 sequences that comprise a CpG dinucleotide that is not methylated in a healthy control sample, but is hypermethylated in cancer, such that the diagnostic probe and contiguous probe are capable of being ligated only when the cytosine of the CpG dinucleotide is mutated to thymidine e.g., in the case of a non-methylated cytosine residue. 10 As will be apparent to the skilled artisan the MSO method described supra is amenable to either or both positive and/or negative readout assays. This is because the assay described detects both mutated and non-mutated sequences thereby facilitating determining the level of methylation. However, an assay detecting only methylated or non-methylated sequences is contemplated by the invention. 15 Amplification-based assay format In an alternative embodiment, the hybridization is detected using an amplification system using any amplification assay format as described herein above for positive read-out assay albeit using primers (and probes where applicable) selectively hybridize 20 to a mutated nucleic acid. In negative read-out formats, mutation of non-methylated cytosine residues within the CpG dinucleotides from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 of a healthy/normal subject is enhanced relative to the cancer sample. 25 In adapting the HeavyMethyl assay described supra to a negative read-out format, the blockers that bind to bisulfite-treated nucleic acid in a methylation specific manner bind specifically to mutated DNA under moderate to high stringency conditions. An amplification reaction is performed using one or more primers that may optionally be 30 methylation specific (i.e. only bind to mutated nucleic acid) but that flank the one or more blockers. In the presence of methylated nucleic acid (i.e., mutated DNA) the blocker/s bind and no PCR product is produced. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the reduced methylation in the normal/healthy 35 control subject is detected by performing a process comprising: WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 83 (i) treating the nucleic acid with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates non-methylated cytosine residues under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereby producing a mutated nucleic acid; (ii) hybridizing the nucleic acid to two non-overlapping and non-complementary 5 primers each of which comprises a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence in the DNA comprising a mutated cytosine residue under conditions such that hybridization to the mutated nucleic acid occurs; (iii) amplifying nucleic acid intervening the hybridized primers thereby producing a DNA fragment consisting of a sequence that comprises a primer sequence; 10 (iv) hybridizing the amplified DNA fragment to a probe comprising a nucleotide sequence that corresponds or is complementary to a sequence comprising a mutated cytosine residue under conditions such that hybridization to the mutated nucleic acid occurs; and (v) detecting the hybridization. 15 As will be apparent to the skilled artisan a negative read-out assay preferable includes a suitable control sample to ensure that the negative result is caused by methylated nucleic acid rather than a reaction failing. 20 II. Detection of modified histone As used herein the term "histone modification" shall be taken to mean a post translational modification of a histone protein, such as, for example, a histone H3 (SEQ ID NO: 220), histone H4 (SEQ ID NO: 221) histone H2A (SEQ ID NO: 222) or histone H2B (SEQ ID NO: 223). A post-translational modification includes, for example, 25 methylation of a histone and/or acetylation of a histone and/or de-acetylation of a histone and/or phosphorylation of a histone. For example, a histone is subject to a post translational modification selected from the group consisting of acetylation of a lysine residue, acetylation of an arginine residue, methylation of a lysine residue, methylation of an arginine residue, phosphorylation of a serine residue, phosphorylation of a 30 threonine residue, ubiquitylation of a lysine residue, sumoylation of a lysine residue and ribosylation. The following post translational modifications are known to occur in human Histone H3 (SEQ ID NO: 220) (positions are with reference to the sequence set forth in SEQ ID 35 NO: 220), methylation at arginine 2, phosphorylation at threonine 2, methylation at lysine 4, methylation of lysine 9, acetylation of lysine 9, phosphorylation at serine 10, WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 84 phosphorylation at threonine 11, methylation at lysine 14, acetylation at lysine 14, methylation at arginine 17, acetylation at lysine 18, methylation at lysine 23, acetylation at lysine 23, methylation at arginine 26, methylation at lysine 27, acetylation at lysine 27, phosphorylation at serine 28, phosphorylation at serine 32, 5 methylation at lysine 36, methylation at lysine 37, methylation at lysine 79, acetylation at lysine 115, phosphorylation at threonine 118, acetylation at position 122 or methylation at arginine 128. The following post translational modifications are known to occur in human Histone 10 H4 (SEQ ID NO: 221) (positions are with reference to the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 221), phosphorylation at serine 1, methylation at arginine 3, acetylation at lysine 5, acetylation at lysine 8, methylation at lysine 12, acetylation at lysine 12, acetylation at lysine 16, methylation at lysine 20, acetylation at lysine 20, phosphorylation at serine 47, methylation at lysine 59, acetylation at lysine 77, methylation at lysine 79, 15 acetylation at lysine 79 or methylation at arginine 92. The following post translational modifications are known to occur in human Histone H2A (SEQ ID NO: 222) (positions are with reference to the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 222), phosphorylation at serine 1, acetylation at lysine 5, acetylation at lysine 20 9, acetylation at lysine 13, acetylation at lysine 15, acetylation at lysine 36, methylation at lysine 95, methylation at lysine 99, acetylation at lysine 119 or ubiquitylation at lysine 119. The following post translational modifications are known to occur in human Histone 25 H2B (SEQ ID NO: 223) (positions are with reference to the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 223), methylation at lysine 5, acetylation at lysine 5, acetylation at lysine 12, phosphorylation at serine 14, acetylation at lysine 15, acetylation at lysine 20, methylation at lysine 23, acetylation at lysine 24, phosphorylation at serine 32, phosphorylation at serine 36, methylation at lysine 43, acetylation at lysine 85, 30 methylation at arginine 99, acetylation at lysine 108, acetylation at lysine 116, acetylation at lysine 120 or ubiquitylation at lysine 120. The association of several of these post-translational modifications with the level of expression of a gene with which the histone is associated is known in the art and 35 described, for example, in Peterson and Laniel, Current Biology, 14: R550.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 85 The present invention clearly encompasses the detection of any one or more of the post-translational modifications listed supra or any other post-translational modification of a histone for the diagnosis of a cancer. The detection of, for example, acetylation also encompasses the detection of de-acetylation. 5 Histone immunoprecipitation Methods for determining the post-translational modification of a histone in chromatin linked to from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 of the human genome will be apparent to the skilled artisan and include, for example, chromatin 10 immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and a detection method (e.g., essentially as described in Kondo et al., Mo. Cell Biol., 23: 206-215, 2003). The process of ChIP generally comprises, for example, treating a sample comprising chromatin to crosslink the histones to DNA (e.g., by treating with formaldehyde). The 15 sample is then lysed, if necessary, and nucleic acid sheared, e.g., by sonication or passing through a fine gauge needle. The sample is then contacted with an antibody that specifically binds to a modified histone for a time and under conditions sufficient for an antibody-antigen complex to form and the antibody isolated. The crosslinks are then reversed, e.g., by heating a sample to approximately 65 0 C for a time and under 20 conditions to reverse the crosslinking (e.g., for at least 6 hours). Nucleic acid that was bound to the modified histone is then detected using a detection means known in the art and/or described herein, e.g., PCR. ChIP uses an antibody that selectively binds to a histone that is post-translationally 25 modified at one or more positions. In this context, the term "selectively binds to" means that the antibody binds to or forms an antibody-antigen complex with a post translationally modified histone at a higher frequency or rate that binding of the same antibody to the corresponding unmodified histone. Preferably, the antibody does not bind to the unmodified histone under the reaction conditions used at a readily 30 detectable level. As used herein the term "antibody" refers to intact monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies, immunoglobulin (IgA, IgD, IgG, IgM, IgE) fractions, humanized antibodies, or recombinant single chain antibodies, as well as fragments thereof, such 35 as, for example Fab, F(ab)2, and Fv fragments.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 86 Antibodies referred to herein are obtained from a commercial source, or alternatively, produced by conventional means. For example, antibodies to a number of post translationally modified histones including, for example, acetyl-histone H2A (lys5), acetyl-histone H2B(lysl12 or lys20) acetyl-histone H3 (various sites), acetyl-histone 5 H3(lysl8 or lys 23 or lys9), acetyl-histone H4 (lysl2 or lys 8) are available from, for example Cell Signalling Technology or Abcam Ltd. (Cambridge, UK). High titer antibodies are preferred, as these are more useful commercially in kits for analytical, diagnostic and/or therapeutic applications. By "high titer" is meant a titer of 10 at least about 1:103 or 1:104 or 1:105. Methods of determining the titer of an antibody will be apparent to the skilled artisan. For example, the titer of an antibody in purified antiserum may be determined using an ELISA assay to determine the amount of IgG in a sample. Typically an anti-IgG antibody or Protein G is used in such an assay. The amount detected in a sample is compared to a control sample of a known amount of 15 purified and/or recombinant IgG. Alternatively, a kit for determining antibody may be used, e.g. the Easy TITER kit from Pierce (Rockford, IL, USA). Alternatively, an antibody is prepared suing a standard method in the art. Antibodies may be prepared by any of a variety of techniques known to those of ordinary skill in 20 the art, and described, for example in, Harlow and Lane (In: Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1988). In one such technique, an immunogen comprising the antigenic polypeptide (e.g., a post-translationally modified histone or fragment therof) is initially injected into any one of a wide variety of animals (e.g., mice, rats, rabbits, sheep, humans, dogs, pigs, chickens and goats). The immunogen is 25 derived from a natural source, produced by recombinant expression means, or artificially generated, such as by chemical synthesis (e.g., BOC chemistry or FMOC chemistry). In this step, the polypeptides or fragments thereof of described herein may serve as the immunogen. 30 Optionally, a peptide, polypeptide or protein is joined to a carrier protein, such as bovine serum albumin or keyhole limpet hemocyanin. The immunogen and the optional carrier for the protein is injected into the animal host, preferably according to a predetermined schedule incorporating one or more booster immunizations, and blood collected from said the animals periodically. Optionally, the immunogen may be 35 injected in the presence of an adjuvant, such as, for example Freund's complete or incomplete adjuvant, lysolecithin and dinitrophenol to enhance the immune response to WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 87 the immunogen. Monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies specific for the polypeptide may then be purified from the blood isolated from an animal by, for example, affinity chromatography using the polypeptide coupled to a suitable solid support. 5 Preferably, the antibody is purified using a modified histone. Following purification, the antibody is, for example, passed over an affinity purification column comprising an unmodified form of the histone and the unbound antibody/ies collected. Accordingly only those antibodies capable of selectively binding the modified histone are purified. 10 Monoclonal antibodies specific for the antigenic polypeptide of interest may be prepared, for example, using the technique of Kohler and Milstein, Eur. J. Inmmunol. 6:511-519, 1976, and improvements thereto. Briefly, these methods involve the preparation of immortal cell lines capable of producing antibodies having the desired specificity (i.e., reactivity with the polypeptide of interest). Such cell lines may be 15 produced, for example, from spleen cells obtained from an animal immunized as described supra. The spleen cells are immortalized by, for example, fusion with a myeloma cell fusion partner, preferably one that is syngenic with the immunized animal. A variety of fusion techniques may be employed, for example, the spleen cells and myeloma cells may be combined with a nonionic detergent or electrofused and then 20 grown in a selective medium that supports the growth of hybrid cells, but not myeloma cells. A preferred selection technique uses HAT (hypoxanthine, aminopterin, thymidine) selection. After a sufficient time, usually about 1 to 2 weeks, colonies of hybrids are observed. Single colonies are selected and growth media in which the cells have been grown is tested for the presence of binding activity against the polypeptide 25 (immunogen). Hybridomas having high reactivity and specificity are preferred. Monoclonal antibodies are isolated from the supernatants of growing hybridoma colonies using methods such as, for example, affinity purification as described supra. In addition, various techniques may be employed to enhance the yield, such as injection 30 of the hybridoma cell line into the peritoneal cavity of a suitable vertebrate host, such as a mouse. Monoclonal antibodies are then harvested from the ascites fluid or the blood of such an animal subject. Contaminants are removed from the antibodies by conventional techniques, such as chromatography, gel filtration, precipitation, and/or extraction. A protein the expression of which is reduced (or a fragment thereof) may be 35 used to produce a suitable monoclonal antibody.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 88 It is preferable that an immunogen used in the production of an antibody is one that is sufficiently antigenic to stimulate the production of antibodies that will bind to the immunogen and is preferably, a high titer antibody. In one embodiment, an immunogen may be an entire protein. 5 Alternatively, or in addition, an antibody raised against a peptide immunogen will recognize the full-length protein from which the immunogen was derived when the protein is denatured. By "denatured" is meant that conformational epitopes of the protein are disrupted under conditions that retain linear B cell epitopes of the protein. 10 As will be known to a skilled artisan linear epitopes and conformational epitopes may overlap. Alternatively, a monoclonal antibody capable of binding to a polypeptide of interest or a fragment thereof is produced using a method such as, for example, a human B-cell 15 hybridoma technique (Kozbar et al., Immunol. Today 4:72, 1983), a EBV-hybridoma technique to produce human monoclonal antibodies (Cole et al. Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancer Therapy, 1985 Allen R. Bliss, Inc., pages 77-96), or screening of combinatorial antibody libraries (Huse et al., Science 246:1275, 1989). 20 Such an antibody is then particularly useful in determining the level of expression of a protein to diagnose a cancer. Following obtaining or producing one or more antibodies that selectively bind to one or more modified histones, said modified histone/s are isolated from a biological sample 25 by a process comprising contacting the antibody with the biological sample for a time and under conditions sufficient for an antibody-antigen interaction to occur and isolating the antibody. As will be apparent to the skilled artisan, the antibody may be immobilized on a solid support to facilitate isolation of the antibody. Suitable solid supports include, for example, agarose, Sepharose, polycarbonate, polystyrene or glass. 30 Nucleic acid detection Following isolation of nucleic acid that was bound to the isolated histone the presence or absence of nucleic acid within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 is determined. Methods for determining 35 the presence or absence of a nucleic acid will be apparent to the skilled artisan and include for example, an amplification reaction.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 89 For example, a PCR reaction is performed with a set of primers that specifically amplify nucleic acid within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3. Detection of an amplification product 5 indicates that the chromatin within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 is modified and that the subject from whom the sample used in the assay was isolated has cancer. Clearly, any amplification reaction capable of detecting a specific nucleic acid is 10 contemplated by the present invention. For example, the present embodiment of the invention contemplates the use of an amplification reaction selected from the group consisting of rolling circle amplification (RCA), inverse polymerase chain reaction (iPCR), in situ PCR (Singer-Sam et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 18, 687,1990), strand displacement amplification, or cycling probe technology for the diagnosis of cancer. 15 Suitable combinations of primers will be apparent to the skilled artisan based on the disclosure herein in respect of any of the embodiments of the invention. In a preferred embodiment, the detection of nucleic acid bound to a modified histone 20 uses a primer combination selected from the group consisting of: (i) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 235 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 236; (ii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 237 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 238; 25 (iii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 239 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 240; (iv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 241 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 242; (v) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 243 and a primer 30 comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 244; (vi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 245 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 246; (vii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 247 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 248; 35 (viii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 249 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 250; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 90 (ix) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 251 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 252; (x) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 253 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 254; and 5 (xi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 255 and a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 256; Other primer combinations are also not to be excluded when using multiple amplifications to detect nucleic acid, the only requirement being that the primers are 10 selected such that they comprise nucleotide sequences that occur within SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 and/or Table 1 at a position between the two amplification primer sequences used for the first series of amplifications. The skilled artisan will readily be capable of determining the nucleotide sequence of suitable amplification primers to perform this embodiment based upon the disclosure in any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 15 and/or Table 1 and, as a consequence, the present invention is not to be limited by the precise sequence of amplification primers used. Alternatively, the presence of a nucleic acid within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 is determined 20 using, for example, a hybridization technique, such as, for example, a Southern Blot or a slot blot. In one embodiment, the presence of a nucleic acid within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 is determined 25 using, for example, a microarray, essentially as described in, Kondo et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 101: 7398-7403, 2004 or Chua et al., The Plant Journal, 37: 789-800, 2004. In accordance with this embodiment, chromatin is inmmunoprecipitated with an antibody that selectively binds to a modified histone and the isolated nucleic acid isolated. The isolated nucleic acid is then labeled with a detectable marker, such as, for 30 example, a flurophore, e.g., using ligation-mediated PCR or any other suitable method. Nucleic acid is then hybridized to a suitable microarray (as available from, for example, Affymetrix) and the identity of hybridized nucleic acid determined. Alternatively, a microarray comprising probes specific to chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 is used to determine the 35 presence of nucleic acid that is diagnostic of cancer.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 91 For example, the microarray comprises one or more oligonucleotides comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 235 to 256 to determine the presence of nucleic acid bound to a modified histone. 5 In accordance with this embodiment, a method for determining the presence of a modified histone in chromatin within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 comprises: (i) contacting a biological sample comprising chromatin with an antibody that selectively binds to a modified histone for a time and under conditions sufficient 10 for an antibody-antigen complex to form; (ii) isolating the antibody; and (iii) isolating or identifying nucleic acid bound to a histone isolated with the antibody and detecting nucleic acid within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, 15 wherein detection of said nucleic acid indicates the presence of a modified histone in chromatin within chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 and that a subject has cancer. III Detection of reduced gene expression 20 The present inventors have clearly demonstrated that the expression of any of a number of genes within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 is reduced in cancer subjects and in cancer cell lines. Nucleic acid detection 25 In one embodiment, the level of gene expression is determined by detecting the level of mRNA transcribed from a gene within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 or cDNA produced therefrom. In one embodiment, the mRNA is detected by hybridizing a nucleic acid probe or 30 primer capable of specifically hybridizing to a transcript of a gene within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 to a nucleic acid in a biological sample derived from a subject and detecting the hybridization by a detection means, wherein hybridization of the probe or primer indicates that the subject being tested suffers from cancer.. Preferably, the detection means is an amplification 35 reaction, or a nucleic acid hybridization reaction, such as, for example, as described herein.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 92 In this context, the term "selective hybridization" means that hybridization of a probe or primer to the transcript of a gene within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q1 4 .1 to about map position 2q14.3 occurs at a higher frequency or rate, or has a 5 higher maximum reaction velocity, than hybridization of the same probe or primer to any other nucleic acid. Preferably, the probe or primer does not hybridize to another nucleic acid at a detectable level under the reaction conditions used. A preferred transcript for performance of the method of the invention is selected from 10 the group consisting of RALBB (SEQ ID NO: 34), DDX18 (SEQ ID NO: 36), SCTR (SEQ ID NO: 38), EN1 (SEQ ID NO: 40), TSN (SEQ ID NO: 42), MARCO (SEQ ID NO: 48), PTPN4 (SEQ ID NO: 50), INSIG2 (SEQ ID NO: 52), INHBB (SEQ ID NO: 54), Gli2 (SEQ ID NO: 56), MGC13033 (SEQ ID NO: 58), TSAP6 (SEQ ID NO: 60), DBI (SEQ ID NO: 62), MGC10993 (SEQ ID NO: 64), EPB41L5 (SEQ ID NO: 66), 15 FLJ14816 (SEQ ID NO: 68) and LBP9 (SEQ ID NO: 70). In one embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a RALBB transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a DDX18 transcript. In a further embodiment, the method of the invention comprises 20 detecting a SCTR transcript. In a still further embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting an EN1 transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a TSN transcript. In yet another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a MARCO transcript. Alternatively, the method of the invention comprises detecting a PTPN4 transcript. In another alternative 25 embodiment, the method comprises detecting an INSIG2 transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting an INHBB transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a Gli2 transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a MGC13033 transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a 30 TSAP6 transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a DBI transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a MGC10993 transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting an EPB41L5 transcript. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a FLJ14816 transcript. In another 35 embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a LBP9 transcript.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 93 As transcripts of a gene within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 are detected using mRNA or cDNA derived therefrom, assays that detect changes in mRNA are preferred (e.g. Northern hybridization, RT-PCR, NASBA, TMA or ligase chain reaction). 5 Northern blotting is described in, for example, Ausubel et al (In: Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. Wiley Interscience, ISBN 047 150338, 1987) and Sambrook et al (In: Molecular Cloning: Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, New York, Third Edition 2001). Essentially this method comprises 10 immobilizing nucleic acid (RNA) on a solid support, such as, for example, a membrane. A probe or primer that is labeled with a detectable marker (such as, for example, a fluorescent label (e.g., Texas Red or FITC), an enzymatic label (e.g., horseradish peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase or a radioactive label (e.g., 32 P or 1 25 1) is then brought into direct contact with the membrane for a time and under conditions 15 sufficient for hybridization to occur (preferably, under moderate and more preferably high stringency conditions). Following washing to remove any non-specifically bound probe, the detectable marker is detected. Methods for detection will vary with the detectable marker used, but include, for example, densitometry a radioactive or fluorescent label or a colorimetric assay for an enzymatic label. A suitable method of 20 detection will be apparent to the skilled artisan. Methods of RT-PCR are known in the art and described, for example, in Dieffenbach (ed) and Dveksler (ed) (In: PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbour Laboratories, NY, 1995). Essentially, this method comprises performing a PCR 25 reaction using cDNA produced by reverse transcribing mRNA from a cell using a reverse transcriptase. Methods of PCR described supra are to be taken to apply mutatis mutandis to this embodiment of the invention. Similarly LCR may be performed using cDNA. Preferably, one or more of the probes 30 or primers used in the reaction specifically hybridize to the transcript of interest. Method of LCR are described supra and are to be taken to apply minutatis mutandis to this embodiment of the invention. Methods of TMA or self-sustained sequence replication (3SR) use two or more 35 oligonucleotides that flank a target sequence, a RNA polymerase, RNase H and a reverse transcriptase. One oligonucleotide (that also comprises a RNA polymerase WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 94 binding site) hybridizes to an RNA molecule that comprises the target sequence and the reverse transcriptase produces cDNA copy of this region. RNase H is used to digest the RNA in the RNA-DNA complex, and the second oligonucleotide used to produce a copy of the cDNA. The RNA polymerase is then used to produce a RNA copy of the 5 cDNA, and the process repeated. NASBA systems relies on the simultaneous activity of three enzymes (a reverse transcriptase, RNase H and RNA polymerase) to selectively amplify target mRNA sequences. The mRNA template is transcribed to cDNA by reverse transcription using 10 an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to the target sequence and comprises a RNA polymerase binding site at its 5' end. The template RNA is digested with RNase H and double stranded DNA is synthesized. The RNA polymerase then produces multiple RNA copies of the cDNA and the process is repeated. 15 Q-beta replicase mediated amplification is a RNA amplification method, similar to TMA or NASBA, however, this method utilizes a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase derived from bacteriophage Q-beta that can synthesize up to one billion strands of RNA product from a single template. Accordingly, this method rapidly amplifies the number of product produced from a single template. 20 SDA assays described supra are also useful for determining the level of expression of a gene and are taken to apply mutatis mutandis to this embodiment of the invention. The present invention clearly contemplates the use of a microarray to determine the 25 level of expression of one or more genes within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3. Such a method enables the detection of a number of different transcripts, thereby providing a multi-analyte test and improving the sensitivity and/or accuracy of the diagnostic assay of the invention. 30 Clearly, the hybridization to and/or amplification of a marker associated with a cancer using any of these methods is detectable using, for example, electrophoresis and/or mass spectrometry. In this regard, one or more of the probes/primers and/or one or more of the nucleotides used in an amplification reactions may be labeled with a detectable marker to facilitate rapid detection of a marker, for example, a fluorescent 35 label (e.g. Cy5 or Cy3) or a radioisotope (e.g. 32

P).

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 95 Alternatively, amplification of a nucleic acid may be continuously monitored using a melting curve analysis method, such as that described in, for example, US 6,174,670. Alternatively, the level of a transcript is normalized against the level of a known 5 transcript that is not modulated in cancer to facilitate comparison of the level of the transcript in a control sample. Suitable known transcripts are known in the art and include, for example, actin, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), P2 microglobulin, hydroxy-methylbilane synthase, hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase 1 (HPRT), ribosomal protein L13c, succinate dehydrogenase complex 10 subunit A and TATA box binding protein (TBP). The skilled artisan will readily be capable of determining the nucleotide sequence of suitable amplification primers to perform this embodiment based upon the disclosure herein of a transcript selected from the group consisting of RALBB (SEQ ID NO: 34), 15 DDX18 (SEQ ID NO: 36), SCTR (SEQ ID NO: 38), EN1 (SEQ ID NO: 40), TSN (SEQ ID NO: 42), MARCO (SEQ ID NO: 48), PTPN4 (SEQ ID NO: 50), INSIG2 (SEQ ID NO: 52), INHBB (SEQ ID NO: 54), Gli2 (SEQ ID NO: 56), MGC13033 (SEQ ID NO: 58), TSAP6 (SEQ ID NO: 60), DBI (SEQ ID NO: 62), MGC10993 (SEQ ID NO: 64), EPB41L5 (SEQ ID NO: 66), FLJ14816 (SEQ ID NO: 68) and LBP9 (SEQ 20 ID NO: 70). As a consequence, the present invention is not to be limited by the precise sequence of amplification primers used. Methods for designing and producing suitable primers are described supra and are to be taken to apply mutatis mutandis to the present embodiment. 25 Suitable primer combinations of primers for the detection of the level of expression of a gene within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 include, for example, (i) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 199 and a primer 30 comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 200 to determine the level of expression of DDX 18; (ii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 201 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 202 to determine the level of expression of INSIG2; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 96 (iii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 203 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 204 to determine the level of expression of EN1; (iv) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 205 and a primer 5 comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 206 to determine the level of expression of MARCO; (v) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 207 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 208 to determine the level of expression SCTR; 10 (vi) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 209 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 210 to detennine the level of expression of PTPN4; (vii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 211 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 212 to determine 15 the level of expression of RALB; (viii) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 213 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 214 to determine the level of expression of INHBB; (ix) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 215 and a primer 20 comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 216 to determine the level of expression of Gli2; and (x) a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 217 and a primer comprising a sequence that is the complement of SEQ ID NO: 218 to determine the level of expression of TSN. 25 Polypeptide detection In an alternative embodiment, the level of gene expression is determined by detecting the level of a protein encoded by a gene within chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3. 30 Preferably, the protein is selected from the group consisting of RALBB (SEQ ID NO: 35), DDX18 (SEQ ID NO: 37), SCTR (SEQ ID NO: 39), EN1 (SEQ ID NO: 41), TSN (SEQ ID NO: 43), MARCO (SEQ ID NO: 45), PTPN4 (SEQ ID NO: 57), INSIG2 (SEQ ID NO: 53), INHBB (SEQ ID NO: 55), Gli2 (SEQ ID NO: 57), MGC13033 35 (SEQ ID NO: 59), TSAP6 (SEQ ID NO: 61), DBI (SEQ ID NO: 63), MGC10993 (SEQ ID NO: 65), EPB41L5 (SEQ ID NO: 67), FLJ14816 (SEQ ID NO: 69) and LBP9 (SEQ WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 97 ID NO: 71). In this respect, the present invention is not necessarily limited to the detection of a protein comprising the specific amino acid sequence recited herein. Rather, the present invention encompasses the detection of variant sequences (e.g., having at least about 80% or 90% or 95% or 98% amino acid sequence identity) or the 5 detection of an immunogenic fragment or epitope of said protein. In one embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a RALBB polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a DDX18 polypeptide. In a further embodiment, the method of the invention comprises 10 detecting a SCTR polypeptide. In a still further embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting an EN1 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a TSN polypeptide. In yet another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a MARCO polypeptide. Alternatively, the method of the invention comprises detecting a PTPN4 polypeptide. 15 In another alternative embodiment, the method comprises detecting an INSIG2 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting an INHBB polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a Gli2 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a MGC13033 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of 20 the invention comprises detecting a TSAP6 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a DBI polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a MGC10993 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting an EPB41L5 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention 25 comprises detecting a FLJ14816 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises detecting a LBP9 polypeptide. A suitable antibody will be apparent to the skilled artisan or produced by conventional means, such as, for example, as described supra. For example, a monoclonal antibody 30 to MARCO is available from Cell Sciences; a polyclonal anti-EN1 antibody is commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich; an inhibin beta b monoclonal antibody is available from Serotee; an anti-Gli2 antitbody is available from abcam; a monoclonal antibody to PTPN4 is available from Purely Proteins Ltd and an anti-Gli2 antibody is available from Research Genetics. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 98 The amount, level or presence of a polypeptide is determined using any of a variety of techniques known to the skilled artisan such as, for example, a technique selected from the group consisting of, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, an immunoblot, a Western blot, a dot blot, an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 5 radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme immunoassay, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI TOF), electrospray ionization (ESI), mass spectrometry (including tandem mass spectrometry, e.g. LC MS/MS), biosensor technology, evanescent fiber-optics technology or protein chip technology. 10 In one embodiment the assay used to determine the amount or level of a protein is a semi-quantitative assay. In another embodiment the assay used to determine the amount or level of a protein in a quantitative assay. As will be apparent from the preceding description, such an assay may require the use of a suitable control, e.g. from 15 a normal individual or matched normal control. Standard solid-phase ELISA or FLISA formats are particularly useful in determining the concentration of a protein from a variety of samples. 20 In one form such an assay involves immobilizing a biological sample onto a solid matrix, such as, for example a polystyrene or polycarbonate microwell or dipstick, a membrane, or a glass support (e.g. a glass slide). An antibody that specifically binds to a protein described supra is brought into direct 25 contact with the immobilized biological sample, and forms a direct bond with any of its target protein present in said sample. This antibody is generally labeled with a detectable reporter molecule, such as for example, a fluorescent label (e.g. FITC or Texas Red) or a fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystal (as described in US 6,306,610) in the case of a FLISA or an enzyme (e.g. horseradish peroxidase (HRP), alkaline 30 phosphatase (AP) or f3-galactosidase) in the case of an ELISA, or alternatively a second labeled antibody can be used that binds to the first antibody. Following washing to remove any unbound antibody the label is detected either directly, in the case of a fluorescent label, or through the addition of a substrate, such as for example hydrogen peroxide, TMB, or toluidine, or 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indol-beta-D-galaotopyranoside 35 (x-gal) in the case of an enzymatic label.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 99 Such ELISA or FLISA based systems are particularly suitable for quantification of the amount of a protein in a sample. For example, the detection system is calibrated against known amounts of a protein standard to which the antibody binds, such as for example, an isolated and/or recombinant form of the relevant protein or immunogenic 5 fragment thereof or epitope thereof. In another form, an ELISA comprises immobilizing an antibody or ligand that specifically binds a protein described supra on a solid matrix, such as, for example, a membrane, a polystyrene or polycarbonate microwell, a polystyrene or polycarbonate 10 dipstick or a glass support. A sample is then brought into physical relation with said antibody, and the polypeptide is bound or 'captured'. The bound protein is then detected using a labeled antibody. For example, a labeled antibody that binds to an epitope that is distinct from the first (capture) antibody is used to detect the captured protein. Alternatively, a third labeled antibody can be used that binds the second 15 (detecting) antibody. It will be apparent to the skilled person that the assay formats described herein are amenable to high throughput formats, such as, for example automation of screening processes, or a microarray format as described in Mendoza et al., Biotechniques 27(4): 20 778-788, 1999. Furthermore, variations of the above-described assay will be apparent to those skilled in the art, such as, for example, a competitive ELISA. Alternatively, the presence or amount of a protein selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, 25 MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9 is detected using a radioimmunoassay (RIA). The basic principle of the assay is the use of a radiolabeled antibody or antigen to detect antibody-antigen interactions. An antibody or ligand that specifically binds to a protein described supra is bound to a solid support and a sample brought into direct contact with said antibody. To detect the level of 30 bound antigen, an isolated and/or recombinant form of the antigen is radiolabeled and brought into contact with the same antibody. Following washing, the level of bound radioactivity is detected. As any antigen in the biological sample inhibits binding of the radiolabeled antigen the level of radioactivity detected is inversely proportional to the level of antigen in the sample. Such an assay may be quantitated by using a standard 35 curve using increasing known concentrations of the isolated antigen.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 100 As will be apparent to the skilled artisan, such an assay may be modified to use any reporter molecule, such as, for example, an enzyme or a fluorescent molecule, in place of a radioactive label. 5 In another embodiment, Western blotting is used to determine the level of a protein described supra in a sample. In such an assay protein from a sample is separated using sodium doedecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) using techniques known in the art and described in, for example, Scopes (In: Protein Purification: Principles and Practice, Third Edition, Springer Verlag, 1994). Separated 10 proteins are then transferred to a solid support, such as, for example, a membrane (e.g., a PVDF membrane), using methods known in the art, for example, electrotransfer. This membrane is then blocked and probed with a labeled antibody or ligand that specifically binds to a protein described supra. Alternatively, a labeled secondary, or even tertiary, antibody or ligand is used to detect the binding of a specific primary 15 antibody. The level of label is then determined using an assay appropriate for the label used. An appropriate assay will be apparent to the skilled artisan. For example, the level or presence a polypeptide described supra is determined using methods known in the art, such as, for example, densitometry. In one embodiment, the 20 intensity of a protein band or spot is normalized against the total amount of protein loaded on a SDS-PAGE gel using methods known in the art. Alternatively, the level of a protein selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9 detected is normalized against the level of a 25 control/reference protein. Such control proteins are known in the art, and include, for example, actin, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), P2 microglobulin, hydroxy-methylbilane synthase, hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase 1 (HPRT), ribosomal protein L13c, succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit A and TATA box binding protein (TBP). 30 In an alternative embodiment, a protein selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9 is detected within a cell (e.g., a cancer cell), using a method known in the art, such as, for example, 35 immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 101 For example, a cell or tissue section that is to be analyzed to determine the level of a protein described supra is fixed to stabilize and protect both the cell and the proteins contained within the cell. Preferably, the method of fixation does not disrupt or destroy the antigenicity of the protein. Methods of fixing a cell are known in the art and 5 include for example, treatment with paraformaldehyde, treatment with alcohol, treatment with acetone, treatment with methanol, treatment with Bouin's fixative and treatment with glutaraldehyde. Following fixation a cell is incubated with a ligand or antibody capable of binding to the protein. The ligand or antibody is, for example, labeled with a detectable marker, such as, for example, a fluorescent label (e.g. FITC or 10 Texas Red), a fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystal (as described in US 6,306,610) or an enzyme (e.g. horseradish peroxidase (HRP)), alkaline phosphatase (AP) or P galactosidase. Alternatively, a second labeled antibody that binds to the first antibody is used to detect the first antibody. Following washing to remove any unbound antibody, the level of the protein bound to said labeled antibody is detected using the 15 relevant detection means. Means for detecting a fluorescent label will vary depending upon the type of label used and will be apparent to the skilled artisan. Methods using immunofluorescence are preferable, as they are quantitative or at least semi-quantitative. Methods of quantitating the degree of fluorescence of a stained cell 20 are known in the art and described, for example, in Immunohistochemistry (Cuello, 1984 John Wiley and Sons, ASIN 0471900524). The detection of the level of a protein selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, 25 TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9 using a method such as, for example, mass spectrometry, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF), electrospray ionisation (ESI), protein chip, biosensor technology, or fluorescence resonance energy transfer, is clearly contemplated in the present invention. 30 Biosensor devices generally employ an electrode surface in combination with current or impedance measuring elements to be integrated into a device in combination with the assay substrate (such as that described in U.S. Patent No. 5,567,301). An antibody/ligand that specifically binds to a protein of interest is preferably incorporated 35 onto the surface of a biosensor device and a biological sample contacted to said device. A change in the detected current or impedance by the biosensor device indicates protein WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 102 binding to said antibody. Some forms of biosensors known in the art also rely on surface plasmon resonance to detect protein interactions, whereby a change in the surface plasmon resonance surface of reflection is indicative of a protein binding to a ligand or antibody (U.S. Patent No. 5,485,277 and 5,492,840). 5 Biosensors are of particular use in high throughput analysis due to the ease of adapting such systems to micro- or nano-scales. Furthermore, such systems are conveniently adapted to incorporate several detection reagents, allowing for multiplexing of diagnostic reagents in a single biosensor unit. This permits the simultaneous detection 10 of several proteins or peptides in a small amount of body fluid. Evanescent biosensors are also preferred as they do not require the pretreatment of a biological sample prior to detection of a protein of interest. An evanescent biosensor generally relies upon light of a predetermined wavelength interacting with a fluorescent 15 molecule, such as for example, a fluorescent antibody attached near the probe's surface, to emit fluorescence at a different wavelength upon binding of the target polypeptide to the antibody or ligand. Micro- or nano-cantilever biosensors are also preferred as they do not require the use of 20 a detectable label. A cantilever biosensor utilizes a ligand and/or antibody capable of specifically detecting the analyte of interest that is bound to the surface of a deflectable arm of a micro- or nano-cantilever. Upon binding of the analyte of interest (e.g. one or more proteins selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, 25 EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9) the deflectable arm of the cantilever is deflected in a vertical direction (i.e. upwards or downwards). The change in the deflection of the deflectable arm is then detected by any of a variety of methods, such as, for example, atomic force microscopy, a change in oscillation of the deflectable arm or a change in pizoresistivity. Exemplary micro-cantilever sensors are described in USSN 30 20030010097. Alternatively, a biosensor that utilizes a lipid membrane is used. Such a biosensor uses a lipid membrane that incorporates a lipid bilayer that comprises an ion channel or ionophore, wherein the lipid bilayer is tethered to a metal electrode (such biosensors 35 are described in AU 623,747, US 5,234,566 and USSN 20030143726). One form of such a biosensor involves two receptors or antibodies that bind to each other being WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 103 incorporated into a lipid bilayer. One of these receptors/antibodies is bound to an ion channel or ionophore that spans the outer half of the membrane, and this membrane/antibody is also capable of binding to the analyte of interest. The second receptor/antibody is tethered to a membrane molecule (i.e. not the ionophore or ion 5 channel). When the receptors/antibodies are not bound to each other, the ion channel aligns with another half membrane spanning ionophore (i.e. an ionophore that spans the inner half of the membrane) thereby facilitating detectable ion transmission across the membrane. However, when the two receptors/antibodies bind each other, the outer membrane ionophore is displaced thereby disrupting membrane conductivity. The 10 analyte of interest competes with the second receptor/antibody for the binding site on the first receptor/antibody. The presence of the analyte breaks the bond between the two receptors/antibodies and allows the half membrane ionophores to align and provide an ion conductive path. 15 To produce protein chips, the proteins, peptides, polypeptides, antibodies or ligands that are able to bind specific antibodies or proteins of interest are bound to a solid support such as for example glass, polycarbonate, polytetrafluoroethylene, polystyrene, silicon oxide, metal or silicon nitride. This immobilization is either direct (e.g. by covalent linkage, such as, for example, Schiff's base formation, disulfide linkage, or 20 amide or urea bond formation) or indirect. Methods of generating a protein chip are known in the art and are described in for example U.S. Patent Application No. 20020136821, 20020192654, 20020102617 and U.S. Patent No. 6,391,625. To bind a protein to a solid support it is often necessary to treat the solid support so as to create chemically reactive groups on the surface, such as, for example, with an aldehyde 25 containing silane reagent. Alternatively, an antibody or ligand may be captured on a microfabricated polyacrylamide gel pad and accelerated into the gel using microelectrophoresis as described in, Arenkov et al. Anal. Biochem. 278:123-131, 2000. 30 A protein chip may comprise only one protein, ligand or antibody, and be used to screen one or more patient samples for the presence of one or a plurality of polypeptides of interest. Such a chip may also be used to simultaneously screen an array of patient samples for a polypeptide of interest. 35 Preferably, a protein sample to be analyzed using a protein chip is attached to a reporter molecule, such as, for example, a fluorescent molecule, a radioactive molecule, an WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 104 enzyme, or an antibody that is detectable using methods known in the art. Accordingly, by contacting a protein chip with a labeled sample and subsequent washing to remove any unbound proteins the presence of a bound protein is detected using methods known in the art, such as, for example, using a DNA microarray reader. 5 Alternatively, biomolecular interaction analysis-mass spectrometry (BIA-MS) is used to rapidly detect and characterize a protein present in complex biological samples at the low- to sub-fmnole level (Nelson et al. Electrophoresis 21: 1155-1163, 2000). One technique useful in the analysis of a protein chip is surface enhanced laser 10 desorption/ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF-MS) technology to characterize a protein bound to the protein chip. Alternatively, the protein chip is analyzed using ESI as described in U.S. Patent Application 20020139751. IV Multiplex assay formats 15 The present invention particularly contemplates multiplex or multianalyte format assays to improve the accuracy or specificity of a diagnosis of cancer. Such assays may also improve the population coverage by an assay. A preferred multiplex assay comprises, for example, detecting hypermethylation of one 20 or more CpG dinucleotides in a plurality of nucleic acids within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 each nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1. Clearly, this form of assay indicates the presence or absence of hypermethylation of CpG islands in a test sample. 25 In a preferred embodiment, the multiplex assay detects hypermethylation of one or more CpG dinucleotides in a plurality of nucleic acids within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 each nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any of SEQ ID NOs: 2 to 25. Alternatively, the 30 nucleotide sequence is designated as INSIG2, (CpG 49), CpG41.2, CpG61,CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5' MARCO, CpG229, TSAP6 (CpG 85), DBI (CpG 85), CpG85, SCTR (CpG 67), PTPN4 (CpG 86), CpG102, RALBB (CpG115) or INHBB(CpG285) in Table 1. 35 In an even more preferred embodiment, the multiplex assay detects hypermethylation of one or more CpG dinucleotides in a plurality of nucleic acids within Chromosome 2 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 105 from about map position 2q1 4 .1 to about map position 2q14.3 each nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any of SEQ ID NOs: 4 to 21. Alternatively, the nucleotide sequence is designated as CpG61,CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5'-MARCO, 5 CpG229, TSAP6 (CpG 85), DBI (CpG 85), CpG85 or SCTR (CpG 67) in Table 1. As exemplified herein, the present inventors have detected methylation in a CpG island comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11, and a CpG island comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21 and CpG island 10 comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25. Using such a multianalyte method, the inventors detected approximately 96% of colorectal cancer subjects tested. Accordingly, in a preferred embodiment, the method of the invention determines the level of methylation of one or more CpG dinucleotides in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11, and in a nucleic acid 15 comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21 and in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25. In another embodiment, the method of the invention comprises determining the degree of methylation of a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11, and in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21 and in a 20 nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25. In a further embodiment, the method of the invention comprises determining the degree of methylation of a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11 and in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID 25 NO: 21. In a further embodiment, the method of the invention comprises determining the degree of methylation of a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11 and in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID 30 NO: 25. In a further embodiment, the method of the invention comprises determining the degree of methylation of a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21 and in a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID 35 NO: 25.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 106 Clearly, the multiplex assay of the invention is not to be limited to the detection of methylation at a single CpG dinucleotide within a region of interest. Rather the invention contemplates detection of methylation at a sufficient number of CpG dinucleotides in each nucleic acid to provide a diagnosis. For example, the invention 5 contemplates detection of methylation at 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 7 or 9 or 10 or 15 or 20 or 25 or 30 CpG dinculeotides in each nucleic acid. As will be apparent from the foregoing description a methylation specific microarray is particularly amenable to such high density analysis. Previously, up to 232 CpG 10 dinucleotides have been analyzed using such a microarray (Adorj6in et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 30: e21, 2002). The present invention also contemplates determining histone modification at one or more sites within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map 15 position 2q1l4.3. For example, ChIP is performed to determine whether or not histones associated with a plurality of genes selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9 are modified. The invention is not to be limited to the detection of histone modification associated with a 20 gene, as histone associated with intergenic regions also occurs. In another embodiment, the method of the invention determines the level of expression of a plurality of genes selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, 25 MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9 to diagnose cancer. The level of mRNA or protein may be detected. Alternatively, the level of mRNA transcribed from one or more genes and the level of one or more proteins expressed by the same or different genes is determined. 30 Each of the previously described detection techniques need necessarily be used independently of one another to diagnose cancer. Accordingly, a single sample may be analyzed to determine the level of methylation of one or more CpG dinculeotides in one or more of nucleic acids within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 each nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth 35 in any of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1 and the level of expression of one or more genes selected from the group consisting of RALB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 107 MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9 is also determined. In accordance with this embodiment, enhanced methylation and reduced gene expression is indicative of cancer. 5 Based on the teachings provided herein, a variety of combinations of assays will be apparent to the skilled artisan. The present invention also contemplates the use of a known diagnostic assay in 10 combination with an assay described herein. For example, the level of serum PSA may be determined in combination with an assay described herein to diagnose cancer. Alternatively, a mutation in a BRCA gene and an assay described herein may be used to diagnose breast cancer. 15 Biological samples A biological sample useful for the method of the present invention is preferably from a tissue suspected of comprising a cancer or cancer cell. More preferably, the cell is from a region of a tissue thought to comprise a cancer or cancer cell. Clearly this does not exclude cells that have originated in a particular tissue but are isolated from a 20 remote source, for example, a body fluid or a stool sample in the case of a colon cancer or urine in the case of a urogenital cancer. In one embodiment, the sample comprises a body fluid or a derivative of a body fluid or a body secretion. For example, the body fluid is selected from the group consisting 25 of whole blood, urine, saliva, breast milk, pleural fluid, sweat, tears and mixtures thereof. An example of a derivative of a body fluid is selected from the group consisting of plasma, serum or buffy coat fraction. For example, a body secretion comprises stool. 30 Preferably, the biological sample comprises a nucleated cell or an extract thereof. More preferably, the biological sample comprises a cancer cell or an extract thereof. In another embodiment, the biological sample comprises nucleic acid and/or protein from a cancer cell. The nucleic acid and/or protein may be separate need not be 35 isolated with a cell, but rather may be from, for example, a lysed cell.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 108 In the present context, the term "cancer cell" includes any biological specimen or sample comprising a cancer cell irrespective of its degree of isolation or purity, such as, for example, tissues, organs, cell lines, bodily fluids, or histology specimens that comprise a cell in the early stages of transformation or having been transformed. 5 As the present invention is particularly useful for the early detection of cancer in the medium to long term, the definition of "cancer cell" is not to be limited by the stage of a cancer in the subject from which said cancer cell is derived (i.e. whether or not the patient is in remission or undergoing disease recurrence or whether or not the cancer is 10 a primary tumor or the consequence of metastases). Nor is the term "cancer cell" to be limited by the stage of the cell cycle of said cancer cell. In a preferred embodiment, the biological sample comprises a cell or a plurality of cells derived from a tissue selected from the group consisting of a colorectum, a prostate, a 15 breast, a pancreas and an ovary. Preferably, the biological sample comprises a cell or a plurality of cells derived from a tissue selected from the group consisting of a colorectum, a prostate and a breast. Preferably, the biological sample comprises a cell or a plurality of cells derived from a colorectum. Preferably, the biological sample comprises a cell or a plurality of cells derived from a prostate. Preferably, the 20 biological sample comprises a cell or a plurality of cells derived from a breast. Preferably, the biological sample has been isolated previously from the subject. In accordance with this embodiment, the diagnostic method of the invention is performed ex vivo. In such cases, the sample may be processed or partially processed into a 25 nucleic acid sample that is substantially free of contaminating protein. All such embodiments are encompassed by the present invention. Methods for isolating a biological sample from a subject are known in the art and include, for example, surgery, biopsy, collection of a body fluid, for example, by 30 paracentesis or thoracentesis or collection of, for example, blood or a fraction thereof. All such methods for isolating a biological sample shall be considered to be within the scope of providing or obtaining a biological sample. For example, a cell or plurality of cells derived from a colorectum is collected or 35 isolated using a method, such as, for example, a colonoscopy and/or collected from a stool sample. In the case of a sample from a prostate, the sample is collected, for WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 109 example, by surgery (e.g., a radical prostatectomy) or a biopsy. In the case of a breast cancer, a sample is collected, for example, using a fine needle aspiration biopsy, a core needle biopsy, or a surgical biopsy. 5 The biological sample need not necessarily comprise a cell, but may merely comprise a cell extract. Preferably, the cell extract comprises the analyte/s required for analysis, e.g., genomic DNA and/or mRNA and/or protein. In this regard, providing or obtaining a biological sample shall be considered to encompass producing a cell extract. 10 It will be apparent from the preceding description that the diagnostic method provided by the present invention involves a degree of quantification to determine elevated or enhanced methylation of nucleic acid in tissue that is suspected of comprising a cancer cell or metastases thereof, or enhanced histone modification in tissue that is suspected 15 of comprising a cancer cell or metastases thereof, or reduced gene expression in tissue that is suspected of comprising a cancer cell or metastases thereof. Such quantification is readily provided by the inclusion of appropriate control samples in the assays as described below. 20 As will be apparent to the skilled artisan, when internal controls are not included in each assay conducted, the control may be derived from an established data set. Data pertaining to the control subjects are selected from the group consisting of: 1. a data set comprising measurements of the degree of methylation, histone 25 modification and/or gene expression for a typical population of subjects known to have a particular form of cancer that is currently being tested or a typical population of subjects known to have cancer generally; 2. a data set comprising measurements of the degree of methylation, histone modification and/or gene expression for the subject being tested wherein said 30 measurements have been made previously, such as, for example, when the subject was known to healthy or, in the case of a subject having cancer, when the subject was diagnosed or at an earlier stage in disease progression; 3. a data set comprising measurements of the degree of methylation, histone modification and/or gene expression for a healthy individual or a population of 35 healthy individuals; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 110 4. a data set comprising measurements of the degree of methylation, histone modification and/or gene expression for a normal individual or a population of normal individuals; and 5. a data set comprising measurements of the degree of methylation, histone 5 modification and/or gene expression from the subject being tested wherein the measurements are determined in a matched sample. Those skilled in the art are readily capable of determining the baseline for comparison in any diagnostic assay of the present invention without undue experimentation, based 10 upon the teaching provided herein. In the present context, the term "typical population" with respect to subjects known to have cancer shall be taken to refer to a population or sample of subjects diagnosed with a specific form of cancer that is representative of the spectrum of subjects suffering 15 from that cancer. Alternatively, a panel of subjects suffering from a variety of cancers (e.g., of the same tissue or cancer generally) that is representative of the spectrum of subjects suffering from cancer is used. This is not to be taken as requiring a strict normal distribution of morphological or clinicopathopathological parameters in the population, since some variation in such a distribution is permissible. Preferably, a 20 "typical population" will exhibit a spectrum of cancers at different stages of disease progression and with tumors at different stages and having different morphologies or degrees of differentiation. It is particularly preferred that a "typical population" exhibits the expression characteristics of a cohort of subjects or non-cancerous cell lines as described herein. 25 In the present context, the term "healthy individual" shall be taken to mean an individual who is known not to suffer from cancer, such knowledge being derived from clinical data on the individual. It is preferred that the healthy individual is asymptomatic with respect to the any symptoms associated with cancer. 30 The term "normal individual" shall be taken to mean an individual having a normal level of methylation, histone modification and/or gene expression as described herein in a particular sample derived from said individual. 35 As will be known to those skilled in the art, data obtained from a sufficiently large sample of the population will normalize, allowing the generation of a data set for WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 111 determining the average level of a particular parameter. Accordingly, the level of methylation, histone modification and/or gene expression as described herein can be determined for any population of individuals, and for any sample derived from said individual, for subsequent comparison to levels determined for a sample being assayed. 5 Where such normalized data sets are relied upon, internal controls are preferably included in each assay conducted to control for variation. The term "matched sample" shall be taken to mean that a control sample is derived from the same subject as the test sample is derived, at approximately the same point in 10 time. Preferably, the control sample shows little or no morphological and/or pathological indications of cancer. Matched samples are not applicable to blood-based or serum-based assays. Accordingly, it is preferable that the matched sample is from a region of the same tissue as the test sample, however does not appear to comprise a cancer cell. Preferably, the matched sample does not include malignant cells or exhibit 15 any symptom of the disease. Preferably, the sample comprises less than about 20% malignant cells, more preferably less than about 10% malignant cells, even more preferably less than about 5% malignant cells and most preferably less than about 1% malignant cells. Morphological and pathological indications of malignant cells are known in the art and/or described herein. 20 Probes/Primers The present invention additionally provides an isolated nucleic acid probe or primer that is capable of selectively hybridizing to a region of Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3. 25 In those cases where the probe are not already available, they must be synthesized. Apparatus for such synthesis is presently available commercially, such as the Applied Biosystems 380A DNA synthesizer and techniques for synthesis of various nucleic acids are available in the literature. 30 For example, a nucleotide comprising deoxynucleotides (e.g., a DNA based oligonucleotide) is produced using standard solid-phase phosphoramidite chemistry. Essentially, this method uses protected nucleoside phosphoramidites to produce a short oligonucleotide (i.e., up to about 80 nucleotides). Typically, an initial 5'-protected 35 nucleoside is attached to a polymer resin by its 3'-hydroxy group. The 5' hydroxyl group is then de-protected and the subsequent nucleoside-3'-phophoramidite in the WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 112 sequence is coupled to the de-protected group. An internucleotide bond is then formed by oxidizing the linked nucleosides to form a phosphotriester. By repeating the steps of de-protection, coupling and oxidation an oligonucleotide of desired length and sequence is obtained. Suitable methods of oligonucleotide synthesis are described, for 5 example, in Caruthers, M. H., et al., "Methods in Enzymology," Vol. 154, pp. 287-314 (1988). In one embodiment, the probes are prepared for ligation, e.g., if ligase is to be used, the 10 probe which will have its 5' end adjacent the 3' end of the other probe when hybridized to the sample nucleic acid is phosphorylated in order to later be able to form a phosphodiester bond between the two probes. One of the probes is then labeled. This labeling can be done as part of the phosphorylation process above using radioactive phosphorus, or can be accomplished as a separate operation by covalently attaching 15 chromophores, fluorescent moieties, enzymes, antigens, chemiluminescent moieties, groups with specific binding activity, or electrochemically detectable moieties, etc. such as, for example, using T4 polynucleotide kinase. For the detection of methylated nucleic acid a preferred probe or primer comprises a 20 nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 72 to 199. For determining the level of expression of a gene within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 a preferred probe or primer comprises a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 200 to 219. For determining nucleic acid bound to a modified histone in chromatin within Chromosome 2 from 25 about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 a preferred probe or primer comprises a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 236 to 256. For pyrosequencing a nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 a preferred probe or primer comprises a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 224-235. 30 Other preferred probes or primers are selected from the group consisting of: (i) a probe having of at least 18 nucleotides in length and comprising a sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1; (ii) a probe of at least 18 nucleotides in length and comprising a sequence set forth 35 in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 33 or Table 1 wherein the 5' or 3' terminal nucleotide of the probe is methylated in a cancer; WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 113 (iii) a probe of at least about 18 nucleotides in length and comprising a sequence set forth in a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 34, SEQ ID NO: 36, SEQ ID NO: 38, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 42, SEQ ID NO: 44, SEQ ID NO: 46, SEQ ID NO: 48, SEQ ID NO: 50, SEQ ID 5 NO: 52, SEQ ID NO: 54, SEQ ID NO: 56, SEQ ID NO: 58, SEQ ID NO: 60, SEQ ID NO: 62, SEQ ID NO: 64, SEQ ID NO: 66, SEQ ID NO: 68 and SEQ ID NO: 70; and (iv) a probe comprising a nucleotide sequence complementary to any one of (i) to (iii). 10 IV Therapeutic compounds The present inventors have demonstrated that the modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 is returned to its normal state following treatment with one or more therapeutic 15 compounds. Furthermore, the expression of several genes in this region are returned to normal levels following treatment with a therapeutic compound. Accordingly, the present invention additionally provides a method for determining a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer. 20 The present invention clearly encompasses the use of any in silico analytical method and/or industrial process for carrying the screening methods described herein into a pilot scale production or industrial scale production of an inhibitory compound identified in such screens. This invention also provides for the provision of 25 information for any such production. Accordingly, a further aspect of the present invention provides a process for identifying or determining a compound or modulator supra, said method comprising: (i) performing a method as described herein to thereby identify or determine a compound for the treatment of a cancer; 30 (ii) optionally, determining the structure of the compound; and (iii) providing the compound or the name or structure of the compound such as, for example, in a paper form, machine-readable form, or computer-readable form. Naturally, for compounds that are known albeit not previously tested for their function 35 using a screen provided by the present invention, determination of the structure of the WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 114 compound is implicit in step (i) supra. This is because the skilled artisan will be aware of the name and/or structure of the compound at the time of performing the screen. As used herein, the term "providing the compound" shall be taken to include any 5 chemical or recombinant synthetic means for producing said compound or alternatively, the provision of a compound that has been previously synthesized by any person or means. In a preferred embodiment, the compound or the name or structure of the compound is 10 provided with an indication as to its use e.g., as determined by a screen described herein. A further aspect of the present invention provides a process for producing a compound supra, said method comprising: 15 (i) performing a method as described herein to thereby identify or determine a compound for the treatment of a cancer; (ii) optionally, determining the structure of the compound; (iii) optionally, providing the name or structure of the compound such as, for example, in a paper form, machine-readable form, or computer-readable form; 20 and (iv) providing the compound. In a preferred embodiment, the synthesized compound or the name or structure of the compound is provided with an indication as to its use e.g., as determined by a screen 25 described herein. A further aspect of the present invention provides a method for manufacturing a compound for the treatment of a cancer comprising: (i) determining a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer; and 30 (ii) using the compound in the manufacture of a therapeutic or prophylactic for the treatment of a cancer. In one embodiment, the method comprises the additional step of isolating the candidate compound. Alternatively, a compound is identified and is produced for use in the 35 manufacture of a compound for the treatment of a cancer.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 115 Formulation of a pharmaceutical compound will vary according to the route of administration selected (e.g., solution, emulsion, capsule). An appropriate composition comprising the identified modulator to be administered can be prepared in a physiologically acceptable vehicle or carrier. For solutions or emulsions, suitable 5 carriers include, for example, aqueous or alcoholic/aqueous solutions, emulsions or suspensions, including saline and buffered media. Parenteral vehicles can include sodium chloride solution, Ringer's dextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride, lactated Ringer's or fixed oils, for instance. Intravenous vehicles can include various additives, preservatives, or fluid, nutrient or electrolyte replenishers and the like (See, generally, 10 Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th Edition, Mack Publishing Co., Pa., 1985). For inhalation, the agent can be solubilized and loaded into a suitable dispenser for administration (e.g., an atomizer, nebulizer or pressurized aerosol dispenser). Furthermore, where the agent is a protein or peptide, the agent can be administered via 15 in vivo expression of the recombinant protein. In vivo expression can be accomplished via somatic cell expression according to suitable methods (see, e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 5,399,346). In this embodiment, nucleic acid encoding the protein can be incorporated into a retroviral, adenoviral or other suitable vector (preferably, a replication deficient infectious vector) for delivery, or can be introduced into a transfected or transformed 20 host cell capable of expressing the protein for delivery. In the latter embodiment, the cells can be implanted (alone or in a barrier device), injected or otherwise introduced in an amount effective to express the protein in a therapeutically effective amount. As will be apparent to a skilled artisan, a compound that is active in vivo is particular 25 preferred. A compound that is active in a human subject is even more preferred. Accordingly, when manufacturing a compound that is for the treatment of a cancer it is preferable to ensure that any components added to the compound do not inhibit or modify the activity of said compound. 30 The present invention is further described in the following non-limiting examples. EXAMPLE 1 Identification of a hypermethylated region of Chromosome 2 in colon cancer 35 Samples used in the identification of hypermethylated DNA in colon cancer were derived from 112 colorectal carcinomas with paired non-adjacent areas of normal WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 116 colonic mucosa. Samples were collected as and frozen within 2 hours of removal and stored at -80 0 C until analysis. All samples were obtained from the Hospital de la Santa Creu u Sant Pau (Barcelona, Spain). 5 Using the global methylation approach, amplification of inter-methylated sites (AIMS) assay (essentially as described in Frigole et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 30: e28, 2002) the inventors identified a SinaI fragment, designated the Z fragment, that was differentially methylated in 71 out of 112 (63%) of colorectal/normal tumor matched pairs. An example of a gel showing an AIMS assay identifying the Z band is shown in Figures 1 10 and2. The Z fragment was isolated from an acrylamide gel, sequenced and mapped to human Chromosome 2 map position 2q14.2 (Figure 3) using in silico methods. The Z fragment is not associated with any known or predicted genes, with the closest gene 15 being Engrailed 1 (EN1). Using the Genome Browser (July 2003) the Z fragment was found to be approximately 1.2kb downstream of a CpG rich region spanning 25 kilobases (kb). This region contains a number of genes, many of which contain CpG islands either within the gene 20 or within the promoter region of the gene. The methylation status of these CpG islands was then determined using direct bisulfite sequencing and clonal analysis. EXAMPLE 2 DNA hypermethylation of CpG islands neighbouring Engrailed-1 25 2.1 Methods Bisulfite treatment DNA was extracted from the HCT116 / SW480 cells using the Puregene extraction kit (Gentra Systems) and Trizol reagent (Invitrogen) from colorectal cancer or normal 30 matched samples according to the manufacturer's protocol. The bisulfite reaction was carried out using 2ptg of restricted DNA for 16 h at 55 0 C under conditions essentially as previously described (Clark et al., Nuc. Acids Res., 22: 2990-2997, 1994). After neutralization, the bisulphite treated DNA was ethanol precipitated, dried, resuspended in 50pl of H 2 0 and stored at -20 0 C. Approximately 2tl of DNA was used for each of 35 the nested PCR amplifications. The primers used for the amplifications are set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 71 to SEQ ID NO: 198. The combinations used are described herein. At WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 117 least three independent PCR reactions were performed to ensure a representative methylation profile. Direct PCR sequence analysis 5 Pooled PCR fragments were purified using the Wizard PCR purification system and then directly sequenced using the reverse primer of the PCR amplification in the Dye Terminator sequencing kit with AmpliTaq DNA polymerase and the automated 3730 DNA analyzer with KBTM basecaller in Sequence analysis v5.1 (Applied Biosystems). The degree of methylation at each CpG site from the direct sequencing profile was 10 estimated by measuring the relative peak height of the cytosine versus thymine profile. The degree of methylation was then expressed as either 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% or 100%. The average of overall methylation across any particular PCR amplified CpG island was obtained by dividing the total summation of the degree of methylation at each CpG site across the CpG island, by the total number of CpG sites in that island. Using this 15 calculation the CpG island region was classified as extensively methylated (75 - 100%), methylated (50 -75%), moderately methylated (25-50%) and low to unmethylated (0 25%). Real-time PCR melting temperature dissociation 20 2x SYBR Green 1 Master mix (P/N 4309155) was added to the PCR following completion of initial thermal cycling. The reactions were cycled at 95 0 C for 15 secs, 60 0 C for 20 secs, with the temperature increasing gradually from 60 0 C to 90 0 C and the melting dissociation trace was analyzed on the ABI Prism 7700HT Sequence Detection System. CpGenome Universal Methylated Control DNA (Chemicon International, Inc.) 25 was used as a positive control to amplify fully methylated DNA for the dissociation curve. Human genomic DNA (Roche) was used as a positive control to amplify fully unmethylated DNA for the dissociation curve. PCR and clonal analysis 30 Pooled PCR fragments, directly purified using the Wizard PCR DNA purification system were cloned into the pGEM®-T-Easy Vector (Promega) using the Rapid Ligation Buffer System (Promega). Approximately 12 individual clones were sequenced from the pooled PCR reactions using the Dye Terminator cycle sequencing kit with AmpliTaq DNA polymerase, FS (Applied Biosystems) and the automated 35 373A NA Sequencer (Applied Biosystems). Bisulfite sequencing of individual clones validated the semi-quantitative methylation levels obtained from direct PCR WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 118 sequencing analysis. Average methylation from individual clones was calculated as a percentage of the number of methylated CpG sites over the number of total CpG sites sequenced. 5 2.2 Results To determine whether or not the 25Kb cluster of CpG islands discussed in Examples 1 were differentially methylated in cancer, direct bisulfite sequencing and PCR melting dissociation temperature were used. Direct bisulfite PCR sequencing facilitates semi quantitation of the methylation of each CpG site, across the fragment. For example, 10 methylation was scored as 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% or 100%, depending on the cytosine to thymine ratio. An example of the direct sequencing results is shown in Figure 4. PCR melting dissociation temperature allowed the overall methylation status of each PCR fragment to be assessed, by comparing the difference in melting temperature 15 between the methylated and unmethylated DNA. For example, the CpG island (CpG 128) EN1 promoter, that was amplified from fully methylated bisulfite-treated DNA dissociates at 83.6 0 C, whereas the PCR fragment amplified from bisulfite treated unmethylated DNA, dissociates at 81 0 C (Figure 5). Using the difference in the dissociation temperatures for EN1 CpG 128, it is clear that the tumor DNA from the 20 cell lines HCT116, SW480 and from 9T and 165T is methylated whereas the normal DNA, 9N and 165N is unmethylated (Figure 5). A summary of the methylation status of the Z fragment and 6 of the 11 CpG islands (CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48) from two colorectal cell lines 25 HCT116 and SW480 and from 2 tumour/normal matched pairs (9N/T and 165N/T), is shown in Figure 6. The Z fragment and all the neighbouring CpG islands, across the 25Kb region, including the EN1 promoter (CpG128), were found to be unmethylated in the normal colorectal tissue (9N & 165N), but were extensively methylated in the two colorectal cancer cell lines and in the 2 cancer DNA samples 9T & 165T. 30 To determine the degree of methylation heterogeneity and to obtain a more detailed methylation profile of individual molecules, clonal sequencing analysis of a subset of the CpG islands was performed (Figure 7). The clonal sequencing supported the overall direct bisulfite PCR semiquantitative sequencing analysis. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 119 To determine whether or not the differential methylation also extended upstream of the Z fragment, direct bisulphite PCR sequencing, PCR melting temperature dissociation and methylation clonal sequencing analysis was performed. This analysis was performed using a CpG depleted region, 20kb upstream from the Z fragment, termed 5 (X) or (20Kb) (bp=182, GC%= 63 CpG o/e = 0.6), as well as the next closest upstream CpG island (CpG29) that was located 58kb upstream of the Z fragment, shown in Figure 3. The CpG sites in the CpG depleted DNA (X) and the CpG sites in the CpG island CpG29, were found to be extensively methylated in HCT116 and in the 2 cancer DNA samples relative to methylation in the matched normal samples (Figure 6). 10 CpG29 however, was partially methylated in the cancer cell line SW480, whereas the CpG depleted DNA (X), located 20kb region upstream from the Z fragment, was hypermethylated in both cell lines. These results demonstrate contiguous hypermethylation of neighbouring CpG islands, in the cancer cells, across a region that spans 83Kb from CpG29 to CpG48. In addition, our results showed that differential 15 hypermethylation also occurs in non CpG island regions and CpG depleted regions (Z fragment and a region 20kb upstream from the Z fragment), indicating that hypermethylation is not just restricted to CpG island regions in cancer cells but can encompass CpG sites in the intervening genomic regions that are also unmethylated in normal cells. 20 EXAMPLE 3 DNA methylation across Chromosome 2q14.2 in cancer The analysis of the methylation status of DNA on either side of the 83Kb methylated 25 region described in Example 2 was then extended to determine the length of the differentially methylated region and to define the boundaries of the CpG island hypermethylation across the Chromosome 2q14.2 cytogenetic band. As shown in Figures 8a and 8b, Chromosome 2q14.2 is a 4Mb region that is both gene rich and rich in CpG islands. 30 Figure 8c shows the locations of defined and predicted genes and associated CpG islands localized to Chromosome 2q14.2. Ten defined genes reside in 2q14.2; of these eight have CpG island associated promoters, one (GLI2) has a 3' CpG island and MARCO has no associated CpG island. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 120 To determine the methylation status of Chromosome 2q14.2 direct bisulfite PCR sequencing and clonal analysis were used to analyze CpG islands associated with known genes (eight in total), in addition to a number of intervening CpG islands. Many of these intervening CpG islands are associated with predicted genes. Exemplary 5 results from the analysis of methylation of CpG islands associated with the EN1 gene, INHBB gene and SCTR gene in colorectal cancer cell lines and in matched tumor and control samples are shown in Figures 9a-c. These graphs indicate the percentage methylation at each CpG site in each CpG island. 10 Figures 10a and 10b show the results of clonal sequencing of 10-12 clones from a pool of 3 different PCR reactions. Results are shown for colorectal cancer cell lines and in matched tumor and control samples. The results shown in Figures 9 and 10 are summarized in Figure 11. Figure 11 shows 15 the DNA methylation profile for all CpG island and non island regions sequenced across the 4Mb region on 2q14.2, from both the colorectal cancer cell lines and from the cancer versus matched normal samples. DNA from cancer cells was found to be contiguously hypermethylated across the 2q14.2 Chromosome regions. For example, DNA from the cancer cells was contiguous hypermethylated in a region that spanned 20 nearly 1Mb, from CpG island (CpG61) 610kb upstream of the Z fragment to CpG island (CpG 229), 325kb downstream of the Z fragment. The hypermethylated 1Mb region contained 15 CpG islands but only two islands, CpG128 and CpG229, were associated with either a known gene (EN1) or a predicted gene (LOC165257 encoding a Clq-domain containing protein). Two further regions of extensive hypermethylation, in the colorectal 25 cancer cells, were also identified along the 14.2q cytogenetic band from chromosome 2 (Figure 11). The first region of hypermethylation was located 690Kb downstream of the Z fragment, and included the CpG island (CpG67) spanning the promoter of the SCTR gene (coding for the secretin receptor). The second hypermethylated region was located 1.5-2.15 Mb downstream of the Z fragment, spans 650kb in length and encompasses four CpG 30 islands; (CpG285) spans the promoter of the ]NHBB gene (inhibin beta B); CpG 26 and CpG206 were not associated with gene promoter regions and CpG22 was located at the 3' end of the GLI2 gene (encoding a C2H2-type zinc finger protein). Each of the three hypermethylated regions, within the cytogenetic band 14.2q on chromosome 2, was flanked by unmethylated CpG islands. Three unmethylated CpG islands are located upstream of the 35 1Mb hypermethylated region, overlapping the junction to the 14.1 band, and include the CpG islands associated with the genes INSIG2 (encoding insulin induced protein 2) and WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 121 DDX18 (encoding DEAD box polypeptidel8). Similarly, the CpG islands that are located at the 14.3q band junction, remain unmethylated in the colorectal cancer cells and these islands are associated with two genes CLASP (encoding the CLIP-associating protein) and TSN (translin). Two sets of CpG island clusters between the three methylated regions, also 5 remain unmethylated in both cancer cell lines and cancer tissue samples and normal colorectal DNA. The first set of these islands is associated with the genes TSAP6 (coding for hypothetical protein Dudulin2) and DBI (encoding Diazepam Binding Inhibitor) and the second set is associated with the PTPN4 gene (encoding Protein tyrosine phosphatase, non receptor type 4) and RALB (encoding a v-ral simian leukemia viral oncogene homolog B; 10 ras related; GTP binding protein) (Figure 11). EXAMPLE 4 DNA methylation in colorectal tumors 15 To determine whether or not hypermethylation of Chromosome 2q14.2 is common to colorectal cancer, the methylation status of promoter CpG islands associated with the genes EN] (CpG128), SCTR(CpG67) and INHBB (CpG285) was determined using genomic DNA isolated from 26 colorectal cancers. As shown in Figure 12a, EN1 was found to be hypermethylated in 18/26 (70%) of samples, SCTR was hypermethylated in 20 23/26 (88%) of samples and INHBB was hypermethylated in 15/26 (58%) of samples. Furthermore, 25/26 (96%) of samples displayed aberrant methylation of at least one of the CpG islands tested. As shown in Figure 12a, the extent of hypermethylation was independent of sex, age or 25 Dukes stage, indicating that these changes are an early even in colorectal cancer. Extending these studies, using heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis the degree of methylation of the Z fragment, a CpG island associated with EN1, a CpG island associated with SCTR and a CpG island associated with INHBB was determined in 100 30 colorectal cancer samples. As shown in Figure 12b, the Z fragment was methylated in 68% of samples, EN1 was methylated in 78% of colorectal cancer, SCTR was methylated in 78% of colorectal cancers and INHBB was methylated in 30% of colorectal cancers. 35 When the methylation status detected for CpG islands associated with EN1, SCTR and INHBB was combined, 96% of colorectal samples were shown to have increased WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 122 methylation at one or more of these sites. These results indicate that the detection of the methylation status of one or more CpG islands within Chromosome 2 (between about map position 2q14,1 and about map position 2q14.3) is useful for detecting a considerable proportion of colorectal cancers. 5 Figure 13 shows the methylation status of the EN1 (CpG128), SCTR(CpG67) and INHBB (CpG285) CpG islands in 12 colorectal cell lines. Hypermethylation of at least one of the CpG islands was observed in each of the cell lines tested. 10 EXAMPLE 5 Gene expression is suppressed in the hypermethylated region 5.1 Methods 15 RNA extraction and Quantitative Real-Time RT-PCR RNA was extracted using Trizol reagent (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's protocol. cDNA was reverse transcribed from 2tg of total RNA using SuperScript T M III RNase f Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen Life technologies), according to the manufacturer's instructions. The reaction was primed with 200ng of random hexamers 20 (Roche). The reverse transcription reaction was then diluted 1:20 with sterile H 2 0 before addition to a PCR reaction. Expression levels of each of the genes DDX18, INSIG2, EN1, MARCO, SCTR, PTPN4, RALBB, GLI2 and TSN was quantitated using a flourogenic 25 real-time detection method using the ABI Prism 7000 Sequence Detection System. 5ptl of the reverse transcription reaction was used in the quantitative real-time PCR reaction using 2x SYBR Green 1 Master Mix (P/N 4309155) with 50ng of each primer. The primers used for amplification comprise a sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID Nos 119 to 218. Primers were used in a combination described herein. 30 To control for the amount and integrity of the RNA, the Human 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) kit (P/N 4308329) (Applied Biosystems), containing the rRNA forward and reverse primers and rRNA VICTM probe, was used. 5pl of the reverse transcription was used in a 20pl reaction in TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix (P/N 4304437) with 1 l 35 of the 20xHuman 18S rRNA mix. The reactions were performed in triplicate and the standard deviation was calculated using the Comparative method (ABI PRISM 7700 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 123 Sequence Detection system User Bulletin #2, 1997 P/N 4303859). The cycle number corresponding to where the measured fluorescence crosses a threshold is directly proportional to the amount of starting material. The mean expression levels are represented as the ratio between each gene and 18S rRNA expression. 5 5.2 Results A number of known genes are located on Chromosome 2 between about map position 2q14.1 and 2q14.2 (i.e., the region encompassing the hypermethylated region described supra). This region includes the genes DDX18, INSIG2, EN1, MARCO, PTPN4, 10 RALBB, GLI2 and TSN. To determine whether or not the hypermethylation of the CpG islands in the hypermethylated region correlated with suppression of gene expression in the cancer cells, the mRNA expression levels of EN1, SCTR and INHBB was determined in cancer and control samples by real-time RT-PCR. Expression levels were determined using samples from HCT116 cells and compared to the expression 15 levels from 10 colorectal tumor tissue samples (pooled) versus the expression from 10 matched normal tissues (pooled). cDNA was prepared from RNA isolated from each individual sample, the cDNA was pooled and amplified in triplicate using real-time PCR and the expression levels for each gene was measured relative to expression of 18sRNA. Pooled cDNA samples were used to determine gene suppression and to avoid 20 variations that may occur in individual samples due to varying purity of the tissue samples. As shown in Figure 14, expression of EN1, SCTR and INHBB was completely inactivated in HCT116 cells. Moreover, the level of expression of these three genes was significantly reduced in the pooled primary cancer samples relative to the level of expression in the matched normal samples 25 The level of mRNA expression of all the known genes in the 14.2 cytogenetic band by real-time RT-PCR from HCT1 16 cells to the expression levels measured from the pool of 10 colorectal tumor versus pool of 10 matched normal samples (Figure 15). This assay was performed to determine if the high degree of methylation observed in the 30 three separate regions across 2q14.2 influenced the expression of the neighbouring unmethylated CpG island associated genes in the colorectal cancer cells. Results indicate that regardless of the DNA methylation status of the associated CpG islands, all the genes were suppressed in the HCT116 cell lines relative to expression in 35 the normal colorectal cells. Additionally, the expression levels measured from the WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 124 pooled tumor tissue samples was significantly reduced relative to the expression from the pooled matched normal samples. The normal level of individual gene expression was observed to vary gene by gene across 5 the 14.2q region. The genes that were associated with CpG islands that remained unmethylated in the cancer cells (DDX18, INSIG, PTPN4, RALBB, TSAN) expressed at a higher level in the normal colorectal cells. In contrast, CpG island-associated genes (EN1, SCTR, and INHBB) that were hypermethylated in cancer cells displayed minimal (basal) expression in normal cells. Moreover, genes that do not have 5'CpG island promoters 10 (GLI2 and MARCO), but were methylated in both cancer and normal cells show reduced basal levels of expression in cancer versus normal cells. These data show that there is an overall suppression of gene expression across the 14.2q band on chromosome 2 in colorectal cancer even in genes that remain unmethylated in the cancer cells. 15 EXAMPLE 6 Chromatin remodeling across the Chromosome 2q14.2 cytogenetic band is associated with reduced gene expression 6.1 Methods 20 Cells and Culture Conditions The colon cancer cell line HCT116 was cultured in D-MEM/F12 (Gibco /BRL) medium supplemented with MEM sodium pyruvate and L-Glutamine and 10% fetal calf serum at 37 0 C with 10% CO 2 . Cells were split 1:8 every 3-4 days. 25 5-Aza-2'-deoxvcvtidine and TSA treatment of cells Cells were split 12h to 24 h prior to treatment. 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-aza dC)(Sigma) was prepared as a lmg/ml stock in sterile water, filter-sterilized and frozen as aliquots. 100mm tissue culture dishes were seeded with 0.5x1 06 cells and following 24 h incubation the cells were treated with 0.5[tm 5-aza-dC. The cells were treated for 30 24 hours after which the medium was replaced with fresh medium and the cells cultured for a further 48 h before harvesting. Cells were treated with trichostatin A (TSA) (Sigma) at 25, 50 and 100 nM for 24 h. Alternatively, an identical volume of ethanol was used as a control. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 125 For co-treatment of cells with 5-aza-dC and TSA, 5-aza-dC was added initially for 24 h, after which it was removed and TSA was added for a further 24 h. The concentrations and the treatment conditions used were chosen based on preliminary studies showing optimal reactivation of gene expression. 5 Expression levels of the genes DDX18, INSIG2, ENI, MARCO, PTPN4, RALBB, GLI2 and TSN was determined essentially as described above. 6.2 Results 10 To address whether or not the suppression observed in the umnethylated CpG island associated genes was correlated with the flanking CpG island methylation and/or associated chromatin modification in the colorectal cancer cells HCT116 cells were treated with the demethylating agent 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5Aza-C) and/or with an inhibitor of histone deacetylase trichostatin A (TSA) (Results are shown in Figure 16). 15 As a control for effective treatment conditions the expression of the p21 gene was determined. p21 is an example of a gene in HCT116 that is silent. However, treatment with 5AzaC or TSA results in the activation of p21 expression. Under the treatment conditions used, p21 expression was activated more than 3 fold using TSA treatment and more than 2 fold with 5AzaC treatment alone and in combination with TSA (Figure 20 16a). Treatment of HCT116 cells with 5AzaC or TSA alone resulted in small increases of expression of genes linked to Chromosome position 2q14.2 that are hypermethylated in HCTl 16 (i.e., EN1, SCTR and INHBB). However, treatment with a combination of 25 5Aza and TSA resulted in substantial reactivation of all these genes (Figure 16b, c and d). Likewise, MARCO and GLI2 which both do not have CpG island associated promoters but are either methylated in the promoter region or in the 3' downstream associated island, showed an increase in expression with a combination treatment of 5AzaC and TSA (Figure 16e and f). 30 CpG island-associated genes that are unmethylated and transcriptionally repressed in the HCT116, also showed some reactivation after treatment with 5Aza or TSA alone. However, all genes showed considerably increased expression levels after treatment with a combination of 5AzaC and TSA (Figure 16g-k). Interestingly the greatest 35 activation was observed for the unmethylated genes (INSIG2, PTPN4 and RALBB) that were closest to the methylated CpG rich regions. Without being bound by theory or WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 126 mode of action, these results indicate that gene suppression of the unmethylated genes linked to Chromosome position 2q14.2, is influenced by the neighbouring DNA methylation. Furthermore, chromatin state of the hypermethylated CpG islands may be associated with modified histones. 5 EXAMPLE 5 Enhanced gene expression is associated with increased histone remodeling 5.1 ChlP Analysis. 10 ChIP assays were carried out according to the manufacturer (Upstate Biotechnology) and described in Stirzaker et al., Cancer Res 64: 3871-3877, 2004. . Briefly, ~ 1 x 106 HCT116 cells, in a 10cm dish, were fixed by adding formaldehyde at a final concentration of 1% and incubating for 10 minutes at 37 0 C. The cells were washed twice with ice cold PBS containing protease inhibitors (1mM phenylmethylsulfonyl 15 fluoride (PMSF), 1 tg/ml aprotinin and 1 jig/ml pepstatin A), harvested and treated with SDS lysis buffer for 10 min on ice. The resulting lysates were sonicated to shear the DNA to fragment lengths of 200 to 500 basepairs. The complexes were immunoprecipitated with an antibody specific for dimethyl-histone H3(lys9), Upstate Biotechnology (#07-212) or acetylated histone. 10 ptl of antibody were used for each 20 immunoprecipitation according to the manufacturer. No antibody controls were also included for each ChIP assay and no precipitation was observed. The antibody/protein complexes were collected by salmon sperm DNA/protein A agarose slurry and washed several times following the manufacturer's instructions. The immune complexes were eluted with 1% SDS and 0.1 M NaHCO3 and the crosslinks were reversed by 25 incubation at 65 0 C for 4 hours in the presence of 200mM NaC1. The samples were treated with proteinase K for 1 hour and the DNA was purified by phenol/chloroform extraction, ethanol precipitation and resuspended in 30jl H20. The amount of target that was immunoprecipitated, was measured by Real-Time PCR 30 using the ABI Prism 7900HT Sequence Detection System. Amplification primers are set forth SEQ ID NOs: 235 to 256. PCR reactions were set up according to the SDS compendium (ver 2.1) for the 7900HT Applied Biosystems Sequence Detector as described previously (Stirzaker, supra). Either immunoprecipitated DNA, no-antibody control or input chromatin were used in each PCR and the PCRs were set up in 35 triplicate. Standard deviation was calculated using the Comparative method (ABI PRISM 7700 Sequence Detection System User Bulletin #2, 1997 (P/N 4303859). For WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 127 each sample an average CT value was obtained for immunoprecipitated material and for the input chromatin. The difference in CT values (delta CT) reflects the difference in the amount of material that was immunopreciptated relative to the amount of input (ABI PRISM 7700 Sequence Detection system User Bulletin #2, 1997 (P/N 4303859). 5 5.2 Results To determine if chromatin modification was associated with the suppression of all the genes across the entire band in cancer, regardless of the DNA methylation status, ChIP (chromatin immunoprecipitation) analysis and real-time PCR was performed. This 10 analysis quantitates, for example, the level of methylated K9-H3 in the HCT 116 cells or the level of se-acetylation of histones in cells, before and after treatment with 5AzaC and TSA (Figure 17). p 2 1 was also used as a control gene for the ChIP assays, because it's promoter is unmethylated and is suppressed in HCT 16 cells, but activated substantially after TSA treatment. 15 Following TSA treatment, there was substantial demethylation of the H3-K9 histones that are associated with the p21 CpG island promoter region (Figure 17a). Demethylation of the H3-K9 histones also occurred after 5AzaC and a combination of TSA and 5AzaC treatments and the level of histone demethylation inversely correlated 20 with the level of p21 gene expression. The binding of methylated H3-K9 histones to the genes in the three DNA methylated regions across 2q14.2. Methylated K9-H3 histones were bound to the promoter region of each of the DNA methylated CpG island associated genes (EN1, SCTR and INHBB) 25 (Figure 17b, c and d) and methylated 3'CpG island (GLI2) the methylated non-CpG island genes (MARCO) (Figure 17e and f). Moreover, binding was reduced by treatment with 5Aza and TSA alone or in combination. These data indicate that there is a correlation between demethylation of the DNA and demethylation of the associated H3-K9 histones and this epigenetic change correlated with elevated gene transcription 30 (as shown in Figure 16b-f. The binding of methylated H3-K9 histones on the unmethylated gene regions was also determined. Similar to the unmethylated control p21, after TSA treatment of the HCT116 colon cancer cells, there was substantial demethylation of the H3-K9 histones' 35 associated with all the unmethylated genes (DDX18, INSIG2, PTPN, RALBB) that are suppressed across 2q14.2 relative to untreated cells (Figure 17g-k). Furthermore, WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 128 treatment with 5AzaC alone, or in combination with TSA, resulted in demethylation of the histones at H3-K9. These results indicate that the DNA linked to Chromosome position 2q14.2 in the cancer cells is associated with dimethylation of the H3-K9 residue of the associated chromatin, regardless of the DNA methylation status of 5 individual genes. Without being bound by theory or mode of action, these results indicate that long-range genomic gene suppression across the 4Mb DNA region, encompassing the entire 14.2q band on chromosome 2, appears to be associated with methylation of the histones regardless of the DNA methylation status. 10 Increased H3-K9 acetylation was observed following treatment with TSA and/or a combination of TSA/5AzaC for genes that were hypermethylated in HCT116 cells (see Figure 18). EXAMPLE 6 15 Hypermethylation of a region of Chromosome 2 in breast cancer and prostate cancer cell lines Using the methods essentially as described in Example 2 the methylation of a number of CpG rich regions within Chromosome 2 (between about map position 2q14,1 and 20 about map position 2q14.3) was determined in a number of cell models of prostate cancer and breast cancer. In particular, the cell models assessed were the breast cancer cell lines T47D, MDA MB453, MDA MB 468, SKBR3, KPL1, MDA MB 231, DU4475, MCF-7, MDA MB 157 and MCF-10A and the prostate cancer cell lines LNCaP and DU145. As shown in Figure 19, the majority of these cell lines showed 25 hypermethylation in a number of CpG rich regions. A summary of some of these data are set forth in Table 4.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 129 Table 4: Methylation of several CpG islands in breast and prostate cancer cell lines CELL LINE CpG 128 SCTR Breast T47D + + MDAMB + + + + 453 MDAMB + 468 SKBR3 KPL1 + + MDAMB + 231 DU4475 + MCF-7 + + MDAMB 157 MCF-10A + + Prostate LNCaP I + + DU145 + + 5 EXAMPLE 7 Pyrosequencing of the Z fragment in nucleic acid from cancer subjects Genomic DNA is isolated from the patient and cell line samples described in Examples 1 and 6 using standard methods known in the art. 10 Sodium bisulfite conversion of while genomic DNA is performed essentially as described in Olek et al., Nucl. Acids Res., 24:5064-5066, 1996, with slight modifications according to Eads et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 28: e32, 2000. Briefly, 250ng of genomic DNA is denatured at 95oC for 10 min, followed by incubation in 0.3M 15 NaOH solution at 42 0 C for 15 min. DNA and 10pl of 4% low melt agarose (Seaplaque; FMC Bioproducts, Rocdand, ME, USA) are mixed, and a single bead with a volume of 20i4l is formed in prechilled mineral oil. Bisulfite conversion is performed with a 5M sodium bisulfite solution at 50 0 C for 14 hours, under exclusion of light. TE-buffer (pH 8) is then used for washing the bead several times. Desulfonation is performed with 20 0.2M NaOH for 15 minutes and repeated. The final wash is neutralized with IM HCI followed by washing with TE. To amplify by PCR, the agarose beads are diluted with H20.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 130 Bisulfite converted genomic DNA is then amplified using PCR with primers comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 91 and 92. One primer was biotinylated in one reaction, and the other in another reaction. Following amplification 5 unincorporated primers and dNTPs are separated from the amplification product using the PCR purification kit of Qiagen. Single stranded PCR products are required for pyrosequencing. The biotinylated fragments are immobilized on streptavidin-coated Dynabeads M-280 Streptavidin 10 (Dynal AS, Oslo, Norway), according to the protocol of the SNP reagent kit (Pyrosequencing, Uppsala, Sweden). Following incubation for 15 min at 65oC, the reactions are transferred to a PSQ-96 well reaction plate (Pyrosequencing) and denatured with 0.5M NaOH for 10 min. Single stranded PCR fragments are captured with a magnet, transferred to a PSQ 96-well plate and washed once with annealing 15 buffer (Pyrosequencing). Following another transfer, the single stranded PCR fragments produced using a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 91 are hybridized with a primer comprising one of the sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 223 to 228. Single stranded PCR fragments produced using a primer comprising the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 92 are hybridized with a primer comprising one 20 of the sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 223 to 234. Hybridization is performed with 10pmol of primer in annealing buffer (Pyrosequencing) at 80 0 C for 2 min then room temperature. The sequencing reaction is performed at 25 0 C in a column of 40 l of annealing buffer on the automated PSQ 96 System from Pyrosequencing. Enzyme and substrate from the SNP reagent kit are each dissolved in water. Each of the 25 deoxynucleotides and the enzyme and substrate are then loaded into the sequencing cartridge. The order of the nucleotide dispensation is defined as C then T then G then A. Peak heights identified using the Pryoprogram are used to calculate the level of several CpG dinucleotides in the Z fragment in cancer subjects (e.g., %C = peak height C/(peak height C + peak height T) x 100). 30 Using this method the level of methylation of several CpG dinucleotides is determined in cancer and control samples and used to diagnose cancerous samples. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 131 EXAMPLE 8 Microarray based detection of methylation Bisulfite treatment and PCR amplification 5 Genomic DNA is isolated from the patient and cell line samples described in Examples 1 and 6 using standard methods known in the art. Bisulfite treatment of genomic DNA is performed essentially as described in Example 7. Genomic DNA is digested with MssI (MBI Fermentas, St Leon-Rot, Germany) prior 10 to modification by bisulfite. The previously studied CpG rich regions of Chromosome 2 are amplified using PCR essentially as describe in Example 2, however the primers used in the nested step include a Cy5 label at the 5', or non-extending, end to facilitate detection. 15 Microarray production Oligonucleotides with a C6-amino modification at the 5'-end are spotted with 4-fold redundancy on activated glass slides (Golub et al., Science, 286: 531-537, 1999). For each analyzed CpG position two oligonucleotides, N 2

-

16

CGN

2

-

16 and N 2

-

16

TGN

2

-

16 , reflecting the methylated and non-methylated status of the CpG dinucleotides, are 20 spotted and immobilized on the glass array. The CpG dincueotides used are selected from the regions CpG61, 20Kb, Z fragment, CpG 104, CpG128, CpG 128, CpG48 and SCTR as described in Table 1 (SEQ ID NOs: 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14 and 21, respectively). Oligonucleotides are designed such that they matched only the bisulfite modified DNA fragments to exclude signals arising from incomplete bisulfite 25 conversion. The oligonucleotide microarrays are hybridized with a combination of up to 56 Cy5-labelled PCR fragments essentially as described in Chen et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 27, 389-395, 1999. Hybridization conditions are selected to allow detection of the single nucleotide 30 differences between the TG and CG variants. Log ratios for the two signals are calculated based on comparison of intensity of the fluorescent signals. Sensitivity for detection of methylation changes is determined using artificially up- and down methylated DNA fragments mixed at different ratios. For each of these mixtures, a series of experiments is conducted to define the range of CG:TG ratios that corresponds 35 to varying degrees of methylation at each of the CpG sites tested. These data determine WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 132 the degree of methylation change detectable by the assay. Accordingly, by using log ratio of the CG and TG the differential methylation between samples is determined. Subsequently, the fluorescent images of the hybridized slides are obtained using a 5 GenePix 4000 microarray scanner (Axon Instruments). Hybridization experiments are repeated at least three times for each sample. This method is then used to determine the degree of methylation at each site in the previously described samples. 10 Statistical methods For class prediction a support vector machine (SVM) on a set of selected CpG sites is used. First the CpG sites are ranked for a given separation task by the significance of the difference between the two class means. The significance of each CpG is estimated 15 by a two sample t-test (Mendenhall,W. and Sincich,T. (1995) Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences. Prentice-Hall, NJ). Then a SVM is trained on the most significant CpG positions, where the optimal number of CpG sites depends on the complexity of the separation task. Generalisation performance is estimated by averaging over 50 cross-validation runs on randomly permutated samples partitioned into eight groups, 20 i.e., selection of the most significant CpG sites and training of the SVM are performed on training sets of seven groups and the eighth group is used as an independent test set. The significance value for the class prediction represents the probability that the SVM classifies the same data points at least as well as observed if the tissue classes are assigned randomly. The significance value is estimated by sampling the distribution of 25 cross-validation errors over 50 random shuffles of the labels, keeping the initial class priors. A Gaussian distribution is fitted to these 50 error estimates and used to calculate the probability of random generation of separations at least as good as the observed one. 30 A number of colon cancer samples and matched control samples are used as a training group to determine the most informative CpG methylation sites for the diagnosis of cancer. These sites are then used to classify each of the colon cancer cell lines. Using this technique the minimum number of informative CpG dinucleotide methylation sites required to diagnose colon cancer is determined. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 133 Expanding the study, the results determined using colon cancer samples are used to classify the prostate and breast cancer cell lines according to methylation patterns. Using these data the minimum number of informative CpG dinucleotide methylation sites required to diagnose a variety of cancers is determined. 5 EXAMPLE 9 Methylation of a region of Chromosome 2 in ovarian cancer 9.1 Samples 10 The degree of methylation of CpG islands associated with EN], INHBB and SCTR was determined using head-loop PCR and/or heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis in a number of ovarian cancer samples. In particular, nucleic acid was isolated from the ovarian cancer cell lines SW626, OVCA420, A2780, TOV21G, IGROV1, SKOV3, OV90, TOV1 12 and HOSE6-3. Nucleic acid was also isolated from 37 ovarian tumors. 15 All nuclei acids samples were isolated and treated with bisulfate as described herein, for example, in Example 2. 9.1 Analysis ofmethylation ofnucleic acid 20 Melting curve analysis and sequencing analysis of methylated nucleic acid was performed essentially as described in Example 2. Inl this respect heat dissociation PCR was erformed using primers comprising the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 260, 261, 264, 265, 268, 269. Reactions were cycled under the following conditions: 95 0 C for 4mins, [95 0 C for 45sec, 50'C for 1.5min, 72 0 C for 2 mins] for 5 25 cycles and [95 0 C for 1.5mins, 52 0 C for 1.5mins, 72 0 C for 4 mins] for 20 cycles and 72oC for 4mins. Reactions were then performed with the primers comprising nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO:s: 262, 263, 266, 267, 270, 271 as follows 95 0 C for 4mins, [95 0 C for 45sec, 52 0 C for 1.5min, 72 0 C for 2 min] for 20 cycles and [95 0 C for 45 sec, 54oC for 1.5 min, 72oC for 1.5min] for 23 cycles and 30 [95 0 C for 15sec, 60 0 C for 15sec and 95 0 C for 15sec]. Headloop PCR reactions were performed essentially as described in Rand et aL, Nucleic Acids Research 33:el27, 2005. Generally Headloop PCR is used to amplify two sequences that are closely related (e.g., that differ only at specific residues). The 35 reverse primer used to amplify nucleic acid matches both sequences exactly, as does a regio of a forward primer used to initially amplify nucleic acid. The forward primer WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 134 additionally comprises a 5' extension that is complementary to a region within one of the sequences to be amplified (e.g., a sequence comprising mutations caused by bisulfite treatment). When a copy of the product of first round synthesis produced using the forward primer is produced, the 5' extension is incorporated into the second strand 5 product. After denaturation the incorporated 3' tail extension is able to loop back and anneal to its complementary region, and be extended to form a hairpin structure. Since intramolecular annealing is known to be very rapid, the extension re-anneals to its complementary region after denaturation and no longer provides a template for further amplification. However, in the case of a sequence that does not comprise the mutated 10 sites (e.g., that is complementary to a methylated nucleic acid), mismatch(es) to the equivalent region limit self-priming to form a hairpin and the DNA is able to undergo further amplification with the forward and reverse primers. If the forward primer is chosen as the base for a Headloop primer, the sequence of the 5' extension on the primer is the reverse complement of the target top strand sequence. If the Headloop primer is 15 based on the reverse primer the extension will comprise the sequence of the target region as directly read from the top strand. Headloop primers were designed that hybridize to regions of the CpG islands associated with EN1 and SCTR described herein. A headloop extension is added to 20 one primer for each amplification reaction. These headloop extension is designed such that after the incorporation of the primer into the PCR product the extension loops back, anneals to the target region of nucleic acid complementary to unmethylated nucleic acid, priming to form an extended hairpin molecule. The target region includes a number of CpG sites that are methylated in cancer, defining the 3' priming base for 25 headloop extension to form a hairpin structure. Accordingly, methylated nucleic acid is preferentially amplified using these primers. Headloop primers comprise the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 272 275. PCR reactions were cycled as follows, 95 0 C for 2min, [95 0 C for 15sec, 60 0 C for 30 1min] for 60 cycles and denatured by cycling at 95 0 C for 15sec, 60 0 C for 15sec, 95oC for 15sec. 9.2 Results As shown in Figure 20a, heat dissociation real-time PCR and headloop PCR generally 35 detected methylated DNA in similar samples. These results indicate that either or both techniques are useful for the analysis of the methylation status of DNA.

WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 135 Furthermore, as shown in Figure 20a, at least one of the CpG islands analyzed are methylated in approximately 88% of ovarian cancer cell lines tested. For example, EN1 is methylated in 56% (heat dissociation real-time PCR) or 67% (headloop PCR) of 5 samples tested, INHBB is methylated in 44% (heat dissociation real-time PCR) of samples tested and SCTR is methylated in 56% (heat dissociation real-time PCR) or 44% (headloop PCR) of samples tested. These results indicate that a considerable proportion of ovarian cancer cell lines methylate at least one, and in some cases several of the sites tested. 10 Extending these studies, the methylation status of CpG dinucleotides in CpG islands associated with EN1 and SCTR was analyzed in 37 ovarian cancer tumors using headloop PCR. As shown in Figure 20b approximately 59% of tumors tested methylated CpG dinucleotides in a CpG island associated with EN1. Approximately 15 30% of tumors tested methylated CpG dinucleotides in a CpG island associated with SCTR. However, approximately 70% of ovarian tumors tested methylated CpG dinucleotides in at least one of the sites tested. EXAMPLE 10 20 Headloop PCR analysis of methylation of a region of Chromosome 2 in prostate cancer and breast cancer Headloop PCR analysis and heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis were performed essentially as described hereinabove. 25 Headloop PCR analysis was used to determine the methylation of CpG islands associated with ENI and SCTR in the breast cancer cell lines T47D, MDAMB453, MDAMB468, SKBR3, MDAMB231, MCF-O10A, MDAMB157 and MCF-7 and in the prostate cancer cell lines LNCaP and DU145. Results of this analysis are shown in 30 Figure 21. As shown in Figure 22a CpG dinucleotides in a Cpg island associated with EN1 were methylated in approximately 70% of cell lines tested. CpG dinulceotides in a Cpg island associated with SCTR were methylated in approximately 80% of cell lines tested. Furthermore, approximately 91% of cell lines tested methylated at least one of the CpG sites tested. 35 WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 136 These studies were then extended to analyze the methylation status of 12 prostate cancer samples and matched controls. In this case, headloop PCR analysis was used to determine the methylation of CpG islands associated with EN1 and SCTR. Heat dissociation real-time PCR analysis was used to analyze the methylation status of CpG 5 islands associated with EN1 and SCTR. As shown in Figure 22b, 17% (detected using heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis) or 25% (detected using headloop PCR) of samples methylated CpG dinucleotides in a CpG island associated with EN]. 50% (detected using heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis) or 33% (detected using headloop PCR) of samples methylated CpG dinucleotides in a CpG island associated 10 with SCTR. 91% of samples methylated at least one of the CpG islands tested to date. To determine the level of methylation of the region of within Chromosome 2 between about map position 2q14.1 and about map position 2q14.3 in normal prostate tissue, control samples were treated with bisulfite, amplified using PCR, cloned and 15 sequenced, essentially as described ehreinabove. As shown in Figures 22c, the majority of sites sequenced in the CpG islands EN-1 and SCTR are not methylated in normal prostate epithelium. Furthermore, the methylation status of these nucleic acids was determined in 100 breast 20 tumors. As shown in Figure 22d, 66% (detected using heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis) or 40% (detected using headloop PCR) of samples methylated CpG dinucleotides in a CpG island associated with EN]. 71% (detected using heat dissociation real-time PCR analysis) or 63% (detected using headloop PCR) of samples methylated CpG dinucleotides in a CpG island associated with SCTR. Considering 25 both of these sites, 78% of samples methylated at least one of the CpG islands tested to date. To determine the level of methylation of the region of within Chromosome 2 between about map position 2q14.1 and about map position 2q14.3 in normal breast tissue, 30 control samples were treated with bisulfite, amplified using PCR, cloned and sequenced, essentially as described hereinabove. As shown in Figures 22e and f, the majority of sites sequenced in the CpG islands EN-1 and SCTR were not methylated in normal breast samples. 35 EXAMPLE 11 Methylation of a region of Chromosome 2 in pancreatic cancer cells WO 2006/050573 PCT/AU2005/001726 137 Headloop PCR analysis and heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis were performed essentially as described hereinabove. 5 Headloop PCR analysis and heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis were used to determine the methylation of CpG islands associated with EN], INHBB and SCTR in the pancreatic cancer cell lines PANC-1, ASPC-1, BXPC-3, MIAPACA-2, CaPan-2 and HPAC. As shown in Figure 23, CpG dinucleotides in a Cpg island associated with EN1 were methylated in approximately 83% of cell lines tested using heat-dissociation 10 real-time PCR analysis and 67% of cell lines tested using headloop PCR. CpG dinulceotides in a CpG island associated with INHBB were methylated in approximately 50% of cell lines tested using heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis. CpG dinulceotides in a Cpg island associated with SCTR were methylated in approximately 33% of cell lines tested using heat-dissociation real-time PCR analysis 15 and 50% of cell lines tested using headloop PCR. Clearly, these results demonstrate that pancreatic cancer cell lines methylate nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 (between about map position 2q14.1 and about map position 2q14.3). Furthermore, approximately 100% of cell lines tested methylated at least one of the 20 CpG sites tested. EXAMPLE 12 Methylation of a CpG island associated with SCTR is indicative of the likelihood of survival 25 Using patient survival data for subjects suffering from colorectal cancer the relationship between methylation of a CpG island and likelihood of survival was determined. In particular, Kaplan-Meier survival curves were produced showing patient survival relative to the methylation status of the CpG island associated with SCTR. As shown 30 in Figure 24 subjects having the CpG island methylated had an increased likelihood of survival compared to subjects that did not methylate the CpG island. Accordingly, these results indicate that the methylation status of nucleic acids within Chromosome 2 (between about map position 2q14.1 and about map position 2q14.3) is indicative of the likelihood of survival of a subject suffering from a cancer. 35

Claims (79)

1. A method for diagnosing a cancer or a predisposition therefor in a subject comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject: (i) modified chromatin relative to a non-cancerous sample said modified chromatin being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3; and/or (ii) modified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said modified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is associated with said modified chromatin; wherein said modified chromatin and/or said modified expression is indicative of a cancer or a predisposition therefor in the subject.

2. A method for monitoring the efficacy of treatment of a subject receiving treatment for a cancer, said method comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject: (i) unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin relative to a non cancerous sample said unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3; and/or (ii) unmodified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said unmodified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is associated with said unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin; wherein said unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin and/or said unmodified expression indicates that the treatment is effective.

3. A method for monitoring the efficacy of treatment of a subject receiving treatment for a cancer, said method comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject: (i) modified chromatin relative to a non-cancerous sample said modified chromatin being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3; and/or (ii) modified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said modified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is associated with said modified chromatin WO 2006/050573 139 PCT/AU2005/001726 wherein said modified chromatin and/or said modified expression indicates that the treatment is not effective.

4. A method for determining the likelihood of survival of a subject suffering from a cancer, said method comprising identifying and/or detecting in a sample from the subject (i) modified chromatin relative to a non-cancerous sample said modified chromatin being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3; and/or (ii) modified expression relative to a non-cancerous sample of a gene or nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein said modified expression of the gene or nucleic acid is associated with said modified chromatin; wherein said modified chromatin and/or said modified expression indicates that the subject is likely to survive.

5. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the modified chromatin is detected or identified by performing a process comprising determining the level of heterochromatin relative to euchromatin in the sample, wherein an enhanced level of heterochromatin relative to euchromatin is indicative of modified chromatin.

6. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 5, additionally comprising determining the level of heterochromatin relative to euchromatin in the non cancerous sample.

7. The method according to claim 6 further comprising comparing (i) the level of heterochomatin relative to euchromatin the sample from the subject and (ii) the level of heterochromatin relative to euchromatin in the non-cancerous sample, wherein an enhanced level of heterochomatin relative to euchromatin in the sample from the subject compared to the non-cancerous sample is indicative of modified chromatin in the sample relative to the non-cacnerous sample.

8. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 7 wherien a cancer selected from the group consisting of prostate cancer, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, ovarian cancer and combinations thereof. WO 2006/050573 140 PCT/AU2005/001726

9. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 8 wherin a cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer, prostate cancer, ovarian cancer, breast cancer and combinations thereof.

10. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 9 additionally comprising providing the sample.

11. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 10 wherein the sample was obtained previously from the subject.

12. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 11 wherein the sample comprises tissue suspected of comprising a tumor or a cancer cell.

13. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 12 wherein the sample comprises tissue or cells from a colorectum, a prostate, a breast, a pancreas or an ovary.

14. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 12 wherein the sample comprises a body fluid or a derivative of a body fluid or a body secretion.

15. The method according to claim 14 wherein the body fluid is selected from the group consisting of whole blood, urine, saliva, breast milk, pleural fluid, sweat, tears and mixtures thereof

16. The method according to claim 14 wherein the derivative of a body fluid is selected from the group consisting of plasma, serum or buffy coat fraction.

17. The method according to claim 16 wherein the body secretion comprises stool.

18. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 17 wherein the non-cancerous sample selected from the group consisting of: (i) a sample comprising a non-cancerous cell; (ii) a sample from a normal tissue; (iii) a sample from a healthy tissue; (iv) an extract of any one of (i) to (iii); (v) a data set comprising measurements of modified chromatin and/or gene expression for a healthy individual or a population of healthy individuals; WO 2006/050573 141 PCT/AU2005/001726 (vi) a data set comprising measurements of modified chromatin and/or gene expression for a normal individual or a population of normal individuals; and (vii) a data set comprising measurements of the modified chromatin and/or gene expression from the subject being tested wherein the measurements are determined in a matched sample having normal cells.

19. The method according to claim 18 wherein the non-cancerous sample is (i) or (ii) or (v) or (vii).

20. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 19, wherein modified chromatin or unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising identifying and/or detecting methylation of nucleic acid in the sample from the subject relative to a non-cancerous sample, wherein said nucleic acid is positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, and wherein enhanced methylation in the sample relative to the non-cancerous sample is indicative of modified chromatin and the same level or a reduced level of methylation in the sample from the subject relative to the non-cancerous sample is indicative of unmodified or less modified chromatin.

21. The method according to claim 20, wherein the enhanced methylation is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising: (i) identifying and/or detecting the level of methylation of a nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in the sample derived from the subject; (ii) identifying and/or detecting the level of methylation of the nucleic acid within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in the control sample; and (iii) comparing the level of methylation at (i) and (ii).

22. The method according to claim 20 or 21 wherein the nucleic acid comprises or is within a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 28 and combinations thereof. WO 2006/050573 142 PCT/AU2005/001726

23. The method according to any one of claims 20 to 22 wherein the nucleic acid comprising or is within a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11, a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21, and a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25.

24. The method according to any one of claims 20 to 22 wherein the nucleic acid comprises or is within a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11 and a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25.

25. The method according to any one of claims 20 to 22 wherein the nucleic acid comprises or is within a nucleotide sequence referred to in Table 1 selected from the group consisting of CpG61, CpG29, 20Kb, Z(sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5'-MARCO, CpG229, CpG67, INHBB(CpG285), CpG26, CpG206, CpG22 and mixtures thereof.

26. The method according to claim 25 wherein the nucleic acid comprises or is within a nucleotide sequence referred to in Table 1 as CpG128, a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence referred to in Table 1 as CpG67 and nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence referred to in Table 1 as INHBB (CpG285).

27. The method claim 25 wherein the nucleic acid comprises or is within a nucleotide sequence referred to in Table 1 as CpG128 and a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence referred to in Table 1 as CpG67.

28. The method according to any one of claims 20 to 27 wherein the methylation is identified and/or detected by performing methylation-sensitive endonuclease digestion of DNA.

29. The method according to any one of claims 20 to 27 further comprising treating nucleic acid from the sample with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates non-methylated cytosine residues in nucleic acid under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereof.

30. The method according to claim 29 comprising treating nucleic acid from the sample with an amount of a metal salt of bisulphite under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis. WO 2006/050573 143 PCT/AU2005/001726

31. The method according to claim 30 comprising treating nucleic acid from the sample with an amount of sodium bisulphite or potassium bisulphite under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis.

32. The method according to any one of claims 29 to 31 further comprising amplifying nucleic acid using primers that flank or are adjacent to a methylated cytosine residue or mutated residue at an equivalent position in non-methylated nucleic acid.

33. The method according to claim 32 comprising amplifying nucleic acid using primers that hybridize to nucleic acids that flank or are adjacent to or are within a nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 28.

34. The method according to claim 32 comprising amplifying nucleic acid using primers that hybridize to nucleic acids that flank or are adjacent to or are within a nucleic acid comprising one or more nucleotide sequences referred to in Table 1 selected from the group consisting of CpG61, CpG29, 20Kb, Z (sma), Z, CpG104, CpG103, CpG128, CpG41, CpG173, CpG48, CpG48rv, 5' MARCO, CpG229, CpG67, INHBB (CpG285), CpG26, CpG206 and CpG22.

35. The method according to claim 32 comprising amplifying nucleic acid using at least one primer that selectively hybridizes to a nucleic acid comprising a methylated cytosine residue.

36. The method according to any one of claims 32 to 34 comprising amplifying nucleic acid using a primer comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 72 to 199.

37. The method according to any one of claims 32 to 36 further comprising determining the nucleotide sequence of the amplified nucleic acid to thereby identify and/or detect the level of methylated nucleic acid. WO 2006/050573 144 PCT/AU2005/001726

38. The method according to any one of claims 32 to 36 further comprising detecting the amplified fragments with a nucleic acid probe capable of specifically hybridizing to the amplified fragment.

39. The method according to claim 38 comprising detecting the amplified fragments with a nucleic acid probe capable of selectively hybridizing to a nucleic acid comprising one or more methylated cytosine residues.

40. The method according to any one of claims 32 to 36 further comprising determining a temperature at which the amplified nucleic acid denatures, wherein said temperature is indicative of the level of methylation of the nucleic acid.

41. The method according to claim 20 wherein the methylation of nucleic acid is identified and/or determined by performing a process comprising: (i) treating the nucleic acid with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereby producing a mutated nucleic acid; (ii) performing an amplification reaction with nucleic acid primers comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence flanking or adjacent to a methylated cytosine residue or mutated residue at an equivalent position in non-methylated nucleic acid, wherein at least one of said probes or primers comprises a region that selectively hybridizes to an amplicon comprising a nucleotide sequence complementary to a mutated residue produced in the amplification reaction thereby forming a hairpin nucleic acid and preventing further amplification of said nucleic acid; (iii) detecting the amplified nucleic acid, wherein the detection of amplified nucleic acid is indicative of the methylation of nucleic acid.

42. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 19 wherein the modified chromatin or unmodified chromatin or less-modified chromatin is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising identifying and/or detecting a modified histone in the sample from the subject relative to the non cancerous sample, wherein said modified histone is positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q1 4 .1 to about map position 2q14.3 and wherein an enhanced level of said modified histone in the sample relative to the non-cancerous sample is indicative of modified WO 2006/050573 145 PCT/AU2005/001726 chromatin and the same or a reduced level of said modified histone in the sample from the subject relative to the non-cancerous tissue is indicative of unmodified or less-modified chromatin.

43. The method according to claim 42 wherein the modified histone is selected from the group consisting of a methylated histone, an acetylated histone, a de acetylated histone, phosphorylated histone and combinations thereof.

44. The method according to claim 42 or ,43 wherein the modified histone is a methylated histone or a de-acetylated histone.

45. The method according to any one of claims 42 to 44 wherein the modified histone is a histone H3 having a methylated lysine residue.

46. The method according to any one of claims 42 to 45 wherein a modified histone is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising: (i) identifying and/or detecting the level of modified histone in chromatin within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in the sample from the subject; (ii) identifying and/or detecting the level of modified histone in chromatin within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in the non-cancerous sample; and (iii) comparing the level of modified histone at (i) and (ii).

47. The method according to any one of claims 42 to 46 the modified histone is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising: (i) contacting a sample comprising chromatin within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 with an antibody that selectively binds to a modified histone for a time and under conditions sufficient for an antibody-antigen complex to form; and (ii) determining the amount of one or more nucleic acids positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 bound to the antibody-antigen complex, wherein the amount of said nucleic acid is indicative of modified histone in the sample.

48. The method according to claim 47 wherein the amount of nucleic acid is determined by performing an amplification reaction. WO 2006/050573 146 PCT/AU2005/001726

49. The method according to claim 48 wherein the amplification reaction is performed using one or more probes or primers labeled with a detectable marker to facilitate determining the amount of said nucleic acid.

50. The method according to claim 48 or 49 comprising performing an amplification reaction using one or more probes or primers capable of amplifying a nucleic acid located within one or more genes selected from the group consisting of RALBB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816, LBP9 and combinations thereof.

51. The method according to claim 50 comprising performing an amplification reaction using one or more probes or primers capable of amplifying a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 34, SEQ ID NO: 36, SEQ ID NO: 38, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 42, SEQ ID NO: 48, SEQ ID NO: 50, SEQ ID NO: 52, SEQ ID NO: 54, SEQ ID NO: 56, SEQ ID NO: 58, SEQ ID NO: 60, SEQ ID NO: 62, SEQ ID NO: 64, SEQ ID NO: 66, SEQ ID NO: 68, SEQ ID NO: 70 and combinations thereof.

52. The method according to any one of claims 48 to 51 comprising performing an amplification reaction using one or more probes or primers comprising one or more nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of in SEQ ID NOs: 236-255.

53. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 19 comprising identifying and/or detecting the level of expression of gene or nucleic acid compared to a non-cancerous sample said nucleic acid or gene being positioned within Chromosome 2 of the human genome from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3, wherein a reduced level of expression indicates that the subject suffers from cancer or has a predisposition therefor or that the treatment is not effective or that the subject has a high probability of survival and wherein an enhanced level of expression indiucates that the subject does not suffer from cancer or does not have a predisposition therefor or that the treatment is effective or that the subject has a low probability of survival. WO 2006/050573 147 PCT/AU2005/001726

54. The method according to claim 53 wherein the level of expression of a gene or nucleic acid is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising: (i) identifying and/or detecting the level of expression of a nucleic acid positioned within from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 of the human genome in the sample from the subject; (ii) identifying and/or detecting the level of expression of a nucleic acid positioned within from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2ql4.3 of the human genome in the non-cancerous sample, wherein a reduced level of expression at (i) compared to (ii) indicates that the subject suffers from cancer or has a predisposition therefor or that the treatment is not effective or that the subject has a high probability of survival and wherein an enhanced level of expression at (i) compared to (ii) indicates that the subject does not suffer from cancer or does not have a predisposition therefor or that the treatment is effective or that the subject has a low probability of survival.

55. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 19, 53 or 54 comprising identifying and/or detecting the level of expression of a nucleic acid selected from the group consisting of RALBB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816, LBP9 and combinations thereof.

56. The method according to claim 55 comprising identifying and/or detecting the level of expression of a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 34, SEQ ID NO: 36, SEQ ID NO: 38, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 42, SEQ ID NO: 48, SEQ ID NO: 50, SEQ ID NO: 52, SEQ ID NO: 54, SEQ ID NO: 56, SEQ ID NO: 58, SEQ ID NO: 60, SEQ ID NO: 62, SEQ ID NO: 64, SEQ ID NO: 66, SEQ ID NO: 68 and SEQ ID NO: 70.

57. The method according to any one of claims 53 to 56 wherein the the level of expression of a gene or nucleic acid is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising hybridizing a nucleic acid probe or primer capable of specifically hybridizing to a transcript of a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 to a nucleic acid in a sample and detecting the level of hybridization by a detection means, wherein the level of hybridization of the probe or primer is indicative of the level of expression of the gene or nucleic acid. WO 2006/050573 148 PCT/AU2005/001726

58. The method according to claim 57, wherein the detection means is a hybridization reaction or an amplification reaction.

59. The method according to claim 57 or 58 comprising hybridizing a probe or primer comprising a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 200-219 to a nucleic acid in the sample.

60. The method according to any one of claims 57 to 59 comprising identifying and/or detecting the level of expression of a gene or nucleic acid using a probe or primer is labeled with a detectable marker.

61. The method according to claim 60 wherein the detectable marker comprises a fluorescent label.

62. The method according to claim 53 wherein the level of expression of the gene or nucleic acid is identified and/or detected by performing a process comprising: (i) contacting the sample with an antibody capable of specifically binding to a protein encoded by the nucleic acid for a time and under conditions sufficient for an antibody/ligand complex to form; and (ii) determining the amount of said complex, wherein the amount of said complex is indicative of the level of expression of said gene or nucleic acid.

63. The method according to claim 62 comprising contacting the sample with an antibody capable of specifically binding to a protein selected from the group consisting of RALBB, DDX18, SCTR, EN1, TSN, MARCO, PTPN4, INSIG2, INHBB, Gli2, MGC13033, TSAP6, DBI, MGC10993, EPB41L5, FLJ14816 and LBP9.

64. The method according to claim 63 comprising contacting the sample with an antibody capable of specifically binding to a protein comprising an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 35, SEQ ID NO: 37, SEQ ID NO: 39, SEQ ID NO: 41, SEQ ID NO: 43, SEQ ID NO: 45, SEQ ID NO: 57, SEQ ID NO: 53, SEQ ID NO: 55, SEQ ID NO: 57, SEQ ID NO: 59, SEQ ID NO: 61, SEQ ID NO: 63, SEQ ID NO: 65, SEQ ID NO: 67, SEQ ID NO: 69, SEQ ID NO: 71 and combinations thereof. WO 2006/050573 149 PCT/AU2005/001726

65. A process for diagnosing a cancer or determining the efficacy of treatment of a cancer comprising: (i) identifying and/or detecting enhanced methylation of a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a sample from a subject by performing a method comprising: (a) treating the sample with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereby producing a mutated nucleic acid; (b) performing an amplification reaction with nucleic acid primers comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence flanldking or adjacent to a methylated cytosine residue or mutated residue at an equivalent position in non-methylated nucleic acid, wherein said methylated cytosine residue or said mutated residue is within a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting ofSEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 21 and SEQ ID NO: 25; and (c) identifying and/or detecting the temperature at which the amplified nucleic acid produced at (b) denatures, wherein the temperature at which the nucleic acid denatures is indicative of the presence of a methylated cytosine residue or a mutated residue and the level of methylation of said nucleic acid; and (ii) comparing the level of methylation of the nucleic acid at (i) to the degree of methylation in a non-cancerous cell, wherein an enhanced level methylation in the nucleic acid at (i) compared to the level of methylation in the non-cancerous cell is indicative of enhanced methylation in the sample from the subject and cancer or a predisposition therefor.

66. A process for diagnosing a cancer or determining the efficacy of treatment of a cancer comprising: (i) identifying and/or detecting enhanced methylation of a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a sample from a subject by performing a method comprising: (a) treating said sample with an amount of a compound that selectively mutates a non-methylated cytosine residue under conditions sufficient to induce mutagenesis thereby producing a mutated nucleic acid; (b) performing an amplification reaction with nucleic acid primers comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a sequence flanking or adjacent to a methylated cytosine residue or mutated residue at an equivalent position in non-methylated nucleic acid, wherein at least WO 2006/050573 150 PCT/AU2005/001726 one of said probes or primers comprises a region that selectively hybridizes to an amplicon comprising a nucleotide sequence complementary to the mutated residue produced in the amplification reaction thereby forming a hairpin nucleic acid and preventing further amplification of said nucleic acid, and wherein said methylated cytosine residue or said mutated residue is within a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11 or SEQ ID NO: 21; and (c) identifying and/or detecting the amplified nucleic acid, wherein the detection of said amplified nucleic acid is indicative of the presence of a methylated cytosine residue or a mutated residue and the level of methylation of said nucleic acid; and (ii) comparing the level of methylation of the nucleic acid at (i) to the level of methylation in a non-cancerous sample, wherein an enhanced level of methylation in the nucleic acid at (i) compared to the level of methylation in the non-cancerous sample is indicative of enhanced methylation in the sample from the subject and cancer or a predisposition therefor.

67. A method for determining the likelihood of survival of a subject suffering from a colorectal cancer, said method comprising identifying and/or detecting the level of methylation of a nucleic acid comprising or within a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 21 in a sample from the subject relative to a non-cancerous sample, wherein an enhanced level of methylation in the sample compared to the control is indicative of an increased probability of survival.

68. A method for determining a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer comprising: (i) administering a candidate compound to a cancer cell and identifying and/or detecting the level of modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in said cell; (ii) identifying and/or detecting the level of modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a non-cancerous cell; and (iii) comparing the level of modified chromatin at (i) and (ii), wherein a similar level of modified chromatin at (i) relative to (ii) indicates that the compound is a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer.

69. The method according to claim 68 wherein the cells at (i) and (ii) are from the same tissue type. WO 2006/050573 151 PCT/AU2005/001726

70. The method according to claim 68 or 69 wherein the cells at (i) and (ii) are the same cell type.

71. A method for determining a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer comprising: (i) administering a candidate compound to a cancer cell and identifying and/or detecting the level of modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in said cell; (ii) identifying and/or detecting the level of modified chromatin within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 in a cancer cell in the absence of the candidate compound; and (iii) comparing the level of modified chromatin at (i) and (ii), wherein a reduced level of modified chromatin at (i) relative to (ii) indicates that the compound is a candidate compound for the treatment of a cancer.

72. The method according to claim 71 wherein the cells at (i) and (ii) are of the same type.

73. A process for providing a compound for the treatment of cancer, said method comprising: (i) performing a method according to any one of claims 68 to 72 to thereby identify or determine a compound for the treatment of a cancer; (ii) optionally, determining the structure of the compound; and (iii) providing the compound or the name or structure of the compound.

74. A process for producing a compound for the treatment of cancer, said process comprising: (i) performing a method according to any one of claims 68 to 72 to thereby determine a compound for the treatment of a cancer; (ii) optionally, determining the structure of the compound; (iii) optionally, providing the name or structure of the compound; and (iv) providing the compound.

75. A process for manufacturing a compound for the treatment of a cancer comprising: (i) performing a process according to any one of claim 68 to 72 to thereby determine a compound for the treatment of a cancer; and WO 2006/050573 152 PCT/AU2005/001726 (ii) using the compound in the manufacture of a therapeutic or prophylactic for the treatment of a cancer.

76. An isolated nucleic acid probe or primer that is capable of selectively hybridizing to a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 that is hyper methylated in a cancer.

77. An isolated nucleic acid probe or primer that is capable of selectively hybridizing to a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 that is bound by a modified histone in a cancer.

78. An isolated nucleic acid probe or primer that is capable of selectively hybridizing to a nucleic acid positioned within Chromosome 2 from about map position 2q14.1 to about map position 2q14.3 that is expressed at a modified level in a cancer.

79. An isolated nucleic acid probe or primer consisting of a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 72-219 or 224-275.