CN105652092A - Testing apparatus of conductivity and electrical equipment - Google Patents
Testing apparatus of conductivity and electrical equipment Download PDFInfo
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- CN105652092A CN105652092A CN201410653568.3A CN201410653568A CN105652092A CN 105652092 A CN105652092 A CN 105652092A CN 201410653568 A CN201410653568 A CN 201410653568A CN 105652092 A CN105652092 A CN 105652092A
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Abstract
The invention provides a testing apparatus of conductivity and electrical equipment. The testing apparatus comprises a square wave generation source, a first filter circuit, a testing electrode unit, a current detection circuit, a frequency multiplier circuit, and a signal processing circuit. To be specific, the square wave generation source is used for generating a square wave signal. The first filter circuit connected to the square wave generation source is used for carrying out filtering processing on a square wave signal to obtain a sinusoidal signal not including a direct-current component, wherein the sinusoidal signal is used as a testing voltage. The testing electrode unit includes one group of testing electrodes and is connected to the first filter circuit. The current detection circuit is used for detecting a current signal flowing through the testing electrode unit and converting the detected current signal into a corresponding voltage signal. The frequency multiplier circuit is used for carrying out frequency multiplication processing on the voltage signal. The signal processing circuit connected to the frequency multiplier unit determines a conductivity of a to-be-tested medium according to a voltage signal processed by the frequency multiplier circuit. According to the technical scheme, on the premise that the testing electrode is prevented from being polarized, a conductivity of a to-be-tested medium is tested accurately.
Description
Technical field
The present invention relates to specific conductivity technical field of measurement and test, specifically, it relates to a kind of electric conductivity test device and a kind of electrical equipment.
Background technology
Specific conductivity as one of the key property of material, and simple with its Cleaning Principle, detection installation cost is low and is widely used in material classification technology, material analysis technology, environmental protection technology and industrial production control techniques.
In correlation technique, detection for specific conductivity normally adopts current voltage characteristic to analyze, and specifically, test electrode applies voltage signal as actuation signal, the electric current signal of reading flow electrode after tested, determines the specific conductivity of determinand according to above-mentioned voltage signal and electric current signal. But, according to d. c. voltage signal as continuous-current excitation signal, the polarization of test electrode can be caused; If directly adopting ac voltage signal as ac-excited signal, then that the amplitude of ac-excited signal and the stability requirement of frequency is higher, and can owing to ac-excited signal including the polarization that direct current composition causes test electrode, the test result of ac-excited signal can not be compatible with digital circuit well simultaneously, therefore can not provide specific conductivity test result intuitively for user. In addition, for the material of high conductivity, owing to its resolving power is lower, therefore cannot accurately it be tested.
Therefore, how under the prerequisite avoiding test electrode polarized, accurately the specific conductivity of material can be tested the technical problem becoming urgently to be resolved hurrily.
Summary of the invention
The present invention is intended to one of technical problem at least solving existence in prior art or correlation technique.
For this reason, it is an object of the present invention to propose a kind of can under the prerequisite avoiding test electrode polarized, the specific conductivity accurately treating tested media carries out the test set of the specific conductivity tested.
Another object of the present invention is to propose a kind of electrical equipment.
, it is proposed that the test set of a kind of specific conductivity, comprising: square wave occurring source, for achieving the above object, according to one embodiment of present invention for generation of square wave signal; First filtering circuit, is connected to described square wave occurring source, for the described square wave signal that described square wave occurring source produces is carried out filtering process, obtains not comprising the positive string signal of direct current composition, using by described positive string signal as test voltage; Test electrode unit, comprises one group of test electrode, and described test electrode unit is connected to described first filtering circuit, for described test voltage is applied to medium to be tested; Current detecting circuit, for detecting the electric current signal flowing through described test electrode unit, and is converted into corresponding voltage signal by the electric current signal detected; Times frequency circuit, is connected to described current detecting circuit, for described voltage signal is carried out process of frequency multiplication; Signal treatment circuit, is connected to described times frequency circuit, for determining the specific conductivity of described medium to be tested according to the voltage signal after described frequency multiplication processing of circuit.
The test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention, by the first filtering circuit is connected to square wave occurring source, so that described square wave signal is carried out filtering process, final acquisition is not containing the positive string signal of direct current composition, can avoid correlation technique adopts continuous-current excitation signal, or directly adopt and undressed include the ac-excited signal of direct current composition and cause polarization of electrode effect; Meanwhile, owing to being the positive string signal by obtaining after square wave signal is carried out filtering process, what therefore can ensure to be applied on electrode ac-excited has stable amplitude and frequency, and then can guarantee the accuracy of specific conductivity test result.
And due to when the impedance of the frequency of actuation signal, medium to be tested meets certain condition, the amplitude of the voltage signal that current detecting circuit exports and the specific conductivity of the medium to be tested monotone increasing relation in approximate direct ratio, therefore by arranging times frequency circuit, the voltage signal that current detecting circuit exports is carried out process of frequency multiplication, the specific conductivity of measuring result and medium to be tested can be made to present nearly quadratic relationship, and then the medium to high conductivity can be realized measure accurately.
In addition, the cost of the test set of the specific conductivity that the present invention proposes is lower, batch production and the application being convenient to realize the test set of specific conductivity, realizes the detection to water-purifying machine water quality as being applied in water-purifying machine, or the measurement for ionogen, meat product, grain moisture, the soil water being graded.
In addition, the test set of specific conductivity according to the abovementioned embodiments of the present invention, it is also possible to there is following additional technology feature:
According to one embodiment of present invention, described signal treatment circuit, comprising: peakvalue's checking circuit, is connected to described times frequency circuit, for detecting the peak value of the voltage signal after described frequency multiplication processing of circuit; Analog to digital converter, is connected to described peakvalue's checking circuit, for described peakvalue's checking electric circuit inspection to peak value carry out analog-to-digital conversion process, to obtain numerary signal; Microprocessor, is connected to described analog to digital converter, for determining the specific conductivity of described medium to be tested according to described numerary signal.
The test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention, by arranging peakvalue's checking circuit, analog to digital converter and microprocessor successively in signal treatment circuit, it is possible to makes to test the conductivity value obtained and is compatible with digital circuit.Specifically, by simulating signal is quantified as numerary signal, it is possible to use the specific conductivity of test is checked at family more intuitively, improves Consumer's Experience.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described signal treatment circuit, also comprise: the 2nd filtering circuit, described peakvalue's checking circuit is connected to described times frequency circuit by described 2nd filtering circuit, and described 2nd filtering circuit is for carrying out filtering and noise reduction process to the voltage signal after described frequency multiplication processing of circuit.
The test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention, by arranging the 2nd filtering circuit between doubly frequency circuit and peakvalue's checking circuit, so that the voltage signal after frequency multiplication processing of circuit is carried out filtering process, reduce noise and the fluctuation situation of test signal, and then the accuracy of test result can be ensured.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described signal treatment circuit, also comprise: the 3rd filtering circuit, described analog to digital converter is connected to described peakvalue's checking circuit by described 3rd filtering circuit, and described 3rd filtering circuit is used for the voltage peak signal to described peakvalue's checking circuit exports and carries out filtering and noise reduction process.
The test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention, by arranging the 3rd filtering circuit between peakvalue's checking circuit and analog to digital converter, so that the voltage signal that peakvalue's checking circuit exports is carried out filtering process, create a further reduction the noise of test signal and fluctuation situation, and then the accuracy of test result can also be ensured.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described microprocessor comprises described square wave occurring source.
The test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention, by square wave occurring source is arranged in described microprocessor, by microprocessor, square wave occurring source can be carried out parameter setting and amendment, if microprocessor is micro-chip, it is possible to export square wave signal by micro-chip. In addition, employing square wave occurring source reduces the holistic cost of the test set of specific conductivity, and specifically, one of square wave signal signal the most easily obtaining positive string signal, therefore, it is not necessary to adopt high ground equipment to obtain the sinusoidal wave signal without direct current composition.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described microprocessor also for: the mode that described square wave occurring source produces described square wave signal controls. Wherein, microprocessor can control square wave occurring source and continue to produce square wave signal, to realize the continuance test treating tested media, as the specific conductivity in water-purifying machine water route is carried out continuance test; Certainly, microprocessor can also control square wave occurring source and at a time produce square wave signal, to realize the interruption test treating tested media, namely just tests when needs are tested, such as the test etc. to soil moisture, meat product.
Whether according to one embodiment of present invention, described microprocessor comprises: decision circuitry, be in default conductivity range for judging the specific conductivity of the medium described to be tested determined; Prompting circuit, is connected to described decision circuitry, for when described decision circuitry judges that the specific conductivity of described medium to be tested is not in described default conductivity range, sending prompting signal.
The test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention, by arranging decision circuitry and prompting circuit in the microprocessor, can be implemented in after determining specific conductivity, according to the comparison of specific conductivity and default conductivity range, determine the state of matter corresponding to specific conductivity, and by result of determination is prompted to user, it may also be useful to family obtains state of matter more intuitively, improves Consumer's Experience.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described first filtering circuit comprises: the filtering circuit combined by bandpass filter and pi type filter.
The test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention, the filtering circuit combined by bandpass filter and pi type filter is as the first filtering circuit, effectively obtain not containing the positive string signal of direct current composition, and then avoid the polarization of electrode effect that direct current signal causes; And can guarantee that obtaining positive string signal has stable amplitude and frequency, and then the accuracy of specific conductivity test result can be guaranteed.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described positive string signal is the positive string signal with single waveform, or the positive string signal being made up of the sinusoidal Signal averaging of multiple waveform. Specifically, the actuation signal being applied on electrode can be single positive string signal, it is also possible to be that many positive string signals encourage simultaneously, to realize the acquisition of the electrical impedance information at multifrequency rate place.
Embodiment according to another aspect of the present invention, also proposed a kind of for electrical equipment, comprising: the test set of the specific conductivity as described in above-mentioned arbitrary technical scheme. Electrical equipment can be water-purifying machine etc.
The additional aspect of the present invention and advantage will part provide in the following description, and part will become obvious from the following description, or be recognized by the practice of the present invention.
Accompanying drawing explanation
Above-mentioned and/or the additional aspect of the present invention and advantage from accompanying drawing below combining to the description of embodiment becoming obviously and it should be readily understood that wherein:
Fig. 1 shows the structural representation of the test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention;
Fig. 2 shows the structural representation of the first filtering circuit in the test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention;
Fig. 3 shows the structural representation of the current sampling circuit in the test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention;
Fig. 4 shows the structural representation of times frequency circuit of the test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention;
Fig. 5 shows the structural representation of the peakvalue's checking circuit of the test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention.
Embodiment
In order to more clearly understand above-mentioned purpose, the feature and advantage of the present invention, below in conjunction with the drawings and specific embodiments, the present invention is further described in detail. It should be noted that, when not conflicting, the feature in the embodiment of the application and embodiment can combine mutually.
Set forth a lot of detail in the following description so that fully understanding the present invention; but; the present invention can also adopt other to be different from other modes described here to implement, and therefore, protection scope of the present invention is by the restriction of following public specific embodiment.
Fig. 1 shows the structural representation of the test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention.
As shown in Figure 1, the test set of specific conductivity according to an embodiment of the invention, comprising: square wave occurring source 102, for generation of square wave signal; First filtering circuit 104, is connected to described square wave occurring source 102, for the described square wave signal that described square wave occurring source 102 produces is carried out filtering process, obtains not comprising the positive string signal of direct current composition, using by described positive string signal as test voltage; Test electrode unit 106, comprises one group of test electrode, and described test electrode unit 106 is connected to described first filtering circuit 104, for described test voltage is applied to medium 116 to be tested; Current detecting circuit 108, for detecting the electric current signal flowing through described test electrode unit 106, and is converted into corresponding voltage signal by the electric current signal detected;Times frequency circuit 110, is connected to described current detecting circuit 108, for described voltage signal is carried out process of frequency multiplication; Signal treatment circuit 112, is connected to described times frequency circuit 110, for determining the specific conductivity of described medium to be tested 116 according to the voltage signal after described times of frequency circuit 110 processes.
By the first filtering circuit 104 is connected to square wave occurring source 102, so that the square wave signal that square wave occurring source 102 produces is carried out filtering process, final acquisition is not containing the positive string signal of direct current composition, can avoid correlation technique adopts continuous-current excitation signal, or directly adopt and undressed include the ac-excited signal of direct current composition and cause polarization of electrode effect; Meanwhile, owing to being the positive string signal by obtaining after square wave signal is carried out filtering process, what therefore can ensure to be applied on electrode ac-excited has stable amplitude and frequency, and then can guarantee the accuracy of specific conductivity test result.
And due to when the impedance of the frequency of actuation signal, medium to be tested meets certain condition, the amplitude of the voltage signal that current detecting circuit 108 exports and the specific conductivity of the medium to be tested 116 monotone increasing relation in approximate direct ratio, therefore by arranging times frequency circuit, the voltage signal that current detecting circuit 108 exports is carried out process of frequency multiplication, the specific conductivity of measuring result and medium to be tested 116 can be made to present nearly quadratic relationship, and then the medium to high conductivity can be realized measure accurately.
In addition, the cost of the test set of the specific conductivity that the present invention proposes is lower, it is convenient to realize batch production and the application of the test set of specific conductivity, as being applied in water quality (tap water etc.), heavy metal contamination, skin (human body skin moisture, fat, tetter), ionogen (acid or alkali), biological tissue's (disease, such as mammary cancer, prostate cancer etc.), meat product (beef, pork, donkey meat, dog meats, chicken, the rotten detection of the meat products such as duck), grain (rice, the cereal such as wheat) moisture, soil moisture, liquid medium liquid level, temperature survey, alcoholic strength, water-in-oil, oil-in-water, in the measurement of the specific conductivity such as electromagnetic nondestructive.
Wherein, the square wave signal that square wave occurring source 102 can produce fixed frequency, lower level is zero, certainly, the lower level of square wave signal that square wave occurring source 102 produces can also be greater than 0 or be less than 0. First filtering circuit 104 can by square wave signal except basis harmonic wave except all humorous wave component filtering, using by basis harmonic wave as actuation signal, certainly, it is also possible to using other humorous wave components as actuation signal.
In addition, the test set of specific conductivity according to the abovementioned embodiments of the present invention, it is also possible to there is following additional technology feature:
According to one embodiment of present invention, described signal treatment circuit 112, comprising: peakvalue's checking circuit 1122, is connected to described times frequency circuit 110, for detecting the peak value of the voltage signal after described times of frequency circuit 110 processes; Analog to digital converter 1124, is connected to described peakvalue's checking circuit 1122, for the peak value that described peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 detects is carried out analog-to-digital conversion process, to obtain numerary signal; Microprocessor 1126, is connected to described analog to digital converter 1124, for determining the specific conductivity of described medium to be tested 116 according to described numerary signal.
By arranging peakvalue's checking circuit 1122, analog to digital converter 1124 and microprocessor 1126 in signal treatment circuit 112 successively, it is possible to make to test the conductivity value obtained and be compatible with digital circuit.Specifically, by simulating signal is quantified as numerary signal, it is possible to use the specific conductivity of test is checked at family more intuitively, improves Consumer's Experience.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described signal treatment circuit 112, also comprise: the 2nd filtering circuit (not shown), described peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 is connected to described times frequency circuit 110 by described 2nd filtering circuit, and described 2nd filtering circuit is used for the voltage signal after described times of frequency circuit 110 processes is carried out filtering and noise reduction process.
By doubly arranging the 2nd filtering circuit between frequency circuit 110 and peakvalue's checking circuit 1122, filtering process is carried out with the voltage signal after being processed by doubly frequency circuit 110, reduce noise and the fluctuation situation of test signal, and then the accuracy of test result can be ensured.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described signal treatment circuit 112, also comprise: the 3rd filtering circuit (not shown), described analog to digital converter 1124 is connected to described peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 by described 3rd filtering circuit, and described 3rd filtering circuit is used for the voltage peak signal to described peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 exports and carries out filtering and noise reduction process.
By arranging the 3rd filtering circuit between peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 and analog to digital converter 1124, so that the voltage signal that peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 exports is carried out filtering process, create a further reduction the noise of test signal and fluctuation situation, and then the accuracy of test result can also be ensured.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described microprocessor 1126 comprises described square wave occurring source 102.
By square wave occurring source 102 being arranged in described microprocessor 1126, it is possible to by microprocessor 1126, square wave occurring source 102 is carried out parameter setting and amendment, if microprocessor 1126 is micro-chip, it is possible to export square wave signal by micro-chip. In addition, employing square wave occurring source 102 reduces the holistic cost of the test set of specific conductivity, and specifically, one of square wave signal signal the most easily obtaining positive string signal, therefore need not adopt high ground equipment to obtain the sinusoidal wave signal without direct current composition.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described microprocessor 1126 also for: the mode that described square wave occurring source 102 produces described square wave signal controls. Wherein, microprocessor 1126 can control square wave occurring source 102 and continue to produce square wave signal, to realize the continuance test treating tested media, as the specific conductivity in water-purifying machine water route is carried out continuance test; Certainly, microprocessor 1126 can also control square wave occurring source 102 and at a time produce square wave signal, to realize the interruption test treating tested media, namely just tests when needs are tested, such as the test etc. to soil moisture, meat product.
Whether according to one embodiment of present invention, described microprocessor 1126 comprises: decision circuitry (not shown), be in default conductivity range for judging the specific conductivity of the medium 116 described to be tested determined; Prompting circuit (not shown), is connected to described decision circuitry, for when described decision circuitry judges that the specific conductivity of described medium 116 to be tested is not in described default conductivity range, sending prompting signal.
By arranging decision circuitry and prompting circuit in microprocessor 1126, can be implemented in after determining specific conductivity, according to the comparison of specific conductivity and default conductivity range, determine the state of matter corresponding to specific conductivity, and by result of determination is prompted to user, make user obtain state of matter more intuitively, improve Consumer's Experience.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described first filtering circuit 104 comprises: the filtering circuit combined by bandpass filter and pi type filter.
The filtering circuit combined by bandpass filter and pi type filter, as the first filtering circuit 104, is obtained effectively not containing the positive string signal of direct current composition, and then avoids the polarization of electrode effect that direct current signal causes; And can guarantee that obtaining positive string signal has stable amplitude and frequency, and then the accuracy of specific conductivity test result can be guaranteed.
According to one embodiment of present invention, described positive string signal is the positive string signal with single waveform, or the positive string signal being made up of the sinusoidal Signal averaging of multiple waveform. Specifically, the actuation signal being applied on test electrode can be single positive string signal, it is also possible to be that many positive string signals encourage simultaneously, to realize the acquisition of the electrical impedance information at multifrequency rate place.
Wherein, the circuit structure of the first filtering circuit 104 can as shown in Figure 2, and the input terminus 1042 of the first filtering circuit 104 is connected to the output terminal of square wave occurring source 102, and the first filtering circuit output terminal 1044 is connected to test electrode unit 106.
The circuit structure of current detecting circuit 108 can as shown in Figure 3, and the electric current flowing through test electrode unit 106 is sampled by the input terminus 1082 of current detecting circuit 108, and the output terminal 1084 of current detecting circuit 108 is connected to the input terminus of times frequency circuit 110.
The circuit structure of times frequency circuit 110 can as shown in Figure 4, and the input terminus 1102 of times frequency circuit 110 is connected to the output terminal 1084 of current detecting circuit 108, and the output terminal 1104 of times frequency circuit is connected to the input terminus of peakvalue's checking circuit 1122.
The circuit structure of peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 can as shown in Figure 5, and the input terminus 112A of peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 is connected to the output terminal 1104 of times frequency circuit, and the output terminal 112B of peakvalue's checking circuit 1122 is connected to the input terminus of analog to digital converter 1124.
The technical scheme being more than described with reference to the accompanying drawings the present invention, the present invention proposes the test set of a kind of new specific conductivity, it is possible under the prerequisite avoiding test electrode polarized, and the specific conductivity accurately treating tested media is tested.
The foregoing is only the preferred embodiments of the present invention, be not limited to the present invention, for a person skilled in the art, the present invention can have various modifications and variations. Within the spirit and principles in the present invention all, any amendment of doing, equivalent replacement, improvement etc., all should be included within protection scope of the present invention.
Claims (10)
1. the test set of a specific conductivity, it is characterised in that, comprising:
Square wave occurring source, for generation of square wave signal;
First filtering circuit, is connected to described square wave occurring source, for the described square wave signal that described square wave occurring source produces is carried out filtering process, obtains not comprising the positive string signal of direct current composition, using by described positive string signal as test voltage;
Test electrode unit, comprises one group of test electrode, and described test electrode unit is connected to described first filtering circuit, for described test voltage is applied to medium to be tested;
Current detecting circuit, for detecting the electric current signal flowing through described test electrode unit, and is converted into corresponding voltage signal by the electric current signal detected;
Times frequency circuit, is connected to described current detecting circuit, for described voltage signal is carried out process of frequency multiplication;
Signal treatment circuit, is connected to described times frequency circuit, for determining the specific conductivity of described medium to be tested according to the voltage signal after described frequency multiplication processing of circuit.
2. the test set of specific conductivity according to claim 1, it is characterised in that, described signal treatment circuit, comprising:
Peakvalue's checking circuit, is connected to described times frequency circuit, for detecting the peak value of the voltage signal after described frequency multiplication processing of circuit;
Analog to digital converter, is connected to described peakvalue's checking circuit, for described peakvalue's checking electric circuit inspection to peak value carry out analog-to-digital conversion process, to obtain numerary signal;
Microprocessor, is connected to described analog to digital converter, for determining the specific conductivity of described medium to be tested according to described numerary signal.
3. the test set of specific conductivity according to claim 2, it is characterised in that, described signal treatment circuit, also comprises:
2nd filtering circuit, described peakvalue's checking circuit is connected to described times frequency circuit by described 2nd filtering circuit, and described 2nd filtering circuit is for carrying out filtering and noise reduction process to the voltage signal after described frequency multiplication processing of circuit.
4. the test set of specific conductivity according to claim 2, it is characterised in that, described signal treatment circuit, also comprises:
3rd filtering circuit, described analog to digital converter is connected to described peakvalue's checking circuit by described 3rd filtering circuit, and described 3rd filtering circuit is used for the voltage peak signal to described peakvalue's checking circuit exports and carries out filtering and noise reduction process.
5. the test set of specific conductivity according to claim 2, it is characterised in that, described microprocessor comprises described square wave occurring source.
6. the test set of specific conductivity according to claim 5, it is characterised in that, described microprocessor also for: the mode that described square wave occurring source produces described square wave signal controls.
7. the test set of specific conductivity according to claim 2, it is characterised in that, described microprocessor comprises:
Whether decision circuitry, be in default conductivity range for judging the specific conductivity of the medium described to be tested determined;
Prompting circuit, is connected to described decision circuitry, for when described decision circuitry judges that the specific conductivity of described medium to be tested is not in described default conductivity range, sending prompting signal.
8. the test set of specific conductivity according to claim 1, it is characterised in that, described first filtering circuit comprises: the filtering circuit combined by bandpass filter and pi type filter.
9. the test set of specific conductivity according to any one of claim 1 to 8, it is characterised in that, described positive string signal is the positive string signal with single waveform, or the positive string signal being made up of the sinusoidal Signal averaging of multiple waveform.
10. an electrical equipment, it is characterised in that, comprising: the test set of specific conductivity as claimed in any one of claims 1-9 wherein.
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| CN201410653568.3A CN105652092A (en) | 2014-11-14 | 2014-11-14 | Testing apparatus of conductivity and electrical equipment |
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| CN201410653568.3A CN105652092A (en) | 2014-11-14 | 2014-11-14 | Testing apparatus of conductivity and electrical equipment |
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| CN106291119A (en) * | 2016-07-22 | 2017-01-04 | 深圳市绿恩环保技术有限公司 | A kind of conductivity measuring method, circuit and conductance instrument |
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