WO2016176560A1 - Chromium-mediated coupling and application to the synthesis of halichondrins - Google Patents

Chromium-mediated coupling and application to the synthesis of halichondrins Download PDF

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WO2016176560A1
WO2016176560A1 PCT/US2016/030064 US2016030064W WO2016176560A1 WO 2016176560 A1 WO2016176560 A1 WO 2016176560A1 US 2016030064 W US2016030064 W US 2016030064W WO 2016176560 A1 WO2016176560 A1 WO 2016176560A1
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optionally substituted
formula
certain embodiments
hydrogen
compound
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WO2016176560A8 (en
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Yoshito Kishi
Wuming YAN
Jingwie LI
Zhanjie Li
Kenzo YAHATA
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President And Fellows Of Harvard College
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Priority to US15/570,593 priority Critical patent/US10344038B2/en
Publication of WO2016176560A1 publication Critical patent/WO2016176560A1/en
Publication of WO2016176560A8 publication Critical patent/WO2016176560A8/en
Priority to US16/441,843 priority patent/US10633392B2/en
Priority to US16/859,018 priority patent/US11220513B2/en

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    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07D493/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms in the condensed system
    • C07D493/22—Heterocyclic compounds containing oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms in the condensed system in which the condensed system contains four or more hetero rings
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07D493/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms in the condensed system
    • C07D493/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms in the condensed system in which the condensed system contains two hetero rings
    • C07D493/04—Ortho-condensed systems
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07D493/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms in the condensed system
    • C07D493/12—Heterocyclic compounds containing oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms in the condensed system in which the condensed system contains three hetero rings
    • C07D493/14—Ortho-condensed systems

Definitions

  • the halichondrins are polyether macrolides, originally isolated from the marine sponge Halichondria okadai by Uemura, Hirata, and coworkers. Due to their interesting structural architecture and extraordinary in vitro and in vivo anti-proliferative activity, the halichondrins have received much attention from the scientific community. Synthetic methods that streamline the preparation of these natural products or related derivatives are important given the structural complexity of the halichondrin backbone. A highly convergent approach has been adopted to synthesize halichondrins and analogs thereof. Because of its high degree of convergence, one can expect a high overall efficiency for the longest linear synthetic sequence.
  • Chromium-mediated couplings of organic halides/triflates with aldehydes belong to a class of 1,2-carbonyl addition reactions.
  • the active nucleophiles RCrX 3 are generated from halides/triflates in situ.
  • chromium- mediated couplings are divided into three sub-groups: (1) Ni/Cr-mediated alkenylation, alkynylation, and arylation, (2) Co or Fe/Cr-mediated alkylation, 2-haloallyl-ation and propargylation, and (3) Cr-mediated allylation and propargylation (See, e.g., Saccomano, N. A. in Comprehensive Organic Synthesis; Trost, B. M., Fleming, I., Eds.; Pergamon: Oxford, 1991; Vol.1, p 173).
  • Ni/Cr-mediated couplings of alkenyl halides/triflates with aldehydes were originally reported by Takai, Hiyama, Nozaki, and coworkers in 1983. Since then, it has been shown that the coupling is initiated by a catalytic amount of NiCl 2 as a contaminant in the with CrCl 2 .
  • halichondrins Due to the important biological activities of halichondrins, it is valuable to develop a unified and practical synthesis of the C1-C19 building block, as well as C20-C38 building blocks, to allow easy access to halichondrins (e.g., halichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin), and analogs thereof.
  • halichondrin A, B, C norhalichondrin A, B, C
  • homohalichondrin A, B, C eribulin
  • the C1-C19 building block is joined with the C20-C38 building block to synthesize halichondrin A, B, and C, as well as their analogs (e.g., norhalichondrin A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin).
  • the present invetion provides chromium-mediated coupling reactions which can be applied to the synthesis of halichondrins as well as other molecules.
  • the present invention provides a method of preparing a compound of Formula (I):
  • the method comprises coupling a compound of Formula (i):
  • the provided coupling method effectively furnishes the coupling a wide range of halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic ketone, or halo-acetylenic ketal substrates and an aldehyde. Since a hydroxyl group is generated in the coupling product, an R- or S- isomer can be introduced in the chiral center.
  • the provided coupling method is a catalytic asymmetric coupling between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii).
  • the chromium catalyst and one or more catalysts in the coupling can provide efficient asymmetric induction, geometrical isomerization, and coupling rate.
  • the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex.
  • the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex and one or more catalysts.
  • the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex and a zirconium complex.
  • the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromium complex and a nickel complex. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a combination of a chromoium complex, a nickel complex, and a zirconium complex. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex and one or more catalysts, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand. In certain
  • the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex and a zirconium complex, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand.
  • the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromium complex and a nickel complex, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand.
  • the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a combination of a chromoium complex, a nickel complex, and a zirconium complex, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand.
  • the provided coupling method is stereoselective in installing a chiral center having a hydroxyl group.
  • the compound of Formula (i) is a halo-enone or halo-enone ketal of Formula (i-a): (i-a) or a salt
  • the asymmetric coupling product is of Formula (I-a): (I-a), or salt thereof.
  • the compound of Formula (i) is a halo-acetylenic ketone
  • asymmetric coupling product is of Formula (I-b): (I-b), or a salt thereof.
  • the provided coupling method is selective for halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic enone, and halo-acetylenic ketal, over vinyl halide and a halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon.
  • a vinyl halide or a halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon can remain intact during the coupling reaction between a halo-enone, halo- enone ketal, halo-acetylenic enone, or halo-acetylenic ketal, with an aldehyde of Formula (ii).
  • the vinyl halide moiety can be a part of the compound of Formula (i), the aldehyde of Formula (ii), or another compound in the coupling reaction mixture.
  • the provided coupling method is selective for halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic enone, and halo-acetylenic ketal, over vinyl iodide and chloride or iodide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon.
  • the provided coupling method is selective for halo-acetylenic ketone or halo-acetylenic ketal over vinyl iodide or a iodide and chloride attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon.
  • the provided coupling methods are applicable to synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichondrins and analogs thereof as well as other compounds.
  • the provided coupling methods are also applicable to the preparation of C20- C38 building blocks of halichondrins and analogs thereof.
  • the provided coupling methods are useful in joining C1-C19 building blocks with C20-C38 building blocks, as well as joining the right half and left half of halichondrins and analogs thereof. For examples, see Schemes T1-T4.
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-a-3):
  • R 4a , R 4b , R 4c , R 1a , and R 1d are as defined herein.
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-5):
  • R 4a , R 4b , R 4c , R 1a , and R 1d are as defined herein.
  • the present invention provides the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrin A:
  • R 4a , R 1a , R 1d , R 10 , and R 11 are as defined herein.
  • the present invention provides the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrin B:
  • the present invention provides the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrin C:
  • R 4a , R 1a , R 1d , and R 10 are as defined herein.
  • the present invetion provides methods of preparing C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins (e.g., halichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C;
  • homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin such as compounds of Formula (III-1):
  • a C20-C38 building block is a compound of Formula (III- 11).
  • the prevent invention provides compounds which are useful intermediates in the preparation of halichondrins and building blocks described herein.
  • Figure 1 shows HPLC analysis of (R)-XS-27' (top) and rac-XS-27' (bottom) (see Example 1).
  • Figure 2 shows an exemplary ion-exchange resin device consisting of a pump, reaction flask, and ion-exchange columns.
  • Figure 3 shows the crystal structure of XS-38.
  • Figure 4 shows a novel approach to the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block in the halichondrins.
  • Figure 5 shows catalytic Ni/Cr-mediated coupling reaction.
  • Figure 5A overall transformation
  • Figure 5B Ni- and Cr-catalytic cycles.
  • Zr(cp) 2 Cl 2 or TMS-Cl is used to dissociate the product from Cr-species, to regenerate the Cr-catalyst.
  • Figure 6 shows three coupling examples reported in the literature (Aicher, T. D.; Buszek, K. R.; Fang, F. G.; Forsyth, C. J.; Jung, S. H.; Kishi, Y.; Scola, P. M. Tetrahedron Lett.1992, 33, 1549; Chen, C.; Tagami, K.; Kishi, Y. J. Org. Chem.1995, 60, 5386. (c) Namba, K.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett.2004, 6, 5031; Guo, H.; Dong, C.-G.; Kim, D.-S.; Urabe, D.; Wang, J.; Kim, J.
  • Figure 7 shows model coupling reactions used to assess coupling efficiency.
  • Coupling condition X-A 10 mol% Cr-complex prepared from sulfonamide X-12 and 1 mol% nickel complex X-13a
  • Coupling condition X-B 10 mol% Cr-complex prepared from sulfonamide X-12 and 0.05 mol% nickel complex X-13b
  • Yields are based on chromatographically isolated product.
  • Figure 8 shows examples tested for the coupling of di-substituted trans- ⁇ - bromoenones with aldehydes.
  • Coupling condition 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X-13b, Zr(cp) 2 Cl 2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature for 3 hours; Yield: based on
  • Figure 9 shows attempted coupling with other types of ⁇ -bromo-enones.
  • Figure 10 shows two examples relevant to the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrins.
  • the first example shows that a selective activation/coupling is possible with the use of a selective activator in the Cr-mediated coupling; namely, cobalt- and iron-salts are known to activate saturated halides, but not vinyl halides (Guo, H.; Dong, C.-G.; Kim, D.-S.; Urabe, D.; Wang, J.; Kim, J. T.; Liu, X.; Sasaki, T.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem.
  • Figure 11 shows a competition experiment of trans- ⁇ -bromoenone X-9b over vinyl iodides X-31a ⁇ c.
  • Coupling condition nucleophile: a 1:1 mixture of X-9b and X-31a, b, or c.
  • Reagents 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X- 13a or X-13b, Zr(cp) 2 Cl 2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature for 3 hours.
  • the product ratio was estimated from 1 H NMR analysis of crude coupling products.
  • Figure 12 shows an exemplary synthesis of poly-halogenated nucleophile X-34.
  • Figure 13 shows Ni/Cr-mediated coupling of X-34 with X-35, with use of polyether- type phenanthrene•NiCl 2 complex X-37c.
  • Coupling condition 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X-37c, Zr(cp) 2 Cl 2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature for 3 hours.
  • Yield chromatographically isolated yield in 7.1 g aldehyde scale.
  • Figure 14 shows examples tested for the coupling of poly-halogenated nucleophile X- 34 with various aldehydes.
  • Coupling condition 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X-37c, Zr(cp) 2 Cl 2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature for 3 hours; Yield: based on
  • Figure 15 shows the completion of synthesis of the C1-C19 building block X-46 of halichondrin Bs. Yield: chromatographically isolated yield in 11.4 g scale of coupling product X-36.
  • Figure 16 shows polymer-bound guanidine and PPTS used for ion-exchange-resin based device.
  • Figure 17 shows a summary of the exemplary synthesis of the right-half of halichondrin A.
  • Figure 18 shows structures of halichondrins A, B, and C.
  • Figure 19 shows a summary of the synthesis of the right half of halichondrin A and requisite C1-C19 building blocks (BBs) of halichondrins A-C.
  • Figure 20 shows a proposed one-step synthesis of acetylenic ketones Y-15a,b via selective activation/coupling of halo-acetylenic ketones Y-16a,b.
  • Figure 21 shows substrates, sulfonamide, and Ni-catalyst used for the model study.
  • Figure 22 shows an exemplary synthesis of nucleophiles Y-24a,b.
  • Figure 23 shows exemplary sufonamides.
  • Figure 24 shows (Ni)/Cr-Mediated couplings.
  • Coupling condition Cr-catalyst prepared from (R)- Y-21: 20 mol%; Ni-catalyst Y-22b (0.05 mol%) or no added Ni-catalyst; TES-Cl (2.5 eq); LiCl (4 eq); Mn (4 eq); EtCN ([C] 0.4 M); RT; Yields are based on chromatographically isolated product.
  • Figure 25 shows an exemplary synthesis of C1-C19 buliding blocks (BBs) in the halichondrin A and C series.
  • Figure 26 shows an exemplary synthesis of C1-C19 BBs in the halichondrin B series.
  • Figure 27 shows an exemplary synthesis of C1-C19 building blocks from compound Y-11.
  • Figure 28 shows an example of a transformation that can be used to prepare halichondrins A-C and norhalichondrins A-C. This transformation is achieved in four steps (i.e., 1. TBAF, 2. DBU, 3. DDQ, and PPTS). In the halichondrin-A and -C series, after this transformation, the protecting groups at C11 at C12 can be removed to yield the natural product.
  • the enone-to-halichondrin transformation can be carried out with several combinations of the protecting groups for the hydroxyl groups, including, for example, C35- TES (triethylsilyl), C41-MPM (4-methyoxybenzyl), C48-TES, C51-TES, C53-TBS (tert- butyl dimethylsilyl), and C54-TBS in the halichondrin-B series; C35-TES, C41-MPM, C48- TES, and C50-TES in the norhalichondrin-B series.
  • X is an oxygen protecting group.
  • Figure 29 shows an improved protecting group strategy for the enone-to-halichondrin transformation and enone-to-norhalichondrin transformations in FIG 28.
  • Use of a TES- protecting group for the C35- and C48-hydroxyl groups allows the use of a TBS-protecting group for the C41-hydroxyl group. With this change, the enone-to-halichondrin
  • Compounds described herein can comprise one or more asymmetric centers, and thus can exist in various stereoisomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/or diastereomers.
  • the compounds described herein can be in the form of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, or can be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemic mixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer.
  • Isomers can be isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art, including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the formation and crystallization of chiral salts; or preferred isomers can be prepared by asymmetric syntheses.
  • HPLC high pressure liquid chromatography
  • heteroatom refers to an atom that is not hydrogen or carbon.
  • the heteroatom is nitrogen.
  • the heteroatom is oxygen.
  • the heteroatom is sulfur.
  • C 1–6 alkyl is intended to encompass, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , C 6 , C 1–6 , C 1–5 , C 1–4 , C 1–3 , C 1–2 , C 2–6 , C 2–5 , C 2–4 , C 2–3 , C 3–6 , C 3–5 , C 3–4 , C 4–6 , C 4–5 , and C 5–6 alkyl.
  • aliphatic refers to alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, and carbocyclic groups.
  • heteroaliphatic refers to heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, and heterocyclic groups.
  • alkyl refers to a radical of a straight–chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms (“C 1–10 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 9 carbon atoms (“C 1–9 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C 1–8 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 7 carbon atoms (“C 1–7 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C 1–6 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C 1–5 alkyl”).
  • an alkyl group has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C 1–4 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C 1–3 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C 1–2 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C 1 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C 2–6 alkyl”).
  • C 1–6 alkyl groups include methyl (C 1 ), ethyl (C 2 ), n–propyl (C 3 ), isopropyl (C 3 ), n–butyl (C 4 ), tert–butyl (C 4 ), sec–butyl (C 4 ), iso–butyl (C 4 ), n–pentyl (C 5 ), 3–pentanyl (C 5 ), amyl (C 5 ), neopentyl (C 5 ), 3–methyl–2–butanyl (C 5 ), tertiary amyl (C 5 ), and n–hexyl (C 6 ).
  • alkyl groups include n–heptyl (C 7 ), n–octyl (C 8 ) and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted alkyl”) or substituted (a“substituted alkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is an unsubstituted C 1–10 alkyl (e.g.,–CH 3 ). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is a substituted C 1–10 alkyl.
  • haloalkyl is a substituted alkyl group, wherein one or more of the hydrogen atoms are independently replaced by a halogen, e.g., fluoro, bromo, chloro, or iodo.
  • Perhaloalkyl is a subset of haloalkyl, and refers to an alkyl group wherein all of the hydrogen atoms are independently replaced by a halogen, e.g., fluoro, bromo, chloro, or iodo.
  • the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C 1–8 haloalkyl”).
  • the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C 1–6 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C 1–4 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C 1–3 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C 1–2 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, all of the haloalkyl hydrogen atoms are replaced with fluoro to provide a perfluoroalkyl group.
  • haloalkyl hydrogen atoms are replaced with chloro to provide a“perchloroalkyl” group.
  • haloalkyl groups include— CHF2, ⁇ CH2F,–CF 3 , ⁇ CH2CF3,–CF 2 CF 3 ,–CF 2 CF 2 CF 3 ,–CCl 3 ,–CFCl 2 ,–CF 2 Cl, and the like.
  • heteroalkyl refers to an alkyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain.
  • a heteroalkyl group refers to a saturated group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–10 alkyl”).
  • a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–9 alkyl”).
  • a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–8 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 7 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–7 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–6 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–5 alkyl”).
  • a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms and 1or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–4 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 3 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–3 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 2 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC 1–2 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 carbon atom and 1 heteroatom (“heteroC 1 alkyl”).
  • a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–6 alkyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted
  • heteroalkyl or substituted (a“substituted heteroalkyl”) with one or more substituents.
  • the heteroalkyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC 1–10 alkyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is a substituted heteroC 1–10 alkyl.
  • alkenyl refers to a radical of a straight–chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon double bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 double bonds).
  • an alkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C 2–9 alkenyl”).
  • an alkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C 2–8 alkenyl”).
  • an alkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C 2–7 alkenyl”).
  • an alkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C 2–6 alkenyl”).
  • an alkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C 2–5 alkenyl”).
  • an alkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C 2–4 alkenyl”). In some
  • an alkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C 2–3 alkenyl”). In some
  • an alkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C 2 alkenyl”).
  • the one or more carbon– carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2–butenyl) or terminal (such as in 1–butenyl).
  • Examples of C 2–4 alkenyl groups include ethenyl (C 2 ), 1–propenyl (C 3 ), 2–propenyl (C 3 ), 1– butenyl (C 4 ), 2–butenyl (C 4 ), butadienyl (C 4 ), and the like.
  • C 2–6 alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C 2–4 alkenyl groups as well as pentenyl (C 5 ), pentadienyl (C 5 ), hexenyl (C 6 ), and the like. Additional examples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C 7 ), octenyl (C 8 ), octatrienyl (C 8 ), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted alkenyl”) or substituted (a
  • substituted alkenyl with one or more substituents.
  • the alkenyl group is an unsubstituted C 2–10 alkenyl.
  • the alkenyl group is a substituted C 2–10 alkenyl.
  • heteroalkenyl refers to an alkenyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain.
  • a heteroalkenyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–10 alkenyl”).
  • a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–9 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–8 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–7 alkenyl”).
  • a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–6 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–5 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1or 2
  • heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–4 alkenyl”).
  • a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–3 alkenyl”).
  • a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–6 alkenyl”).
  • each instance of a heteroalkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted heteroalkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkenyl”) with one or more substituents.
  • the heteroalkenyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC 2–10 alkenyl.
  • the heteroalkenyl group is a substituted heteroC 2–10 alkenyl.
  • alkynyl refers to a radical of a straight–chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 triple bonds) (“C 2–10 alkynyl”).
  • an alkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C 2–9 alkynyl”).
  • an alkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C 2–8 alkynyl”).
  • an alkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C 2–7 alkynyl”).
  • an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C 2–6 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C 2–5 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C 2–4 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C 2–3 alkynyl”). In some
  • an alkynyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C 2 alkynyl”).
  • the one or more carbon– carbon triple bonds can be internal (such as in 2–butynyl) or terminal (such as in 1–butynyl).
  • Examples of C 2–4 alkynyl groups include, without limitation, ethynyl (C 2 ), 1–propynyl (C 3 ), 2–propynyl (C 3 ), 1–butynyl (C 4 ), 2–butynyl (C 4 ), and the like.
  • C 2–6 alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C 2–4 alkynyl groups as well as pentynyl (C 5 ), hexynyl (C 6 ), and the like. Additional examples of alkynyl include heptynyl (C 7 ), octynyl (C 8 ), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted alkynyl”) or substituted (a“substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is an unsubstituted C 2–10 alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is a substituted C 2–10 alkynyl.
  • heteroalkynyl refers to an alkynyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain.
  • a heteroalkynyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–10 alkynyl”).
  • a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–9 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2– 8 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–7 alkynyl”).
  • a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–6 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–5 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–4 alkynyl”).
  • a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–3 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC 2–6 alkynyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted heteroalkynyl”) or substituted (a“substituted
  • heteroalkynyl with one or more substituents.
  • the heteroalkynyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC 2–10 alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is a substituted heteroC 2–10 alkynyl.
  • carbocyclyl or“carbocyclic” refers to a radical of a non–aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 14 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–14 carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the non–aromatic ring system.
  • a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–10 carbocyclyl”).
  • a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–8 carbocyclyl”).
  • a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 7 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–7 carbocyclyl”).
  • a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C 4–6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C 5–6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C 5–10 carbocyclyl”).
  • Exemplary C 3–6 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl (C 3 ), cyclopropenyl (C 3 ), cyclobutyl (C 4 ), cyclobutenyl (C 4 ), cyclopentyl (C 5 ), cyclopentenyl (C 5 ), cyclohexyl (C 6 ), cyclohexenyl (C 6 ), cyclohexadienyl (C 6 ), and the like.
  • Exemplary C 3–8 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C 3–6 carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C 7 ), cycloheptenyl (C 7 ), cycloheptadienyl (C 7 ), cycloheptatrienyl (C 7 ), cyclooctyl (C 8 ), cyclooctenyl (C 8 ), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C 7 ), bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C 8 ), and the like.
  • Exemplary C 3–10 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C 3–8 carbocyclyl groups as well as cyclononyl (C 9 ), cyclononenyl (C 9 ), cyclodecyl (C 10 ), cyclodecenyl (C 10 ), octahydro–1H–indenyl (C 9 ), decahydronaphthalenyl (C 10 ),
  • the carbocyclyl group is either monocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., containing a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic carbocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic carbocyclyl”)) and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon–carbon double or triple bonds.
  • “Carbocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the carbocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the carbocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbons continue to designate the number of carbons in the carbocyclic ring system.
  • each instance of a carbocyclyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a“substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents.
  • the carbocyclyl group is an unsubstituted C 3–14 carbocyclyl.
  • the carbocyclyl group is a substituted C 3–14 carbocyclyl.
  • “carbocyclyl” is a monocyclic, saturated carbocyclyl group having from 3 to 14 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–14 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–10 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–8 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C 3–6 cycloalkyl”).
  • a cycloalkyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C 4–6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C 5–6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C 5–10 cycloalkyl”). Examples of C 5–6 cycloalkyl groups include cyclopentyl (C 5 ) and cyclohexyl (C 5 ).
  • C 3–6 cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C 5–6 cycloalkyl groups as well as cyclopropyl (C 3 ) and cyclobutyl (C 4 ).
  • C 3–8 cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C 3–6 cycloalkyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C 7 ) and cyclooctyl (C 8 ).
  • each instance of a cycloalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted cycloalkyl”) or substituted (a“substituted cycloalkyl”) with one or more substituents.
  • the cycloalkyl group is an unsubstituted C 3–14 cycloalkyl.
  • the cycloalkyl group is a substituted C 3–14 cycloalkyl.
  • heterocyclyl or“heterocyclic” refers to a radical of a 3– to 14–membered non–aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1 to 4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“3–14 membered heterocyclyl”).
  • the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits.
  • a heterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic (“monocyclic heterocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic heterocyclyl”)), and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon– carbon double or triple bonds.
  • Heterocyclyl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings.“Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl ring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the point of attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heterocyclyl ring system.
  • each instance of heterocyclyl is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a“substituted heterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents.
  • the heterocyclyl group is an unsubstituted 3–14 membered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is a substituted 3–14 membered heterocyclyl.
  • a heterocyclyl group is a 5–10 membered non–aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–10 membered heterocyclyl”).
  • a heterocyclyl group is a 5–8 membered non–aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is
  • a heterocyclyl group is a 5–6 membered non–aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is
  • the 5–6 membered heterocyclyl independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–6 membered heterocyclyl”).
  • the 5–6 membered heterocyclyl has 1–3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
  • the 5–6 membered heterocyclyl has 1–2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
  • the 5–6 membered heterocyclyl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
  • Exemplary 3–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azirdinyl, oxiranyl, and thiiranyl.
  • Exemplary 4–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azetidinyl, oxetanyl, and thietanyl.
  • Exemplary 5–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl,
  • Exemplary 5– membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, dioxolanyl, oxathiolanyl and dithiolanyl.
  • Exemplary 5–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolinyl, oxadiazolinyl, and thiadiazolinyl.
  • Exemplary 6–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, piperidinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyridinyl, and thianyl.
  • Exemplary 6–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, piperazinyl, morpholinyl, dithianyl, and dioxanyl.
  • Exemplary 6–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinanyl.
  • Exemplary 7– membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azepanyl, oxepanyl and thiepanyl.
  • Exemplary 8–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azocanyl, oxecanyl and thiocanyl.
  • bicyclic heterocyclyl groups include, without limitation, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl, dihydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzofuranyl, tetrahydroindolyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, decahydroisoquinolinyl, octahydrochromenyl, octahydroisochromenyl, decahydronaphthyridinyl, decahydro–1,8– naphthyridinyl, octahydropyrrolo[3,2-b]pyrrole, indolinyl, phthalimidyl, naphthalimidyl, chromanyl, chromenyl, 1H–benzo[e][1,4]d
  • aryl refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 pi electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6–14 ring carbon atoms and zero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system (“C 6–14 aryl”).
  • aromatic ring system e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 pi electrons shared in a cyclic array
  • an aryl group has 6 ring carbon atoms (“C 6 aryl”; e.g., phenyl).
  • an aryl group has 10 ring carbon atoms (“C 10 aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1–naphthyl and 2–naphthyl).
  • an aryl group has 14 ring carbon atoms (“C 14 aryl”; e.g., anthracyl).“Aryl” also includes ring systems wherein the aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on the aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system.
  • each instance of an aryl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted aryl”) or substituted (a“substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents.
  • the aryl group is an unsubstituted C 6– 14 aryl.
  • the aryl group is a substituted C 6–14 aryl.
  • “Aralkyl” is a subset of“alkyl” and refers to an alkyl group substituted by an aryl group, wherein the point of attachment is on the alkyl moiety.
  • heteroaryl refers to a radical of a 5–14 membered monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic, tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 pi electrons shared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–14 membered heteroaryl”).
  • the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits.
  • Heteroaryl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings.“Heteroaryl” includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ring system.
  • Heteroaryl also includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ring members in the fused polycyclic (aryl/heteroaryl) ring system.
  • Polycyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain a heteroatom e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like
  • the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2–indolyl) or the ring that does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., 5–indolyl).
  • a heteroaryl group is a 5–10 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–10 membered heteroaryl”).
  • a heteroaryl group is a 5–8 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–8 membered heteroaryl”).
  • a heteroaryl group is a 5–6 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–6 membered heteroaryl”).
  • the 5–6 membered heteroaryl has 1–3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
  • the 5–6 membered heteroaryl has 1–2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
  • the 5–6 membered heteroaryl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
  • each instance of a heteroaryl group is independently unsubstituted (an
  • heteroaryl group is an unsubstituted 5–14 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is a substituted 5–14 membered heteroaryl.
  • Exemplary 5–membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, pyrrolyl, furanyl, and thiophenyl.
  • Exemplary 5–membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, and isothiazolyl.
  • Exemplary 5–membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, and thiadiazolyl.
  • Exemplary 5–membered heteroaryl groups containing 4 heteroatoms include, without limitation, tetrazolyl.
  • Exemplary 6–membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, pyridinyl.
  • Exemplary 6–membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, and pyrazinyl.
  • Exemplary 6–membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 or 4 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl and tetrazinyl, respectively.
  • Exemplary 7–membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azepinyl, oxepinyl, and thiepinyl.
  • Exemplary 5,6– bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiophenyl, isobenzothiophenyl, benzofuranyl, benzoisofuranyl, benzimidazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, benzthiazolyl,
  • benzisothiazolyl benzthiadiazolyl, indolizinyl, and purinyl.
  • Exemplary 6,6–bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, naphthyridinyl, pteridinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, and quinazolinyl.
  • Exemplary tricyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, phenanthridinyl, dibenzofuranyl, carbazolyl, acridinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl and phenazinyl.
  • “Heteroaralkyl” is a subset of“alkyl” and refers to an alkyl group substituted by a heteroaryl group, wherein the point of attachment is on the alkyl moiety.
  • saturated refers to a moiety that does not contain a double or triple bond, i.e., the moiety only contains single bonds.
  • alkylene is the divalent moiety of alkyl
  • alkenylene is the divalent moiety of alkenyl
  • alkynylene is the divalent moiety of alkynyl
  • heteroalkylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkyl
  • heteroalkenylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkenyl
  • heteroalkynylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkynyl
  • carbocyclylene is the divalent moiety of carbocyclyl
  • heterocyclylene is the divalent moiety of heterocyclyl
  • arylene is the divalent moiety of aryl
  • heteroarylene is the divalent moiety of heteroaryl.
  • a group is optionally substituted unless expressly provided otherwise.
  • alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted.“Optionally substituted” refers to a group which may be substituted or unsubstituted (e.g.,“substituted” or
  • substituted means that at least one hydrogen present on a group is replaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., a substituent which upon substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, or other reaction.
  • a “substituted” group has a substituent at one or more substitutable positions of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure is substituted, the substituent is either the same or different at each position.
  • substituted is contemplated to include substitution with all permissible substituents of organic compounds, and includes any of the substituents described herein that results in the formation of a stable compound.
  • the present disclosure contemplates any and all such combinations in order to arrive at a stable compound.
  • heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituent as described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms and results in the formation of a stable moiety.
  • Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen, ⁇ CN, ⁇ NO 2 , ⁇ N 3 , ⁇ SO 2 H, ⁇ SO 3 H, ⁇ OH, ⁇ OR aa , ⁇ ON(R bb ) 2 , ⁇ N(R bb ) 2 , ⁇ N(R bb ) +
  • R aa is, independently, selected from C 1–10 alkyl, C 1–10 perhaloalkyl, C 2–10 alkenyl, C 2–10 alkynyl, heteroC 1–10 alkyl, heteroC 2–10 alkenyl, heteroC 2–10 alkynyl, C 3–10 carbocyclyl, 3–14 membered heterocyclyl, C 6–14 aryl, and 5–14 membered heteroaryl, or two R aa groups are joined to form a 3–14 membered heterocyclyl or 5–14 membered heteroaryl, or two R aa groups are joined to form a 3–14 membered heterocyclyl or 5–14 membered heteroaryl,
  • each instance of R cc is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C 1–10 alkyl, C 1–10 perhaloalkyl, C 2–10 alkenyl, C 2–10 alkynyl, heteroC 1–10 alkyl, heteroC 2–10 alkenyl, heteroC 2–10 alkynyl, C 3–10 carbocyclyl, 3–14 membered heterocyclyl, C 6–14 aryl, and 5–14 membered heteroaryl, or two R cc groups are joined to form a 3–14 membered heterocyclyl or 5–14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R dd groups;
  • each instance of R dd is, independently, selected from halogen, ⁇ CN, ⁇ NO 2 , ⁇ N 3 , ⁇ SO 2 H, ⁇ SO 3 H, ⁇ OH, ⁇ OR ee , ⁇ ON(R ff ) 2 , ⁇ N(R ff ) 2 , ⁇ N(R ff ) +
  • each instance of R ee is, independently, selected from C 1–6 alkyl, C 1–6 perhaloalkyl, C 2– 6 alkenyl, C 2–6 alkynyl, heteroC 1–6 alkyl, heteroC 2–6 alkenyl, heteroC 2–6 alkynyl, C 3–10 carbocyclyl, C 6–10 aryl, 3–10 membered heterocyclyl, and 3–10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R gg groups; each instance of R ff is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C 1–6 alkyl, C 1–6 perhaloalkyl, C 2–6 alkenyl, C 2–6 alkynyl, heteroC 1–6 alkyl
  • each instance of R gg is, independently, halogen, ⁇ CN, ⁇ NO 2 , ⁇ N 3 , ⁇ SO 2 H, ⁇ SO 3 H, ⁇ OH, ⁇ OC 1-6 alkyl, ⁇ ON(C 1-6 alkyl) 2 , ⁇ N(C 1-6 alkyl) 2 , ⁇ N(C 1-6 alkyl) +
  • halo or“halogen” refers to fluorine (fluoro,–F), chlorine (chloro,–Cl), bromine (bromo,–Br), or iodine (iodo,–I).
  • the term“hydroxyl” or“hydroxy” refers to the group–OH.
  • thiol refers to the group–SH.
  • amino refers to the group–NH 2 .
  • substituted amino by extension, refers to a monosubstituted amino, a disubstituted amino, or a trisubstituted amino. In certain embodiments, the“substituted amino” is a monosubstituted amino or a
  • trisubstituted amino refers to an amino group wherein the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with three groups, and includes groups selected from–N(R bb ) 3 and–N(R bb ) +
  • sulfonyl refers to a group selected from–SO 2 N(R bb ) 2 ,–SO 2 R aa , and –SO 2 OR aa , wherein R aa and R bb are as defined herein.
  • sil refers to the group–Si(R aa ) 3 , wherein R aa is as defined herein.
  • Nitrogen atoms can be substituted or unsubstituted as valency permits, and include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary nitrogen atoms.
  • the substituent present on the nitrogen atom is an nitrogen protecting group (also referred to herein as an“amino protecting group”).
  • Nitrogen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3 rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.
  • pyridylcarboxamide N–benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, benzamide, p–phenylbenzamide, o– nitophenylacetamide, o–nitrophenoxyacetamide, acetoacetamide, (N’– dithiobenzyloxyacylamino)acetamide, 3–(p–hydroxyphenyl)propanamide, 3–(o– nitrophenyl)propanamide, 2–methyl–2–(o–nitrophenoxy)propanamide, 2–methyl–2–(o– phenylazophenoxy)propanamide, 4–chlorobutanamide, 3–methyl–3–nitrobutanamide, o– nitrocinnamide, N–acetylmethionine derivative, o–nitrobenzamide and o–
  • Nitrogen protecting groups such as carbamate groups include, but are not limited to, methyl carbamate, ethyl carbamate, 9–fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc), 9–(2–sulfo)fluorenylmethyl carbamate, 9–(2,7–dibromo)fluoroenylmethyl carbamate, 2,7–di– t–butyl–[9–(10,10–dioxo–10,10,10,10–tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methyl carbamate (DBD– Tmoc), 4–methoxyphenacyl carbamate (Phenoc), 2,2,2–trichloroethyl carbamate (Troc), 2– trimethylsilylethyl carbamate (Teoc), 2–phenylethyl carbamate (hZ), 1–(1–adamanty
  • TLBOC 1–methyl–1–(4–biphenylyl)ethyl carbamate (Bpoc), 1–(3,5–di–t–butylphenyl)–1– methylethyl carbamate (t–Bumeoc), 2–(2’– and 4’–pyridyl)ethyl carbamate (Pyoc), 2–(N,N– dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethyl carbamate, t–butyl carbamate (BOC or Boc), 1–adamantyl carbamate (Adoc), vinyl carbamate (Voc), allyl carbamate (Alloc), 1–isopropylallyl carbamate (Ipaoc), cinnamyl carbamate (Coc), 4–nitrocinnamyl carbamate (Noc), 8–quinolyl carbamate, N–hydroxypiperidinyl carbamate, alkyldithio carbamate,
  • triphenylphosphonioisopropyl carbamate Ppoc
  • 1,1–dimethyl–2–cyanoethyl carbamate 1,1–dimethyl–2–cyanoethyl carbamate
  • m chloro–p–acyloxybenzyl carbamate
  • p (dihydroxyboryl)benzyl carbamate
  • benzisoxazolylmethyl carbamate 2–(trifluoromethyl)–6–chromonylmethyl carbamate (Tcroc), m–nitrophenyl carbamate, 3,5–dimethoxybenzyl carbamate, o–nitrobenzyl carbamate, 3,4–dimethoxy–6–nitrobenzyl carbamate, phenyl(o–nitrophenyl)methyl carbamate, t–amyl carbamate, S–benzyl thiocarbamate, p–cyanobenzyl carbamate, cyclobutyl carbamate, cyclohexyl carbamate, cyclopentyl carbamate, cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, p– decyloxybenzyl carbamate, 2,2–dimethoxyacylvinyl carbamate, o–(N,N–
  • dimethylcarboxamido)benzyl carbamate 1,1–dimethyl–3–(N,N–dimethylcarboxamido)propyl carbamate, 1,1–dimethylpropynyl carbamate, di(2–pyridyl)methyl carbamate, 2– furanylmethyl carbamate, 2–iodoethyl carbamate, isoborynl carbamate, isobutyl carbamate, isonicotinyl carbamate, p–(p’–methoxyphenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 1–methylcyclobutyl carbamate, 1–methylcyclohexyl carbamate, 1–methyl–1–cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, 1– methyl–1–(3,5–dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1–methyl–1–(p–phenylazophenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1–methyl–1–phenylethy
  • Nitrogen protecting groups such as sulfonamide groups include, but are not limited to, p–toluenesulfonamide (Ts), benzenesulfonamide, 2,3,6,–trimethyl–4– methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtr), 2,4,6–trimethoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtb), 2,6– dimethyl–4–methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Pme), 2,3,5,6–tetramethyl–4–
  • Ts p–toluenesulfonamide
  • Mtr 2,3,6,–trimethyl–4– methoxybenzenesulfonamide
  • Mtb 2,4,6–trimethoxybenzenesulfonamide
  • Pme 2,3,5,6–tetramethyl–4–
  • methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mte), 4–methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mbs), 2,4,6– trimethylbenzenesulfonamide (Mts), 2,6–dimethoxy–4–methylbenzenesulfonamide (iMds), 2,2,5,7,8–pentamethylchroman–6–sulfonamide (Pmc), methanesulfonamide (Ms), ⁇ – trimethylsilylethanesulfonamide (SES), 9–anthracenesulfonamide, 4–(4’,8’–
  • DMBS dimethoxynaphthylmethylbenzenesulfonamide
  • benzylsulfonamide benzylsulfonamide
  • nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, phenothiazinyl–(10)– acyl derivative, N’–p–toluenesulfonylaminoacyl derivative, N’–phenylaminothioacyl derivative, N–benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, N–acetylmethionine derivative, 4,5–diphenyl– 3–oxazolin–2–one, N–phthalimide, N–dithiasuccinimide (Dts), N–2,3–diphenylmaleimide, N–2,5–dimethylpyrrole, N–1,1,4,4–tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct (STABASE), 5–substituted 1,3–dimethyl–1,3,5–triazacyclohexan–2–one, 5–substituted 1,3–dibenzyl– 1,3,5–triazacyclohexan–2–one, 1
  • dimethylaminomethylene)amine N,N’–isopropylidenediamine, N–p–nitrobenzylideneamine, N–salicylideneamine, N–5–chlorosalicylideneamine, N–(5–chloro–2–
  • benzenesulfenamide o–nitrobenzenesulfenamide (Nps), 2,4–dinitrobenzenesulfenamide, pentachlorobenzenesulfenamide, 2–nitro–4–methoxybenzenesulfenamide,
  • triphenylmethylsulfenamide triphenylmethylsulfenamide
  • 3–nitropyridinesulfenamide Npys
  • the substituent present on an oxygen atom is an oxygen protecting group (also referred to herein as an“hydroxyl protecting group”).
  • Oxygen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3 rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.
  • oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), t–butylthiomethyl,
  • MEM methoxyethoxymethyl
  • SEMOR trimethylsilylethoxymethyl
  • THP tetrahydropyranyl
  • DPMS diphenylmethylsilyl
  • TMPS t–butylmethoxyphenylsilyl
  • TMSEC trimethylsilylethyl carbonate
  • Psec phenylsulfonyl ethyl carbonate
  • Peoc triphenylphosphonio ethyl carbonate
  • p–nitrophenyl carbonate benzyl carbonate, p– methoxybenzyl carbonate, 3,4–dimethoxybenzyl carbonate, o–nitrobenzyl carbonate, p– nitrobenzyl carbonate, S–benzyl thiocarbonate, 4–ethoxy–1–napththyl carbonate, methyl dithiocarbonate, 2–iodobenzoate, 4–azidobutyrate, 4–nitro–4–methylpentanoate, o–
  • the substituent present on a sulfur atom is a sulfur protecting group (also referred to as a“thiol protecting group”).
  • A“hydrocarbon chain” refers to a substituted or unsubstituted divalent alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group.
  • a hydrocarbon chain includes (1) one or more chains of carbon atoms immediately between the two radicals of the hydrocarbon chain; (2) optionally one or more hydrogen atoms on the chain(s) of carbon atoms; and (3) optionally one or more substituents (“non-chain substituents,” which are not hydrogen) on the chain(s) of carbon atoms.
  • a chain of carbon atoms consists of consecutively connected carbon atoms (“chain atoms”) and does not include hydrogen atoms or heteroatoms.
  • a non-chain substituent of a hydrocarbon chain may include any atoms, including hydrogen atoms, carbon atoms, and heteroatoms.
  • hydrocarbon chain–C A H(C B H 2 C C H 3 )– includes one chain atom C A , one hydrogen atom on C A , and non-chain substituent–(C B H 2 C C H 3 ).
  • a C 3-10 hydrocarbon chain refers to a hydrocarbon chain where the number of chain atoms of the shortest chain of carbon atoms immediately between the two radicals of the hydrocarbon chain is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10.
  • a hydrocarbon chain may be saturated (e.g.,–(CH 2 ) 4 –).
  • the hydrocarbon chain is unsubstituted (e.g.,–C ⁇ C– or–(CH 2 ) 4 –).
  • the hydrocarbon chain is substituted (e.g.,–CH(C 2 H 5 )– and–CF 2 –). Any two substituents on the hydrocarbon chain may be joined to form an optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroc cl l o tionall substituted ar l or o tionall substituted heteroaryl ring.
  • hydrocarbon chain wherein one chain atom is replaced with an oxygen atom.
  • Lewis acid refers to a species as defined by IUPAC, that is“a molecular entity (and the corresponding chemical species) that is an electron-pair acceptor and therefore able to react with a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct, by sharing the electron pair furnished by the Lewis base.”
  • exemplary Lewis acids include, without limitation, boron trifluoride, aluminum trichloride, tin tetrachloride, titanium tetrachloride, and iron tribromide.
  • Br ⁇ nsted acid refers to a protic or proton-donating species.
  • exemplary Br ⁇ nsted acids include, without limitation, acetic acid, triflic acid, hydrochloric acid, and barbituric acid.
  • salt refers to those salts which are derived from suitable inorganic and organic acids and bases.
  • acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid, or malonic acid or by using other methods known in the art such as ion exchange.
  • Other exemplary salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate,
  • ethanesulfonate formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2–hydroxy–ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2–
  • salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, ammonium and N + (C 1–4 alkyl) - 4 salts.
  • alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like.
  • Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, lower alkyl sulfonate, and aryl sulfonate.
  • solvate refers to forms of the compound that are associated with a solvent, usually by a solvolysis reaction. This physical association may include hydrogen bonding.
  • solvents include water, methanol, ethanol, acetic acid, DMSO, THF, diethyl ether, and the like.
  • the compounds described herein may be prepared, e.g., in crystalline form, and may be solvated. Suitable solvates include pharmaceutically acceptable solvates and further include both stoichiometric solvates and non-stoichiometric solvates.
  • the solvate will be capable of isolation, for example, when one or more solvent molecules are incorporated in the crystal lattice of a crystalline solid.
  • “Solvate” encompasses both solution-phase and isolatable solvates.
  • Representative solvates include hydrates, ethanolates, and methanolates.
  • hydrate refers to a compound that is associated with water.
  • the number of the water molecules contained in a hydrate of a compound is in a definite ratio to the number of the compound molecules in the hydrate. Therefore, a hydrate of a compound may be represented, for example, by the general formula R ⁇ x H 2 O, wherein R is the compound, and x is a number greater than 0.
  • a given compound may form more than one type of hydrate, including, e.g., monohydrates (x is 1), lower hydrates (x is a number greater than 0 and smaller than 1, e.g., hemihydrates (R ⁇ 0.5 H 2 O)), and polyhydrates (x is a number greater than 1, e.g., dihydrates (R ⁇ 2 H 2 O) and hexahydrates (R ⁇ 6 H 2 O)).
  • monohydrates x is 1
  • lower hydrates x is a number greater than 0 and smaller than 1, e.g., hemihydrates (R ⁇ 0.5 H 2 O)
  • polyhydrates x is a number greater than 1, e.g., dihydrates (R ⁇ 2 H 2 O) and hexahydrates (R ⁇ 6 H 2 O)
  • tautomers or“tautomeric” refers to two or more interconvertable compounds resulting from at least one formal migration of a hydrogen atom and at least one change in valency (e.g., a single bond to a double bond, a triple bond to a single bond, or vice versa).
  • the exact ratio of the tautomers depends on several factors, including temperature, solvent, and pH. Tautomerizations (i.e., the reaction providing a tautomeric pair) may catalyzed by acid or base.
  • Exemplary tautomerizations include keto-to-enol, amide-to-imide, lactam-to-lactim, enamine-to-imine, and enamine-to-(a different enamine) tautomerizations.
  • Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are termed“diastereomers” and those that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other are termed“enantiomers”.
  • a compound has an asymmetric center, for example, it is bonded to four different groups, a pair of enantiomers is possible.
  • An enantiomer can be characterized by the absolute configuration of its asymmetric center and is described by the R- and S-sequencing rules of Cahn and Prelog, or by the manner in which the molecule rotates the plane of polarized light and designated as dextrorotatory or levorotatory (i.e., as (+) or (-)-isomers respectively).
  • a chiral compound can exist as either individual enantiomer or as a mixture thereof. A mixture containing equal proportions of the enantiomers is called a“racemic mixture”.
  • A“counterion” or“anionic counterion” is a negatively charged group associated with a positively charged group in order to maintain electronic neutrality.
  • An anionic counterion may be monovalent (i.e., including one formal negative charge).
  • An anionic counterion may also be multivalent (i.e., including more than one formal negative charge), such as divalent or trivalent.
  • Exemplary counterions include halide ions (e.g., F – , Cl – , Br – , I – ), NO –
  • sulfonate ions e.g., methansulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, p– toluenesulfonate, benzenesulfonate, 10–camphor sulfonate, naphthalene–2–sulfonate, naphthalene–1–sulfonic acid–5–sulfonate, ethan–1–sulfonic acid–2–sulfonate, and the like), carboxylate ions (e.g., acetate, propanoate, benzoate, glycerate, lactate, tartrate, glycolate, gluconate, and the like), BF ⁇
  • carborane anions e.g., CB –
  • carboxylate anions e.g., tartrate, citrate, fumarate, maleate, malate, malonate, gluconate, succinate, glutarate, adipate, pimelate, suberate, azelate, sebacate, salicylate, phthalates, aspartate, glutamate, and the like
  • carboxylate anions e.g., tartrate, citrate, fumarate, maleate, malate, malonate, gluconate, succinate, glutarate, adipate, pimelate, suberate, azelate, sebacate, salicylate, phthalates, aspartate, glutamate, and the like
  • carboranes e.g., tartrate, citrate, fumarate, maleate, malate, malonate, gluconate, succinate, glutarate, adipate, pimelate, suberate, azelate, sebacate, salicylate, phthalates, aspartate, glutamate, and the
  • a“leaving group” is an art-understood term referring to a molecular fragment that departs with a pair of electrons in heterolytic bond cleavage, wherein the molecular fragment is an anion or neutral molecule.
  • a leaving group can be an atom or a group capable of being displaced by a nucleophile. See, for example, Smith, March Advanced Organic Chemistry 6th ed. (501-502).
  • phrase“at least one instance” refers to 1, 2, 3, 4, or more instances, but also encompasses a range, e.g., for example, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 3, from 1 to 2, from 2 to 4, from 2 to 3, or from 3 to 4 instances, inclusive.
  • Cr-mediated couplings of organic halides/triflates with aldehydes are valuable tools to generate compounds with multi-functional groups.
  • Cr-mediated couplings are used in synthesis of complicated macrolides such as halichondrin A and B. Depending on the mode of activation, Cr-mediated couplings are divided into three sub-groups: (1) Ni/Cr-mediated alkenylation, alkynylation, and arylation, (2) Co or Fe/Cr-mediated alkylation, 2-haloallyl- ation and (propargylation), and (3) Cr-mediated allylation and propargylation (see, e.g., Saccomano, N. A. in Comprehensive Organic Synthesis; Trost, B. M., Fleming, I., Eds.; Pergamon: Oxford, 1991; Vol.1, p 173).
  • This Cr-mediated coupling process is a Grignard-type carbonyl addition reaction. It displays selectivity towards aldehydes over other carbonyl compounds. Activation of halides or triflates in the presence of aldehydes provides not only an experimental convenience, but also an opportunity to achieve chemical transformations in an unconventional manner, e.g., cyclization. The most valuable feature of this coupling is its compatibility with a wide range of functional groups. This unique potential is especially important when applied to polyfunctional molecules, especially in the late-stages of a multi-step synthesis.
  • halichondrins e.g., halichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin
  • intermediates in the synthesis thereof e.g., halichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin
  • the present invention provides a method of preparing a compound of Formula (I): (I)
  • R 1 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
  • R 2 is–OR 5 ;
  • R 5 is optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group
  • R 3 is–OR 6 ;
  • R 6 is optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group
  • R 5 and R 6 are taken together with the intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring;
  • R 4 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
  • R 7 is halogen
  • the provided coupling method is a catalytic asymmetric coupling between a compound of Formula (i) and an aldehyde of
  • the provided coupling method is a catalytic asymmetric coupling between a compound of Formula (i) and an aldehyde of Formula (ii) to provide a compound
  • the provided coupling reaction between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is selective for halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic ketone, or halo-acetylenic ketal, over a halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon.
  • a vinyl halide or a halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon can remain intact during the coupling reaction between a halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic enone, or halo-acetylenic ketal, with an aldehyde of Formula (ii).
  • the vinyl halide moiety can be a portion of the compound of Formula (i), the aldehyde of Formula (ii), or another compound in the coupling reaction mixture.
  • the provided coupling reaction between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is selective for the halo-enone or halo-acetylenic ketal over a halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon.
  • the halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon is chloride.
  • the halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon is bromide.
  • the halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon is iodide.
  • the compound of Formula (i) comprises a halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon, for example, in R 1 .
  • the step of coupling is performed in the presence of another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii), wherein the another compound comprises a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon.
  • the provided coupling reaction between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is selective for halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic ketone, or halo-acetylenic ketal over a vinyl halide.
  • the provided coupling reaction between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is selective for the halo-enone or halo-acetylenic ketal over a vinyl halide.
  • the compound of Formula (i) comprises a vinyl halide moiety, for example, as part of R 1 .
  • the step of coupling is performed in the presence of another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii), wherein the other compound includes a vinyl halide moiety.
  • the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety.
  • the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety.
  • the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety.
  • the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety in the compound of Formula (i).
  • the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety in the compound of Formula (i).
  • the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety in the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety in R 1 of the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety in R 1 of the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety in R 1 of the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety in the aldehyde of Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety in the aldehyde of Formula (ii).
  • the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety in the aldehyde of Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety in another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii) in the coupling reaction mixture. In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety in another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii) in the coupling reaction mixture. In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety in another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii) in the coupling reaction mixture.
  • R 1 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is n-C 7 H 15 . In certain embodiments, R 1 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is optionally substituted alkoxylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is optionally substituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is unsubstituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments,
  • R 1 is substituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is optionally substituted arylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is optionally substituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is unsubstituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is substituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is iodo-phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is p-iodo-phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is m-iodo-phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is o-iodo-phenylalkyl.
  • R 1 comprises a halide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon. In certain embodiments, R 1 comprises a chloride attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon. In certain embodiments, R 1 comprises a bromide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon. In certain embodiments, R 1 comprises an iodide attached to a sp 3 hybridized carbon.
  • R 1 comprises a vinyl halide moiety. In certain embodiments, R 1 comprises a vinyl iodide moiety. In certain embodiments, R 1 comprises a vinyl bromide moiety. In certain embodiments, R 1 comprises a vinyl chloride moiety.
  • a vinyl halide is a compound of Formula (VY):
  • each of R VY1 , R VY2 , and R VY3 is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
  • X V is halogen
  • a vinyl halide is a vinyl iodide of Formula (VY-1): ),
  • R VY1 , R VY2 , and R VY3 are as defined herein.
  • R 1 comprises a vinyl halide moiety and is of Formula (F-1):
  • each of R 1a , R 1b , and R 1c is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
  • each instance of R 1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
  • n is an integer between 1 to 10, inclusive.
  • R 1a is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
  • R 1a is hydrogen.
  • R 1a is halogen.
  • R 1a is iodide.
  • R 1a is bromide.
  • R 1a is chloride.
  • R 1a is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R 1a is unsubstituted alkyl.
  • R 1a is methyl or ethyl.
  • R 1a is substituted alkyl.
  • R 1b is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
  • R 1b is hydrogen.
  • R 1b is halogen.
  • R 1b is iodide.
  • R 1b is bromide.
  • R 1b is chloride.
  • R 1b is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R 1b is unsubstituted alkyl.
  • R 1b is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodimetnts, R 1b is substituted alkyl.
  • R 1c is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
  • R 1c is hydrogen.
  • R 1c is halogen.
  • R 1c is iodide.
  • R 1c is bromide.
  • R 1c is chloride.
  • R 1c is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R 1c is unsubstituted alkyl.
  • R 1c is methyl or ethyl.
  • R 1c is substituted alkyl.
  • R 1a is halogen; and R 1b and R 1c are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R 1a is iodide; and R 1b and R 1c are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R 1a is bromide; and R 1b and R 1c are hydrogen.
  • each instance of R 1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is hydrogen.
  • each instance of R 1d is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is halogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is iodide. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is bromide. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is chloride. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R 1d is substituted alkyl.
  • n is 1. In certain embodiments, n is 2. In certain
  • n is 3. In certain embodiments, n is 4. In certain embodiments, n is 5. In certain embodiments, n is 6.
  • n is 4, and at least one instance of R 1d is halogen. In certain embodiments, n is 4, and one instance of R 1d is halogen. In certain embodiments, n is 4, and one instance of R 1d is chloride.
  • R 2 is–OR 5 , wherein R 5 is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R 5 is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R 5 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl).
  • R 5 is substituted alkyl.
  • R 5 is an oxygen protecting group.
  • R 3 is–OR 6 , wherein R 6 is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 6 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 6 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, R 6 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 6 is an oxygen protecting group.
  • the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the formulae: ,
  • R 2 is -OR 5 ; R 3 is–OR 6 ; and R 5 and R 6 are each independently oxygen protecting groups.
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of t thereof.
  • (I) is of the formula: , or a salt thereof; and the compound of Formula (i) is of the formula: , or a salt thereof.
  • R 4 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted alkoxylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted alkenylalkyl.
  • R 4 is unsubstituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is substituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted arylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is unsubstituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is substituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted heteroarylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted
  • R 4 is optionally substituted carbocyclylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R 4 is optionally substituted furanyl, thiophenyl, or pyrrolyl.
  • L is optionally substituted ethenylene or ethynylene. In certain embodiments, L is optionally substituted ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is unsubstituted ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is substituted ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is optionally substituted trans-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is unsubstituted trans-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is substituted trans-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is optionally substituted cis-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is unsubstituted cis-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is substituted cis-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is ethynylene. L being optionally substituted ethenylene
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i- a):
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , and R 7 are as defined herein, and each of R 8 and R 9 is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl.
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i- a):
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , and R 7 are as defined herein, and each of R 8 and R 9 is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R 8 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R 8 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 8 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 8 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R 8 is substituted alkyl.
  • R 9 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R 9 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 9 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 9 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R 9 is substituted alkyl.
  • the coupling step is between a compound of Formula (i-a) and an aldehyde of Formula (ii) to yield a compound of one of the following formulae:
  • the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a-2):
  • the coupling step is between a compound of Formula (i-a’) and an aldehyde of Formula (ii) to yield a compound of one of the following formulae:
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-a-1): (i-a-1’), or a salt thereof; and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a- 1):
  • R 1 , R 7 , and R 4 are as defined herein.
  • the coupling product of Formulae (I)-(I-a-1) are stable enough to isolate and characterize. In some embodiments, the coupling product of Formula (I)-(I-a-1) cyclizes to form an optionally substituted furan of Formula (FU-1):
  • R 1 and R 4 are as defined herein;
  • each of R FU1 and R FU2 is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
  • the step of cyclizing occurs in situ (i.e. in the reaction mixture without isolation). In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing occurs upon addition of an acid.
  • the acid is a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a Br ⁇ nsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA), or
  • camphorsulfonic acid CSA
  • PPTS pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate
  • sulfonic acid exchange resin Amberlyst, Dowex
  • the acid is p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA).
  • the provided coupling method is applied to synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of hhalichondrins and analogs thereof. In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method is applied to the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrin B.
  • the compound of Formula (i-a-1) is of Formula (i-a-3):
  • aldehyde of Formula (ii) is of Formula (ii-a):
  • R 1a and R 1d are as defined herein,
  • R 4a is–CO 2 R 4d , wherein R 4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
  • R 4b and R 4c are each independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring.
  • R 4a is–CO 2 R 4d , wherein R 4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R 4d is hydrogen.
  • R 4d is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R 4d is unsubstituted alkyl.
  • R 4d is methyl or ethyl.
  • R 4d is substituted alkyl.
  • R 4d is an oxygen protecting group.
  • R 4b is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4b is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4b is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R 4b is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a triethylsilyl protecting group.
  • R 4b is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a pivaloyl protecting group.
  • R 4b is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • BOC t–butyl carbonate
  • R 4c is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4c is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 4c is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R 4c is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a triethylsilyl protecting group.
  • R 4c is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a pivaloyl protecting group.
  • R 4c is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4c is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • BOC butyl carbonate
  • R 4b and R 4c are independently an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b and R 4c are the same. In certain embodiments, R 4b and R 4c are different. In certain embodiments, R 4b and R 4c are independently a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R 4b and R 4c are a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted monocyclic heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted bicyclic heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervenin ox en atoms to form an optionally substituted
  • the compound of Formula (ii-a) is of Formula (ii-a-1):
  • the coupling reaction beween the compounds of Formula (i- a-3) and Formula (ii-a) is achieved with high regioselectivity of the bromo-enone over R 1a and high stereoselectivity with one or more chiral catalyst ligands (see the Catalystic
  • the compounds of Formulae (I-a-3) and (I-a-3-i) provide an efficient synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B.
  • R 1a , R 1d , R 4a , R 4b , and R 4c are as defined herein; and R PA is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group.
  • the step of cyclizing comprises deprotecting the compound of Formula (I-a-5), i.e., converting R 4b and R 4c to hydrogen.
  • the steps of cyclizing further comprising equilibrating the deprotected compound of Formula (I-a-5) with one or more bases.
  • the equilibrating step isomerizes the C12 chiral center (see Figure 15). It is to be understood that any organic and inorgance base is applicable as long as the base does not interfere with any functional groups of the deprotected compound of Formula (I-a-5).
  • the base is one or more organic or inorganic bases. In certain embodiments, the base is one organic or inorganic base.
  • the base is sodium carbonate, 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7- ene (DBU), or tetramethylguanidine
  • the base is a combination of two or more organic or inorganic bases.
  • the bases are 1,8- diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) and tetramethylguanidine.
  • the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid.
  • the acid is a Lewis acid.
  • the acid is a Br ⁇ nsted acid.
  • the acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), p- toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA), camphorsulfonic acid (CSA), pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS), and sulfonic acid exchange resin (Amberlyst, Dowex).
  • the acid is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS).
  • the steps of cyclizing further comprises contacting the equilibration reaction mixture with one or more ion-exchange resins.
  • the ion-exchange resins are polymer-bound guanidine and polymer-bound pyridinium p- toluenesulfonate (PPTS).
  • the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid in an ion-exchange resin device.
  • the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins.
  • the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4 ⁇ molecular sieves); and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4 ⁇ molecular sieves).
  • the ion-exchange resin device is as shown in Figure 2.
  • the provided method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B further comprises the step of protecting a compound of Formula (I-a- 3):
  • R 1a , R 1d , R 4a , R 4b , R 4c , and R P1 are as defined herein.
  • R PA is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R PA is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R PA is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R PA is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a triethylsilyl protecting group.
  • R PA is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a pivaloyl protecting group.
  • R PA is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R PA is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are independently a silyl protecting group; and R PA is an acyl protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are a t- butyldimethylsilyl protecting group; and R PA is an acyl protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group; and R PA is an optionally substituted benzoylic protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are t- butyldimethylsilyl protecting groups; and R PA is an optionally substituted p-NO 2 -benzoylic protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring and R PA is an acyl protecting group an acyl protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted monocyclic heterocyclic ring and R PA is an acyl protecting group an acyl protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted bicyclic heterocyclic ring of
  • R PA is an optionally substituted benzoylic protecting group.
  • R 4b and R 4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted bicyclic heterocyclic ring of the formula: and R PA is an optionally substituted p-NO 2 -benzoylic protecting group.
  • L being ethynylene
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i- b): (i-b), or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b):
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , and R 7 are as defined herein.
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-1): (i-b-1) or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b- 1)
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-2):
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-3): (i-b-3) or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b- 3)
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-4):
  • the provided coupling method can be applied to
  • the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-5): (i-b-5), or a salt thereof, and the
  • aldehyde of Formula (ii) is of Formula (ii-a): (ii-a), or a salt
  • a method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin C and analogs e.g., norhalichondrin C, homohalichondrin C .
  • rovided herein is a method of preparing a
  • R 1a , R 1d , R 4a , R 4b , and R 4c are as defined herein, and R 10 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R 10 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R 10 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 10 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R 10 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R 10 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments,
  • the Lewis acid is a chemical species that reacts with a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct.
  • the Lewis acid is a metal salt that can accept a pair of electrons.
  • the Lewis acid is a metal halide.
  • the Lewis acid is a metal acetate.
  • the Lewis acid is a metal triflate.
  • the Lewis acid is a transition metal halide.
  • the Lewis acid is a transition metal acetate.
  • the Lewis acid is a transition metal triflate.
  • the Lewis acid is Sc(OTf) 3 , Ln(OTf) 3 , Yb(OTf) 3 , Lu(OTf) 3 , Hf(OTf) 4 , CuOTf.
  • the Lewis acid is a hafnium(IV) salt.
  • the Lewis acid is Hf(OTf) 4 .
  • this step of deprotecting comprises converting the protecting groups at R 4b and R 4c to hydrogen.
  • the protecting groups at R 4b and R 4c are silyl protecting groups.
  • this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a source of fluoride.
  • the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF ⁇ pyridine.
  • the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF ⁇ pyridine followed by treatment with a base.
  • the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF ⁇ pyridine followed by treatment with an organic base. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF ⁇ pyridine followed by treatment with Et 3 N. [00162] In certain embodiments of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin C and analogs, the method further comprises the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-5):
  • this step of deprotecting comprises converting the ketal of the compound of Formula (I-b-5) to a ketone of the compound of Formula (I-b-8).
  • the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of an acid.
  • this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a Br ⁇ nsted acid (i.e., a source of H + ).
  • a method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B and analogs e.g., norhalichondrin B, homohalichondrin B.
  • the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-10) with an acid.
  • the acid in the step of cyclizing is a Lewis acid.
  • the acid in the step of cyclizing is a Br ⁇ nsted acid.
  • the acid in the step of cyclizing is an organic acid.
  • the acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of p- toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA), or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA), pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS), or sulfonic acid exchange resin (Amberlyst, Dowex).
  • PTSA p- toluenesulfonic acid
  • p-TSA p-toluenesulfonic acid
  • CSA camphorsulfonic acid
  • PPTS pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate
  • sulfonic acid exchange resin Amberlyst, Dowex
  • the acid is p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) or
  • the acid in the step of cyclizing is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS) or p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA).
  • the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-10) with an ion-exchange resin.
  • the ion-exchange resin is an acidic polymer-bound resin.
  • the ion-exchange resin is a polymer-bound PPTS.
  • the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid in an ion-exchange resin device.
  • the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins.
  • the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4 ⁇ molecular sieves); and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4 ⁇ molecular sieves).
  • the ion-exchange resin device is as shown in Figure 2.
  • the method further comprises the step of reducing a compound of Formula (I-b- 11):
  • the step of reducing is performed in the presence of a source of hydride.
  • the source of hydride is one or more reagents selected from the group of consisting of lithium hydrides, copper hydrides, and boron hydrides.
  • the source of hydride is a boron hydride.
  • the source of hydride is (Me) 4 NBH(OAc).
  • the method further comprisies the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
  • the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R 4c to hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R 4c to hydrogen, wherein both R 4b and R 4c are independently silyl protecting groups. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a source of fluoride. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF ⁇ pyridine.
  • the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R 4c to hydrogen.
  • the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R 4c to hydrogen, wherein both R 4b and R 4c are independently silyl protecting groups.
  • this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a source of fluoride.
  • the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of TBAF.
  • the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the reduced compound of Formula (I-b-12) with an organic acid. In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-12) with an acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is a Br ⁇ nsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS) or p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA). In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-12) with an ion-exchange resin. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin is an acidic polymer-bound resin. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin is a polymer- bound PPTS.
  • the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid in an ion-exchange resin device.
  • the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins.
  • the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4A molecular sieves); and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4A molecular sieves).
  • the ion-exchange resin device is as shown in Figure 2.
  • the method further comprises the step of reducing a compound of Formula (I-b- 8):
  • the step of reducing is performed in the presence of a source of hydride.
  • the source of hydride is one or more selected from the group of consisting of lithium hydrides, copper hydrides, and boron hydrides.
  • the soured of hydride is a copper hydride.
  • the soured of hydride is 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)benzenecopper hydride ((BDP)CuH).
  • a method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin A and analogs e.g., norhalichondrin A, homohalichondrin A.
  • the step of cyclizing comprises oxidizing the compound of Formula (I-b-14).
  • the step of oxidizing is to introduce the C13 hydroxyl group.
  • the step of oxidizing is performed in the presence of an organic peroxide (e.g. a compound comprising an O-O bond).
  • the step of oxidizing is performed in the presence of dimethyldioxirane (DMDO).
  • the step of oxidizing further comprises contacting the oxidized compound of Formula (I-b-14) with an acid.
  • the acid is a Lewis acid.
  • the acid is a Br ⁇ nsted acid.
  • the acid in the step of cyclizing is an organic acid.
  • the acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), p- toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA), or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA), pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS), or sulfonic acid exchange resin (Amberlyst, Dowex).
  • the acid is p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA).
  • the acid in the step of cyclizing is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS) or p- toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA).
  • the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the oxidized compound of Formula (I-b-14)with PPTS.
  • the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the oxidized compound of Formula (I-b-14)with an ion-exchange resin.
  • the ion-exchange resin is an acidic polymer-bound resin.
  • the ion-exchange resin is a polymer-bound PPTS.
  • the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid in an ion-exchange resin device.
  • the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins.
  • the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4A molecular sieves); and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4A molecular sieves).
  • the ion-exchange resin device is as shown in Figure 2.
  • the method further comprises the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
  • the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R 4c to hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R 4c to hydrogen, wherein both R 4b and R 4c are independently silyl protecting groups. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a source of fluoride. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF ⁇ pyridine.
  • C20-C38 building blocks of the halichondrins are compounds of Formula (TJ-1):
  • a compound of Formula (TJ-1) is a compound of Formula (III-1).
  • Compounds of Formula (III-1) can be prepared as shown in Scheme A. Scheme A
  • the step of reducing converts the–CO 2 R Z5a moiety to an aldehyde moiety.
  • the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride (i.e., H-) source. Any hydride source known in the art may be used in this transformation.
  • hydride sources include, but are not limited to, lithium aluminum hydride, sodium borohydride, and diisobutylaluminum hydride.
  • the hydride source is diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL).
  • DIBAL diisobutylaluminum hydride
  • the step of reducing may optionally comprise reducing the–CO 2 R Z5a moiety to an alcohol, followed by oxidation of the resulting alcohol to an aldehyde to yield a compound of Formula (III-1).
  • the method of preparing a compound of Formula (III-1) optionally comprises steps of deprotecting and reprotecting the moiety corresponding to– OR P5 .
  • the steps of deprotection and reprotection serve to change the group R P5 from one protecting group to another.
  • the group R P5 can be changed from a para-methoxyphenyl (MPM) group to an acyl group via deprotection and reprotection.
  • MPM para-methoxyphenyl
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (III-1), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-1-a):
  • the step of deprotecting comprises reacting a compound of Formula (III-1) in the presence of a reagent for deprotection.
  • R P5 is a para-methoxyphenyl protecting group (MPM), and the reagent for deprotection is an oxidant.
  • R P5 is a para-methoxyphenyl protecting group (MPM), and the reagent for deprotection is 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ).
  • R P5 is a para-methoxyphenyl protecting group (MPM), and the reagent for deprotection is an oxidant.
  • the reagent for deprotection is
  • the MPM protecting group may also be removed via hydrogenolysis using hydrogen gas.
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-1-a), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-1), or a salt thereof.
  • the step of protecting involves acylating the free alcohol (e.g., installing R P5 as an acyl protecting group).
  • the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of an acylating agent (e.g., an acyl halide or acyl anhydride).
  • an acylating agent e.g., an acyl halide or acyl anhydride.
  • amine base e.g., a trialkylamine such as triethylamine or N,N-diisoproylethylamine.
  • the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a pyridine base or coupling reagent.
  • the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of pyridine.
  • the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP).
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 buliding block comprises a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-3):
  • the step of protecting involves protecting the primary and secondary free alcohols of a compound of Formula (III-3) to introduce the groups R Z4a and R P4 .
  • the two alcohols may be protected in separate steps or the same step, and may be protected with the same or different protecting groups (e.g., R Z4a and R P4 are the same or different).
  • the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a protecting reagent.
  • R Z4a and R P4 are trialkylsilyl groups, and the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilyl halide or a trialkylsilyl sulfonate.
  • R Z4a and R P4 are tert-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS), and the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of tert-butyldimethylsilyl
  • TBS-triflate or“TBSOTf”.
  • TBS-triflate or“TBSOTf”.
  • the step of protecting may optionally be carried out in the presence of a base.
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 buliding block comprises a step of deprotecting and cyclizing a compound of Formula (III-4):
  • the step of deprotecting and cyclizing involves deprotecting the two ketals of a compound of Formula (III-4), followed by a cyclization reaction to provide the new six- membered ring of the compound of Formula (III-3).
  • the deprotecting and cyclizing may be done in the same step, or in separate steps, and in either order.
  • the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of an acid (e.g., Lewis acid, Bronsted acid).
  • the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a hydride source.
  • the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilyl sulfonate or trialkylsilyl halide. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilane. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilyl trifluoromethylsulfonate (“TES-triflate” or“TESOTf”). In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilane. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of TESOTf and triethylsilane.
  • TES-triflate triethylsilyl trifluoromethylsulfonate
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of coupling a compound of Formula (III-5):
  • the coupling may be any chromium-mediated coupling reaction known in the art or described herein, and involve any catalysts or reagents known in the art or described herein.
  • the chromium catalyst is a chromium complex (i.e., comprising a ligand).
  • the chromium catalyst is chromium sulfonamide (see, e.g., Namba K et al., Org. Lett., 2004, 6(26), 5031-5033; Ueda et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2014, 136, 5171-5176).
  • the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1), described herein. In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is of the following formula: . In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamde is formed by contacting a chromium salt (e.g., CrCl 2 ) with a sulfonamide. In certain embodiments, the sulfonamide is of Formula (S-2), as described herein. In certain
  • the sulfonamide is of the formula: .
  • the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of a nickel catalyst.
  • a nickel catalyst Any nickel catalyst known in art or described herein may be used.
  • the nickel catalyst is a catalyst of Formula (N-1), described herein.
  • the nickel catalyst is a catalyst of Formula (N-1), described herein.
  • R nickel catalyst is of the following formula: . In certain embodiments, the
  • nickel catalyst is (Me) 6 Phen-NiCl 2 , of the formula: .
  • the step of coupling may be carried out in the presence of one or more additional reagents (e.g., salts, bases, metals).
  • the step of coupling may be carried out in the presence of one or more additional agents selected from the group consisting of lithium salts (e.g., LiCl), transition metals (e.g., Mn), and zirconium complexes (e.g., Cp 2 ZrCl 2 ).
  • the step of coupling is be carried out in the presence of LiCl, Mn, and Cp 2 ZrCl 2 .
  • the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of a proton sponge.
  • the method of preparing C20-C38 buliding block comprises a step of reducing a compound of Formula (III-7):
  • the step of reducing is to convert the–CO 2 R Z5a moiety to an aldehyde moiety.
  • the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride (i.e., H-) source.
  • a hydride i.e., H-
  • Any hydride source known in the art may be used in this transformation.
  • hydride sources include, but are not limited to, lithium aluminum hydride, sodium borohydride, and diisobutylaluminum hydride.
  • the hydride source is diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL).
  • DIBAL diisobutylaluminum hydride
  • the step of reducing may optionally comprise reducing the–CO 2 R Z5a moiety to an alcohol, followed by oxidation of the alcohol to an aldehyde to yield a compound of Formula (III-5).
  • halichondrins e.g., halichondrin A, B, C;
  • homohalichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C) and analogs thereof may be of Formula (III-11):
  • the present invention provides methods of preparing C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins, including compounds of Formula (III-11).
  • Compounds of Formula (III-11) can be coupled with C1-C19 building blocks described herein (e.g., compounds of Formula (TC-1) in order to prepare the macrocyclic right halves of the halichondrins.
  • Compounds of Formula (III-11) may be prepared as shown in Scheme B.
  • Scheme B Scheme B
  • the method of preparing a compound of Formula (III-11) comprises a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-10):
  • the step of protecting serves to protect the free secondary alcohol of a compound of Formula (III-10) and install the group R P5 .
  • the step of protecting involves acylating the free alcohol (e.g., installing R P5 as an acyl protecting group).
  • the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of an acylating agent (e.g., an acyl halide or acyl anhydride).
  • the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl anhydride. In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of an amine base (e.g., a trialkylamine such as triethylamine or N,N-diisoproylethylamine). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a pyridine base or coupling reagent. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of pyridine. In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a coupling reagent and/or a base. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP).
  • DMAP 4-dimethylaminopyridine
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of reducing a compound of Formula (III-9):
  • the step of reducing is to convert the–CO 2 R Z5a moiety to an aldehyde.
  • the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride (i.e., H-) source.
  • a hydride i.e., H-
  • Any hydride source known in the art may be used in this transformation. Examples of hydride sources include, but are not limited to, lithium aluminum hydride, sodium
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 buliding block comprises a step of ketalizing a compound of Formula (III-8), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-9), or a salt thereof.
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of contacting a compound of Formula (III-8):
  • the acid used in this transformation may be a Lewis acid or a Bronsted acid.
  • the acid may be used in a catalytic, stoichiometric, or excess amount.
  • the acid is a Bronsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a sulfonic acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a pyridinium salt. In certain embodiments, the acid is a pyridinium salt of a sulfonic acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is pyridinium p- toluenesulfonate (PPTS).
  • the step of ketalizing is carried out in the presence of one or more additonal reagents (e.g., ketals). In certain embodiments, the reaction is carried out in the presence of an additonal ketal (e.g., 2,2-dimethoxypropane).
  • the reaction is carried out in the presence of 2,2-dimethoxypropane.
  • the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises steps of deprotecting and cyclizing a compound of Formula (III-4):
  • the steps of deprotecting and cyclizing may be carried out in separate steps and in either order; or optionally in the same step. In certain embodiments, the deprotecting and cyclizing are carried out in the same step. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of an acid (e.g., Lewis acid, Bronsted acid). In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a hydride source. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilyl sulfonate or trialkylsilyl halide.
  • an acid e.g., Lewis acid, Bronsted acid
  • a hydride source e.g., a hydride source.
  • the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilyl sulfonate or trialkylsilyl halide.
  • the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilane. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilyl trifluoromethylsulfonate (“TES-triflate” or“TESOTf”). In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilane. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of TESOTf and triethylsilane. Catalytic coupling reaction condition
  • the provided coupling method between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is a catalytic chromium-mediated coupling reaction.
  • the provided coupling method is a catalytic asymmetric Cr- mediated coupling reaction.
  • the chromium catalyst is a chromium complex (i.e., comprising a ligand).
  • the chromium catalyst is chromium sulfonamide (see, e.g., Namba K et al., Org. Lett., 2004, 6(26), 5031-5033).
  • the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1):
  • R s1 is halogen, -CN, -NO 2 , -N 3 , optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
  • R s2 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group
  • R s3 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
  • each instance of R s4 is independently hydrogen, halogen, -CN, -NO 2 , -N 3 , optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkoxy, an optionally substituted amino group, or optionally substituted acyl;
  • X 1 is halogen
  • each instance of X 2 is independently halogen or a solvent
  • u is 0 or an integer between 1 and 4, inclusive;
  • the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-a) or (S-1- a’):
  • the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-a):
  • the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-b):
  • the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-c):
  • the chromium sulfonamide is prepared by contacting a chromium salt with a ligand of Formula (S-2):
  • R s1 , R s2 , R s3 , R s4 , and u are as defined herein.
  • the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-a)
  • the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-b):
  • t ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-b-i):
  • the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c):
  • R s1 , R s2 , R s3 , R s4 , and v are as defined herein.
  • the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c-i):
  • the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c-iii):
  • X 1 is chloride. In certain embodiments, X 1 is bromide.
  • X 2 is a halogen. In certain embodiments, X 2 is Cl. In certain embodiments, X 2 is Br. In certain embodiments, X 2 is I. In certain embodiments, X 2 is a solvent. In certain embodiments, the solvent comprises N, O, and/or S. In certain
  • the solvent for generating the chromium sulfonamide is THF. In certain embodiments, the solvent for generating the chromium sulfonamide is pyridine.
  • g is 1. In certain embodiments, g is 2. In certain
  • g is 3.
  • u is 0. In certain embodiments, u is 1. In certain
  • u is 2. In certain embodiments, u is 3.
  • X 1 is chloride; X 2 is pyridine; g is 1 or 2; and u is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, X 1 is chloride; X 2 is pyridine; g is 1; and u is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, X 1 is chloride; X 2 is pyridine; g is 2; and u is 1, 2, or 3.
  • R s1 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R s1 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R s1 is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n- butyl, s-butyl, t-butyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is i-propyl. In certain embodiments, R 1 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R s1 is substituted alkyl.
  • R s2 is hydrogen. [00211] In certain embodiments, R s3 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is optionally substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is unsubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is halogenated phenyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is optionally substituted naphthyl. In certain embodiments, R s3 is unsubstituted naphthyl.
  • each instance of R s4 is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R s4 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R s4 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of R s4 is optionally substituted alkyl.. In certain embodiments, one instance of R s4 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g., methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, two instances of R s4 are optionally substituted alkyl.
  • two instances of R s4 are unsubstituted alkyl (e.g., methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, at least once instance of of R s4 is optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, two instances of R s4 are optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, two instances of R s4 are unsubstituted alkoxy (e.g.–OCH 3 ).
  • each instance of R s5 is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R s5 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R s5 is halogen. In certain embodiments, two instances of R s5 are halogen.
  • v is 1. In certain embodiments, v is 2.
  • the chromium salt used to prepare the chromimum complex is chromium halide.
  • the chromium salt is a chromium (II) salt.
  • the chromium salt is CrCl 2 .
  • the chromium salt is CrBr 2 .
  • the chromium salt is a chromium (III) salt.
  • the chromium salt is CrCl 3 .
  • the chromium salt is CrBr 3 .
  • the amount of chromium or chromium complex is catalytic.
  • the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 30 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 25 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 15 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 5 mol% to about 15 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 10 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • the provided coupling method comprises a second catalyst.
  • the second catalyst is a transition metal or transition metal complex.
  • the second catalyst is a nickel complex.
  • the nickel complex is of Formula (N-1):
  • each instance of R n1 and R n2 is independently hydrogen, halogen, -CN, -NO 2 , -N 3 , optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkoxy, an optionally substituted amino group, or optionally substituted acyl;
  • each of R n3 and R n4 is independently halogen, -CN, -NO 2, optionally substituted alkoxy, or an optionally substituted amino group;
  • s is an integer between 1 and 3, inclusive;
  • t is an integer between 1 and 3, inclusive.
  • the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-a):
  • the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-a):
  • the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-b):
  • nickel com lex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-c):
  • e 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6;
  • nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of one of the followin formulae:
  • each instance of R n1 is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R n1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R n1 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of R n1 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of R n1 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, two instances of R n1 are optionally substituted alkyl.
  • two instances of R n1 are unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R n1 is optionally substituted. In certain embodiments, two instances of R n1 are optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, two instances of R n1 are unsubstituted alkoxy (e.g.–OCH 3 ). In certain embodiments, two instances of R n1 are substituted alkoxy. [00226] In certain embodiments, each instance of R n2 is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkoxy.
  • At least one instance of R n2 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R n2 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of R n2 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of R n2 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, two instances of R n2 are optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, two instances of R n2 are unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R n2 is optionally substituted.
  • two instances of R n2 are optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, two instances of R n2 are unsubstituted alkoxy (e.g.–OCH 3 ). In certain embodiments, two instances of R n2 are substituted alkoxy.
  • At least one instance of R n1 and R n2 are the same. In certain embodiments, two instances of R n1 and R n2 are the same.
  • the amount of nickelor nickel complex is catalytic.
  • the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 30 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 10 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 5 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.5 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.05 mol% to about 0.1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickelcatalyst is at a concentration of about 0.1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) and the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.5 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) and the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a
  • the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 10 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) and the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • an additional catalyst is present in the step of coupling.
  • the additional catalyst is a transition metal or transitional metal complex.
  • the additional catalyst is a silyl complex.
  • the additional catalyst is TES-Cl.
  • the additional catalyst is a zirconium catalyst.
  • the zirconium catalyst is a zirconium complex.
  • the zirconium catalyst is Zr(Cp) 2 Cl 2 .
  • the catalysts in the step of coupling are a chromium catalyst, a nickel complex, and a zirconium catalyst. In certain embodiments, the catalysts in the step of coupling are a chromium catalyst and a zirconium catalyst. In certain embodiments, the zirconium catalyst is a zirconium complex. In certain embodiments, the zirconium catalyst is Zr(Cp) 2 Cl 2 .
  • the amount of the additional catalyst is stoichiometric. In certain embodiments, the amount of zirconium complex is stoichiometric. In certain embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 0.1 eq to about 5.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 3.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain
  • the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 2.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.5 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • the step of coupling is performed in the presence of a reducing agent.
  • the reducing agent can reduce chromium in the catalytic cycle.
  • the reducing agnet is a transition metal.
  • the reducing agnet is manganese (Mn).
  • the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 10.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 8.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 6.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • the step of coupling is performed in the presence of an inorganic salt.
  • the inorganic salt is an IA group salt.
  • the inorganic salt is LiCl.
  • the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 10.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 8.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 6.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
  • the provided coupling reaction can be carried out in one or more aprotic solvents.
  • aprotic solvent means a non-nucleophilic solvent having a boiling point range above ambient temperature, preferably from about 25 oC to about 190 oC at atmospheric pressure.
  • the aprotic solvent has a boiling point from about 80 oC to about 160 oC at atmospheric pressure.
  • the aprotic solvent has a boiling point from about 80 oC to about 150 oC at atmospheric pressure.
  • solvents examples include CH 2 Cl 2 , MeCN, EtCN, toluene, DMF, diglyme, THF, and DMSO.
  • the solvent is EtCN.
  • the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.05 to about 5.0 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.05 to about 3.0 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.05 to about 1.0 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.1 to about 1.0 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.1 to about 0.5 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.4 M. Synthesis of halichondrins
  • halichondrin A, B, and C are methods of synthesizing halichondrin A, B, and C, and analogs thereof (e.g., homohalichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C), from the C1-C19 building blocks and the C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins provided herein.
  • the synthetic routes presented herein include: (1) synthesis of the macrocyclic core via an asymmetric nickel/chromium-mediated coupling, followed by base-induced furan formation, and macrolactonization (Scheme T1); (2) synthesis of an unsaturated ketone intermediate via nickel/chromium-mediated coupling, followed by Dess-Martin oxidation (Schemes T2-T4); and (3) a selective acid-mediated equilibration of C38-epi-halichondrins (Schemes T2-T4).
  • halichondrins e.g., compounds of Formula (TE-1)
  • a halichondrin e.g., compounds of Formula (TE-1)
  • the right half of a halichondrin can be coupled to a left halves (e.g., compounds of Formulae (TI-1), (TK-1), and (TK-1)) via the processes shown in Schemes T2-T4.
  • the C1-C19 building block of halichondrins and analogs thereof are of Formula (TC-1).
  • the compound of Formula (TC-1) is of Formula (I-a-4) or a salt thereof.
  • the compound of Formula (TC-1) is of Formula (I-b-6) or a salt thereof.
  • the compound of Formula (TC-1) is of Formula (I-b-9) or a salt thereof.
  • the compound of Formula (TC-1) is of Formula (I-b-13) or a salt thereof.
  • the halichondrins and analogs synthesized from the C1-C19 building blocks and C20-C38 building blocks are of Formula (TI).
  • the compound of Formula (TI) is of the formula:
  • the compound of Formula (TI) is of the formula:
  • the compound of Formula (TI) is of the formula:
  • preparation of compounds of Formula (TI) and salts thereof comprises cyclizing an intermediate compound of Formula (TF-1) or a salt thereof (see Scheme T2).
  • the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step prior to cyclization.
  • deprotection of a compound of Formula (TF-1) comprises a source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine).
  • deprotection of a compound of Formula (TF-1) comprises a hydrogenolysis (e.g., a palladium or nickel catalyst and H 2 ) or oxidation (e.g., DDQ) step.
  • the cyclization conditions comprise an acid.
  • the cyclization conditions comprise a Br ⁇ nsted acid (i.e., a source of H + ).
  • the cyclization conditions comprise an organic acid (e.g., PPTS).
  • the cyclization conditions provide a compound of Formula (TI) as a single diastereomer.
  • the cyclization conditions provide a diastereomeric mixture that is enriched in one of two epimeric C38 ketals.
  • the synthetic route comprises an equilibration step to enrich a compound of Formula (TI) in one of two epimeric C38 ketals.
  • the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TI) in the (R)-epimer.
  • the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TI) in the (R)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, or >5:1.
  • the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TI) in the (S)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TI) in the (S)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 10:1, or >10:1.
  • the equilibration step comprises a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a silyl Lewis acid (e.g., a silicon tetrahalide or and organosilicon halide or triflate). In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises trimethylsilyl triflate.
  • the equilibration step comprises a solvent.
  • the equilibration step comprises a halogenated (e.g., dichloromethane) or ethereal (e.g., diethylether) solvent.
  • the deprotection, cyclization, and equilibration of a compound of Formula (TF-1) to yield a compound of Formula (TI) can be performed in two steps when particular protecting groups are utilized on the intermediate (TF-1).
  • R P1 , R P2 , and R P8 are TBS
  • R P3 , R P7 , and R P4 are TES
  • the deprotection, cyclization, and equilibration can be performed in two steps by treating a compound of Formula (TF-1) with a fluoride source, followed by an acid. Any fluoride source known in the art may be used.
  • fluoride sources include, but are not limtied to, HF-pyridine, KF, CsF, AgF, ammonium fluoride, and tetraalkylammonium fluorides.
  • the fluoride source is a tetraalkylammonium fluoride (e.g., tetramethylammonium fluoride,
  • the acid is a Bronsted acid.
  • the acid is an inorganic acid (e.g., HCl, HF, HBr).
  • the acid is an organic acid (e.g., carboxylic acid, sulfinic acid, sulfonic acid, phosphoric acid).
  • the acid is a carboxylic acid (e.g., acetic acid, trfluoroacetic acid (TFA), pivalic acid).
  • a compound of Formula (TF-1) can be convered to a compound of Formula (TI) by treatment with TBAF and pivalic acid, followed by treatment with PPTS (see, e.g., Figure 29).
  • preparation of C38 epi-halichondrin A comprises an acid- mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of halichondrin A.
  • preparation of halichondrin A comprises an acid-mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of C38 epi-halichondrin A.
  • preparation of C38 epi-halichondrin B comprises an acid- mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of halichondrin B.
  • preparation of halichondrin B comprises an acid-mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of C38 epi-halichondrin B.
  • preparation of C38 epi-halichondrin C comprises an acid- mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of halichondrin C.
  • preparation of halichondrin C comprises an acid-mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of C38 epi-halichondrin C.
  • the halichondrins and analogs synthesized from the C1-C19 building blocks and C20-C38 building blocks are of Formula (TII).
  • the compound of Formula (TII) is of one of the following formulae:
  • preparation of compounds of Formula (TII) and salts thereof comprises cyclizing an intermediate compound of Formula (TG-1) or a salt thereof (see Scheme T3).
  • the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step prior to cyclization.
  • deprotection of a compound of Formula (TG-1) comprises a source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine).
  • deprotection of a compound of Formula (TG-1) comprises a hydrogenolysis (e.g., a palladium or nickel catalyst and H 2 ) or oxidation (e.g., DDQ) step.
  • the cyclization conditions comprise an acid.
  • the cyclization conditions comprise a Br ⁇ nsted acid (i.e., a source of H+).
  • the cyclization conditions comprise an organic acid (e.g., PPTS).
  • the cyclization conditions provide a compound of Formula (TII) as a single diastereomer.
  • the cyclization conditions provide a diastereomeric mixture that is enriched in one of two epimeric C38 ketals.
  • the synthetic route comprises an equilibration step to enrich a compound of Formula (TII) in one of two epimeric C38 ketals.
  • the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TII) in the (R)-epimer.
  • the equilibration step enriches a aldehyde of Formula (ii) in the (R)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, or >5:1.
  • the equilibration step enriches a aldehyde of Formula (ii) in the (S)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a aldehyde of Formula (ii) in the (S)- epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 10:1, or >10:1. In certain embodiments, the
  • the equilibration step comprises a Lewis acid.
  • the equilibration step comprises a silyl Lewis acid (e.g., a silicon tetrahalide or and organosilicon halide or triflate).
  • the equilibration step comprises trimethylsilyl triflate.
  • the equilibration step comprises a solvent.
  • the equilibration step comprises a halogenated (e.g., dichloromethane) or ethereal (e.g., diethylether) solvent.
  • R T7 is not hydrogen
  • the synthetic route comprises a hydrolysis step comprising a base (e.g., lithium, sodium, or potassium
  • the deprotection, cyclization, and equilibration of a compound of Formula (TG-1) to yield a compound of Formula (TII) can be performed in two synthetic steps when particular protecting groups are utilized for the intermediate (TG-1).
  • R P10 is TBS
  • R P8 and R P9 are TES
  • the deprotection, cyclization, and equilibration can be performed in two steps by treating a compound of Formula (TG-1) with a fluoride source, followed by an acid. Any fluoride source known in the art may be used.
  • fluoride sources include, but are not limtied to, HF-pyridine, KF, CsF, AgF, ammonium fluoride, and tetraalkylammonium fluorides.
  • the fluoride source is a tetraalkylammonium fluoride (e.g., tetramethylammonium fluoride, tetraethylammonium fluroide, tetrabutylammonium fluoride, benzyltrimethylammonium fluoride).
  • the acid is a Bronsted acid.
  • the acid is an inorganic acid (e.g., HCl, HF, HBr).
  • the acid is an organic acid (e.g., carboxylic acid, sulfinic acid, sulfonic acid, phosphoric acid).
  • the acid is a carboxylic acid (e.g., acetic acid, trfluoroacetic acid (TFA), pivalic acid).
  • a compound of Formula (TG-1) can be convered to a compound of Formula (TII) by treatment with TBAF and pivalic acid, followed by treatment with PPTS (see, e.g., Figure 29).
  • preparation of a compound of Formula (TG-1) or salt thereof comprises joining an intermediate compound of Formula (TE-1) or salt thereof and an intermediate of Formula (TK-1) or salt thereof (see Scheme T3).
  • R TZ4 is–CH 2 OR TZ4a and R TZ4a is a protecting group
  • the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step.
  • R TZ4a is a silyl protecting group (e.g., t- butyldimethylsilyl)
  • selective deprotection of R TZ4a comprises a mild source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine).
  • the synthetic route comprises an oxidation step.
  • R TZ4 is oxidized into an aldehyde (– CHO) under mild and selective conditions (e.g., Dess-Martin periodinane, SO 3 •pyridine, or Swern oxidation).
  • Compounds of Formula (TE-1) are joined with a compound of Formula (TK-1) under reductive coupling conditions.
  • the conditions used to join a compound of Formula (TE-1) with a compound of Formula (TK-1) comprise a transition metal (e.g., nickel or chromium).
  • the coupling reaction is catalytic in transition metal (e.g., 2-40 mol%).
  • the coupling reaction is stoichiometric in transition metal (e.g., 1-3 equivalents).
  • the coupling comprises a ligand or ligated transition metal complex.
  • the reaction used to join a compound of Formula (TE-1) and Formula (TK-1) provides an intermediate hydroxy group that must be oxidized to provide a compound of Formula (TG-1).
  • the oxidation is carried out under mild and selective conditions (e.g., Dess-Martin periodinane, SO 3 •pyridine, or Swern oxidation).
  • the halichondrins and analogs synthesized from the C1-C19 building blocks and C20-C38 building blocks are of Formula (TIII).
  • the compound of Formula (TIII) is of one of the following formulae:
  • preparation of compounds of Formula (TIII) and salts thereof comprises cyclizing an intermediate compound of Formula (TH-1) or a salt thereof (see Scheme T4).
  • the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step prior to cyclization.
  • deprotection of a compound of Formula (TG-1) comprises a source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine).
  • deprotection of a compound of Formula (TH-1) comprises a hydrogenolysis (e.g., a palladium or nickel catalyst and H 2 ) or oxidation (e.g., DDQ) step.
  • the cyclization conditions comprise an acid.
  • the cyclization conditions comprise a Br ⁇ nsted acid (i.e., a source of H+).
  • the cyclization conditions comprise an organic acid (e.g., PPTS).
  • the cyclization conditions provide a compound of Formula (TIII) as a single diastereomer.
  • the cyclization conditions provide a diastereomeric mixture that is enriched in one of two epimeric C38 ketals.
  • the synthetic route comprises an equilibration step to enrich a compound of Formula (TIII) in one of two epimeric C38 ketals.
  • the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TIII) in the (R)-epimer.
  • the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TIII) in the (R)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, or >5:1.
  • the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TIII) in the (S)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TIII) in the (S)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 10:1, or >10:1. In certain
  • the equilibration step comprises a Lewis acid.
  • the equilibration step comprises a silyl Lewis acid (e.g., a silicon tetrahalide or and organosilicon halide or triflate).
  • the equilibration step comprises trimethylsilyl triflate.
  • the equilibration step comprises a solvent.
  • the equilibration step comprises a halogenated (e.g., dichloromethane) or ethereal (e.g., diethylether) solvent.
  • preparation of a compound of Formula (TH-1) or a salt thereof comprises joining an intermediate compound of Formula (TE-1) or a salt thereof and an intermediate of Formula (TL-1) or a salt thereof.
  • R TZ4 is– CH 2 OR TZ4a and R TZ4a is a protecting group
  • the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step.
  • R TZ4a is a silyl protecting group (e.g., t-butyldimethylsilyl)
  • selective deprotection of R TZ4a comprises a mild source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine).
  • the synthetic route comprises an oxidation step.
  • R TZ4 is oxidized into an aldehyde (–CHO) under mild and selective conditions (e.g., Dess-Martin periodinane, SO 3 •pyridine, or Swern oxidation).
  • Compounds of Formula (TE-1) are joined with a compound of Formula (TL-1) under reductive coupling conditions.
  • the conditions used to join a compound of Formula (TE-1) with a compound of Formula (TL-1) comprise a transition metal (e.g., nickel or chromium).
  • the coupling reaction is catalytic in transition metal (e.g., 2-40 mol%).
  • the coupling reaction is stoichiometric in transition metal (e.g., 1-3 equivalents).
  • the coupling comprises a ligand or ligated transition metal complex.
  • the reaction used to join a compound of Formula (TE-1) and Formula (TL-1) provides an intermediate hydroxy group that must be oxidized to provide a compound of Formula (TH-1).
  • the oxidation is carried out under mild and selective conditions (e.g., Dess-Martin
  • R P1 , R P2 , R P3 , R P4 , R P5 , R P6 , R P7 , R P8 , R P9 , R P10 , R P11 , R P12 , R P13 , R P14 , R P15 , R P16 , R P17 , R P18 , and R P19 are each independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R P1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P1 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P1 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P1 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P1 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P1 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P1 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P1 is propyl. In certain embodiments,
  • R P1 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P1 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R P1 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P1 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P1 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P2 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P2 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P2 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P2 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P2 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P2 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P2 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P2 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P2 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P2 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R P2 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P2 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group.
  • R P2 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P2 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. [00258] In certain embodiments, R P3 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P3 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is t-butyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P3 is
  • R P3 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P3 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P3 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P4 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P4 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P4 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P4 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P4 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P4 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P4 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P4 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P4 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P4 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R P4 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P4 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P4 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P5 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P5 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R P5 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P5 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is unsubstituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R P5 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a t– butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group.
  • BOC butyl carbonate
  • R P5 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P5 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P6 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P6 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P6 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P6 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P6 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P6 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P6 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P6 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P6 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P6 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R P6 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P6 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P6 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P7 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P7 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P7 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P7 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P7 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P7 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P7 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P7 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P7 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P7 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R P7 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P7 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P7 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P8 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P8 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P8 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P8 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P8 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P8 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P8 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P8 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P8 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P8 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R P8 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P8 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P8 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P9 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P9 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P9 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P9 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P9 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P9 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P9 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P9 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P9 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P9 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R P9 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R P9 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P9 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P10 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P10 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P10 is substituted or
  • R P10 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P10 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P10 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P10 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P10 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P10 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P10 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R P10 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group.
  • R P10 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is an acetyl protecting group.
  • R P10 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P10 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. [00266] In certain embodiments, R P11 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P11 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P11 is substituted or
  • R P11 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P11 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P11 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P11 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P11 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P11 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P11 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R P11 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group.
  • R P11 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is an acetyl protecting group.
  • R P11 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P11 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P12 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P12 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain emb is substituted or
  • R is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl.
  • R P12 is methyl.
  • R P12 is ethyl.
  • R P12 is propyl.
  • R P12 is iso-propyl.
  • R P12 is t- butyl.
  • R is an oxygen protecting group.
  • R P12 is a silyl protecting group.
  • R P12 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group.
  • R is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group.
  • R P12 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group.
  • R P12 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P12 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P12 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P12 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P12 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group.
  • R P12 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P12 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P12 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P12 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • BOC t–butyl carbonate
  • R P13 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P13 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P13 is substituted or
  • R P13 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P13 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P13 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P13 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P13 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P13 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P13 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R P13 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group.
  • R P13 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is an acetyl protecting group.
  • R P13 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P13 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P14 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P14 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P14 is substituted or
  • R P14 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P14 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P14 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P14 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P14 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P14 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P14 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R P14 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group.
  • R P14 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is an acetyl protecting group.
  • R P14 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P14 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P15 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P15 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P15 is substituted or
  • R P15 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P15 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P15 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P15 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P15 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P15 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P15 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R P15 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group.
  • R P15 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is an acetyl protecting group.
  • R P15 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P15 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R P16 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R P16 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P16 is substituted or
  • R P16 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P16 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R P16 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R P16 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R P16 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R P16 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R P16 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R P16 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group.
  • R P16 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is an acetyl protecting group.
  • R P16 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R P16 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. Groups R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5
  • R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl.
  • R T1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R T1 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, R T1 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, R T1 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, R T1 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T1 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T1 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T1 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T1 is methyl.
  • R T1 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R 1 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R T1 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R T1 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R T1 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R T1 is butyl. In certain embodiments, R T1 is t-butyl.
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T1 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T1 is attached is (R).
  • R T2 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R T2 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, R T2 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, R T2 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, R T2 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T2 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T2 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T2 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T2 is methyl.
  • R T2 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R T2 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R T2 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R T2 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R T2 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R T2 is butyl. In certain embodiments, R T2 is t-butyl.
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T2 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T2 is attached is (R).
  • R T3 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R T3 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, R T3 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, R T3 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, R T3 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T3 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T3 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T3 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T3 is methyl.
  • R T3 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R T3 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R T3 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R 3 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R T3 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R T3 is butyl. In certain embodiments, R T3 is t-butyl. [00278] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T3 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T3 is attached is (R).
  • R T5 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R T5 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, R T5 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, R T5 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, R T5 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T5 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T5 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T5 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T5 is methyl.
  • R T5 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R T5 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R T5 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R T5 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R T5 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R T5 is butyl. In certain embodiments, R T5 is t-butyl.
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T5 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T5 is attached is (R).
  • R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5 are independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, all of R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5 are independently substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, all of R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5 are independently substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, all of R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5 are independently unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, all of R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5 are independently unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments,
  • R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5 are methyl.
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which each of R T1 , R T2 , and R T3 is attached is (S); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T5 is attached is (R).
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which each of R T1 , R T2 , and R T3 is attached is (S); the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T5 is attached is (R); and all of R T1 , R T2 , R T3 , and R T5 are methyl.
  • R T4 and R T6 are each independently hydrogen, haloge stituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two R T4 groups can be taken together to form a group.
  • at least one R T4 is hydrogen.
  • both of R T4 are hydrogen.
  • at least one R T4 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I).
  • at least one R T4 is fluorine.
  • at least one R T4 is chlorine.
  • at least one R T4 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl.
  • at least one R T4 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl.
  • at least one R T4 is substituted or
  • At least one R T4 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T4 is methyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T4 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)- configuration. In certain embodiments, at least one R T4 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, both of R T4 are methyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T4 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T4 is propyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T4 is butyl.
  • At least one R T4 is t-butyl.
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T4 is attached is (S).
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T4 is attached is (R).
  • two R T4 groups are taken together to form a group.
  • At least one R T6 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, both of R T6 are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl.
  • At least one R T6 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is methyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)- configuration. In certain embodiments, both of R T6 are methyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is propyl. In certain embodiments, at least one R T6 is butyl.
  • At least one R T6 is t-butyl.
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T6 is attached is (S).
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R T6 is attached is (R).
  • two R T6 groups are taken together to form a group.
  • two R T4 groups are taken together to form a group; and two R T6 groups are taken together to form a group.
  • R TX is hydrogen or–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; R TY is hydrogen or–OR TY1 , wherein R TY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and R TX and R TY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring.
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TX is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TX is attached is (R).
  • the stereochemical configuration of R TY is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of R TY is (R).
  • R TX is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R TX is–OR TX1 . In certain embodiments, R TY is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R TY is–OR TY1 . In certain embodiments, R TX and R TY are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, one of R TX and R TY is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R TX is hydrogen, and R TY is–OR TY1 . In certain embodiments, R TY is hydrogen, and R TX is–OR TX1 . In certain embodiments, each of R TX is– OR TX1 ; and R TY is–OR TY1 .
  • R TX is–OR TX1 ; R TY is–OR TY1 ; and R TX1 and R TX1 are taken together with the intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R TX is–OR TX1 ; R TY is–OR TY1 ; and R TX1 and R TX1 are taken together with the intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted dioxane.
  • R TX1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is iso-propyl.
  • R TX1 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group.
  • R TX1 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group.
  • BOC t–butyl carbonate
  • R TX1 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TX1 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R TY1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is substituted or
  • R TY1 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a silyl protecting group.
  • R TY1 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group.
  • R TY1 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R TY1 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • both R TX1 and R TY1 are hydrogen.
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TX is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TX is attached is (R). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TY is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TY is attached is (R).
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TX is attached is (S); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TY is attached is (S).
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TX is attached is (R); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TY is attached is (R).
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TX is attached is (S); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TY is attached is (R).
  • the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TX is attached is (R); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which R TY is attached is (S).
  • R TX and R TY are taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R TX and R TY form a substituted or unsubstituted, 5-membered heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R X and R TY form a substituted or unsubstituted, 6-membered heterocyclic ring. In certain
  • R TX and R TY form a substituted or unsubstituted dioxolane. In certain embodiments, R TX and R TY form a mono-substituted dioxolane. In certain embodiments, R TX and R TY form a dioxolane substituted with one instance of a substituted or unsubstituted phenyl ring. In certain embodiments, R TX and R TY form a dioxolane substituted with one instance of a mono-substituted phenyl ring. In certain embodiments, R TX and R TY form a substituted or unsubstituted dioxane. Group R T7
  • R T7 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R T7 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T7 is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T7 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T7 is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R T7 is methyl. In certain embodiments, R T7 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R T7 is propyl. In certain embodiments, R T7 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R T7 is t-butyl. In certain
  • R T7 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a benzylic protecting group.
  • R T7 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group.
  • R T7 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R T7 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. Groups X T , R Z1 , R Z4 , R Z5 , R Z1a , R Z4a , and R Z5a
  • X T is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, X T is bromine. In certain embodiments, X T is iodine.
  • R Z1 is–CO 2 R Z1a , wherein R Z1a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R Z1a is hydrogen.
  • R Z1a is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl.
  • R Z1a is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl.
  • R Z1a is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl.
  • R Z1a is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl.
  • R Z1a is methyl.
  • R Z1a is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is propyl. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is iso- propyl. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is t-butyl. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a t- butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a triethylsilyl protecting group.
  • R Z1a is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group.
  • R Z1a is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z1a is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • BOC t–butyl carbonate
  • R Z4 is–CH 2 OR Z4a or–CHO, wherein R Z4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is substituted or
  • R Z4a is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is methyl. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is propyl. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a silyl protecting group.
  • R Z4a is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group.
  • R Z4a is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z4a is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group.
  • R Z4a is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
  • R Z5 is–CO 2 R Z5a ,–CH 2 OR Z5a , or–CHO, wherein R Z5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R Z5 is–CH 2 OR Z5a .
  • R Z5 is –CHO.
  • R Z5 is–CO 2 R Z5a .
  • R Z5a is hydrogen.
  • R Z5a is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl.
  • R Z5a is substituted or unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is unsubstituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is methyl. In certain embodiments, R Z5 is–CH 2 OR Z5a ; and R Z5a is methyl. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is propyl. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is t-butyl.
  • R Z5a is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group.
  • R Z5a is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is an acetal protecting group.
  • BOC t–butyl carbonate
  • R Z5a is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R Z5a is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. Groups R Z2 and R Z3
  • R Z2 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I) or a leaving group.
  • R Z2 is chlorine.
  • R Z2 is bromine.
  • R Z2 is iodine.
  • R Z3 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, R Z3 is bromine. In certain embodiments, R Z3 is iodine.
  • Group R A [00302] As generally defined herein, each instance of R A is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or optionally two R A are joined to thether with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, at least one of R A is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one of R A is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, two R A are joined together to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl.
  • two R A are joined together to form optionally substituted 5-to-6 memebered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, two R A are joined together to form optionally substituted 6-memebered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, two R A are joined together to form substituted 6- memebered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, two R A are joined together to form the
  • each instance of R B is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is optionally substituted C 1-3 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is methyl. In certain embodiments, both R B are methyl. Group R B
  • each instance of R B is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments,
  • At least one instance of R B is optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is optionally substituted C 1-3 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n- propyl, iso-propyl). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R B is methyl. In certain embodiments, both R B are methyl.
  • each instance of R PC is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R PC is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted C 1-3 alkyl.
  • R PC is unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl).
  • R PC is methyl.
  • each instance of R PC is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R PC is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted C 1-3 alkyl.
  • R PC is unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl).
  • R PC is methyl.
  • each instance of R PC is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
  • R PC is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl.
  • R PC is optionally substituted C 1-3 alkyl.
  • R PC is unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl).
  • R PC is methyl.
  • X 3 is a halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I) or a leaving group.
  • X 3 is a fluorine.
  • X 3 is a chlorine.
  • X 3 is a bromine.
  • X 3 is an iodine. I certain embodiments, X 3 is a leaving group.
  • R 1a , R 1d , R 4a , and R 10 are as defined herein.
  • rovided herein are com ounds of Formula (I-b-12):
  • R 1a , R 1d , R 4a , R 4b , and R 4c are as defined herein.
  • R T3 , R P5 , R T5 , R Z5a , R P4 , and R Z4a are as defined herein.
  • R T3 , R P5 , R T5 , R Z5a , R A , and R B are as defined herein.
  • R T3 , R P5 , and R B are as defined herein.
  • R T3 , R T5 , R B , and R Z5a are as defined herein.
  • R T3 , R T5 , and R B are as defined herein.
  • R TX is hydrogen, and R TY is–OR TY1 , wherein R TY1 is as defined herein.
  • R TY is hydrogen, and R TX is–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 is as defined herein.
  • R TY is–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 is as defined herein.
  • R TY is–OR TX1 , and R TX is–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 and R TY1 are as defined herein.
  • R TX is hydrogen
  • R TY is–OR TY1 , wherein R TY1 is as defined herein.
  • R TY is hydrogen
  • R TX is–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 is as defined herein.
  • R TY is–OR TX1
  • R TX is–OR TX1
  • R TX1 is as defined herein.
  • TF-1 compounds of Formula (TF-1):
  • R TX is hydrogen
  • R TY is–OR TY1 , wherein R TY1 is as defined herein.
  • R TY is hydrogen, and R TX is–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 is as defined herein.
  • R TX is as defined herein.
  • R TY is–OR TX1
  • R TX is– OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 and R TY1 are as defined herein.
  • R T7 , R P8 , R P9 , R T1 , R T2 , R P10 , R P11 , R T3 , R T4 , R T5 , R T6 , R TX , and R TY are as defined herein.
  • R TX is hydrogen
  • R TY is–OR TY1 , wherein R TY1 is as defined herein.
  • R TY is hydrogen, and R TX is–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TG-1), R TY is–OR TX1 , and R TX is–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 and R TY1 are as defined herein.
  • R TX is hydrogen
  • R TY is–OR TY1 , wherein R TY1 is as defined herein.
  • R TY is hydrogen, and R TX is–OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TH-1), R TY is–OR TX1 , and R TX is– OR TX1 , wherein R TX1 and R TY1 are as defined herein.
  • NMR spectra were recorded on a Varian Inova 600 MHz, 500 MHz spectrometer. Chemical shifts are reported in parts per million (ppm).
  • 1 H NMR spectra (CDCl 3 and C 6 D 6 )
  • the residual solvent peak was used as the internal reference (7.26 ppm in CDCl 3 ; 7.16 ppm in C 6 D 6 ), while the central solvent peak as the reference (77.0 ppm in CDCl 3 , 128.0 ppm in C 6 D 6 ) for 13 C NMR spectra.
  • Optical rotations were measured at 20 °C using a Perkin- Elmer 241 polarimeter. Analytical and semi-preparative thin layer chromatography (TLC) was performed with E.
  • DIBAL reduction To a solution of aluminum trichloride AlCl 3 (166 mg, 2.0 mmol) in Et 2 O (5 mL) was added slowly DIBAL solution (1.0M in THF, 4.0 mL, 4.0 mmol) at 0 °C. The white solid was precipitated out from the reaction solution with addition of DIBAL solution. On the continuous addition of DIBAL solution, the white solid dissolved, and the solution became clear yellow or white precipitated yellow color. After the completion of DIBAL addition, the reaction mixture was stirred for 10 ⁇ 15 min.
  • the trans-coupling product (20 ⁇ mol) was dissolved in MeCN (0.5 mL) containing p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA, 0.69 mg, 4 ⁇ mol) and the reaction mixture was stirred at rt for 2 h. The reaction was quenched with solid NaHCO 3 (3.36 mg, 40 ⁇ mol) and passed through a short silica gel pad with Hex/EtOAc (10:1). On removal of solvent, the furan product was obtained as yellow oil.
  • p-TSA p-toluenesulfonic acid

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Abstract

The present invention provides unified synthesis of the CI -CI 9 building blocks of halichondrins and analogs theoreof using selective coupling of poly-halogenated nucleophiles in chromium-mediated coupling reactions. The present invention also provides a practical and efficient synthesis of C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins and analogs thereof. Also provided herein are general methods of selective activation and coupling of poly-halogenated analogs with an aldehyde. The provided coupling reactions are selective for halo-enone and halo-acetylenic ketal over vinyl halide and halide attached to a sp hydridized carbon. The provided efficient selective coupling reactions can allow easy access to the CI -CI 9 building blocks and C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins and analogs thereof with limited or no purification or separation of the intermediates.

Description

CHROMIUM-MEDIATED COUPLING AND
APPLICATION TO THE SYNTHESIS OF HALICHONDRINS RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] The present application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. provisional patent application, U.S.S.N.62/155,067, filed April 30, 2015, which is incorporated herein by reference.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0002] The halichondrins are polyether macrolides, originally isolated from the marine sponge Halichondria okadai by Uemura, Hirata, and coworkers. Due to their intriguing structural architecture and extraordinary in vitro and in vivo anti-proliferative activity, the halichondrins have received much attention from the scientific community. Synthetic methods that streamline the preparation of these natural products or related derivatives are important given the structural complexity of the halichondrin backbone. A highly convergent approach has been adopted to synthesize halichondrins and analogs thereof. Because of its high degree of convergence, one can expect a high overall efficiency for the longest linear synthetic sequence. Interestingly, the key two couplings have been achieved efficiently with Ni/Cr-mediated reactions: one between the building blocks C20-C38 and C1-C19 to synthesize the macrolide; and another beween a vinyl iodide and an aldehyde to synthesize the building block C1-C19. The structure of Halichondrin B is shown below, with carbon atoms numbered.
Figure imgf000002_0001
[0003] Chromium-mediated couplings of organic halides/triflates with aldehydes belong to a class of 1,2-carbonyl addition reactions. In this process, the active nucleophiles RCrX3 are generated from halides/triflates in situ. Depending on the mode of activation, chromium- mediated couplings are divided into three sub-groups: (1) Ni/Cr-mediated alkenylation, alkynylation, and arylation, (2) Co or Fe/Cr-mediated alkylation, 2-haloallyl-ation and propargylation, and (3) Cr-mediated allylation and propargylation (See, e.g., Saccomano, N. A. in Comprehensive Organic Synthesis; Trost, B. M., Fleming, I., Eds.; Pergamon: Oxford, 1991; Vol.1, p 173).
[0004] Ni/Cr-mediated couplings of alkenyl halides/triflates with aldehydes were originally reported by Takai, Hiyama, Nozaki, and coworkers in 1983. Since then, it has been shown that the coupling is initiated by a catalytic amount of NiCl2 as a contaminant in the with CrCl2. It is now generally accepted that this coupling involves: (1) oxidative addition of Ni(0), formed from NiCl2 via reduction with CrCl2 in situ, to an alkenyl halide/triflate to form an alkenyl Ni(II)-species, (2) transmetallation of the resultant Ni(II)-species to Cr(II)Cl2 to form alkenyl Cr(III)-species, and (3) carbonyl addition of the resultant Cr(III)-species to an aldehyde to form the product Cr(III)-alkoxide (Figure 5). Chemistry has been developed to achieve this coupling in a catalytic and asymmetric manner.
[0005] Due to the important biological activities of halichondrins, it is valuable to develop a unified and practical synthesis of the C1-C19 building block, as well as C20-C38 building blocks, to allow easy access to halichondrins (e.g., halichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin), and analogs thereof. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0006] As part of the ongoing research effort aimed at a unified total synthesis of members of the halichondrin class of marine natural products, an efficient synthesis of the C1-C19 building block has been developed (Figure 4), and is provided herein. Furthermore, a practical and efficient synthesis of C20-C38 building blocks has also been developed and is provided herein. In the recently reported total synthesis of halichondrin A (Ueda et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2014, 136, 5171), the C1-C19 building block is joined with the C20-C38 building block to synthesize halichondrin A, B, and C, as well as their analogs (e.g., norhalichondrin A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin).
[0007] In one aspect, the present invetion provides chromium-mediated coupling reactions which can be applied to the synthesis of halichondrins as well as other molecules. In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of preparing a compound of Formula (I):
Figure imgf000003_0001
or a salt thereof, the method comprises coupling a compound of Formula (i):
Figure imgf000004_0001
or a salt thereof, with an aldehyde of Formula (ii): (ii)
in the presence of a chromium catalyst and optionally one or more catalysts (e.g., a nickel catalyst and a zirconium catalyst), wherein R1, R2, R3, R4, and R7 are as defined herein. The provided coupling method effectively furnishes the coupling a wide range of halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic ketone, or halo-acetylenic ketal substrates and an aldehyde. Since a hydroxyl group is generated in the coupling product, an R- or S- isomer can be introduced in the chiral center. In some embodiments, the provided coupling method is a catalytic asymmetric coupling between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii). The chromium catalyst and one or more catalysts in the coupling can provide efficient asymmetric induction, geometrical isomerization, and coupling rate. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex and one or more catalysts. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex and a zirconium complex. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromium complex and a nickel complex. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a combination of a chromoium complex, a nickel complex, and a zirconium complex. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand. In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex and one or more catalysts, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand. In certain
embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromoium complex and a zirconium complex, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand. In certain
embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a chromium complex and a nickel complex, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand. In certain
embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalyzed by a combination of a chromoium complex, a nickel complex, and a zirconium complex, wherein the chromoium complex comprises a chiral ligand.
[0008] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method is stereoselective in installing a chiral center having a hydroxyl group. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is a halo-enone or halo-enone ketal of Formula (i-a):
Figure imgf000005_0001
(i-a) or a salt
thereof, and the asymmetric coupling product is of Formula (I-a):
Figure imgf000005_0002
(I-a), or salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is a halo-acetylenic ketone
or halo-acetylenic ketal of Formula (i-b):
Figure imgf000005_0003
(i-b), or a salt thereof, and the
asymmetric coupling product is of Formula (I-b):
Figure imgf000005_0004
(I-b), or a salt thereof.
[0009] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method is selective for halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic enone, and halo-acetylenic ketal, over vinyl halide and a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. A vinyl halide or a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon can remain intact during the coupling reaction between a halo-enone, halo- enone ketal, halo-acetylenic enone, or halo-acetylenic ketal, with an aldehyde of Formula (ii). The vinyl halide moiety can be a part of the compound of Formula (i), the aldehyde of Formula (ii), or another compound in the coupling reaction mixture. In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method is selective for halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic enone, and halo-acetylenic ketal, over vinyl iodide and chloride or iodide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method is selective for halo-acetylenic ketone or halo-acetylenic ketal over vinyl iodide or a iodide and chloride attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. The provided coupling methods are applicable to synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichondrins and analogs thereof as well as other compounds. The provided coupling methods are also applicable to the preparation of C20- C38 building blocks of halichondrins and analogs thereof. Furthermore, the provided coupling methods are useful in joining C1-C19 building blocks with C20-C38 building blocks, as well as joining the right half and left half of halichondrins and analogs thereof. For examples, see Schemes T1-T4. [0010] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-a-3):
Figure imgf000006_0001
(i-a-3), or a salt thereof;
and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is of Formula (ii-a):
Figure imgf000006_0002
a salt thereof;
and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a-3):
Figure imgf000006_0003
a salt thereof,
wherein R4a, R4b, R4c, R1a, and R1d are as defined herein.
[0011] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-5):
Figure imgf000006_0004
(i-b-5), or a salt thereof, and and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is of Formula (ii-a):
Figure imgf000006_0005
a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b-5):
Figure imgf000007_0001
(I-b-5), or a salt thereof,
wherein R4a, R4b, R4c, R1a, and R1d are as defined herein.
[0012] In another aspect, the present invention provides the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrin A:
Figure imgf000007_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein R4a, R1a, R1d, R10, and R11 are as defined herein.
[0013] In another aspect, the present invention provides the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrin B:
Figure imgf000007_0003
or a salt thereof, wherein R4a, R1a, and R1d are as defined herein. [0014] In another aspect, the present invention provides the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrin C:
Figure imgf000008_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein R4a, R1a, R1d, and R10 are as defined herein.
[0001] In another aspect, the present invetion provides methods of preparing C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins (e.g., halichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C;
homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin), such as compounds of Formula (III-1):
Figure imgf000008_0002
.
[0002] In certain embodiments, a C20-C38 building block is a compound of Formula (III- 11). Provided herein are methods of preparing a compound of Formula (III-11):
Figure imgf000008_0003
.
[0003] In another aspect, the prevent invention provides compounds which are useful intermediates in the preparation of halichondrins and building blocks described herein.
[0004] The details of certain embodiments of the invention are set forth in the Detailed Description of Certain Embodiments of the Invention, as described below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the Claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0005] Figure 1 shows HPLC analysis of (R)-XS-27' (top) and rac-XS-27' (bottom) (see Example 1).
[0006] Figure 2 shows an exemplary ion-exchange resin device consisting of a pump, reaction flask, and ion-exchange columns.
[0007] Figure 3 shows the crystal structure of XS-38.
[0008] Figure 4 shows a novel approach to the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block in the halichondrins.
[0009] Figure 5 shows catalytic Ni/Cr-mediated coupling reaction. Figure 5A: overall transformation; Figure 5B: Ni- and Cr-catalytic cycles. Zr(cp)2Cl2 or TMS-Cl is used to dissociate the product from Cr-species, to regenerate the Cr-catalyst.
[0010] Figure 6 shows three coupling examples reported in the literature (Aicher, T. D.; Buszek, K. R.; Fang, F. G.; Forsyth, C. J.; Jung, S. H.; Kishi, Y.; Scola, P. M. Tetrahedron Lett.1992, 33, 1549; Chen, C.; Tagami, K.; Kishi, Y. J. Org. Chem.1995, 60, 5386. (c) Namba, K.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett.2004, 6, 5031; Guo, H.; Dong, C.-G.; Kim, D.-S.; Urabe, D.; Wang, J.; Kim, J. T.; Liu, X.; Sasaki, T.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2009, 131, 15387; Knochel, P.; Rao, C. J. Tetrahedron, 1993, 49, 29; Kress, M. H.; Ruel, R.; Miller, W. H.; Kishi, Y. Tetrahedron Lett.1993, 34, 6003).
[0011] Figure 7 shows model coupling reactions used to assess coupling efficiency. Coupling condition X-A: 10 mol% Cr-complex prepared from sulfonamide X-12 and 1 mol% nickel complex X-13a; Coupling condition X-B: 10 mol% Cr-complex prepared from sulfonamide X-12 and 0.05 mol% nickel complex X-13b; Yields are based on chromatographically isolated product.
[0012] Figure 8 shows examples tested for the coupling of di-substituted trans-β- bromoenones with aldehydes. Coupling condition: 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X-13b, Zr(cp)2Cl2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature for 3 hours; Yield: based on
chromatographically isolated products.
[0013] Figure 9 shows attempted coupling with other types of β-bromo-enones. For coupling conditions, please see Figure 8.
[0014] Figure 10 shows two examples relevant to the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrins. The first example shows that a selective activation/coupling is possible with the use of a selective activator in the Cr-mediated coupling; namely, cobalt- and iron-salts are known to activate saturated halides, but not vinyl halides (Guo, H.; Dong, C.-G.; Kim, D.-S.; Urabe, D.; Wang, J.; Kim, J. T.; Liu, X.; Sasaki, T.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2009, 131, 15387; Takai, K.; Nitta, K.; Fujimura, O.; Utimoto, K. J. Org. Chem.1989, 54, 4732; Wan, Z.-K.; Choi, H.-w.; Kang, F.-A.; Nakajima, K.; Demeke, D.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett.2002, 4, 4431). The second example shows that selective activation of iodoacetylene in the Ni/Cr- mediated reaction is possible without disturbing the vinyl iodide present in the electrophile (Ueda, A.; Yamamoto, A.; Kato, D.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2014, 136, 5171).
[0015] Figure 11 shows a competition experiment of trans-β-bromoenone X-9b over vinyl iodides X-31a~c. Coupling condition: nucleophile: a 1:1 mixture of X-9b and X-31a, b, or c. Reagents: 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X- 13a or X-13b, Zr(cp)2Cl2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature for 3 hours. The product ratio was estimated from 1H NMR analysis of crude coupling products.
[0016] Figure 12 shows an exemplary synthesis of poly-halogenated nucleophile X-34.
[0017] Figure 13 shows Ni/Cr-mediated coupling of X-34 with X-35, with use of polyether- type phenanthrene•NiCl2 complex X-37c. Coupling condition: 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X-37c, Zr(cp)2Cl2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature for 3 hours. Yield: chromatographically isolated yield in 7.1 g aldehyde scale.
[0018] Figure 14 shows examples tested for the coupling of poly-halogenated nucleophile X- 34 with various aldehydes. Coupling condition: 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X-37c, Zr(cp)2Cl2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature for 3 hours; Yield: based on
chromatographically isolated products.
[0019] Figure 15 shows the completion of synthesis of the C1-C19 building block X-46 of halichondrin Bs. Yield: chromatographically isolated yield in 11.4 g scale of coupling product X-36.
[0020] Figure 16 shows polymer-bound guanidine and PPTS used for ion-exchange-resin based device.
[0021] Figure 17 shows a summary of the exemplary synthesis of the right-half of halichondrin A.
[0022] Figure 18 shows structures of halichondrins A, B, and C.
[0023] Figure 19 shows a summary of the synthesis of the right half of halichondrin A and requisite C1-C19 building blocks (BBs) of halichondrins A-C.
[0024] Figure 20 shows a proposed one-step synthesis of acetylenic ketones Y-15a,b via selective activation/coupling of halo-acetylenic ketones Y-16a,b.
[0025] Figure 21 shows substrates, sulfonamide, and Ni-catalyst used for the model study.
[0026] Figure 22 shows an exemplary synthesis of nucleophiles Y-24a,b.
[0027] Figure 23 shows exemplary sufonamides.
[0028] Figure 24 shows (Ni)/Cr-Mediated couplings. Coupling condition: Cr-catalyst prepared from (R)- Y-21: 20 mol%; Ni-catalyst Y-22b (0.05 mol%) or no added Ni-catalyst; TES-Cl (2.5 eq); LiCl (4 eq); Mn (4 eq); EtCN ([C] 0.4 M); RT; Yields are based on chromatographically isolated product.
[0029] Figure 25 shows an exemplary synthesis of C1-C19 buliding blocks (BBs) in the halichondrin A and C series.
[0030] Figure 26 shows an exemplary synthesis of C1-C19 BBs in the halichondrin B series.
[0031] Figure 27 shows an exemplary synthesis of C1-C19 building blocks from compound Y-11.
[0032] Figure 28 shows an example of a transformation that can be used to prepare halichondrins A-C and norhalichondrins A-C. This transformation is achieved in four steps (i.e., 1. TBAF, 2. DBU, 3. DDQ, and PPTS). In the halichondrin-A and -C series, after this transformation, the protecting groups at C11 at C12 can be removed to yield the natural product. The enone-to-halichondrin transformation can be carried out with several combinations of the protecting groups for the hydroxyl groups, including, for example, C35- TES (triethylsilyl), C41-MPM (4-methyoxybenzyl), C48-TES, C51-TES, C53-TBS (tert- butyl dimethylsilyl), and C54-TBS in the halichondrin-B series; C35-TES, C41-MPM, C48- TES, and C50-TES in the norhalichondrin-B series. In Figure 28, X is an oxygen protecting group.
[0033] Figure 29 shows an improved protecting group strategy for the enone-to-halichondrin transformation and enone-to-norhalichondrin transformations in FIG 28. Use of a TES- protecting group for the C35- and C48-hydroxyl groups allows the use of a TBS-protecting group for the C41-hydroxyl group. With this change, the enone-to-halichondrin
transformation can be completed in two steps, instead of four steps. Improved combinations of protecting groups for this synthetic sequence include: C35-TES, C41-TBS, C48-TES, C51- TES, C53-TBS, and C54-TBS in the halichondrin-B series; C35-TES, C41-TBS, C48-TES, and C50-TES in the norhalichondrin-B series. This combination of protecting groups can be used to prepare halichondrins A-C as well as norhalichondrins A-C. [0034] Figure 30 shows how the two-step enone-to-halichondrin transformation can be applied to the synethsis of the norhalichondrin series (e.g., norhalicondrin C as shown). DEFINITIONS
Chemical definitions
[0035] Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms are described in more detail below. The chemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75th Ed., inside cover, and specific functional groups are generally defined as described therein. Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry, as well as specific functional moieties and reactivity, are described in Organic Chemistry, Thomas Sorrell, University Science Books, Sausalito, 1999; Smith and March March’s Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001; Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1989; and Carruthers, Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, 3rd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987.
[0036] Compounds described herein can comprise one or more asymmetric centers, and thus can exist in various stereoisomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/or diastereomers. For example, the compounds described herein can be in the form of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, or can be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemic mixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer. Isomers can be isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art, including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the formation and crystallization of chiral salts; or preferred isomers can be prepared by asymmetric syntheses. See, for example, Jacques et al., Enantiomers, Racemates and Resolutions (Wiley Interscience, New York, 1981); Wilen et al., Tetrahedron 33:2725 (1977); Eliel, E.L. Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (McGraw–Hill, NY, 1962); and Wilen, S.H. Tables of Resolving Agents and Optical Resolutions p.268 (E.L. Eliel, Ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN 1972). The disclosure additionally encompasses compounds as individual isomers substantially free of other isomers, and alternatively, as mixtures of various isomers.
[0037] The term“heteroatom” refers to an atom that is not hydrogen or carbon. In certain embodiments, the heteroatom is nitrogen. In certain embodiments, the heteroatom is oxygen. In certain embodiments, the heteroatom is sulfur. [0038] When a range of values is listed, it is intended to encompass each value and sub–range within the range. For example“C1–6 alkyl” is intended to encompass, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C1–6, C1–5, C1–4, C1–3, C1–2, C2–6, C2–5, C2–4, C2–3, C3–6, C3–5, C3–4, C4–6, C4–5, and C5–6 alkyl.
[0039] The term“aliphatic” refers to alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, and carbocyclic groups.
Likewise, the term“heteroaliphatic” refers to heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, and heterocyclic groups.
[0040] The term“alkyl” refers to a radical of a straight–chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms (“C1–10 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 9 carbon atoms (“C1–9 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C1–8 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 7 carbon atoms (“C1–7 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C1–6 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C1–5 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C1–4 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C1–3 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C1–2 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C1 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C2–6 alkyl”). Examples of C1–6 alkyl groups include methyl (C1), ethyl (C2), n–propyl (C3), isopropyl (C3), n–butyl (C4), tert–butyl (C4), sec–butyl (C4), iso–butyl (C4), n–pentyl (C5), 3–pentanyl (C5), amyl (C5), neopentyl (C5), 3–methyl–2–butanyl (C5), tertiary amyl (C5), and n–hexyl (C6). Additional examples of alkyl groups include n–heptyl (C7), n–octyl (C8) and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted alkyl”) or substituted (a“substituted alkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is an unsubstituted C1–10 alkyl (e.g.,–CH3). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is a substituted C1–10 alkyl.
[0041] The term“haloalkyl” is a substituted alkyl group, wherein one or more of the hydrogen atoms are independently replaced by a halogen, e.g., fluoro, bromo, chloro, or iodo. “Perhaloalkyl” is a subset of haloalkyl, and refers to an alkyl group wherein all of the hydrogen atoms are independently replaced by a halogen, e.g., fluoro, bromo, chloro, or iodo. In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C1–8 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C1–6 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C1–4 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C1–3 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C1–2 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, all of the haloalkyl hydrogen atoms are replaced with fluoro to provide a perfluoroalkyl group. In some embodiments, all of the haloalkyl hydrogen atoms are replaced with chloro to provide a“perchloroalkyl” group. Examples of haloalkyl groups include– CHF2,−CH2F,–CF3,−CH2CF3,–CF2CF3,–CF2CF2CF3,–CCl3,–CFCl2,–CF2Cl, and the like.
[0042] The term“heteroalkyl” refers to an alkyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkyl group refers to a saturated group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC1–10 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC1–9 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC1–8 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 7 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC1–7 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC1–6 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC1–5 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms and 1or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC1–4 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 3 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC1–3 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 2 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC1–2 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 carbon atom and 1 heteroatom (“heteroC1 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–6 alkyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted
heteroalkyl”) or substituted (a“substituted heteroalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC1–10 alkyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is a substituted heteroC1–10 alkyl.
[0043] The term“alkenyl” refers to a radical of a straight–chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon double bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 double bonds). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C2–9 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C2–8 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C2–7 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C2–6 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C2–5 alkenyl”). In some
embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C2–4 alkenyl”). In some
embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C2–3 alkenyl”). In some
embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C2 alkenyl”). The one or more carbon– carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2–butenyl) or terminal (such as in 1–butenyl). Examples of C2–4 alkenyl groups include ethenyl (C2), 1–propenyl (C3), 2–propenyl (C3), 1– butenyl (C4), 2–butenyl (C4), butadienyl (C4), and the like. Examples of C2–6 alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C2–4 alkenyl groups as well as pentenyl (C5), pentadienyl (C5), hexenyl (C6), and the like. Additional examples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C7), octenyl (C8), octatrienyl (C8), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted alkenyl”) or substituted (a
“substituted alkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is an unsubstituted C2–10 alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is a substituted C2–10 alkenyl. In an alkenyl group, a C=C double bond for which the stereochemistry is unspecified (e.g.,–CH=CHCH3 or ) may be an (E)- or (Z)-double bond.
[0044] The term“heteroalkenyl” refers to an alkenyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–10 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–9 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–8 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–7 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–6 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–5 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1or 2
heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–4 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC2–3 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–6 alkenyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted heteroalkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC2–10 alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group is a substituted heteroC2–10 alkenyl.
[0045] The term“alkynyl” refers to a radical of a straight–chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 triple bonds) (“C2–10 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C2–9 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C2–8 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C2–7 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C2–6 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C2–5 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C2–4 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C2–3 alkynyl”). In some
embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C2 alkynyl”). The one or more carbon– carbon triple bonds can be internal (such as in 2–butynyl) or terminal (such as in 1–butynyl). Examples of C2–4 alkynyl groups include, without limitation, ethynyl (C2), 1–propynyl (C3), 2–propynyl (C3), 1–butynyl (C4), 2–butynyl (C4), and the like. Examples of C2–6 alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C2–4 alkynyl groups as well as pentynyl (C5), hexynyl (C6), and the like. Additional examples of alkynyl include heptynyl (C7), octynyl (C8), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted alkynyl”) or substituted (a“substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is an unsubstituted C2–10 alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is a substituted C2–10 alkynyl.
[0046] The term“heteroalkynyl” refers to an alkynyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–10 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–9 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2– 8 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–7 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–6 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–5 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–4 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC2–3 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC2–6 alkynyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted heteroalkynyl”) or substituted (a“substituted
heteroalkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC2–10 alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is a substituted heteroC2–10 alkynyl.
[0047] The term“carbocyclyl” or“carbocyclic” refers to a radical of a non–aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 14 ring carbon atoms (“C3–14 carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the non–aromatic ring system. In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C3–10 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C3–8 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 7 ring carbon atoms (“C3–7 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C3–6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C4–6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C5–6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C5–10 carbocyclyl”). Exemplary C3–6 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl (C3), cyclopropenyl (C3), cyclobutyl (C4), cyclobutenyl (C4), cyclopentyl (C5), cyclopentenyl (C5), cyclohexyl (C6), cyclohexenyl (C6), cyclohexadienyl (C6), and the like. Exemplary C3–8 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C3–6 carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C7), cycloheptenyl (C7), cycloheptadienyl (C7), cycloheptatrienyl (C7), cyclooctyl (C8), cyclooctenyl (C8), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C7), bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C8), and the like.
Exemplary C3–10 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C3–8 carbocyclyl groups as well as cyclononyl (C9), cyclononenyl (C9), cyclodecyl (C10), cyclodecenyl (C10), octahydro–1H–indenyl (C9), decahydronaphthalenyl (C10),
spiro[4.5]decanyl (C10), and the like. As the foregoing examples illustrate, in certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is either monocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., containing a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic carbocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic carbocyclyl”)) and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon–carbon double or triple bonds.“Carbocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the carbocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the carbocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbons continue to designate the number of carbons in the carbocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a carbocyclyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a“substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is an unsubstituted C3–14 carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is a substituted C3–14 carbocyclyl.
[0048] In some embodiments,“carbocyclyl” is a monocyclic, saturated carbocyclyl group having from 3 to 14 ring carbon atoms (“C3–14 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C3–10 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C3–8 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C3–6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C4–6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C5–6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C5–10 cycloalkyl”). Examples of C5–6 cycloalkyl groups include cyclopentyl (C5) and cyclohexyl (C5). Examples of C3–6 cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C5–6 cycloalkyl groups as well as cyclopropyl (C3) and cyclobutyl (C4). Examples of C3–8 cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C3–6 cycloalkyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C7) and cyclooctyl (C8). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a cycloalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted cycloalkyl”) or substituted (a“substituted cycloalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is an unsubstituted C3–14 cycloalkyl. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is a substituted C3–14 cycloalkyl.
[0049] The term“heterocyclyl” or“heterocyclic” refers to a radical of a 3– to 14–membered non–aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1 to 4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“3–14 membered heterocyclyl”). In heterocyclyl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. A heterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic (“monocyclic heterocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic heterocyclyl”)), and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon– carbon double or triple bonds. Heterocyclyl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings.“Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl ring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the point of attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heterocyclyl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of heterocyclyl is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a“substituted heterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is an unsubstituted 3–14 membered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is a substituted 3–14 membered heterocyclyl.
[0050] In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5–10 membered non–aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–10 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5–8 membered non–aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is
independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–8 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5–6 membered non–aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is
independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–6 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, the 5–6 membered heterocyclyl has 1–3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5–6 membered heterocyclyl has 1–2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5–6 membered heterocyclyl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
[0051] Exemplary 3–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azirdinyl, oxiranyl, and thiiranyl. Exemplary 4–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azetidinyl, oxetanyl, and thietanyl. Exemplary 5–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl,
dihydrothiophenyl, pyrrolidinyl, dihydropyrrolyl, and pyrrolyl–2,5–dione. Exemplary 5– membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, dioxolanyl, oxathiolanyl and dithiolanyl. Exemplary 5–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolinyl, oxadiazolinyl, and thiadiazolinyl. Exemplary 6–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, piperidinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyridinyl, and thianyl. Exemplary 6–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, piperazinyl, morpholinyl, dithianyl, and dioxanyl. Exemplary 6–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinanyl. Exemplary 7– membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azepanyl, oxepanyl and thiepanyl. Exemplary 8–membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azocanyl, oxecanyl and thiocanyl. Exemplary bicyclic heterocyclyl groups include, without limitation, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl, dihydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzofuranyl, tetrahydroindolyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, decahydroisoquinolinyl, octahydrochromenyl, octahydroisochromenyl, decahydronaphthyridinyl, decahydro–1,8– naphthyridinyl, octahydropyrrolo[3,2-b]pyrrole, indolinyl, phthalimidyl, naphthalimidyl, chromanyl, chromenyl, 1H–benzo[e][1,4]diazepinyl, 1,4,5,7-tetrahydropyrano[3,4-b]pyrrolyl, 5,6-dihydro-4H–furo[3,2-b]pyrrolyl, 6,7-dihydro-5H-furo[3,2-b]pyranyl, 5,7-dihydro-4H- thieno[2,3-c]pyranyl, 2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 2,3-dihydrofuro[2,3- b]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrofuro[3,2- c]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[3,2-b]pyridinyl, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,6-naphthyridinyl, and the like.
[0052] The term“aryl” refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 pi electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6–14 ring carbon atoms and zero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system (“C6–14 aryl”). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 6 ring carbon atoms (“C6 aryl”; e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 10 ring carbon atoms (“C10 aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1–naphthyl and 2–naphthyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 14 ring carbon atoms (“C14 aryl”; e.g., anthracyl).“Aryl” also includes ring systems wherein the aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on the aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group is independently unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted aryl”) or substituted (a“substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is an unsubstituted C6– 14 aryl. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is a substituted C6–14 aryl.
[0053]“Aralkyl” is a subset of“alkyl” and refers to an alkyl group substituted by an aryl group, wherein the point of attachment is on the alkyl moiety.
[0054] The term“heteroaryl” refers to a radical of a 5–14 membered monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic, tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 pi electrons shared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–14 membered heteroaryl”). In heteroaryl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. Heteroaryl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings.“Heteroaryl” includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ring system. “Heteroaryl” also includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ring members in the fused polycyclic (aryl/heteroaryl) ring system. Polycyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like) the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2–indolyl) or the ring that does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., 5–indolyl).
[0055] In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5–10 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–10 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5–8 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–8 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5–6 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1–4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5–6 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, the 5–6 membered heteroaryl has 1–3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5–6 membered heteroaryl has 1–2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5–6 membered heteroaryl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroaryl group is independently unsubstituted (an
“unsubstituted heteroaryl”) or substituted (a“substituted heteroaryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is an unsubstituted 5–14 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is a substituted 5–14 membered heteroaryl.
[0056] Exemplary 5–membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, pyrrolyl, furanyl, and thiophenyl. Exemplary 5–membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, and isothiazolyl. Exemplary 5–membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, and thiadiazolyl. Exemplary 5–membered heteroaryl groups containing 4 heteroatoms include, without limitation, tetrazolyl. Exemplary 6–membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, pyridinyl. Exemplary 6–membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, and pyrazinyl. Exemplary 6–membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 or 4 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl and tetrazinyl, respectively. Exemplary 7–membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azepinyl, oxepinyl, and thiepinyl. Exemplary 5,6– bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiophenyl, isobenzothiophenyl, benzofuranyl, benzoisofuranyl, benzimidazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, benzthiazolyl,
benzisothiazolyl, benzthiadiazolyl, indolizinyl, and purinyl. Exemplary 6,6–bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, naphthyridinyl, pteridinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, and quinazolinyl. Exemplary tricyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, phenanthridinyl, dibenzofuranyl, carbazolyl, acridinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl and phenazinyl.
[0057]“Heteroaralkyl” is a subset of“alkyl” and refers to an alkyl group substituted by a heteroaryl group, wherein the point of attachment is on the alkyl moiety.
[0058] The term“unsaturated bond” refers to a double or triple bond.
[0059] The term“unsaturated” or“partially unsaturated” refers to a moiety that includes at least one double or triple bond.
[0060] The term“saturated” refers to a moiety that does not contain a double or triple bond, i.e., the moiety only contains single bonds.
[0061] Affixing the suffix“–ene” to a group indicates the group is a divalent moiety, e.g., alkylene is the divalent moiety of alkyl, alkenylene is the divalent moiety of alkenyl, alkynylene is the divalent moiety of alkynyl, heteroalkylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkyl, heteroalkenylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkynyl, carbocyclylene is the divalent moiety of carbocyclyl, heterocyclylene is the divalent moiety of heterocyclyl, arylene is the divalent moiety of aryl, and heteroarylene is the divalent moiety of heteroaryl.
[0062] A group is optionally substituted unless expressly provided otherwise. In certain embodiments, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted.“Optionally substituted” refers to a group which may be substituted or unsubstituted (e.g.,“substituted” or
“unsubstituted” alkyl,“substituted” or“unsubstituted” alkenyl,“substituted” or
“unsubstituted” alkynyl,“substituted” or“unsubstituted” heteroalkyl,“substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkenyl,“substituted” or“unsubstituted” heteroalkynyl,“substituted” or“unsubstituted” carbocyclyl,“substituted” or“unsubstituted” heterocyclyl,“substituted” or “unsubstituted” aryl or“substituted” or“unsubstituted” heteroaryl group). In general, the term“substituted” means that at least one hydrogen present on a group is replaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., a substituent which upon substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, or other reaction. Unless otherwise indicated, a “substituted” group has a substituent at one or more substitutable positions of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure is substituted, the substituent is either the same or different at each position. The term“substituted” is contemplated to include substitution with all permissible substituents of organic compounds, and includes any of the substituents described herein that results in the formation of a stable compound. The present disclosure contemplates any and all such combinations in order to arrive at a stable compound. For purposes of this disclosure, heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituent as described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms and results in the formation of a stable moiety.
[0063] Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen,−CN, −NO2,−N3,−SO2H,−SO3H,−OH,−ORaa,−ON(Rbb)2,−N(Rbb)2,−N(Rbb) +
3 X−,−N(ORcc)Rbb, −SH,−SRaa,−SSRcc,−C(=O)Raa,−CO2H,−CHO,−C(ORcc)2,−CO2Raa,−OC(=O)Raa, −OCO2Raa,−C(=O)N(Rbb)2,−OC(=O)N(Rbb)2,−NRbbC(=O)Raa,−NRbbCO2Raa,
−NRbbC(=O)N(Rbb)2,−C(=NRbb)Raa,−C(=NRbb)ORaa,−OC(=NRbb)Raa,−OC(=NRbb)ORaa, −C(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2,−OC(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2,−NRbbC(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2,−C(=O)NRbbSO2Raa, −NRbbSO2Raa,−SO2N(Rbb)2,−SO2Raa,−SO2ORaa,−OSO2Raa,−S(=O)Raa,−OS(=O)Raa, −Si(Raa)3,−OSi(Raa)3−C(=S)N(Rbb)2,−C(=O)SRaa,−C(=S)SRaa,−SC(=S)SRaa,
−SC(=O)SRaa,−OC(=O)SRaa,−SC(=O)ORaa,−SC(=O)Raa,−P(=O)(Raa)2,−P(=O)(ORcc)2, −OP(=O)(Raa)2,−OP(=O)(ORcc)2,−P(=O)(N(Rbb)2)2,−OP(=O)(N(Rbb)2)2,−NRbbP(=O)(Raa)2, −NRbbP(=O)(ORcc)2,−NRbbP(=O)(N(Rbb)2)2,−P(Rcc)2,−P(ORcc)2,−P(Rcc) +
3 X−,
−P(ORcc) +
3 X−,−P(Rcc)4,−P(ORcc)4,−OP(Rcc)2,−OP(Rcc) +
3 X−,−OP(ORcc) +
2,−OP(ORcc)3 X−, −OP(Rcc)4,−OP(ORcc)4,−B(Raa)2,−B(ORcc)2,−BRaa(ORcc), C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 perhaloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, heteroC1-10 alkyl, heteroC2-10 alkenyl, heteroC2-10 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups; wherein X− is a counterion;
or two geminal hydrogens on a carbon atom are replaced with the group =O, =S, =NN(Rbb)2, =NNRbbC(=O)Raa, =NNRbbC(=O)ORaa, =NNRbbS(=O)2Raa, =NRbb, or =NORcc; each instance of Raa is, independently, selected from C1–10 alkyl, C1–10 perhaloalkyl, C2–10 alkenyl, C2–10 alkynyl, heteroC1–10 alkyl, heteroC2–10alkenyl, heteroC2–10alkynyl, C3–10 carbocyclyl, 3–14 membered heterocyclyl, C6–14 aryl, and 5–14 membered heteroaryl, or two Raa groups are joined to form a 3–14 membered heterocyclyl or 5–14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups;
each instance of Rbb is, independently, selected from hydrogen,−OH,−ORaa, −N(Rcc)2,−CN,−C(=O)Raa,−C(=O)N(Rcc)2,−CO2Raa,−SO2Raa,−C(=NRcc)ORaa, −C(=NRcc)N(Rcc)2,−SO2N(Rcc)2,−SO2Rcc,−SO2ORcc,−SORaa,−C(=S)N(Rcc)2,−C(=O)SRcc, −C(=S)SRcc,−P(=O)(Raa)2,−P(=O)(ORcc)2,−P(=O)(N(Rcc)2)2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 perhaloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, heteroC1-10alkyl, heteroC2-10alkenyl, heteroC2-10alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two Rbb groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups; wherein X− is a counterion;
each instance of Rcc is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C1–10 alkyl, C1–10 perhaloalkyl, C2–10 alkenyl, C2–10 alkynyl, heteroC1–10 alkyl, heteroC2–10 alkenyl, heteroC2–10 alkynyl, C3–10 carbocyclyl, 3–14 membered heterocyclyl, C6–14 aryl, and 5–14 membered heteroaryl, or two Rcc groups are joined to form a 3–14 membered heterocyclyl or 5–14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups;
each instance of Rdd is, independently, selected from halogen,−CN,−NO2,−N3, −SO2H,−SO3H,−OH,−ORee,−ON(Rff)2,−N(Rff)2,−N(Rff) +
3 X−,−N(ORee)Rff,−SH,−SRee, −SSRee,−C(=O)Ree,−CO2H,−CO2Ree,−OC(=O)Ree,−OCO2Ree,−C(=O)N(Rff)2,
−OC(=O)N(Rff)2,−NRffC(=O)Ree,−NRffCO2Ree,−NRffC(=O)N(Rff)2,−C(=NRff)ORee, −OC(=NRff)Ree,−OC(=NRff)ORee,−C(=NRff)N(Rff)2,−OC(=NRff)N(Rff)2,
−NRffC(=NRff)N(Rff)2,−NRffSO2Ree,−SO2N(Rff)2,−SO2Ree,−SO2ORee,−OSO2Ree, −S(=O)Ree,−Si(Ree)3,−OSi(Ree)3,−C(=S)N(Rff)2,−C(=O)SRee,−C(=S)SRee,−SC(=S)SRee, −P(=O)(ORee)2,−P(=O)(Ree)2,−OP(=O)(Ree)2,−OP(=O)(ORee)2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 perhaloalkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, heteroC1-6alkyl, heteroC2-6alkenyl, heteroC2-6alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-10 aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rgg groups, or two geminal Rdd substituents can be joined to form =O or =S; wherein X− is a counterion;
each instance of Ree is, independently, selected from C1–6 alkyl, C1–6 perhaloalkyl, C2– 6 alkenyl, C2–6 alkynyl, heteroC1–6 alkyl, heteroC2–6alkenyl, heteroC2–6 alkynyl, C3–10 carbocyclyl, C6–10 aryl, 3–10 membered heterocyclyl, and 3–10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rgg groups; each instance of Rff is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C1–6 alkyl, C1–6 perhaloalkyl, C2–6 alkenyl, C2–6 alkynyl, heteroC1–6alkyl, heteroC2–6alkenyl, heteroC2– 6alkynyl, C3–10 carbocyclyl, 3–10 membered heterocyclyl, C6–10 aryl and 5–10 membered heteroaryl, or two Rff groups are joined to form a 3–10 membered heterocyclyl or 5–10 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rgg groups; and
each instance of Rgg is, independently, halogen,−CN,−NO2,−N3,−SO2H,−SO3H, −OH,−OC1-6 alkyl,−ON(C1-6 alkyl)2,−N(C1-6 alkyl)2,−N(C1-6 alkyl) +
3 X−,−NH(C1-6 alkyl) +
2 X−,−NH2(C1-6 alkyl) +X−,−NH +
3 X−,−N(OC1-6 alkyl)(C1-6 alkyl),−N(OH)(C1-6 alkyl), −NH(OH),−SH,−SC1-6 alkyl,−SS(C1-6 alkyl),−C(=O)(C1-6 alkyl),−CO2H,−CO2(C1-6 alkyl),−OC(=O)(C1-6 alkyl),−OCO2(C1-6 alkyl),−C(=O)NH2,−C(=O)N(C1-6 alkyl)2, −OC(=O)NH(C1-6 alkyl),−NHC(=O)( C1-6 alkyl),−N(C1-6 alkyl)C(=O)( C1-6 alkyl), −NHCO2(C1-6 alkyl),−NHC(=O)N(C1-6 alkyl)2,−NHC(=O)NH(C1-6 alkyl),−NHC(=O)NH2,
Figure imgf000026_0001
alkyl),−OC(=NH)(C1-6 alkyl),−OC(=NH)OC1-6 alkyl,−C(=NH)N(C1-6 alkyl)2,−C(=NH)NH(C1-6 alkyl),−C(=NH)NH2,−OC(=NH)N(C1-6 alkyl)2,−OC(NH)NH(C1- 6 alkyl),−OC(NH)NH2,−NHC(NH)N(C1-6 alkyl)2,−NHC(=NH)NH2,−NHSO2(C1-6 alkyl), −SO2N(C1-6 alkyl)2,−SO2NH(C1-6 alkyl),−SO2NH2,−SO2C1-6 alkyl,−SO2OC1-6 alkyl, −OSO2C1-6 alkyl,−SOC1-6 alkyl,−Si(C1-6 alkyl)3,−OSi(C1-6 alkyl)3−C(=S)N(C1-6 alkyl)2, C(=S)NH(C1-6 alkyl), C(=S)NH2,−C(=O)S(C1-6 alkyl),−C(=S)SC1-6 alkyl,−SC(=S)SC1-6 alkyl,−P(=O)(OC1-6 alkyl)2,−P(=O)(C1-6 alkyl)2,−OP(=O)(C1-6 alkyl)2,−OP(=O)(OC1-6 alkyl)2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 perhaloalkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, heteroC1-6alkyl, heteroC2- 6alkenyl, heteroC2-6alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, C6-10 aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or two geminal Rgg substituents can be joined to form =O or =S;
wherein X− is a counterion.
[0064] The term“halo” or“halogen” refers to fluorine (fluoro,–F), chlorine (chloro,–Cl), bromine (bromo,–Br), or iodine (iodo,–I).
[0065] The term“hydroxyl” or“hydroxy” refers to the group–OH. The term“substituted hydroxyl” or“substituted hydroxyl,” by extension, refers to a hydroxyl group wherein the oxygen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with a group other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from–ORaa,–ON(Rbb)2,–OC(=O)SRaa,–OC(=O)Raa, –OCO2Raa,–OC(=O)N(Rbb)2,–OC(=NRbb)Raa,–OC(=NRbb)ORaa,–OC(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2, –OS(=O)Raa,–OSO2Raa,–OSi(Raa)3,–OP(Rcc)2,–OP(Rcc)3,–OP(=O)2Raa,–OP(=O)(Raa)2, –OP(=O)(ORcc)2,–OP(=O)2N(Rbb)2, and–OP(=O)(NRbb)2, wherein Raa, Rbb, and Rcc are as defined herein.
[0066] The term“thiol” or“thio” refers to the group–SH. The term“substituted thiol” or “substituted thio,” by extension, refers to a thiol group wherein the sulfur atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with a group other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from–SRaa,–S=SRcc,–SC(=S)SRaa,–SC(=O)SRaa,–SC(=O)ORaa, and– SC(=O)Raa, wherein Raa and Rcc are as defined herein.
[0067] The term“amino” refers to the group–NH2. The term“substituted amino,” by extension, refers to a monosubstituted amino, a disubstituted amino, or a trisubstituted amino. In certain embodiments, the“substituted amino” is a monosubstituted amino or a
disubstituted amino group.
[0068] The term“monosubstituted amino” refers to an amino group wherein the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with one hydrogen and one group other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from−NH(Rbb),−NHC(=O)Raa, −NHCO2Raa,−NHC(=O)N(Rbb)2,−NHC(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2,−NHSO2Raa,−NHP(=O)(ORcc)2, and−NHP(=O)(N(Rbb)2)2, wherein Raa, Rbb and Rcc are as defined herein, and wherein Rbb of the group−NH(Rbb) is not hydrogen.
[0069] The term“disubstituted amino” refers to an amino group wherein the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with two groups other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from−N(Rbb)2,−NRbb C(=O)Raa,−NRbbCO2Raa,
−NRbbC(=O)N(Rbb)2,−NRbbC(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2,−NRbbSO2Raa,−NRbbP(=O)(ORcc)2, and −NRbbP(=O)(N(Rbb)2)2, wherein Raa, Rbb, and Rcc are as defined herein, with the proviso that the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is not substituted with hydrogen.
[0070] The term“trisubstituted amino” refers to an amino group wherein the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with three groups, and includes groups selected from–N(Rbb)3 and–N(Rbb) +
3 X–, wherein Rbb and X– are as defined herein.
[0071] The term“sulfonyl” refers to a group selected from–SO2N(Rbb)2,–SO2Raa, and –SO2ORaa, wherein Raa and Rbb are as defined herein.
[0072] The term“sulfinyl” refers to the group–S(=O)Raa, wherein Raa is as defined herein.
[0073] The term“carbonyl” refers a group wherein the carbon directly attached to the parent molecule is sp2 hybridized, and is substituted with an oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atom, e.g., a group selected from ketones (–C(=O)Raa), carboxylic acids (–CO2H), aldehydes (–CHO), esters (–CO2Raa
,–C(=O)SRaa,–C(=S)SRaa), amides (–C(=O)N(Rbb)2,–C(=O)NRbbSO2Raa,– C(=S)N(Rbb)2), and imines (–C(=NRbb)Raa,–C(=NRbb)ORaa),–C(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2), wherein Raa and Rbb are as defined herein.
[0074] The term“silyl” refers to the group–Si(Raa)3, wherein Raa is as defined herein.
[0075] The term“oxo” refers to the group =O, and the term“thiooxo” refers to the group =S.
[0076] Nitrogen atoms can be substituted or unsubstituted as valency permits, and include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary nitrogen atoms. Exemplary nitrogen atom substituents include, but are not limited to, hydrogen,−OH,−ORaa,−N(Rcc)2,−CN, −C(=O)Raa,−C(=O)N(Rcc)2,−CO2Raa,−SO2Raa,−C(=NRbb)Raa,−C(=NRcc)ORaa,
−C(=NRcc)N(Rcc)2,−SO2N(Rcc)2,−SO2Rcc,−SO2ORcc,−SORaa,−C(=S)N(Rcc)2,−C(=O)SRcc, −C(=S)SRcc,−P(=O)(ORcc)2,−P(=O)(Raa)2,−P(=O)(N(Rcc)2)2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 perhaloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, heteroC1-10alkyl, heteroC2-10alkenyl, heteroC2-10alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two Rcc groups attached to an N atom are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups, and wherein Raa, Rbb, Rcc and Rdd are as defined above.
[0077] In certain embodiments, the substituent present on the nitrogen atom is an nitrogen protecting group (also referred to herein as an“amino protecting group”). Nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to,–OH,–ORaa,–N(Rcc)2,–C(=O)Raa,–C(=O)N(Rcc)2,– CO2Raa,–SO2Raa,–C(=NRcc)Raa,–C(=NRcc)ORaa,–C(=NRcc)N(Rcc)2,–SO2N(Rcc)2,–SO2Rcc, –SO2ORcc,–SORaa,–C(=S)N(Rcc)2,–C(=O)SRcc,–C(=S)SRcc, C1–10 alkyl (e.g., aralkyl, heteroaralkyl), C2–10 alkenyl, C2–10 alkynyl, heteroC1–10 alkyl, heteroC2–10 alkenyl, heteroC2–10 alkynyl, C3–10 carbocyclyl, 3–14 membered heterocyclyl, C6–14 aryl, and 5–14 membered heteroaryl groups, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aralkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups, and wherein Raa, Rbb, Rcc and Rdd are as defined herein. Nitrogen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.
[0078] For example, nitrogen protecting groups such as amide groups (e.g.,–C(=O)Raa) include, but are not limited to, formamide, acetamide, chloroacetamide, trichloroacetamide, trifluoroacetamide, phenylacetamide, 3–phenylpropanamide, picolinamide, 3–
pyridylcarboxamide, N–benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, benzamide, p–phenylbenzamide, o– nitophenylacetamide, o–nitrophenoxyacetamide, acetoacetamide, (N’– dithiobenzyloxyacylamino)acetamide, 3–(p–hydroxyphenyl)propanamide, 3–(o– nitrophenyl)propanamide, 2–methyl–2–(o–nitrophenoxy)propanamide, 2–methyl–2–(o– phenylazophenoxy)propanamide, 4–chlorobutanamide, 3–methyl–3–nitrobutanamide, o– nitrocinnamide, N–acetylmethionine derivative, o–nitrobenzamide and o–
(benzoyloxymethyl)benzamide.
[0079] Nitrogen protecting groups such as carbamate groups (e.g.,–C(=O)ORaa) include, but are not limited to, methyl carbamate, ethyl carbamate, 9–fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc), 9–(2–sulfo)fluorenylmethyl carbamate, 9–(2,7–dibromo)fluoroenylmethyl carbamate, 2,7–di– t–butyl–[9–(10,10–dioxo–10,10,10,10–tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methyl carbamate (DBD– Tmoc), 4–methoxyphenacyl carbamate (Phenoc), 2,2,2–trichloroethyl carbamate (Troc), 2– trimethylsilylethyl carbamate (Teoc), 2–phenylethyl carbamate (hZ), 1–(1–adamantyl)–1– methylethyl carbamate (Adpoc), 1,1–dimethyl–2–haloethyl carbamate, 1,1–dimethyl–2,2– dibromoethyl carbamate (DB–t–BOC), 1,1–dimethyl–2,2,2–trichloroethyl carbamate
(TCBOC), 1–methyl–1–(4–biphenylyl)ethyl carbamate (Bpoc), 1–(3,5–di–t–butylphenyl)–1– methylethyl carbamate (t–Bumeoc), 2–(2’– and 4’–pyridyl)ethyl carbamate (Pyoc), 2–(N,N– dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethyl carbamate, t–butyl carbamate (BOC or Boc), 1–adamantyl carbamate (Adoc), vinyl carbamate (Voc), allyl carbamate (Alloc), 1–isopropylallyl carbamate (Ipaoc), cinnamyl carbamate (Coc), 4–nitrocinnamyl carbamate (Noc), 8–quinolyl carbamate, N–hydroxypiperidinyl carbamate, alkyldithio carbamate, benzyl carbamate (Cbz), p–methoxybenzyl carbamate (Moz), p–nitobenzyl carbamate, p–bromobenzyl carbamate, p– chlorobenzyl carbamate, 2,4–dichlorobenzyl carbamate, 4–methylsulfinylbenzyl carbamate (Msz), 9–anthrylmethyl carbamate, diphenylmethyl carbamate, 2–methylthioethyl carbamate, 2–methylsulfonylethyl carbamate, 2–(p–toluenesulfonyl)ethyl carbamate, [2–(1,3– dithianyl)]methyl carbamate (Dmoc), 4–methylthiophenyl carbamate (Mtpc), 2,4–
dimethylthiophenyl carbamate (Bmpc), 2–phosphonioethyl carbamate (Peoc), 2–
triphenylphosphonioisopropyl carbamate (Ppoc), 1,1–dimethyl–2–cyanoethyl carbamate, m– chloro–p–acyloxybenzyl carbamate, p–(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl carbamate, 5–
benzisoxazolylmethyl carbamate, 2–(trifluoromethyl)–6–chromonylmethyl carbamate (Tcroc), m–nitrophenyl carbamate, 3,5–dimethoxybenzyl carbamate, o–nitrobenzyl carbamate, 3,4–dimethoxy–6–nitrobenzyl carbamate, phenyl(o–nitrophenyl)methyl carbamate, t–amyl carbamate, S–benzyl thiocarbamate, p–cyanobenzyl carbamate, cyclobutyl carbamate, cyclohexyl carbamate, cyclopentyl carbamate, cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, p– decyloxybenzyl carbamate, 2,2–dimethoxyacylvinyl carbamate, o–(N,N–
dimethylcarboxamido)benzyl carbamate, 1,1–dimethyl–3–(N,N–dimethylcarboxamido)propyl carbamate, 1,1–dimethylpropynyl carbamate, di(2–pyridyl)methyl carbamate, 2– furanylmethyl carbamate, 2–iodoethyl carbamate, isoborynl carbamate, isobutyl carbamate, isonicotinyl carbamate, p–(p’–methoxyphenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 1–methylcyclobutyl carbamate, 1–methylcyclohexyl carbamate, 1–methyl–1–cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, 1– methyl–1–(3,5–dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1–methyl–1–(p–phenylazophenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1–methyl–1–phenylethyl carbamate, 1–methyl–1–(4–pyridyl)ethyl carbamate, phenyl carbamate, p–(phenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 2,4,6–tri–t–butylphenyl carbamate, 4– (trimethylammonium)benzyl carbamate, and 2,4,6–trimethylbenzyl carbamate.
[0080] Nitrogen protecting groups such as sulfonamide groups (e.g.,–S(=O)2Raa) include, but are not limited to, p–toluenesulfonamide (Ts), benzenesulfonamide, 2,3,6,–trimethyl–4– methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtr), 2,4,6–trimethoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtb), 2,6– dimethyl–4–methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Pme), 2,3,5,6–tetramethyl–4–
methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mte), 4–methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mbs), 2,4,6– trimethylbenzenesulfonamide (Mts), 2,6–dimethoxy–4–methylbenzenesulfonamide (iMds), 2,2,5,7,8–pentamethylchroman–6–sulfonamide (Pmc), methanesulfonamide (Ms), β– trimethylsilylethanesulfonamide (SES), 9–anthracenesulfonamide, 4–(4’,8’–
dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonamide (DNMBS), benzylsulfonamide,
trifluoromethylsulfonamide, and phenacylsulfonamide.
[0081] Other nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, phenothiazinyl–(10)– acyl derivative, N’–p–toluenesulfonylaminoacyl derivative, N’–phenylaminothioacyl derivative, N–benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, N–acetylmethionine derivative, 4,5–diphenyl– 3–oxazolin–2–one, N–phthalimide, N–dithiasuccinimide (Dts), N–2,3–diphenylmaleimide, N–2,5–dimethylpyrrole, N–1,1,4,4–tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct (STABASE), 5–substituted 1,3–dimethyl–1,3,5–triazacyclohexan–2–one, 5–substituted 1,3–dibenzyl– 1,3,5–triazacyclohexan–2–one, 1–substituted 3,5–dinitro–4–pyridone, N–methylamine, N– allylamine, N–[2–(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methylamine (SEM), N–3–acetoxypropylamine, N– (1–isopropyl–4–nitro–2–oxo–3–pyroolin–3–yl)amine, quaternary ammonium salts, N– benzylamine, N–di(4–methoxyphenyl)methylamine, N–5–dibenzosuberylamine, N– triphenylmethylamine (Tr), N–[(4–methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl]amine (MMTr), N–9– phenylfluorenylamine (PhF), N–2,7–dichloro–9–fluorenylmethyleneamine, N–
ferrocenylmethylamino (Fcm), N–2–picolylamino N’–oxide, N–1,1–
dimethylthiomethyleneamine, N–benzylideneamine, N–p–methoxybenzylideneamine, N– diphenylmethyleneamine, N–[(2–pyridyl)mesityl]methyleneamine, N–(N’,N’–
dimethylaminomethylene)amine, N,N’–isopropylidenediamine, N–p–nitrobenzylideneamine, N–salicylideneamine, N–5–chlorosalicylideneamine, N–(5–chloro–2–
hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethyleneamine, N–cyclohexylideneamine, N–(5,5–dimethyl–3–oxo– 1–cyclohexenyl)amine, N–borane derivative, N–diphenylborinic acid derivative, N–
[phenyl(pentaacylchromium– or tungsten)acyl]amine, N–copper chelate, N–zinc chelate, N– nitroamine, N–nitrosoamine, amine N–oxide, diphenylphosphinamide (Dpp),
dimethylthiophosphinamide (Mpt), diphenylthiophosphinamide (Ppt), dialkyl
phosphoramidates, dibenzyl phosphoramidate, diphenyl phosphoramidate,
benzenesulfenamide, o–nitrobenzenesulfenamide (Nps), 2,4–dinitrobenzenesulfenamide, pentachlorobenzenesulfenamide, 2–nitro–4–methoxybenzenesulfenamide,
triphenylmethylsulfenamide, and 3–nitropyridinesulfenamide (Npys).
[0082] In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an oxygen atom is an oxygen protecting group (also referred to herein as an“hydroxyl protecting group”). Oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to,−Raa,−N(Rbb)2,−C(=O)SRaa,−C(=O)Raa, −CO2Raa,−C(=O)N(Rbb)2,−C(=NRbb)Raa,−C(=NRbb)ORaa,−C(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2,−S(=O)Raa, −SO2Raa,−Si(Raa)3,−P(Rcc)2,−P(Rcc) +
3 X−,−P(ORcc)2,−P(ORcc) +
3 X−,−P(=O)(Raa)2, −P(=O)(ORcc)2, and−P(=O)(N(Rbb) 2)2, wherein X−, Raa, Rbb, and Rcc are as defined herein. Oxygen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.
[0083] Exemplary oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), t–butylthiomethyl,
(phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl (SMOM), benzyloxymethyl (BOM), p–
methoxybenzyloxymethyl (PMBM), (4–methoxyphenoxy)methyl (p–AOM), guaiacolmethyl (GUM), t–butoxymethyl, 4–pentenyloxymethyl (POM), siloxymethyl, 2–
methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), 2,2,2–trichloroethoxymethyl, bis(2–chloroethoxy)methyl, 2– (trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl (SEMOR), tetrahydropyranyl (THP), 3–
bromotetrahydropyranyl, tetrahydrothiopyranyl, 1–methoxycyclohexyl, 4–
methoxytetrahydropyranyl (MTHP), 4–methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4–
methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl S,S–dioxide, 1–[(2–chloro–4–methyl)phenyl]–4–
methoxypiperidin–4–yl (CTMP), 1,4–dioxan–2–yl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiofuranyl, 2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a–octahydro–7,8,8–trimethyl–4,7–methanobenzofuran–2–yl, 1–ethoxyethyl, 1–(2–chloroethoxy)ethyl, 1–methyl–1–methoxyethyl, 1–methyl–1–benzyloxyethyl, 1– methyl–1–benzyloxy–2–fluoroethyl, 2,2,2–trichloroethyl, 2–trimethylsilylethyl, 2–
(phenylselenyl)ethyl, t–butyl, allyl, p–chlorophenyl, p–methoxyphenyl, 2,4–dinitrophenyl, benzyl (Bn), p–methoxybenzyl, 3,4–dimethoxybenzyl, o–nitrobenzyl, p–nitrobenzyl, p– halobenzyl, 2,6–dichlorobenzyl, p–cyanobenzyl, p–phenylbenzyl, 2–picolyl, 4–picolyl, 3– methyl–2–picolyl N–oxido, diphenylmethyl, p,p’–dinitrobenzhydryl, 5–dibenzosuberyl, triphenylmethyl, α–naphthyldiphenylmethyl, p–methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, di(p– methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl, tri(p–methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4–(4’–
bromophenacyloxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl, 4,4′,4″–tris(4,5–
dichlorophthalimidophenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″–tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″– tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 3–(imidazol–1–yl)bis(4′,4″–dimethoxyphenyl)methyl, 1,1– bis(4–methoxyphenyl)–1′–pyrenylmethyl, 9–anthryl, 9–(9–phenyl)xanthenyl, 9–(9–phenyl– 10–oxo)anthryl, 1,3–benzodithiolan–2–yl, benzisothiazolyl S,S–dioxido, trimethylsilyl (TMS), triethylsilyl (TES), triisopropylsilyl (TIPS), dimethylisopropylsilyl (IPDMS), diethylisopropylsilyl (DEIPS), dimethylthexylsilyl, t–butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), t– butyldiphenylsilyl (TBDPS), tribenzylsilyl, tri–p–xylylsilyl, triphenylsilyl,
diphenylmethylsilyl (DPMS), t–butylmethoxyphenylsilyl (TBMPS), formate,
benzoylformate, acetate, chloroacetate, dichloroacetate, trichloroacetate, trifluoroacetate, methoxyacetate, triphenylmethoxyacetate, phenoxyacetate, p–chlorophenoxyacetate, 3– phenylpropionate, 4–oxopentanoate (levulinate), 4,4–(ethylenedithio)pentanoate
(levulinoyldithioacetal), pivaloate, adamantoate, crotonate, 4–methoxycrotonate, benzoate, p– phenylbenzoate, 2,4,6–trimethylbenzoate (mesitoate), methyl carbonate, 9–fluorenylmethyl carbonate (Fmoc), ethyl carbonate, 2,2,2–trichloroethyl carbonate (Troc), 2–
(trimethylsilyl)ethyl carbonate (TMSEC), 2–(phenylsulfonyl) ethyl carbonate (Psec), 2– (triphenylphosphonio) ethyl carbonate (Peoc), isobutyl carbonate, vinyl carbonate, allyl carbonate, t–butyl carbonate (BOC or Boc), p–nitrophenyl carbonate, benzyl carbonate, p– methoxybenzyl carbonate, 3,4–dimethoxybenzyl carbonate, o–nitrobenzyl carbonate, p– nitrobenzyl carbonate, S–benzyl thiocarbonate, 4–ethoxy–1–napththyl carbonate, methyl dithiocarbonate, 2–iodobenzoate, 4–azidobutyrate, 4–nitro–4–methylpentanoate, o–
(dibromomethyl)benzoate, 2–formylbenzenesulfonate, 2–(methylthiomethoxy)ethyl, 4– (methylthiomethoxy)butyrate, 2–(methylthiomethoxymethyl)benzoate, 2,6–dichloro–4– methylphenoxyacetate, 2,6–dichloro–4–(1,1,3,3–tetramethylbutyl)phenoxyacetate, 2,4– bis(1,1–dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, chlorodiphenylacetate, isobutyrate, monosuccinoate, (E)–2–methyl–2–butenoate, o–(methoxyacyl)benzoate, α–naphthoate, nitrate, alkyl
N,N,N’,N’–tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, alkyl N–phenylcarbamate, borate,
dimethylphosphinothioyl, alkyl 2,4–dinitrophenylsulfenate, sulfate, methanesulfonate (mesylate), benzylsulfonate, and tosylate (Ts). [0084] In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a sulfur atom is a sulfur protecting group (also referred to as a“thiol protecting group”). Sulfur protecting groups include, but are not limited to,−Raa,−N(Rbb)2,−C(=O)SRaa,−C(=O)Raa,−CO2Raa,−C(=O)N(Rbb)2, −C(=NRbb)Raa,−C(=NRbb)ORaa,−C(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2,−S(=O)Raa,−SO2Raa,−Si(Raa)3, −P(Rcc)2,−P(Rcc) +
3 X−,−P(ORcc)2,−P(ORcc) +
3 X−,−P(=O)(Raa)2,−P(=O)(ORcc)2, and −P(=O)(N(Rbb) 2)2, wherein Raa, Rbb, and Rcc are as defined herein. Sulfur protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.
[0085] A“hydrocarbon chain” refers to a substituted or unsubstituted divalent alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group. A hydrocarbon chain includes (1) one or more chains of carbon atoms immediately between the two radicals of the hydrocarbon chain; (2) optionally one or more hydrogen atoms on the chain(s) of carbon atoms; and (3) optionally one or more substituents (“non-chain substituents,” which are not hydrogen) on the chain(s) of carbon atoms. A chain of carbon atoms consists of consecutively connected carbon atoms (“chain atoms”) and does not include hydrogen atoms or heteroatoms. However, a non-chain substituent of a hydrocarbon chain may include any atoms, including hydrogen atoms, carbon atoms, and heteroatoms. For example, hydrocarbon chain–CAH(CBH2CCH3)– includes one chain atom CA, one hydrogen atom on CA, and non-chain substituent–(CBH2CCH3). The term“Cx hydrocarbon chain,” wherein x is a positive integer, refers to a hydrocarbon chain that includes x number of chain atom(s) between the two radicals of the hydrocarbon chain. If there is more than one possible value of x, the smallest possible value of x is used for the defi ydrocarbon chain. For example,–CH(C2H5)– is a C1 hydrocarbon chain,
and
Figure imgf000033_0001
is a C3 hydrocarbon chain. When a range of values is used, the meaning of the range is as described herein. For example, a C3-10 hydrocarbon chain refers to a hydrocarbon chain where the number of chain atoms of the shortest chain of carbon atoms immediately between the two radicals of the hydrocarbon chain is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10. A hydrocarbon chain may be saturated (e.g.,–(CH2)4–). A hydrocarbon chain may also be unsaturated and include one or more C=C and/or C≡C bonds anywhere in the hydrocarbon chain. For instance,–CH=CH–(CH2)2–,–CH2–C≡C–CH2–, and–C≡C–CH=CH– are all examples of a unsubstituted and unsaturated hydrocarbon chain. In certain embodiments, the hydrocarbon chain is unsubstituted (e.g.,–C≡C– or–(CH2)4–). In certain embodiments, the hydrocarbon chain is substituted (e.g.,–CH(C2H5)– and–CF2–). Any two substituents on the hydrocarbon chain may be joined to form an optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroc cl l o tionall substituted ar l or o tionall substituted heteroaryl ring.
, and
Figure imgf000034_0001
. , ments,
Figure imgf000034_0002
are not within the scope of the hydrocarbon chains described herein. When a chain atom of a Cx hydrocarbon chain is replaced with a heteroatom, the resulting group is referred to as a Cx hydrocarbon chain wherein a chain atom is replaced with a heteroatom, as opposed to a Cx-1 hydrocarbon chain. For example,
Figure imgf000034_0003
hydrocarbon chain wherein one chain atom is replaced with an oxygen atom.
[0086] The term“acyl” refers a group wherein the carbon directly attached to the parent molecule is sp2 hybridized, and is substituted with an oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur atom, e.g., a group selected from ketones (–C(=O)Raa), carboxylic acids (–CO2H), aldehydes (–CHO), esters (–CO2Raa
,–C(=O)SRaa,–C(=S)SRaa), amides (–C(=O)N(Rbb)2,–C(=O)NRbbSO2Raa,– C(=S)N(Rbb)2), and imines (–C(=NRbb)Raa,–C(=NRbb)ORaa),–C(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2), wherein Raa and Rbb are as defined herein.
[0087] The term“Lewis acid” refers to a species as defined by IUPAC, that is“a molecular entity (and the corresponding chemical species) that is an electron-pair acceptor and therefore able to react with a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct, by sharing the electron pair furnished by the Lewis base.” Exemplary Lewis acids include, without limitation, boron trifluoride, aluminum trichloride, tin tetrachloride, titanium tetrachloride, and iron tribromide.
[0088] The term“Brønsted acid” refers to a protic or proton-donating species. Exemplary Brønsted acids include, without limitation, acetic acid, triflic acid, hydrochloric acid, and barbituric acid.
[0089] The term“salt” refers to those salts which are derived from suitable inorganic and organic acids and bases. Examples of acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid, or malonic acid or by using other methods known in the art such as ion exchange. Other exemplary salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate,
camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate,
ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2–hydroxy–ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2–
naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3–phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts, and the like. Salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, ammonium and N+(C1–4 alkyl) - 4 salts. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like. Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, lower alkyl sulfonate, and aryl sulfonate.
[0090] The term“solvate” refers to forms of the compound that are associated with a solvent, usually by a solvolysis reaction. This physical association may include hydrogen bonding. Conventional solvents include water, methanol, ethanol, acetic acid, DMSO, THF, diethyl ether, and the like. The compounds described herein may be prepared, e.g., in crystalline form, and may be solvated. Suitable solvates include pharmaceutically acceptable solvates and further include both stoichiometric solvates and non-stoichiometric solvates. In certain instances, the solvate will be capable of isolation, for example, when one or more solvent molecules are incorporated in the crystal lattice of a crystalline solid.“Solvate” encompasses both solution-phase and isolatable solvates. Representative solvates include hydrates, ethanolates, and methanolates.
[0091] The term“hydrate” refers to a compound that is associated with water. Typically, the number of the water molecules contained in a hydrate of a compound is in a definite ratio to the number of the compound molecules in the hydrate. Therefore, a hydrate of a compound may be represented, for example, by the general formula R⋅x H2O, wherein R is the compound, and x is a number greater than 0. A given compound may form more than one type of hydrate, including, e.g., monohydrates (x is 1), lower hydrates (x is a number greater than 0 and smaller than 1, e.g., hemihydrates (R⋅0.5 H2O)), and polyhydrates (x is a number greater than 1, e.g., dihydrates (R⋅2 H2O) and hexahydrates (R⋅6 H2O)).
[0092] The term“tautomers” or“tautomeric” refers to two or more interconvertable compounds resulting from at least one formal migration of a hydrogen atom and at least one change in valency (e.g., a single bond to a double bond, a triple bond to a single bond, or vice versa). The exact ratio of the tautomers depends on several factors, including temperature, solvent, and pH. Tautomerizations (i.e., the reaction providing a tautomeric pair) may catalyzed by acid or base. Exemplary tautomerizations include keto-to-enol, amide-to-imide, lactam-to-lactim, enamine-to-imine, and enamine-to-(a different enamine) tautomerizations.
[0093] It is also to be understood that compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the nature or sequence of bonding of their atoms or the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed“isomers”. Isomers that differ in the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed“stereoisomers”.
[0094] Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are termed“diastereomers” and those that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other are termed“enantiomers”. When a compound has an asymmetric center, for example, it is bonded to four different groups, a pair of enantiomers is possible. An enantiomer can be characterized by the absolute configuration of its asymmetric center and is described by the R- and S-sequencing rules of Cahn and Prelog, or by the manner in which the molecule rotates the plane of polarized light and designated as dextrorotatory or levorotatory (i.e., as (+) or (-)-isomers respectively). A chiral compound can exist as either individual enantiomer or as a mixture thereof. A mixture containing equal proportions of the enantiomers is called a“racemic mixture”.
[0095] A“counterion” or“anionic counterion” is a negatively charged group associated with a positively charged group in order to maintain electronic neutrality. An anionic counterion may be monovalent (i.e., including one formal negative charge). An anionic counterion may also be multivalent (i.e., including more than one formal negative charge), such as divalent or trivalent. Exemplary counterions include halide ions (e.g., F–, Cl–, Br–, I–), NO–
3 , ClO–
4 , OH–, H −
2PO–
4 , HCO3 , HSO–
4 , sulfonate ions (e.g., methansulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, p– toluenesulfonate, benzenesulfonate, 10–camphor sulfonate, naphthalene–2–sulfonate, naphthalene–1–sulfonic acid–5–sulfonate, ethan–1–sulfonic acid–2–sulfonate, and the like), carboxylate ions (e.g., acetate, propanoate, benzoate, glycerate, lactate, tartrate, glycolate, gluconate, and the like), BF−
4 , PF–
4 , PF–
6 , AsF–
6 , SbF–
6 , B[3,5-(CF3)2C6H3]4]–, B(C6F5)−
4 , BPh–
4 , Al(OC(CF3)3)–
4 , and carborane anions (e.g., CB –
11H12 or (HCB11Me5Br6)–). Exemplary counterions which may be multivalent include CO 2−
3 , HPO 2− −
4 , PO 3
4 , B4O 2− 7 , SO 2− 2−
4 , S2O3 , carboxylate anions (e.g., tartrate, citrate, fumarate, maleate, malate, malonate, gluconate, succinate, glutarate, adipate, pimelate, suberate, azelate, sebacate, salicylate, phthalates, aspartate, glutamate, and the like), and carboranes.
[0096] As used herein, a“leaving group” (LG) is an art-understood term referring to a molecular fragment that departs with a pair of electrons in heterolytic bond cleavage, wherein the molecular fragment is an anion or neutral molecule. As used herein, a leaving group can be an atom or a group capable of being displaced by a nucleophile. See, for example, Smith, March Advanced Organic Chemistry 6th ed. (501-502). Exemplary leaving groups include, but are not limited to, halo (e.g., chloro, bromo, iodo) and activated substituted hydroxyl groups (e.g.,–OC(=O)SRaa,–OC(=O)Raa,–OCO2Raa,–OC(=O)N(Rbb)2,–OC(=NRbb)Raa,– OC(=NRbb)ORaa,–OC(=NRbb)N(Rbb)2,–OS(=O)Raa,–OSO2Raa,–OP(Rcc)2,–OP(Rcc)3,– OP(=O)2Raa,–OP(=O)(Raa)2,–OP(=O)(ORcc)2,–OP(=O)2N(Rbb)2, and–OP(=O)(NRbb)2, wherein Raa, Rbb, and Rcc are as defined herein).
[0097] As used herein, use of the phrase“at least one instance” refers to 1, 2, 3, 4, or more instances, but also encompasses a range, e.g., for example, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 3, from 1 to 2, from 2 to 4, from 2 to 3, or from 3 to 4 instances, inclusive. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION
[0098] Cr-mediated couplings of organic halides/triflates with aldehydes are valuable tools to generate compounds with multi-functional groups. Cr-mediated couplings are used in synthesis of complicated macrolides such as halichondrin A and B. Depending on the mode of activation, Cr-mediated couplings are divided into three sub-groups: (1) Ni/Cr-mediated alkenylation, alkynylation, and arylation, (2) Co or Fe/Cr-mediated alkylation, 2-haloallyl- ation and (propargylation), and (3) Cr-mediated allylation and propargylation (see, e.g., Saccomano, N. A. in Comprehensive Organic Synthesis; Trost, B. M., Fleming, I., Eds.; Pergamon: Oxford, 1991; Vol.1, p 173).
[0099] This Cr-mediated coupling process is a Grignard-type carbonyl addition reaction. It displays selectivity towards aldehydes over other carbonyl compounds. Activation of halides or triflates in the presence of aldehydes provides not only an experimental convenience, but also an opportunity to achieve chemical transformations in an unconventional manner, e.g., cyclization. The most valuable feature of this coupling is its compatibility with a wide range of functional groups. This unique potential is especially important when applied to polyfunctional molecules, especially in the late-stages of a multi-step synthesis. Provided herein are chromium-mediated coupling reactions which are applicable to the preparation of halichondrins (e.g., halichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C; eribulin) and intermediates in the synthesis thereof.
[00100] In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of preparing a compound of Formula (I):
Figure imgf000038_0001
(I)
or a salt thereof,
the method comprising coupling a compound of Formula (i):
Figure imgf000038_0002
or a salt thereof,
with an aldehyde of Formula (ii):
Figure imgf000038_0003
in the presence of a chromium catalyst and optionally one or more catalysts;
wherein
R1 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
R2 is–OR5;
R5 is optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R3 is–OR6;
R6 is optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
or R2 and R3 are taken together to form =O;
or R5 and R6 are taken together with the intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring;
R4 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
R7 is halogen; and
L is optionally substituted ethenylene or ethynylene. [00101] Since a hydroxyl group is generated in the coupling product of Formula (I), a chiral center can be introduced in the process. In some embodiments, the provided coupling method is a catalytic asymmetric coupling between a compound of Formula (i) and an aldehyde of
Formula (ii) to provide a compound of Formula (Ia):
Figure imgf000039_0001
, or a salt thereof. In some embodiments, the provided coupling method is a catalytic asymmetric coupling between a compound of Formula (i) and an aldehyde of Formula (ii) to provide a compound
of Formula (Ia):
Figure imgf000039_0002
, or a salt thereof.
[00102] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling reaction between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is selective for halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic ketone, or halo-acetylenic ketal, over a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. A vinyl halide or a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon can remain intact during the coupling reaction between a halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic enone, or halo-acetylenic ketal, with an aldehyde of Formula (ii). The vinyl halide moiety can be a portion of the compound of Formula (i), the aldehyde of Formula (ii), or another compound in the coupling reaction mixture. In certain embodiments, the provided coupling reaction between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is selective for the halo-enone or halo-acetylenic ketal over a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. In certain embodiments, the halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon is chloride. In certain embodiments, the halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon is bromide. In certain embodiments, the halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon is iodide. In certain
embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) comprises a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon, for example, in R1. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is performed in the presence of another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii), wherein the another compound comprises a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon.
[00103] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling reaction between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is selective for halo-enone, halo-enone ketal, halo-acetylenic ketone, or halo-acetylenic ketal over a vinyl halide. In certain embodiments, the provided coupling reaction between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is selective for the halo-enone or halo-acetylenic ketal over a vinyl halide. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) comprises a vinyl halide moiety, for example, as part of R1. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is performed in the presence of another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii), wherein the other compound includes a vinyl halide moiety. In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety. In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety. In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety. In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety in the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety in the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety in the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety in R1 of the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety in R1 of the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety in R1 of the compound of Formula (i). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety in the aldehyde of Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety in the aldehyde of Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety in the aldehyde of Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide moiety is a vinyl iodide moiety in another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii) in the coupling reaction mixture. In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl bromide moiety in another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii) in the coupling reaction mixture. In certain embodiments, the vinyl halide is a vinyl chloride moiety in another compound other than the compounds of Formulae (i) and (ii) in the coupling reaction mixture.
[00104] As generally defined herein, R1 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R1 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is n-C7H15. In certain embodiments, R1 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is optionally substituted alkoxylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is optionally substituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted alkenylalkyl. In certain
embodiments, R1 is substituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is optionally substituted arylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is optionally substituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is substituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is iodo-phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is p-iodo-phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is m-iodo-phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is o-iodo-phenylalkyl.
[00105] In certain embodiments, R1 comprises a halide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. In certain embodiments, R1 comprises a chloride attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. In certain embodiments, R1 comprises a bromide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. In certain embodiments, R1 comprises an iodide attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon.
[00106] In certain embodiments, R1 comprises a vinyl halide moiety. In certain embodiments, R1 comprises a vinyl iodide moiety. In certain embodiments, R1 comprises a vinyl bromide moiety. In certain embodiments, R1 comprises a vinyl chloride moiety.
[00107] As generally used herein, a vinyl halide is a compound of Formula (VY):
Figure imgf000041_0001
or a salt thereof,
wherein
each of RVY1, RVY2, and RVY3 is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
XV is halogen.
[00108] As generally used herein, a vinyl halide is a vinyl iodide of Formula (VY-1):
Figure imgf000041_0002
),
or a salt thereof, wherein RVY1, RVY2, and RVY3 are as defined herein.
[00109] In certain embodiments, R1 comprises a vinyl halide moiety and is of Formula (F-1):
Figure imgf000041_0003
wherein
each of R1a, R1b, and R1c is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
each instance of R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
n is an integer between 1 to 10, inclusive.
[00110] As generally defined herein, R1a is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R1a is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R1a is halogen. In certain embodiments, R1a is iodide. In certain embodiments, R1a is bromide. In certain embodiments, R1a is chloride. In certain embodiments, R1a is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1a is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1a is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R1a is substituted alkyl.
[00111] As generally defined herein, R1b is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R1b is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R1b is halogen. In certain embodiments, R1b is iodide. In certain embodiments, R1b is bromide. In certain embodiments, R1b is chloride. In certain embodiments, R1b is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1b is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1b is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodimetnts, R1b is substituted alkyl.
[00112] As generally defined herein, R1c is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R1c is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R1c is halogen. In certain embodiments, R1c is iodide. In certain embodiments, R1c is bromide. In certain embodiments, R1c is chloride. In certain embodiments, R1c is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1c is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R1c is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R1c is substituted alkyl.
[00113] In certain embodiments, R1a is halogen; and R1b and R1c are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R1a is iodide; and R1b and R1c are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R1a is bromide; and R1b and R1c are hydrogen. [00114] As generally defined herein, each instance of R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, each instance of R1d is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is halogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is iodide. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is bromide. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is chloride. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R1d is substituted alkyl.
[00115] In certain embodiments, n is 1. In certain embodiments, n is 2. In certain
embodiments, n is 3. In certain embodiments, n is 4. In certain embodiments, n is 5. In certain embodiments, n is 6.
[00116] In certain embodiments, n is 4, and at least one instance of R1d is halogen. In certain embodiments, n is 4, and one instance of R1d is halogen. In certain embodiments, n is 4, and one instance of R1d is chloride.
[00117] As generally defined herein, R2 is–OR5, wherein R5 is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R5 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R5 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, R5 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R5 is an oxygen protecting group.
[00118] As generally defined herein, R3 is–OR6, wherein R6 is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R6 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R6 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, R6 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R6 is an oxygen protecting group.
[00119] In certain embodiments, R2 and R3 are taken together to form =O. In certain
embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the formulae:
Figure imgf000043_0001
,
, or a salt thereof; and the compound of Formula (i) is of
Figure imgf000043_0002
t thereof. [00120] In certain embodiments, R2 is -OR5; R3 is–OR6; and R5 and R6 are each independently oxygen protecting groups. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula
(I) is of the formula:
Figure imgf000044_0001
, or a salt thereof; and the compound of Formula (i) is of the formula: , or a salt thereof.
[00121] As generally defined herein, R4 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted alkoxylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is unsubstituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is substituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted arylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is unsubstituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is substituted phenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted heteroarylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted
heterocyclylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted carbocyclylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R4 is optionally substituted furanyl, thiophenyl, or pyrrolyl.
[00122] As generally defined herein, L is optionally substituted ethenylene or ethynylene. In certain embodiments, L is optionally substituted ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is unsubstituted ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is substituted ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is optionally substituted trans-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is unsubstituted trans-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is substituted trans-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is optionally substituted cis-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is unsubstituted cis-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is substituted cis-ethenylene. In certain embodiments, L is ethynylene. L being optionally substituted ethenylene
[00123] In certain embodiments of the provided coupling method between a compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii), the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i- a):
Figure imgf000045_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein R1, R2, R3, and R7 are as defined herein, and each of R8 and R9 is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl.
[00124] In certain embodiments of the provided coupling method between a compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii), the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i- a):
Figure imgf000045_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein R1, R2, R3, and R7 are as defined herein, and each of R8 and R9 is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl.
[00125] In certain embodiments, R8 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R8 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R8 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R8 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R8 is substituted alkyl.
[00126] In certain embodiments, R9 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R9 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R9 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R9 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R9 is substituted alkyl.
[00127] In certain embodiments, the coupling step is between a compound of Formula (i-a) and an aldehyde of Formula (ii) to yield a compound of one of the following formulae:
salts thereof. In certain
Figure imgf000045_0003
In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a-2):
Figure imgf000046_0001
[00128] In certain embodiments, the coupling step is between a compound of Formula (i-a’) and an aldehyde of Formula (ii) to yield a compound of one of the following formulae:
Figure imgf000046_0002
, an sa s ereo . n cer a n em o men s, e coup ng s ep s e ween a compound of Formula (i-a’) and an aldehyde of Formula (ii) to yield a compound of one of
the following formulae:
Figure imgf000046_0003
.
[00129] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-a-1):
Figure imgf000046_0004
(i-a-1’), or a salt thereof; and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a- 1):
Figure imgf000046_0005
or a salt thereof; wherein R1, R7, and R4 are as defined herein.
[00130] In some embodiments, the coupling product of Formulae (I)-(I-a-1) are stable enough to isolate and characterize. In some embodiments, the coupling product of Formula (I)-(I-a-1) cyclizes to form an optionally substituted furan of Formula (FU-1):
Figure imgf000046_0006
or a salt thereof, wherein R1 and R4 are as defined herein; and
each of RFU1 and RFU2 is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
[00131] In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing occurs in situ (i.e. in the reaction mixture without isolation). In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing occurs upon addition of an acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a Brønsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA), or
camphorsulfonic acid (CSA), pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS), or sulfonic acid exchange resin (Amberlyst, Dowex). In certain embodiments, the acid is p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA).
[00132] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method is applied to synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of hhalichondrins and analogs thereof. In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method is applied to the synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichondrin B.
[00133] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i-a-1) is of Formula (i-a-3):
Figure imgf000047_0001
or a salt thereof; the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is of Formula (ii-a):
Figure imgf000047_0002
or a salt thereof; and the comp n f F rm l I i f Formula (I-a-3):
Figure imgf000048_0001
(I-a-3)
or a salt thereof,
wherein
R1a and R1d are as defined herein,
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
R4b and R4c are each independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring.
[00134] As generally defined herein, R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4d is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R4d is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4d is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4d is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R4d is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4d is an oxygen protecting group.
[00135] In certain embodiments, R4b is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4b is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4b is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R4b is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00136] In certain embodiments, R4c is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4c is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R4c is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R4c is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4c is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00137] In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are independently an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are the same. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are different. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are independently a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group.
[00138] In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted monocyclic heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted bicyclic heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are taken with the intervenin ox en atoms to form an optionally substituted
bicyclic heterocyclic ring of formula:
Figure imgf000050_0001
[00139] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (ii-a) is of Formula (ii-a-1):
nts, the compound of
Figure imgf000050_0002
I-a-3-i), or a salt thereof.
[00140] In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction beween the compounds of Formula (i- a-3) and Formula (ii-a) is achieved with high regioselectivity of the bromo-enone over R1a and high stereoselectivity with one or more chiral catalyst ligands (see the Catalystic
Condition Section). The compounds of Formulae (I-a-3) and (I-a-3-i) provide an efficient synthesis of the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B.
[00141] In one aspect, provided herein is a method of preparing a compound of Formula (I-a- 4):
Figure imgf000050_0003
or a salt thereof, comprising cyclizing a compound of Formula (I-a-5):
Figure imgf000051_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein; and RPA is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group.
[00142] In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises deprotecting the compound of Formula (I-a-5), i.e., converting R4b and R4c to hydrogen.
[00143] In certain embodiments, the steps of cyclizing further comprising equilibrating the deprotected compound of Formula (I-a-5) with one or more bases. The equilibrating step isomerizes the C12 chiral center (see Figure 15). It is to be understood that any organic and inorgance base is applicable as long as the base does not interfere with any functional groups of the deprotected compound of Formula (I-a-5). In certain embodiments, the base is one or more organic or inorganic bases. In certain embodiments, the base is one organic or inorganic base. In certain embodiments, the base is sodium carbonate, 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7- ene (DBU), or tetramethylguanidine In certain embodiments, the base is a combination of two or more organic or inorganic bases. In certain embodiments, the bases are 1,8- diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) and tetramethylguanidine.
[00144] In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a Brønsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), p- toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA), camphorsulfonic acid (CSA), pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS), and sulfonic acid exchange resin (Amberlyst, Dowex). In certain embodiments, the acid is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS).
[00145] In certain embodiments, the steps of cyclizing further comprises contacting the equilibration reaction mixture with one or more ion-exchange resins. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resins are polymer-bound guanidine and polymer-bound pyridinium p- toluenesulfonate (PPTS).
[00146] In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid in an ion-exchange resin device. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins. In certain
embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4 Å molecular sieves); and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4 Å molecular sieves). In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device is as shown in Figure 2.
[00147] In certain embodiments, the provided method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B further comprises the step of protecting a compound of Formula (I-a- 3):
Figure imgf000052_0001
( ),
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-a-5):
Figure imgf000052_0002
( a 5),
or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, R4c, and RP1 are as defined herein.
[00148] In certain embodiments, RPA is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPA is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPA is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, RPA is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPA is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00149] In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are independently a silyl protecting group; and RPA is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are a t- butyldimethylsilyl protecting group; and RPA is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group; and RPA is an optionally substituted benzoylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are t- butyldimethylsilyl protecting groups; and RPA is an optionally substituted p-NO2-benzoylic protecting group.
[00150] In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring and RPA is an acyl protecting group an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted monocyclic heterocyclic ring and RPA is an acyl protecting group an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted bicyclic heterocyclic ring of
the formula:
Figure imgf000053_0001
; and RPA is an optionally substituted benzoylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted bicyclic heterocyclic ring of the formula:
Figure imgf000054_0001
and RPA is an optionally substituted p-NO2-benzoylic protecting group. L being ethynylene
[00151] In certain embodiments of the provided coupling method between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii), the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i- b):
Figure imgf000054_0002
(i-b), or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b):
Figure imgf000054_0003
or a salt thereof, wherein R1, R2, R3, R4, and R7 are as defined herein.
[00152] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-1):
Figure imgf000054_0004
(i-b-1) or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b- 1)
Figure imgf000054_0005
(I-b-1) or a salt thereof, wherein R1, R4, and R7 are as defined herein.
[00153] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-2):
Figure imgf000054_0006
(i-b-2), or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I- b-2):
Figure imgf000055_0001
(I-b-2) or a salt thereof, wherein R1, R4, and R7 are as defined herein.
[00154] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-3):
Figure imgf000055_0002
(i-b-3) or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b- 3)
Figure imgf000055_0003
(I-b-3) or a salt thereof, wherein R1, R4, and R7 are as defined herein. [00155] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-4):
Figure imgf000055_0004
(i-b-4), or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I- b-4):
Figure imgf000055_0005
(I-b-4) or a salt thereof, wherein R1, R4, and R7 are as defined herein. Methods for preparing C1-C19 building block of halichondrins
[00156] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method can be applied to
synthesizing the C1-C19 building blocks of halichodrin A, B, and C, and analogs thereof (e.g., norhalichondrin A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C). The synthesis involves formation of an intermediate of Formula (I-b-5). In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-5):
Figure imgf000056_0001
(i-b-5), or a salt thereof, and the
aldehyde of Formula (ii) is of Formula (ii-a):
Figure imgf000056_0002
(ii-a), or a salt
thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b-5):
Figure imgf000056_0003
(I-b-5) or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein.
[00157] In another aspect of the present invention, provided herein is a method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin C and analogs (e.g., norhalichondrin C, homohalichondrin C . In certain embodiments rovided herein is a method of preparing a
compound of Formul
Figure imgf000056_0004
(I-b-6), or a salt thereof, com risin contactin a com ound of Formula (I-b-7):
Figure imgf000057_0001
(I-b-7), or a salt thereof,
with a Lewis acid and an alcohol, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein, and R10 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
[00158] In certain embodiments, R10 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R10 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R10 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R10 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R10 is substituted alkyl. In certain
embodiments, R10 is optionally substituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R10 is unsubstituted alkenylalkyl. In certain embodiments, R10 is CH2=CHCH2-. In certain embodiments, R10 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R10 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R10 is an acetyl protecting group.
[00159] As generally defined herein, the Lewis acid is a chemical species that reacts with a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is a metal salt that can accept a pair of electrons. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is a metal halide. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is a metal acetate. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is a metal triflate. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is a transition metal halide. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is a transition metal acetate. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is a transition metal triflate. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is Sc(OTf)3, Ln(OTf)3, Yb(OTf)3, Lu(OTf)3, Hf(OTf)4, CuOTf. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is a hafnium(IV) salt. In certain embodiments, the Lewis acid is Hf(OTf)4.
[00160] In certain embodiments, the alcohol is an optionally substituted alkyl alcohol. In certain embodiments, the alcohol is an optionally substituted alkenylalkyl alcohol. In certain embodiments, the alcohol is an unsubstituted alkenylalkyl alcohol. In certain embodiments, the alcohol is CH2=CHCH2OH. [00161] In certain embodiments of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin C and analogs, the step of contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-7) with a Lewis acid and an alcohol further com rising the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
Figure imgf000058_0001
(I-b-8), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-b- 7):
Figure imgf000058_0002
(I-b-7), or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting comprises converting the protecting groups at R4b and R4c to hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the protecting groups at R4b and R4c are silyl protecting groups. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a source of fluoride. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF·pyridine. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF·pyridine followed by treatment with a base. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF·pyridine followed by treatment with an organic base. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF·pyridine followed by treatment with Et3N. [00162] In certain embodiments of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin C and analogs, the method further comprises the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-5):
(I-b-5), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
Figure imgf000059_0001
(I-b-8), or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting comprises converting the ketal of the compound of Formula (I-b-5) to a ketone of the compound of Formula (I-b-8). In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of an acid. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a Brønsted acid (i.e., a source of H+). [00163] In another aspect of the present invention, provided herein is a method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B and analogs (e.g., norhalichondrin B, homohalichondrin B). In certain embodiments, provided herein is a method of preparing a compound of Formula (I-a-4):
Figure imgf000060_0001
(I-a-4), or a salt thereof, comprising the steps of deprotecting a
compound of Formula (I-b-10):
Figure imgf000060_0002
(I-b-10), or a salt thereof, followed by cyclizing the deprotected compound, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, and R4b are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-10) with an acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is a Brønsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is an organic acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of p- toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA), or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA), pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS), or sulfonic acid exchange resin (Amberlyst, Dowex). In certain embodiments, the acid is p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) or
camphorsulfonic acid (CSA). In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS) or p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA). In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-10) with an ion-exchange resin. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin is an acidic polymer-bound resin. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin is a polymer-bound PPTS.
[00164] In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid in an ion-exchange resin device. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins. In certain
embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4Å molecular sieves); and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4Å molecular sieves). In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device is as shown in Figure 2.
[00165] In certain embodiments of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B and analogs, the method further comprises the step of reducing a compound of Formula (I-b- 11):
Figure imgf000061_0001
(I-b-11), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound
of Formula (I-b-10)
Figure imgf000061_0002
(I-b-10), or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, and R4b are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, the step of reducing is performed in the presence of a source of hydride. In certain embodiments, the source of hydride is one or more reagents selected from the group of consisting of lithium hydrides, copper hydrides, and boron hydrides. In certain embodiments, the source of hydride is a boron hydride. In certain embodiments, the source of hydride is (Me)4NBH(OAc).
[00166] In certain embodiments of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B and analogs, the method further comprisies the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
Figure imgf000062_0001
(I-b-8), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of
Formula (I-b-11):
Figure imgf000062_0002
(I-b-11), or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R4c to hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R4c to hydrogen, wherein both R4b and R4c are independently silyl protecting groups. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a source of fluoride. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF·pyridine.
[00167] In another aspect of the present invention, provided herein is a method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B and analogs. In certain
embodiments, provided herein is a method of preparing a compound of Formula (I-a-4):
Figure imgf000063_0001
(I-a-4), or a salt thereof, comprising the step of deprotecting a
compound of Formula (I-b-12):
Figure imgf000063_0002
(I-b-12), or a salt thereof; and cyclizing the deprotected compound, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R4c to hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R4c to hydrogen, wherein both R4b and R4c are independently silyl protecting groups. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a source of fluoride. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of TBAF. In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the reduced compound of Formula (I-b-12) with an organic acid. In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-12) with an acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is a Brønsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS) or p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA). In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the compound of Formula (I-b-12) with an ion-exchange resin. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin is an acidic polymer-bound resin. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin is a polymer- bound PPTS.
[00168] In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid in an ion-exchange resin device. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4A molecular sieves); and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4A molecular sieves). In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device is as shown in Figure 2.
[00169] In certain embodiments of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin B and analogs, the method further comprises the step of reducing a compound of Formula (I-b- 8):
Figure imgf000064_0001
(I-b-8), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-b- 12):
Figure imgf000064_0002
(I-b-12), or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, the step of reducing is performed in the presence of a source of hydride. In certain embodiments, the source of hydride is one or more selected from the group of consisting of lithium hydrides, copper hydrides, and boron hydrides. In certain embodiments, the soured of hydride is a copper hydride. In certain embodiments, the soured of hydride is 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)benzenecopper hydride ((BDP)CuH).
[00170] In anther aspect of the present invention, provided herein is a method of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin A and analogs (e.g., norhalichondrin A, homohalichondrin A). In certain embodiments, provided herein is a method of preparing a compound of Formula (I-b-13):
Figure imgf000065_0001
(I-b-13), or a salt thereof, comprising cyclizing a compound
of Formula (I-b-14):
Figure imgf000065_0002
(I-b-14), or a salt thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and 10 are as defined herein, and R11 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises oxidizing the compound of Formula (I-b-14). In certain embodiment, the step of oxidizing is to introduce the C13 hydroxyl group. In certain embodiments, the step of oxidizing is performed in the presence of an organic peroxide (e.g. a compound comprising an O-O bond). In certain embodiments, the step of oxidizing is performed in the presence of dimethyldioxirane (DMDO). In certain embodiments, the step of oxidizing further comprises contacting the oxidized compound of Formula (I-b-14) with an acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a Brønsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is an organic acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), p- toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA), or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA), pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS), or sulfonic acid exchange resin (Amberlyst, Dowex). In certain embodiments, the acid is p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA). In certain
embodiments, the acid in the step of cyclizing is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS) or p- toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA). [00171] In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the oxidized compound of Formula (I-b-14)with PPTS. In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing comprises contacting the oxidized compound of Formula (I-b-14)with an ion-exchange resin. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin is an acidic polymer-bound resin. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin is a polymer-bound PPTS.
[00172] In certain embodiments, the step of cyclizing further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid in an ion-exchange resin device. In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins. In certain
embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device comprises a first column with basic ion exhcnage resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4A molecular sieves); and a second column with acidic ion exchange resins and a dehydrating reagent (e.g., 4A molecular sieves). In certain embodiments, the ion-exchange resin device is as shown in Figure 2.
[00173] In certain embodiments of synthesizing the C1-C19 building block of halichodrin A and analogs, the method further comprises the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
Figure imgf000066_0001
(I-b-8), or a salt thereof,
to give a compound of Formula (I-b-14):
Figure imgf000067_0001
(I-b-14), or a salt thereof,
wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and 10 are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R4c to hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is to convert the protecting group at R4c to hydrogen, wherein both R4b and R4c are independently silyl protecting groups. In certain embodiments, this step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of a source of fluoride. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF·pyridine. Methods for preparing C20-C38 building block of halicondrins
[00174] Provided herein are methods for preparing C20-C38 buliding blocks of halichondrins and analogs thereof (e.g., halichondrins A, B, C; homohalichondrin A, B, C; norhalichindrin A, B, C; eribulin). In certain embodiments, C20-C38 building blocks of the halichondrins are compounds of Formula (TJ-1):
Figure imgf000067_0002
.
[00175] In certain embodiments, a compound of Formula (TJ-1) is a compound of Formula (III-1). Compounds of Formula (III-1) can be prepared as shown in Scheme A. Scheme A
Figure imgf000068_0001
[00176] Provided herein is a method of preparing a compound of Formula (III-1):
Figure imgf000068_0002
,
or a salt thereof, the method comprising a step of reducing a compound of Formula (III-2):
Figure imgf000068_0003
,
or a salt thereof. The step of reducing converts the–CO2RZ5a moiety to an aldehyde moiety. In certain embodiments, the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride (i.e., H-) source. Any hydride source known in the art may be used in this transformation.
Examples of hydride sources include, but are not limited to, lithium aluminum hydride, sodium borohydride, and diisobutylaluminum hydride. In certain embodiments, the hydride source is diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL). The step of reducing may optionally comprise reducing the–CO2RZ5a moiety to an alcohol, followed by oxidation of the resulting alcohol to an aldehyde to yield a compound of Formula (III-1).
[00177] As shown in Scheme A, the method of preparing a compound of Formula (III-1) optionally comprises steps of deprotecting and reprotecting the moiety corresponding to– ORP5. The steps of deprotection and reprotection serve to change the group RP5 from one protecting group to another. For example, in certain embodiments, the group RP5 can be changed from a para-methoxyphenyl (MPM) group to an acyl group via deprotection and reprotection.
[00178] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (III-1), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-1-a):
Figure imgf000069_0001
,
or a salt thereof, wherein RP5 of Formula (III-1) is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting comprises reacting a compound of Formula (III-1) in the presence of a reagent for deprotection. For example, in certain embodiments, RP5 is a para-methoxyphenyl protecting group (MPM), and the reagent for deprotection is an oxidant. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a para-methoxyphenyl protecting group (MPM), and the reagent for deprotection is 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ). In certain embodiments, RP5 is a para-methoxyphenyl protecting group (MPM), and the reagent for deprotection is an oxidant. In certain embodiments, the reagent for deprotection is
dimethylboron bromide, magnesium bromide-dimethyl sulfide, ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN), or an acid. The MPM protecting group may also be removed via hydrogenolysis using hydrogen gas.
[00179] As described herein, a compound of Formula (III-a) may be reprotected to yield a compound of Formula (III-1). Therefore, in certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-1-a), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-1), or a salt thereof. In certain
embodiments, the step of protecting involves acylating the free alcohol (e.g., installing RP5 as an acyl protecting group). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of an acylating agent (e.g., an acyl halide or acyl anhydride). In certain
embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl chloride or acetyl anhydride (e.g., to install RP5 as–C(=O)CH3). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl anhydride. In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a coupling reagent and/or a base. In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of an amine base (e.g., a trialkylamine such as triethylamine or N,N-diisoproylethylamine). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a pyridine base or coupling reagent. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of pyridine. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP).
[00180] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 buliding block comprises a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-3):
Figure imgf000070_0001
,
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-2):
Figure imgf000070_0002
,
or a salt thereof. The step of protecting involves protecting the primary and secondary free alcohols of a compound of Formula (III-3) to introduce the groups RZ4a and RP4. The two alcohols may be protected in separate steps or the same step, and may be protected with the same or different protecting groups (e.g., RZ4a and RP4 are the same or different). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a protecting reagent. For example, in certain embodiments, RZ4a and RP4 are trialkylsilyl groups, and the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilyl halide or a trialkylsilyl sulfonate. For example, in certain embodiments, RZ4a and RP4 are tert-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS), and the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of tert-butyldimethylsilyl
trifluoromethanesulfonate (“TBS-triflate” or“TBSOTf”). The step of protecting may optionally be carried out in the presence of a base.
[00181] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 buliding block comprises a step of deprotecting and cyclizing a compound of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000071_0001
,
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-3):
Figure imgf000071_0002
,
or a salt thereof. The step of deprotecting and cyclizing involves deprotecting the two ketals of a compound of Formula (III-4), followed by a cyclization reaction to provide the new six- membered ring of the compound of Formula (III-3). The deprotecting and cyclizing may be done in the same step, or in separate steps, and in either order. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of an acid (e.g., Lewis acid, Bronsted acid). In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a hydride source. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilyl sulfonate or trialkylsilyl halide. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilane. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilyl trifluoromethylsulfonate (“TES-triflate” or“TESOTf”). In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilane. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of TESOTf and triethylsilane.
[00182] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of coupling a compound of Formula (III-5):
Figure imgf000072_0001
(III-5) ,
or a salt thereof, with a compound of Formula (III-6):
Figure imgf000072_0002
,
or a salt thereof, in the presence of a chromium cayalyst and optionally one or more catalysts, to yield a compound of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000072_0003
,
or a salt thereof. The coupling may be any chromium-mediated coupling reaction known in the art or described herein, and involve any catalysts or reagents known in the art or described herein. In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is a chromium complex (i.e., comprising a ligand). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is chromium sulfonamide (see, e.g., Namba K et al., Org. Lett., 2004, 6(26), 5031-5033; Ueda et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2014, 136, 5171-5176). In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1), described herein. In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is of the following formula:
Figure imgf000073_0001
. In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamde is formed by contacting a chromium salt (e.g., CrCl2) with a sulfonamide. In certain embodiments, the sulfonamide is of Formula (S-2), as described herein. In certain
embodiments, the sulfonamide is of the formula: . In certain
Figure imgf000073_0002
embodiments, the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of a nickel catalyst. Any nickel catalyst known in art or described herein may be used. In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is a catalyst of Formula (N-1), described herein. In certain embodiments, the
R
R nickel catalyst is of the following formula:
Figure imgf000073_0003
. In certain embodiments, the
nickel catalyst is (Me)6Phen-NiCl2, of the formula:
Figure imgf000073_0004
. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling may be carried out in the presence of one or more additional reagents (e.g., salts, bases, metals). In certain embodiments, the step of coupling may be carried out in the presence of one or more additional agents selected from the group consisting of lithium salts (e.g., LiCl), transition metals (e.g., Mn), and zirconium complexes (e.g., Cp2ZrCl2). In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is be carried out in the presence of LiCl, Mn, and Cp2ZrCl2. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of a proton sponge. [00183] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing C20-C38 buliding block comprises a step of reducing a compound of Formula (III-7):
Figure imgf000074_0001
,
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-5):
Figure imgf000074_0002
( ) ,
or a salt thereof. The step of reducing is to convert the–CO2RZ5a moiety to an aldehyde moiety. In certain embodiments, the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride (i.e., H-) source. Any hydride source known in the art may be used in this transformation. Examples of hydride sources include, but are not limited to, lithium aluminum hydride, sodium borohydride, and diisobutylaluminum hydride. In certain embodiments, the hydride source is diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL). The step of reducing may optionally comprise reducing the–CO2RZ5a moiety to an alcohol, followed by oxidation of the alcohol to an aldehyde to yield a compound of Formula (III-5).
[00184] C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins (e.g., halichondrin A, B, C;
homohalichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C) and analogs thereof may be of Formula (III-11):
Figure imgf000074_0003
[00185] The present invention provides methods of preparing C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins, including compounds of Formula (III-11). Compounds of Formula (III-11) can be coupled with C1-C19 building blocks described herein (e.g., compounds of Formula (TC-1) in order to prepare the macrocyclic right halves of the halichondrins. Compounds of Formula (III-11) may be prepared as shown in Scheme B. Scheme B
Figure imgf000075_0001
[00186] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing a compound of Formula (III-11) comprises a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-10):
Figure imgf000075_0002
,
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-11). The step of protecting serves to protect the free secondary alcohol of a compound of Formula (III-10) and install the group RP5. In certain embodiments, the step of protecting involves acylating the free alcohol (e.g., installing RP5 as an acyl protecting group). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of an acylating agent (e.g., an acyl halide or acyl anhydride). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl chloride or acetyl anhydride (e.g., to install RP5 as–C(=O)CH3). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl anhydride. In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of an amine base (e.g., a trialkylamine such as triethylamine or N,N-diisoproylethylamine). In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a pyridine base or coupling reagent. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of pyridine. In certain embodiments, the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a coupling reagent and/or a base. In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP).
[00187] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of reducing a compound of Formula (III-9):
Figure imgf000076_0001
,
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-10):
Figure imgf000076_0002
,
or a salt thereof. The step of reducing is to convert the–CO2RZ5a moiety to an aldehyde. In certain embodiments, the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride (i.e., H-) source. Any hydride source known in the art may be used in this transformation. Examples of hydride sources include, but are not limited to, lithium aluminum hydride, sodium
borohydride, and diisobutylaluminum hydride. In certain embodiments, the hydride source is diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL). The step of reducing may optionally comprise reducing the–CO2RZ5a moiety to an alcohol, followed by oxidation of the resulting alcohol to an aldehyde to yield a compound of Formula (III-10). [00188] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 buliding block comprises a step of ketalizing a compound of Formula (III-8), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-9), or a salt thereof. For example, in certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises a step of contacting a compound of Formula (III-8):
Figure imgf000077_0001
,
or a salt thereof, with a compound of the formula: ,
or a salt thereof, in the presence of an acid to yield a compound of Formula (III-9):
Figure imgf000077_0002
,
or a salt thereof. The acid used in this transformation may be a Lewis acid or a Bronsted acid. The acid may be used in a catalytic, stoichiometric, or excess amount. In certain
embodiments, the acid is a Bronsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a sulfonic acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is a pyridinium salt. In certain embodiments, the acid is a pyridinium salt of a sulfonic acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is pyridinium p- toluenesulfonate (PPTS). In certain embodiments, the step of ketalizing is carried out in the presence of one or more additonal reagents (e.g., ketals). In certain embodiments, the reaction is carried out in the presence of an additonal ketal (e.g., 2,2-dimethoxypropane). In certain embodiments, the reaction is carried out in the presence of 2,2-dimethoxypropane. [00189] In certain embodiments, the method of preparing a C20-C38 building block comprises steps of deprotecting and cyclizing a compound of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000078_0001
,
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-8):
Figure imgf000078_0002
,
or a salt thereof. The steps of deprotecting and cyclizing may be carried out in separate steps and in either order; or optionally in the same step. In certain embodiments, the deprotecting and cyclizing are carried out in the same step. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of an acid (e.g., Lewis acid, Bronsted acid). In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a hydride source. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilyl sulfonate or trialkylsilyl halide. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilane. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilyl trifluoromethylsulfonate (“TES-triflate” or“TESOTf”). In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilane. In certain embodiments, the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of TESOTf and triethylsilane. Catalytic coupling reaction condition
[00190] The provided coupling method between the compound of Formula (i) and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is a catalytic chromium-mediated coupling reaction. [00191] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method is a catalytic asymmetric Cr- mediated coupling reaction. In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is a chromium complex (i.e., comprising a ligand). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is chromium sulfonamide (see, e.g., Namba K et al., Org. Lett., 2004, 6(26), 5031-5033).
[00192] In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1):
Figure imgf000079_0001
wherein
Rs1 is halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
Rs2 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group;
Rs3 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
each instance of Rs4 is independently hydrogen, halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkoxy, an optionally substituted amino group, or optionally substituted acyl;
X1 is halogen;
each instance of X2 is independently halogen or a solvent;
u is 0 or an integer between 1 and 4, inclusive; and
g is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. [00193] In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-a) or (S-1- a’):
Figure imgf000080_0001
[00194] In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-a):
Figure imgf000080_0002
[00195] In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-b):
Figure imgf000080_0003
[00196] In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-c):
Figure imgf000080_0004
[00197] In certain embodiments, the chromium sulfonamide is prepared by contacting a chromium salt with a ligand of Formula (S-2):
Figure imgf000081_0001
wherein Rs1, Rs2, Rs3, Rs4, and u are as defined herein.
[00198] In certain embodiments, the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-a)
Figure imgf000081_0002
[00199] In certain embodiments the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-b):
Figure imgf000081_0003
[00200] In certain embodiments, t ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-b-i):
Figure imgf000081_0004
[00201] In certain embodiments, the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c):
Figure imgf000081_0005
wherein Rs1, Rs2, Rs3, Rs4, and v are as defined herein.
[00202] In certain embodiments, the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c-i):
Figure imgf000082_0001
[00203] In certain embodiments, the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c-iii):
Figure imgf000082_0002
[00204] In certain embodiments, X1 is chloride. In certain embodiments, X1 is bromide.
[00205] In certain embodiments, X2 is a halogen. In certain embodiments, X2 is Cl. In certain embodiments, X2 is Br. In certain embodiments, X2 is I. In certain embodiments, X2 is a solvent. In certain embodiments, the solvent comprises N, O, and/or S. In certain
embodiments, the solvent for generating the chromium sulfonamide is THF. In certain embodiments, the solvent for generating the chromium sulfonamide is pyridine.
[00206] In certain embodiments, g is 1. In certain embodiments, g is 2. In certain
embodiments, g is 3.
[00207] In certain embodiments, u is 0. In certain embodiments, u is 1. In certain
embodiments, u is 2. In certain embodiments, u is 3.
[00208] In certain embodiments, X1 is chloride; X2 is pyridine; g is 1 or 2; and u is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, X1 is chloride; X2 is pyridine; g is 1; and u is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, X1 is chloride; X2 is pyridine; g is 2; and u is 1, 2, or 3.
[00209] In certain embodiments, Rs1 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, Rs1 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, Rs1 is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n- butyl, s-butyl, t-butyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is i-propyl. In certain embodiments, R1 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, Rs1 is substituted alkyl.
[00210] In certain embodiments, Rs2 is hydrogen. [00211] In certain embodiments, Rs3 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is optionally substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is unsubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is halogenated phenyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is optionally substituted naphthyl. In certain embodiments, Rs3 is unsubstituted naphthyl.
[00212] In certain embodiments, each instance of Rs4 is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rs4 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rs4 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of Rs4 is optionally substituted alkyl.. In certain embodiments, one instance of Rs4 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g., methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, two instances of Rs4 are optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rs4 are unsubstituted alkyl (e.g., methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, at least once instance of of Rs4 is optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rs4 are optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rs4 are unsubstituted alkoxy (e.g.–OCH3).
[00213] In certain embodiments, each instance of Rs5 is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rs5 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rs5 is halogen. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rs5 are halogen.
[00214] In certain embodiments, v is 1. In certain embodiments, v is 2.
[00215 In certain embodiments the li and of Formula S-2 is of the followin formula:
Figure imgf000083_0001
Figure imgf000084_0001
,
Figure imgf000084_0002
.
[00216] In certain embodiments, the chromium salt used to prepare the chromimum complex is chromium halide. In certain embodiments, the chromium salt is a chromium (II) salt. In certain embodiments, the chromium salt is CrCl2. In certain embodiments, the chromium salt is CrBr2. In certain embodiments, the chromium salt is a chromium (III) salt. In certain embodiments, the chromium salt is CrCl3. In certain embodiments, the chromium salt is CrBr3.
[00217] In certain embodiments, the amount of chromium or chromium complex is catalytic. In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 30 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 25 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 15 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 5 mol% to about 15 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 10 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
[00218] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling method comprises a second catalyst. In certain embodiments, the second catalyst is a transition metal or transition metal complex. In certain embodiments, the second catalyst is a nickel complex.
[00219] In certain embodiments, the nickel complex is of Formula (N-1):
Figure imgf000085_0001
wherein
each instance of Rn1 and Rn2 is independently hydrogen, halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkoxy, an optionally substituted amino group, or optionally substituted acyl;
each of Rn3 and Rn4 is independently halogen, -CN, -NO2, optionally substituted alkoxy, or an optionally substituted amino group;
s is an integer between 1 and 3, inclusive; and
t is an integer between 1 and 3, inclusive.
[00220] In certain embodiments, the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-a):
Figure imgf000086_0001
[00221] In certain embodiments, the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-a):
Figure imgf000086_0002
(N-1-a).
[00222] In certain embodiments, the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-b):
Figure imgf000086_0003
[00223] In certain embodiments the nickel com lex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-c):
Figure imgf000086_0004
1-c),
wherein
e is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; and
f is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. [00224] In certain embodiments, the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of one of the followin formulae:
,
Figure imgf000087_0001
.
[00225] In certain embodiments, each instance of Rn1 is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rn1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rn1 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of Rn1 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of Rn1 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn1 are optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn1 are unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rn1 is optionally substituted. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn1 are optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn1 are unsubstituted alkoxy (e.g.–OCH3). In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn1 are substituted alkoxy. [00226] In certain embodiments, each instance of Rn2 is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rn2 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rn2 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of Rn2 is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, one instance of Rn2 is unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn2 are optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn2 are unsubstituted alkyl (e.g. methyl or ethyl). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rn2 is optionally substituted. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn2 are optionally substituted alkoxy. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn2 are unsubstituted alkoxy (e.g.–OCH3). In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn2 are substituted alkoxy.
[00227] In certain embodiments, at least one instance of Rn1 and Rn2 are the same. In certain embodiments, two instances of Rn1 and Rn2 are the same.
[00228] In certain embodiments, the amount of nickelor nickel complex is catalytic. In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 30 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 10 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 5 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.5 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.05 mol% to about 0.1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickelcatalyst is at a concentration of about 0.1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
[00229] In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) and the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.5 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) and the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a
concentration of about 10 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) and the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 10 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) and the nickel catalyst is at a concentration of about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
[00230] In certain embodiments, an additional catalyst is present in the step of coupling. In certain embodiments, the additional catalyst is a transition metal or transitional metal complex. In certain embodiments, the additional catalyst is a silyl complex. In certain embodiments, the additional catalyst is TES-Cl. In certain embodiments, the additional catalyst is a zirconium catalyst. In certain embodiments, the zirconium catalyst is a zirconium complex. In certain embodiments, the zirconium catalyst is Zr(Cp)2Cl2.
[00231] In certain embodiments, the catalysts in the step of coupling are a chromium catalyst, a nickel complex, and a zirconium catalyst. In certain embodiments, the catalysts in the step of coupling are a chromium catalyst and a zirconium catalyst. In certain embodiments, the zirconium catalyst is a zirconium complex. In certain embodiments, the zirconium catalyst is Zr(Cp)2Cl2.
[00232] In certain embodiments, the amount of the additional catalyst is stoichiometric. In certain embodiments, the amount of zirconium complex is stoichiometric. In certain embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 0.1 eq to about 5.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 3.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain
embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 2.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.5 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
[00233] In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is performed in the presence of a reducing agent. The reducing agent can reduce chromium in the catalytic cycle. In certain embodiments, the reducing agnet is a transition metal. In certain embodiments, the reducing agnet is manganese (Mn).
[00234] In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 10.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 8.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 6.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the reducing agent is at a concentration of about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
[00235] In certain embodiments, the step of coupling is performed in the presence of an inorganic salt. In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is an IA group salt. In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is LiCl.
[00236] In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 10.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 8.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 6.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). In certain embodiments, the inorganic salt is at a concentration of about 4.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
[00237] In certain embodiments, the provided coupling reaction can be carried out in one or more aprotic solvents. The term“aprotic solvent” means a non-nucleophilic solvent having a boiling point range above ambient temperature, preferably from about 25 ºC to about 190 ºC at atmospheric pressure. In certain embodiments, the aprotic solvent has a boiling point from about 80 ºC to about 160 ºC at atmospheric pressure. In certain embodiments, the aprotic solvent has a boiling point from about 80 ºC to about 150 ºC at atmospheric pressure.
Examples of such solvents are CH2Cl2, MeCN, EtCN, toluene, DMF, diglyme, THF, and DMSO. In certain embodiments, the solvent is EtCN.
[00238] In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.05 to about 5.0 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.05 to about 3.0 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.05 to about 1.0 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.1 to about 1.0 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.1 to about 0.5 M. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii) is at the concentration of about 0.4 M. Synthesis of halichondrins
[00239] In another aspect, provided herein are methods of synthesizing halichondrin A, B, and C, and analogs thereof (e.g., homohalichondrin A, B, C; norhalichondrin A, B, C), from the C1-C19 building blocks and the C20-C38 building blocks of halichondrins provided herein. The synthetic routes presented herein include: (1) synthesis of the macrocyclic core via an asymmetric nickel/chromium-mediated coupling, followed by base-induced furan formation, and macrolactonization (Scheme T1); (2) synthesis of an unsaturated ketone intermediate via nickel/chromium-mediated coupling, followed by Dess-Martin oxidation (Schemes T2-T4); and (3) a selective acid-mediated equilibration of C38-epi-halichondrins (Schemes T2-T4).
[00240] In Scheme T1, compounds of Formula (TJ-1) are C20-C38 building blocks, and compounds of Formula (TC-1) are C1-C19 building blocks of halichondrins. These building blocks can be joined via the process shown in Scheme T1 to form right halves of
halichondrins (e.g., compounds of Formula (TE-1)). Once the right half of a halichondrin is assembled, the right half can be coupled to a left halves (e.g., compounds of Formulae (TI-1), (TK-1), and (TK-1)) via the processes shown in Schemes T2-T4.
Scheme T1
Figure imgf000091_0001
Figure imgf000092_0001
Figure imgf000093_0001
Scheme T4
Figure imgf000094_0001
[00241] As shown in Schemes T1-T4, the C1-C19 building block of halichondrins and analogs thereof are of Formula (TC-1). In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TC-1) is of Formula (I-a-4) or a salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TC-1) is of Formula (I-b-6) or a salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TC-1) is of Formula (I-b-9) or a salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TC-1) is of Formula (I-b-13) or a salt thereof.
[00242] In certain embodiments, as shown in Scheme T2, the halichondrins and analogs synthesized from the C1-C19 building blocks and C20-C38 building blocks are of Formula (TI). In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TI) is of the formula:
Figure imgf000095_0001
. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TI) is of the formula:
Figure imgf000095_0002
. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TI) is of the formula:
Figure imgf000095_0003
.
[00243] In certain embodiments, preparation of compounds of Formula (TI) and salts thereof comprises cyclizing an intermediate compound of Formula (TF-1) or a salt thereof (see Scheme T2). In certain embodiments, when a compound of Formula (TF-1) is protected (e.g., with silyl or benzylic protecting groups), the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step prior to cyclization. In certain embodiments, deprotection of a compound of Formula (TF-1) comprises a source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine). In certain embodiments, deprotection of a compound of Formula (TF-1) comprises a hydrogenolysis (e.g., a palladium or nickel catalyst and H2) or oxidation (e.g., DDQ) step. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise an acid. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise a Brønsted acid (i.e., a source of H+). In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise an organic acid (e.g., PPTS). In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions provide a compound of Formula (TI) as a single diastereomer. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions provide a diastereomeric mixture that is enriched in one of two epimeric C38 ketals. In certain embodiments, the synthetic route comprises an equilibration step to enrich a compound of Formula (TI) in one of two epimeric C38 ketals. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TI) in the (R)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TI) in the (R)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, or >5:1. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TI) in the (S)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TI) in the (S)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 10:1, or >10:1. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a silyl Lewis acid (e.g., a silicon tetrahalide or and organosilicon halide or triflate). In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises trimethylsilyl triflate. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a solvent. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a halogenated (e.g., dichloromethane) or ethereal (e.g., diethylether) solvent.
[00244] As described herein, the deprotection, cyclization, and equilibration of a compound of Formula (TF-1) to yield a compound of Formula (TI) can be performed in two steps when particular protecting groups are utilized on the intermediate (TF-1). For example, when RP1, RP2, and RP8 are TBS, and RP3, RP7, and RP4 are TES, the deprotection, cyclization, and equilibration can be performed in two steps by treating a compound of Formula (TF-1) with a fluoride source, followed by an acid. Any fluoride source known in the art may be used. Examples of fluoride sources include, but are not limtied to, HF-pyridine, KF, CsF, AgF, ammonium fluoride, and tetraalkylammonium fluorides. In certain embodiments, the fluoride source is a tetraalkylammonium fluoride (e.g., tetramethylammonium fluoride,
tetraethylammonium fluroide, tetrabutylammonium fluoride, benzyltrimethylammonium fluoride). In certain embodiments, the acid is a Bronsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is an inorganic acid (e.g., HCl, HF, HBr). In certain embodiments, the acid is an organic acid (e.g., carboxylic acid, sulfinic acid, sulfonic acid, phosphoric acid). In certain embodiments, the acid is a carboxylic acid (e.g., acetic acid, trfluoroacetic acid (TFA), pivalic acid). For example, in certain embodiments wherein RP1, RP2, and RP8 are TBS, and RP3, RP7, and RP4 are TES, a compound of Formula (TF-1) can be convered to a compound of Formula (TI) by treatment with TBAF and pivalic acid, followed by treatment with PPTS (see, e.g., Figure 29).
[00245] In certain embodiments, preparation of C38 epi-halichondrin A comprises an acid- mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of halichondrin A. In certain
embodiments, preparation of halichondrin A comprises an acid-mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of C38 epi-halichondrin A.
[00246] In certain embodiments, preparation of C38 epi-halichondrin B comprises an acid- mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of halichondrin B. In certain
embodiments, preparation of halichondrin B comprises an acid-mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of C38 epi-halichondrin B.
[00247] In certain embodiments, preparation of C38 epi-halichondrin C comprises an acid- mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of halichondrin C. In certain
embodiments, preparation of halichondrin C comprises an acid-mediated equilibration of the C38 ketal stereocenter of C38 epi-halichondrin C.
[00248] In certain embodiments, as shown in Scheme T3, the halichondrins and analogs synthesized from the C1-C19 building blocks and C20-C38 building blocks are of Formula (TII). In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TII) is of one of the following formulae:
Figure imgf000097_0001
Figure imgf000098_0001
.
[00249] In certain embodiments, preparation of compounds of Formula (TII) and salts thereof comprises cyclizing an intermediate compound of Formula (TG-1) or a salt thereof (see Scheme T3). In certain embodiments, when a compound of Formula (TG-1) is protected (e.g., with silyl or benzylic protecting groups), the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step prior to cyclization. In certain embodiments, deprotection of a compound of Formula (TG-1) comprises a source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine). In certain embodiments, deprotection of a compound of Formula (TG-1) comprises a hydrogenolysis (e.g., a palladium or nickel catalyst and H2) or oxidation (e.g., DDQ) step. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise an acid. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise a Brønsted acid (i.e., a source of H+). In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise an organic acid (e.g., PPTS). In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions provide a compound of Formula (TII) as a single diastereomer. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions provide a diastereomeric mixture that is enriched in one of two epimeric C38 ketals. In certain embodiments, the synthetic route comprises an equilibration step to enrich a compound of Formula (TII) in one of two epimeric C38 ketals. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TII) in the (R)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a aldehyde of Formula (ii) in the (R)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, or >5:1. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a aldehyde of Formula (ii) in the (S)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a aldehyde of Formula (ii) in the (S)- epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 10:1, or >10:1. In certain embodiments, the
equilibration step comprises a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a silyl Lewis acid (e.g., a silicon tetrahalide or and organosilicon halide or triflate). In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises trimethylsilyl triflate. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a solvent. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a halogenated (e.g., dichloromethane) or ethereal (e.g., diethylether) solvent. In certain embodiments, when RT7 is not hydrogen, the synthetic route comprises a hydrolysis step comprising a base (e.g., lithium, sodium, or potassium
hydroxide).
[00250] As described herein, the deprotection, cyclization, and equilibration of a compound of Formula (TG-1) to yield a compound of Formula (TII) can be performed in two synthetic steps when particular protecting groups are utilized for the intermediate (TG-1). For example, when RP10 is TBS, and RP8 and RP9 are TES, the deprotection, cyclization, and equilibration can be performed in two steps by treating a compound of Formula (TG-1) with a fluoride source, followed by an acid. Any fluoride source known in the art may be used. Examples of fluoride sources include, but are not limtied to, HF-pyridine, KF, CsF, AgF, ammonium fluoride, and tetraalkylammonium fluorides. In certain embodiments, the fluoride source is a tetraalkylammonium fluoride (e.g., tetramethylammonium fluoride, tetraethylammonium fluroide, tetrabutylammonium fluoride, benzyltrimethylammonium fluoride). In certain embodiments, the acid is a Bronsted acid. In certain embodiments, the acid is an inorganic acid (e.g., HCl, HF, HBr). In certain embodiments, the acid is an organic acid (e.g., carboxylic acid, sulfinic acid, sulfonic acid, phosphoric acid). In certain embodiments, the acid is a carboxylic acid (e.g., acetic acid, trfluoroacetic acid (TFA), pivalic acid). For example, in certain embodiments wherein RP10 is TBS, and RP8 and RP9 are TES, a compound of Formula (TG-1) can be convered to a compound of Formula (TII) by treatment with TBAF and pivalic acid, followed by treatment with PPTS (see, e.g., Figure 29).
[00251] In certain embodiments, preparation of a compound of Formula (TG-1) or salt thereof comprises joining an intermediate compound of Formula (TE-1) or salt thereof and an intermediate of Formula (TK-1) or salt thereof (see Scheme T3). In certain embodiments, when RTZ4 is–CH2ORTZ4a and RTZ4a is a protecting group, the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step. In certain embodiments, when RTZ4a is a silyl protecting group (e.g., t- butyldimethylsilyl), selective deprotection of RTZ4a comprises a mild source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine). In certain embodiments, when RTZ4 is–CH2OH, the synthetic route comprises an oxidation step. In certain embodiments, RTZ4 is oxidized into an aldehyde (– CHO) under mild and selective conditions (e.g., Dess-Martin periodinane, SO3•pyridine, or Swern oxidation). Compounds of Formula (TE-1) are joined with a compound of Formula (TK-1) under reductive coupling conditions. In certain embodiments, the conditions used to join a compound of Formula (TE-1) with a compound of Formula (TK-1) comprise a transition metal (e.g., nickel or chromium). In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalytic in transition metal (e.g., 2-40 mol%). In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is stoichiometric in transition metal (e.g., 1-3 equivalents). In certain embodiments, the coupling comprises a ligand or ligated transition metal complex. The reaction used to join a compound of Formula (TE-1) and Formula (TK-1) provides an intermediate hydroxy group that must be oxidized to provide a compound of Formula (TG-1). In certain embodiments, the oxidation is carried out under mild and selective conditions (e.g., Dess-Martin periodinane, SO3•pyridine, or Swern oxidation).
[00252] In certain embodiments, as shown in Scheme T4, the halichondrins and analogs synthesized from the C1-C19 building blocks and C20-C38 building blocks are of Formula (TIII). In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (TIII) is of one of the following formulae:
Figure imgf000100_0001
Figure imgf000101_0001
.
[00253] In certain embodiments, preparation of compounds of Formula (TIII) and salts thereof comprises cyclizing an intermediate compound of Formula (TH-1) or a salt thereof (see Scheme T4). In certain embodiments, when a compound of Formula (TH-1) is protected (e.g., with silyl or benzylic protecting groups), the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step prior to cyclization. In certain embodiments, deprotection of a compound of Formula (TG-1) comprises a source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine). In certain embodiments, deprotection of a compound of Formula (TH-1) comprises a hydrogenolysis (e.g., a palladium or nickel catalyst and H2) or oxidation (e.g., DDQ) step. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise an acid. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise a Brønsted acid (i.e., a source of H+). In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions comprise an organic acid (e.g., PPTS). In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions provide a compound of Formula (TIII) as a single diastereomer. In certain embodiments, the cyclization conditions provide a diastereomeric mixture that is enriched in one of two epimeric C38 ketals. In certain embodiments, the synthetic route comprises an equilibration step to enrich a compound of Formula (TIII) in one of two epimeric C38 ketals. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TIII) in the (R)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TIII) in the (R)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, or >5:1. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TIII) in the (S)-epimer. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step enriches a compound of Formula (TIII) in the (S)-epimer in a range of 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 10:1, or >10:1. In certain
embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a Lewis acid. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a silyl Lewis acid (e.g., a silicon tetrahalide or and organosilicon halide or triflate). In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises trimethylsilyl triflate. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a solvent. In certain embodiments, the equilibration step comprises a halogenated (e.g., dichloromethane) or ethereal (e.g., diethylether) solvent. [00254] In certain embodiments, preparation of a compound of Formula (TH-1) or a salt thereof comprises joining an intermediate compound of Formula (TE-1) or a salt thereof and an intermediate of Formula (TL-1) or a salt thereof. In certain embodiments, when RTZ4 is– CH2ORTZ4a and RTZ4a is a protecting group, the synthetic route comprises a deprotection step. In certain embodiments, when RTZ4a is a silyl protecting group (e.g., t-butyldimethylsilyl), selective deprotection of RTZ4a comprises a mild source of fluoride (e.g., TBAF, HF•pyridine). In certain embodiments, when RTZ4 is–CH2OH, the synthetic route comprises an oxidation step. In certain embodiments, RTZ4 is oxidized into an aldehyde (–CHO) under mild and selective conditions (e.g., Dess-Martin periodinane, SO3•pyridine, or Swern oxidation).
Compounds of Formula (TE-1) are joined with a compound of Formula (TL-1) under reductive coupling conditions. In certain embodiments, the conditions used to join a compound of Formula (TE-1) with a compound of Formula (TL-1) comprise a transition metal (e.g., nickel or chromium). In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is catalytic in transition metal (e.g., 2-40 mol%). In certain embodiments, the coupling reaction is stoichiometric in transition metal (e.g., 1-3 equivalents). In certain embodiments, the coupling comprises a ligand or ligated transition metal complex. The reaction used to join a compound of Formula (TE-1) and Formula (TL-1) provides an intermediate hydroxy group that must be oxidized to provide a compound of Formula (TH-1). In certain embodiments, the oxidation is carried out under mild and selective conditions (e.g., Dess-Martin
periodinane, SO3•pyridine, or Swern oxidation). Groups RP1-P19
[00255] As generally described herein, RP1, RP2, RP3, RP4, RP5, RP6, RP7, RP8, RP9, RP10, RP11, RP12, RP13, RP14, RP15, RP16, RP17, RP18, and RP19 are each independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
[00256] In certain embodiments, RP1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP1 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP1 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP1 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP1 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP1 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP1 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP1 is propyl. In certain
embodiments, RP1 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP1 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP1 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP1 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00257] In certain embodiments, RP2 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP2 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP2 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP2 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP2 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP2 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP2 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP2 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP2 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP2 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP2 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP2 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. [00258] In certain embodiments, RP3 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP3 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP3 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP3 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP3 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP3 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP3 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP3 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP3 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP3 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP3 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP3 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00259] In certain embodiments, RP4 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP4 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP4 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP4 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP4 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP4 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP4 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP4 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP4 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP4 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP4 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP4 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00260] In certain embodiments, RP5 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP5 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP5 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is unsubstituted acyl. In certain embodiments, RP5 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a t– butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP5 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00261] In certain embodiments, RP6 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP6 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP6 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP6 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP6 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP6 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP6 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP6 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP6 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP6 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP6 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP6 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00262] In certain embodiments, RP7 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP7 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP7 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP7 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP7 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP7 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP7 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP7 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP7 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP7 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP7 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP7 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00263] In certain embodiments, RP8 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP8 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP8 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP8 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP8 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP8 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP8 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP8 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP8 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP8 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP8 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP8 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00264] In certain embodiments, RP9 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP9 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP9 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP9 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP9 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP9 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP9 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP9 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP9 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP9 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RP9 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP9 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00265] In certain embodiments, RP10 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP10 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is substituted or
unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RP10 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP10 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. [00266] In certain embodiments, RP11 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP11 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is substituted or
unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RP11 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP11 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00267] In certain embodiments, RP12 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP12 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain emb is substituted or
unsubstituted C
Figure imgf000109_0001
1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R ed or unsubstituted, branched C
Figure imgf000109_0002
1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP12 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP12 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP12 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP12 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP12 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, R
Figure imgf000109_0003
is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R
Figure imgf000109_0004
is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R
Figure imgf000109_0005
is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments,
Figure imgf000110_0001
is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, R is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, R
Figure imgf000110_0002
is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments,
Figure imgf000110_0003
is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP12 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00268] In certain embodiments, RP13 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP13 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is substituted or
unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RP13 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP13 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00269] In certain embodiments, RP14 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP14 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is substituted or
unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RP14 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP14 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00270] In certain embodiments, RP15 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP15 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is substituted or
unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RP15 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP15 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00271] In certain embodiments, RP16 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RP16 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is substituted or
unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RP16 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RP16 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. Groups RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5
[00272] As generally described herein, RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl.
[00273] In certain embodiments, RT1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RT1 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, RT1 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, RT1 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, RT1 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, R1 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, RT1 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is butyl. In certain embodiments, RT1 is t-butyl.
[00274] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT1 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT1 is attached is (R).
[00275] In certain embodiments, RT2 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RT2 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, RT2 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, RT2 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, RT2 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, RT2 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, RT2 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is butyl. In certain embodiments, RT2 is t-butyl.
[00276] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT2 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT2 is attached is (R).
[00277] In certain embodiments, RT3 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RT3 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, RT3 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, RT3 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, RT3 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT3 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT3 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT3 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT3 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RT3 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, RT3 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, RT3 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R3 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RT3 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RT3 is butyl. In certain embodiments, RT3 is t-butyl. [00278] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT3 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT3 is attached is (R).
[00279] In certain embodiments, RT5 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RT5 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, RT5 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, RT5 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, RT5 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, RT5 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, RT5 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is butyl. In certain embodiments, RT5 is t-butyl.
[00280] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT5 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT5 is attached is (R).
[00281] In certain embodiments, all of RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, all of RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are independently substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, all of RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are independently substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, all of RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are independently unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain
embodiments, all of RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are methyl. In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which each of RT1, RT2, and RT3 is attached is (S); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT5 is attached is (R). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which each of RT1, RT2, and RT3 is attached is (S); the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT5 is attached is (R); and all of RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are methyl. Groups RT4 and RT6
[00282] As generally described herein, RT4 and RT6 are each independently hydrogen, haloge stituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT4 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000114_0001
group. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, both of RT4 are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is substituted or
unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is methyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)- configuration. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)-configuration. In certain embodiments, both of RT4 are methyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is propyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is butyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT4 is t-butyl. In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT4 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT4 is attached is (R). In certain embodiments, two RT4 groups are taken together to form a
Figure imgf000115_0001
group.
[00283] In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, both of RT6 are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is fluorine. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is methyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (S)-configuration. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is methyl; and the carbon to which the methyl group is attached is in the (R)- configuration. In certain embodiments, both of RT6 are methyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is propyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is butyl. In certain embodiments, at least one RT6 is t-butyl. In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT6 is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RT6 is attached is (R). In certain embodiments, two RT6 groups are taken together to form a group.
Figure imgf000116_0001
[00284] In certain embodiments, two RT4 groups are taken together to form a
Figure imgf000116_0002
group; and two RT6 groups are taken together to form a
Figure imgf000116_0003
group. Groups RTX, RTY, RTX1, RTY1, and RTXY
[00285] As generally described herein, RTX is hydrogen or–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; RTY is hydrogen or–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and RTX and RTY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring.
[00286] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTX is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTX is attached is (R).
[00287] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of RTY is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of RTY is (R).
[00288] In certain embodiments, RTX is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RTX is–ORTX1. In certain embodiments, RTY is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RTY is–ORTY1. In certain embodiments, RTX and RTY are hydrogen. In certain embodiments, one of RTX and RTY is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RTX is hydrogen, and RTY is–ORTY1. In certain embodiments, RTY is hydrogen, and RTX is–ORTX1. In certain embodiments, each of RTX is– ORTX1; and RTY is–ORTY1. In certain embodiments, RTX is–ORTX1; RTY is–ORTY1; and RTX1 and RTX1 are taken together with the intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, RTX is–ORTX1; RTY is–ORTY1; and RTX1 and RTX1 are taken together with the intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted dioxane.
[00289] In certain embodiments, RTX1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTX1 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00290] In certain embodiments, RTY1 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is substituted or
unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RTY1 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00291] In certain embodiments, both RTX1 and RTY1 are hydrogen.
[00292] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTX is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTX is attached is (R). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTY is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTY is attached is (R).
[00293] In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTX is attached is (S); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTY is attached is (S). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTX is attached is (R); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTY is attached is (R). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTX is attached is (S); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTY is attached is (R). In certain embodiments, the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTX is attached is (R); and the stereochemical configuration of the carbon atom to which RTY is attached is (S).
[00294] In certain embodiments, RTX and RTY are taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, RTX and RTY form a substituted or unsubstituted, 5-membered heterocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, RX and RTY form a substituted or unsubstituted, 6-membered heterocyclic ring. In certain
embodiments, RTX and RTY form a substituted or unsubstituted dioxolane. In certain embodiments, RTX and RTY form a mono-substituted dioxolane. In certain embodiments, RTX and RTY form a dioxolane substituted with one instance of a substituted or unsubstituted phenyl ring. In certain embodiments, RTX and RTY form a dioxolane substituted with one instance of a mono-substituted phenyl ring. In certain embodiments, RTX and RTY form a substituted or unsubstituted dioxane. Group RT7
[00295] In certain embodiments, RT7 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RT7 is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT7 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT7 is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT7 is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RT7 is methyl. In certain embodiments, RT7 is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RT7 is propyl. In certain embodiments, RT7 is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RT7 is t-butyl. In certain
embodiments, RT7 is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RT7 is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. Groups XT, RZ1, RZ4, RZ5, RZ1a, RZ4a, and RZ5a
[00296] As generally described herein, XT is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, XT is bromine. In certain embodiments, XT is iodine.
[00297] As generally described herein, RZ1 is–CO2RZ1a, wherein RZ1a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group.In certain embodiments, RZ1a is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is methyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is propyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is iso- propyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is t-butyl. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a t- butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ1a is an ethoxyethyl protecting group.
[00298] As generally described herein, RZ4 is–CH2ORZ4a or–CHO, wherein RZ4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is substituted or
unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is methyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is propyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is t- butyl. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a p- methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ4a is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. [00299] As generally described herein, RZ5 is–CO2RZ5a,–CH2ORZ5a, or–CHO, wherein RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5 is–CH2ORZ5a. In certain embodiments, RZ5 is –CHO. In certain embodiments, RZ5 is–CO2RZ5a. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is substituted or unsubstitituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is substituted or unsubstituted, branched C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is methyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5 is–CH2ORZ5a ; and RZ5a is methyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is ethyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is propyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is t-butyl. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a trialkyl silyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a t-butyldimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a trimethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a triethylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a t-butyldiphenylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a triisopropylsilyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a benzylic protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a p-methoxybenzyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is an acyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is an acetyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a p-nitro benzoyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a pivaloyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a t–butyl carbonate (BOC) protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is an acetal protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is a tetrahydropyranyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is an alkoxyalkyl protecting group. In certain embodiments, RZ5a is an ethoxyethyl protecting group. Groups RZ2 and RZ3
[00300] As generally described herein, RZ2 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I) or a leaving group. In certain embodiments, RZ2 is chlorine. In certain embodiments, RZ2 is bromine. In certain embodiments, RZ2 is iodine.
[00301] As generally described herein, RZ3 is halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I). In certain embodiments, RZ3 is bromine. In certain embodiments, RZ3 is iodine. Group RA [00302] As generally defined herein, each instance of RA is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or optionally two RA are joined to thether with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, at least one of RA is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one of RA is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, two RA are joined together to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, two RA are joined together to form optionally substituted 5-to-6 memebered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, two RA are joined together to form optionally substituted 6-memebered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, two RA are joined together to form substituted 6- memebered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, two RA are joined together to form the
following structure:
Figure imgf000122_0001
Group RB
[00303] As generally defined herein, each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is optionally substituted C1-3 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is methyl. In certain embodiments, both RB are methyl. Group RB
[00304] As generally defined herein, each instance of RB is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain
embodiments, at least one instance of RB is optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is optionally substituted C1-3 alkyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n- propyl, iso-propyl). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of RB is methyl. In certain embodiments, both RB are methyl. Group RPC
[00305] As generally defined herein, each instance of RPC is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted C1-3 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl). In certain embodiments, RPC is methyl. Group RPC
[00306] As generally defined herein, each instance of RPC is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted C1-3 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl). In certain embodiments, RPC is methyl. Group RPC
[00307] As generally defined herein, each instance of RPC is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is optionally substituted C1-3 alkyl. In certain embodiments, RPC is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl). In certain embodiments, RPC is methyl. Group X3
[00308] As generally defined herein, X3 is a halogen (e.g.,–F,–Cl,–Br, or–I) or a leaving group. In certain embodiments, X3 is a fluorine. In certain embodiments, X3 is a chlorine. In certain embodiments, X3 is a bromine. In certain embodimetns, X3 is an iodine. I certain embodiments, X3 is a leaving group. Compounds
[00309] In another aspect, provided herein are intermediates in the synthesis of halichondrins A, B, and C, and analogs thereof. In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (I-b-6):
Figure imgf000124_0001
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, and R10 are as defined herein.
[00310] In another as ect rovided herein are com ounds of Formula (I-b-7):
Figure imgf000124_0002
7), and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, and R4a are as defined herein. [00311] In another aspect, rovided herein are com ounds of Formula (I-b-12):
Figure imgf000125_0001
(I-b-12),
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein R1a, R1d, R4a, R4b, and R4c are as defined herein.
[00312] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (III-2):
Figure imgf000125_0002
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT3, RP5, RT5, RZ5a, RP4, and RZ4a are as defined herein.
[00313] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (III-3):
Figure imgf000125_0003
),
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT3, RP5, RT5, and RZ4a are as defined herein. [00314] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000126_0001
,
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT3, RP5, RT5, RZ5a, RA, and RB are as defined herein.
[00315] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (III-5):
Figure imgf000126_0002
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT3, RP5, and RB are as defined herein.
[00316] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (III-8):
Figure imgf000126_0003
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT3, RT5, and RZ5a are as defined herein. [00317] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (III-9):
Figure imgf000127_0001
,
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT3, RT5, RB, and RZ5a are as defined herein.
[00318] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (III-10):
Figure imgf000127_0002
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT3, RT5, and RB are as defined herein.
[00319] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (III-11):
Figure imgf000127_0003
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT3, RT5, RP5, and RB are as defined herein. [00320] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (TD-1):
Figure imgf000128_0001
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RZ4, RP4, RT3, RP5, RZ1, RT4, RT5, RT6, RTX, and RTY are as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TD-1), RTX is hydrogen, and RTY is–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TD-1), RTY is hydrogen, and RTX is–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TD-1), RTY is–ORTX1, and RTX is–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 and RTY1 are as defined herein.
[00321] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (TE-1):
Figure imgf000128_0002
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RZ4, RP4, RT3, RT4, RT5, RT6, RTX, and RTY are as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TE-1), RTX is hydrogen, and RTY is–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TE-1), RTY is hydrogen, and RTX is–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TE-1), RTY is–ORTX1, and RTX is–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 and RTY1 are as defined herein. [00322] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (TF-1):
Figure imgf000129_0001
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RP1, RP2, RP3, RP7, RT1, RT2, RP6, RP4, RT3, RT4, RT5, RT6, RTX, and RTY are as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TF-1), RTX is hydrogen, and RTY is–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is as defined herein. In certain
embodiments of Formula (TF-1), RTY is hydrogen, and RTX is–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TF-1), RTY is–ORTX1, and RTX is– ORTX1, wherein RTX1 and RTY1 are as defined herein.
[00323] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (TG-1):
Figure imgf000129_0002
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RT7, RP8, RP9, RT1, RT2, RP10, RP11, RT3, RT4, RT5, RT6, RTX, and RTY are as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TG-1), RTX is hydrogen, and RTY is–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TG-1), RTY is hydrogen, and RTX is–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TG-1), RTY is–ORTX1, and RTX is–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 and RTY1 are as defined herein.
[00324] In another aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (TH-1):
Figure imgf000130_0001
and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof, wherein RP13, RP12, RP14, RT1, RT2, RP16, RP15, RT3, RT4, RT5, RT6, RTX, and RTY are as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TH- 1), RTX is hydrogen, and RTY is–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TH-1), RTY is hydrogen, and RTX is–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is as defined herein. In certain embodiments of Formula (TH-1), RTY is–ORTX1, and RTX is– ORTX1, wherein RTX1 and RTY1 are as defined herein. EXAMPLES
[00325] In order that the invention described herein may be more fully understood, the following Examples are set forth. The synthetic and biological examples described in this Application are offered to illustrate the compounds, pharmaceutical compositions, and methods provided herein and are not to be construed in any way as limiting their scope. General procedures and methods
[00326] NMR spectra were recorded on a Varian Inova 600 MHz, 500 MHz spectrometer. Chemical shifts are reported in parts per million (ppm). For 1H NMR spectra (CDCl3 and C6D6), the residual solvent peak was used as the internal reference (7.26 ppm in CDCl3; 7.16 ppm in C6D6), while the central solvent peak as the reference (77.0 ppm in CDCl3, 128.0 ppm in C6D6) for 13C NMR spectra. Optical rotations were measured at 20 °C using a Perkin- Elmer 241 polarimeter. Analytical and semi-preparative thin layer chromatography (TLC) was performed with E. Merck pre-coated TLC plates, silica gel 60 F254, layer thickness 0.50 and 1.00 mm, respectively. TLC plates were visualized by staining with p-anisaldehyde stain. Flash chromatography separations were performed on E. Merck Kieselgel 60 (230-400) mesh silica gel. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was carried out with Waters 1525 on a UV spectrophotometric detector (254 nm, Waters 2489) to which a 21.2 × 250 mm size column (Zobrax SIL) packed with silica gel (7.0 µm) was attached. All moisture sensitive reactions were conducted under an inert atmosphere. Reaction vessels were oven- dried and allowed to cool under vacuum (1 mmHg). Reagents and solvents were commercial grade and were used as supplied, unless otherwise noted. Example 1. Selective Activation/Coupling of Poly-halogenated Nucleophiles in Ni/Cr- Mediated Reactions: Synthesis of C1-C19 Building Block of Halichondrin Bs
[00327] The compounds provided herein can be prepared from readily available starting materials using the following general methods and procedures. It will be appreciated that where typical or preferred process conditions (i.e., reaction temperatures, times, mole ratios of reactants, solvents, pressures, etc.) are given, other process conditions can also be used unless otherwise stated. Optimum reaction conditions may vary with the particular reactants or solvents used, but such conditions can be determined by those skilled in the art by routine optimization procedures. Synthesis outlined in Figure 7
Synthesis of model trans-haloenone (Taniguchi, M.; Kobayashi, S.; Nakagawa, M.; Hino, T.; Kishi, Y. Tetrahedron Lett.1986, 27, 4763.)
Figure imgf000131_0001
[00328] To a solution of trimethylsilyl acetylene (5.4 g, 55 mmol) in THF (140 mL) was added slowly n-butyllithium (2.5 M in hexanes, 21 mL, 52.5 mmol) at -78 ºC for about 30 min. After 1 h, a solution of octanal (6.4 g, 50 mmol) in THF (60 mL) was added over another 30 min. The resulting mixture was stirred at -78 ºC for 2 h and then quenched by saturated NH4Cl solution (100 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (150 mL x 3). The extracts were washed with brine (300 mL), dried over MgSO4, and then passed through a pad of silica gel (40 g; hexanes/EtOAc = 10:1→4:1) and the eluent was concentrated under reduced pressure, to give the product as light yellow liquid. This material was immediately used for the next step without further purification.
[00329] To a solution of crude propargyl alcohol product from previous step in methanol (200 mL) was added K2CO3 (13.8 g, 100 mmol) at 0 °C. After 6 h, to the reaction mixture was added 100 mL water to quench the reaction. The reaction mixture was extracted with EtOAc (100 mL x 3) and the combined organic layer was washed with 200 mL brine, dried over anhydrous MgSO4, and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel with eluent of hexanes/EtOAc (10:1 to 3:1) to give pure alcohol product XS-1 as light yellow oil in 6.6 g.
[00330] Jones Oxidation: To a solution of terminal propargyl alcohol XS-1 (6.6 g, 21.8 mmol) in acetone (106 mL) was added dropwise 30 mL of freshly prepared Jones’ reagent ((a) Bowden, K.; Heilbron, I. M.; Jones, E. R. H.; Weedon, B. C. L. J. Chem. Soc.1946, 39, (b) Eisenbraun, E. J. Org. Synth.1965, 45, 28). The isopropyl alcohol was added dropwise until the excess Jones’ reagent was destroyed (the color of reaction mixture became deep green). Saturated NaHCO3 solution was added in small portions, and the suspension was stirred vigorously until the pH of the reaction mixture became neutral (pH = 7). The suspension was filtered and the filter cake was washed with 50 mL of acetone. The filtrate was extracted with hexane (100 mL x 3) and combined organic layer was washed with 200 mL brine. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel with eluent of hexanes/EtOAc (10:1 to 2:1), to give 1-decyn-3-one XS-2 product as light yellow oil (6.2 g, 82% yield in 3 steps).
[00331] HX addition of ynone: To a solution of 1-decyn-3-one XS-2 (0.76 g, 5 mmol) in trifluoroacetic acid (TFA, 10 mL) was added LiI, LiBr, or LiCl salt (5 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h, and then poured in 20 mL saturated NaHCO3 solution. NaHCO3 (solid) was added in small portions, and the solution was stirred vigorously until the pH of reaction became neutral. The reaction mixture was extracted with Et2O (50 mL x 3) and combined organic extracts were washed with 50 mL of saturated NaHCO3 solution and 50 mL of brine. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 an concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel with eluent of hexanes/Et2O (100:1), to give trans-haloenone product X-9a-c as light yellow oil.
Figure imgf000133_0001
X- [00332] (E)-1-iododec-1-en-3-one (X-9a): lithium salt was LiI, 87% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.80 (d, J = 15.0 Hz, 1H), 7.15 (d, J = 15.0 Hz, 1H), 2.50 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.64-1.56 (m, 2H), 1.36-1.22 (m, 8H), 0.87 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 197.6, 144.6, 98.6, 40.4, 31.6, 29.1, 29.0, 23.7, 22.6, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C10H18IO, 281.0402; found, 281.0408.
Figure imgf000133_0002
X- [00333] (E)-1-bromodec-1-en-3-one (X-9b): lithium salt was LiBr, 85% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.51 (d, J = 14.0 Hz, 1H), 6.79 (d, J = 14.0 Hz, 1H), 2.50 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.65-1.56 (m, 2H), 1.33-1.22 (m, 8H), 0.87 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 197.5, 136.5, 125.7, 41.0, 31.6, 29.1, 29.0, 23.8, 22.6, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C10H18BrO, 233.0541; found, 233.0540.
Figure imgf000133_0003
X- [00334] (E)-1-chlorodec-1-en-3-one (X-9c): lithium salt was LiCl, 90% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.28 (d, J = 13.5 Hz, 1H), 6.52 (d, J = 15.0 Hz, 1H), 2.51 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.66-1.56 (m, 2H), 1.36-1.22 (m, 8H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 197.5, 136.3, 132.3, 41.4, 31.6, 29.1, 29.0, 23.8, 22.6, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C10H18ClO, 189.1046; found, 189.1044.
General procedure (A) of asymmetric catalytic Ni/Cr-mediated coupling with trans- haloenone X-9a-c
Figure imgf000134_0001
[00335] To a mixture of natural sulfonamide (Guo, H.; Dong, C. G.; Kim, D. S.; Urabe, D.; Wang, J.; Kim, J. T.; Liu, X.; Sasaki, T.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2009, 131, 15387) X-12 (5.20 mg, 11.0 µmol), proton sponge (Aldrich, purified by sublimation; 2.36 mg, 11.0 µmol) and CrCl2 (Aldrich, 99.99% mg, 1.23 mg, 10.0 µmol) was added MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 50 µL) in a glovebox. The mixture was stirred for 60 min at rt under nitrogen. To the second new vial were added Zr(cp)2Cl2 (Aldrich, 98%; 43.8 mg, 0.15 mmol), Mn powder (Aldrich, 99.99%, powder; 11.0 mg, 0.20 mmol), LiCl (Aldrich, anhydrous, grinded; 8.5 mg, 0.20 mmol), NiCl•
2 complex (Liu, X.; Li, X.; Chen, Y.; Hu, Y.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 6136) (X-13a, 1.0 µmol for 1.0 mol% or X-13b, 0.05 µmol for 0.05 mol%), aldehyde X-10 (32.7 mg, 0.10 mmol) and trans-haloenone X-9a-c (0.15 mmol). The deep green mixture in the first vial was transferred to the second reaction vial with syringe under nitrogen. The reaction mixture was stirred under nitrogen until the reaction was completed (by TLC) about 3 h, and diluted with EtOAc (2.0 mL). Florisil (ca.50 mg) was added, and the mixture was stirred for 30 min, filtered through a short silica gel pad using
hexanes/EtOAc (1:1). The eluent was concentrated in vacuo to furnish the crude coupling product, which was purified by preparative TLC (hexanes/EtOAc = 4:1) to give X-11 as yellow liquid.
Figure imgf000134_0002
X- 11
[00336] (E)-1-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)-4-hydroxytetradec-5-en-7-one (X-11): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.71-7.63 (m, 4H), 7.47-7.36 (m, 6H), 6.80 (dd, J = 15.5, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.34 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 4.44-4.32 (m, 1H), 3.70 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 2H), 2.90 (d, J = 4.5 Hz, 1H), 2.54 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.87-1.78 (m, 1H), 1.74-1.58 (m, 5H), 1.38-1.19 (m, 8H), 1.06 (s, 9H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 200.8, 147.6, 135.6, 133.2, 129.8, 128.1, 127.7, 70.9, 64.1, 40.9, 34.1, 31.7, 29.2, 29.1, 28.3, 26.8, 24.1, 22.6, 19.1, 14.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C30H45O3Si, 481.3138; found,
481.3137. Synthesis of chiral sulfonamide X-12
Figure imgf000135_0001
[00337] To a solution of vanillin (20.0 g, 0.13 mol) in THF (400 mL) was added acetic anhydride Ac2O (15 mL, 0.16 mol), Et3N (28 mL, 0.20 mol), and DMAP (50 mg). The solution was stirred at rt for 2 h, then concentrated under reduced pressure.200 mL of CH2Cl2 and 200 mL of aq.1N HCl were added. The organic layer was separated, and the aqueous layer was extracted with CH2Cl2 (100 mL x 2). The combined organic solution was washed with brine, dried over anhydrous MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure, to give acetate product as a white solid (25.4 g), which was used directly for the next step without further purification (Rege, P. D.; Tian, Y.; Corey, E. J. Org. Lett.2006, 8, 3117).
[00338] Fuming nitric acid (100 mL) was cooled to -15 °C, and the acetate from the last step was carefully added in small portions. After addition, the resulting deep red solution was stirred for 3 h at -10− 0 °C, then poured into 400 mL of cold ice water and stirred for 20 min. The yellow solid formed was filtered, thoroughly washed with cold water, and dried under house vacuum overnight. The crude product (21.3 g) was directly used for the next step without further purification.
[00339] The yellow solid from the previous step was added to 200 mL of aq.2N KOH solution. The reaction mixture was heated to reflux for 10 min, and then cooled to rt. A 50 mL of cold concentrated HCl was carefully added to quench the reaction. The light yellow solid formed was filtered, thoroughly washed with cold water, and dried at rt. The crude product phenol (15.7 g) was obtained.
[00340] The light yellow solid from the last step was dissolved in 200 mL of THF. To this solution was added aq. NH4OH (28−30%) (200 mL) and iodine (38 g). The dark mixture was stirred at rt for 24 h, then acidified with aq.2N HCl until pH = 7, and extracted with Et2O (200 mL x 3). The combined organic layer was washed with 10% Na2S2O3 solution and brine, dried over anhydrous MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated under vacuum. The crude product obtained was further recrystallized in CH2Cl2 to give 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-2- nitrobenzonitrile as light yellow crystal (11.8 g) (Talukdar, S.; Hsu, J. L.; Chou, T. C.; Fang, J. M. Tetrahedron Lett.2001, 42, 1103).
[00341] To a mixture of NaH (3.0 g, 73.0 mmol) in 15 mL of DMF at 0 °C, was added the solution of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-2-nitrobenzonitrile (11.8 g, 60.8 mmol) in 15 mL of DMF. After 30 min, MeI (17.3 g, 121.6 mmol) was added dropwise. The mixture was stirred at rt for 2 h, and heated up to 60 °C for 30 min. After cooled to rt, it was quenched with aq.1N HCl. The reaction mixture was extracted with EtOAc (100 mL x 3). The combined organic solution was washed with brine, dried over anhydrous MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated under vacuum. The residue was purified by flash chromatography on silica gel (eluted with hexanes/EtOAc/CH2Cl2; 5:1:2, then 2:1:1), to give compound XS-3 as white solid (10.2 g, 37% yield over 5 steps).
[00342] 3,4-dimethoxy-2-nitrobenzonitrile (XS-3): m.p.102-103 °C; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.49 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 7.08 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.00 (s, 3H), 3.98 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 158.1, 142.5, 129.9, 114.5, 114.2, 98.0, 62.7, 57.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C9H8N2NaO4, 231.0382; found, 231.0379.
Figure imgf000136_0001
X- [00343] To a solution of XS-3 (2.47 g, 11.8 mmol) in anhydrous chlorobenzene (25 mL) was added anhydrous ZnCl2 (3.38 g, 24.8 mmol) and (R)-valinol (1.82 g, 17.7 mmol) at rt. The solution was heated to reflux for 20 h before quenched with water. The slurry was treated with ammonium hydroxide (20 mL) with stirring for 30 min and extracted with EtOAc (20 mL x 3). The combined organic layers were washed with brine, dried over anhydrous Mg2SO4 and filtered. The solvent was removed under vacuum and the residual was purified on silica gel by flash chromatography (eluted with hexanes/EtOAc (5:1 to 1:1)) to give product XS-4 (3.30 g, 95% yield) as a white solid. [00344] (S)-2-(3,4-dimethoxy-2-nitrophenyl)-4-isopropyl-4,5-dihydrooxazole (XS-4):
[α] 20
D = +64.0 (c 1.0, CHCl3); m.p.56-58 °C; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.66 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 6.98 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.36-4.29 (m, 1H), 4.12-4.02 (m, 2H), 3.94 (s, 3H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 1.85-1.74 (m, 1H), 0.97 (d, J = 6.5 Hz, 3H), 0.88 (d, J = 6.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 158.6, 155.6, 140.9, 125.6, 112.7, 112.6, 72.7, 70.4, 62.2, 56.4, 32.7, 18.6, 18.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C14H19N2O5, 295.1294; found, 295.1291.
Figure imgf000137_0001
X- [00345] To a solution of XS-4 (3.30 g, 11.2 mmol) in EtOAc (22 mL) was added Pd/C (1.19 g, 10 mmol%). A hydrogen balloon was attached and the reaction was stirred for 3 h at rt. The slurry was filtered through Celite pad and concentrated under vacuum. The residue was purified on silica gel by flash chromatography (eluted with hexanes/EtOAc (10:1)) to give product XS-5 (2.43 g, 82%) as white solid.
[00346] (S)-6-(4-isopropyl-4,5-dihydrooxazol-2-yl)-2,3-dimethoxyaniline (XS-5): [α] 20
D = -26.4 (c 1.0, CHCl 1
3); m.p.66-67 °C; H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.42 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 6.32 (br, 2H), 6.27 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.29 (t, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.07 (q, J = 8.0 Hz, 1H), 3.97 (t, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.82 (s, 3H), 1.82-1.72 (m, 1H), 1.03 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H), 0.93 (d, J = 6.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 163.3, 154.4, 143.4, 134.5, 125.4, 104.1, 99.9, 72.9, 68.7, 59.6, 55.6, 33.2, 19.0, 18.6; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C14H21N2O3, 265.1552; found, 265.1549.
Figure imgf000137_0002
[00347] To a solution of XS-5 (0.90 g, 3.4 mmol) in anhydrous pyridine (8 mL) was added 3,5-dichlorobenzenesulfonyl chloride (1.68 g, 6.8 mmol). The solution was stirred overnight at rt, then quenched with water (10 mL). The mixture was extracted with EtOAc (20 mL x 3) and the combined organic layers were washed with brine, dried over Na2SO4, and concentrated under vacuum. The residual was purified on silica gel by flash chromatography (eluted with hexanes/EtOAc (5:1)) to give pure product X-12 as a white solid (1.29 g, 80% yield). Recrystallization from hexanes gave white crystals.
[00348] (S)-3,5-dichloro-N-(6-(4-isopropyl-4,5-dihydrooxazol-2-yl)-2,3- dimethoxyphenyl)be-nzenesulfonamide (X-12): [α] 20
D = -16.2 (c 1.1, CHCl3); m.p.112- 113 °C; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 12.60 (br, 1H), 7.93 (s, 2H), 7.56 (d, J = 9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.52 (s, 1H), 6.70 (d, J = 9.0 Hz, 1H), 4.41 (t, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.17-4.07 (m, 2H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 3.19 (s, 3H), 1.88-1.80 (m, 1H), 1.10 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H), 1.00 (d, J = 6.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 163.2, 155.9, 145.4, 140.9, 135.1, 133.4, 131.5, 125.2, 125.1, 110.4, 107.3, 72.4, 69.9, 59.3, 55.9, 33.2, 18.7; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C20H22Cl2N2NaO5S, 495.0524; found, 495.0533.
Synthesis of trans-bromoenone X-15- X-18 (Figure 8)
X-
Figure imgf000138_0001
[00349] Acetylenide addition: To a solution of trimethylsilyl acetylene (196.5 mg, 2.0 mmol) in THF (8.0 mL) was added dropwise n-butyllithium (2.5 M in hexanes, 0.72 mL, 1.8 mmol) at -78 ºC. After 1 h, a solution of aldehyde XS-6 (1.0 mmol) in THF (2.0 mL) was added over 10 min. The resulting mixture was stirred at -78 ºC for 2 h and then quenched with saturated NH4Cl solution (10 mL). The aqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc (10 mL x 3) and hexanes (20 mL). The combined organic extracts were washed with brine (500 mL), dried over Na2SO4, and then passed through a pad of silica gel (10 g). Elution with hexanes/EtOAc (1:4, 50 mL) and concentration gave the crude product XS-7, which was used for the next step without further purification.
[00350] Direct bromination: To a solution of propargyl alcohol XS-7 (1.0 mmol) in acetone (10 mL) was added NBS (267 mg, 1.5 mmol) and silver nitrate AgNO3 (17.2 mg, 0.1 mmol) at rt. After 1 h, the reaction mixture was diluted with 10 mL Et2O and quenched by 10 mL 10% Na2S2O3 solution. The aqueous layer was extracted with Et2O (10 mL x 3) and the combined organic layer was washed with 10% Na2S2O3 solution (10 mL x 2) and 20 mL brine. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was passed through a silica gel pad (4:1 hexanes/EtOAc, 50 mL) and the eluents was concentrated. The crude product XS-8 (a yellow liquid) was used for the next step without further purification.
[00351] DIBAL reduction: To a solution of aluminum trichloride AlCl3 (166 mg, 2.0 mmol) in Et2O (5 mL) was added slowly DIBAL solution (1.0M in THF, 4.0 mL, 4.0 mmol) at 0 °C. The white solid was precipitated out from the reaction solution with addition of DIBAL solution. On the continuous addition of DIBAL solution, the white solid dissolved, and the solution became clear yellow or white precipitated yellow color. After the completion of DIBAL addition, the reaction mixture was stirred for 10−15 min. The solution of propargyl alcohol XS-8 (~1.0 mmol) in ethyl ether Et2O (4.0+1.0 mL) was slowly added to the reaction mixture for ~10 mins at 0 °C. The reaction mixture was warmed to room temperature and stirred for 1 h. With the completion of reaction (check TLC to make sure no SM left), the reaction mixture was cooled down to 0 °C and quenched slowly by MeOH (1.0 mL)
(hydrogen gas release rapidly). To the reaction mixture was added the 20 mL saturated sodium potassium tartrate solution, and the mixture was stirred vigorously overnight. The white aqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc (3 x 10 mL) and the combined organic layer was washed with 20 mL brine. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel gave trans-allylic alcohol XS-9 as yellow oil.
[00352] Dess-Martin oxidation: trans-Allylic alcohol XS-9 was dissolved in wet CH2Cl2 (10 mL) at rt and then DMP (636 mg, 1.5 mmol) and NaHCO3 (840 mg, 10 mmol) were added to the reaction solution. The reaction mixture was stirred for 1h (monitored by TLC) and quenched by a mixture of 10% Na2S2O3 solution (caution: cannot be saturated) (15 mL) and saturated NaHCO3 solution (10 mL). The solution was diluted with CH2Cl2 (10 mL) and stirred vigorously for 15−30 min. The aqueous layer was extracted with CH2Cl2 (10 mL x 4) and combined organic layer was washed with 10% Na2S2O3 solution twice (10 mL), saturated aq. NaHCO3 solution (10 mL) and brine (10 mL). The organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel to give the desired trans-bromoenone X-15-X-18.
Figure imgf000140_0002
[00353] (E)-1-bromo-5-((tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy)pent-1-en-3-one (X-15): 42% yield as a yellow oil; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.56 (d, J = 14.0 Hz, 1H), 6.84 (d, J = 14.5 Hz, 1H), 3.91 (t, J = 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.73 (t, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 0.87 (s, 9H), 0.04 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 196.5, 137.2, 126.6, 58.8, 43.8, 25.8, 18.2, -5.5; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C11H21BrNaO2Si, 315.0392; found, 315.0390.
Figure imgf000140_0003
[00354] (E)-1-bromo-5-phenylpent-1-en-3-one (X-16): 56% yield as a yellow oil; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.53 (d, J = 13.5 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.21 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.19 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 6.80 (d, J = 13.5 Hz, 1H), 2.98-2.92 (m, 2H), 2.88-2.83 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 196.2, 140.6, 136.4, 128.5, 128.3, 126.3, 126.1, 42.5, 29.6; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C11H11BrNaO, 260.9891; found, 260.9888.
Figure imgf000140_0001
[00355] (E)-1-bromo-5-(4-iodophenyl)pent-1-en-3-one (X-17): 62% yield as a yellow oil; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.60 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.53 (d, J = 13.0 Hz, 1H), 6.93 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.79 (d, J = 14.0 Hz, 2H), 6.80 (d, J = 13.5 Hz, 1H), 2.92-2.86 (m, 2H), 2.85- 2.79 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 195.8, 140.2, 137.6, 136.2, 130.4, 126.4, 91.4, 42.2, 28.9; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C11H11BrIO, 364.9038; found, 364.9041.
Figure imgf000141_0001
[00356] (E)-1-bromo-5-(3-iodophenyl)pent-1-en-3-one (X-18): 63% yield as a yellow oil; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.56 (d, J = 14.0 Hz, 1H), 7.57 (s, 2H), 7.17 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.04 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 6.82 (d, J = 14.0 Hz, 1H), 2.94-2.88 (m, 2H), 2.88-2.83 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 195.6, 143.0, 137.3, 136.3, 135.4, 130.3, 127.7, 126.4, 94.5, 42.2, 28.9; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C11H11BrIO, 364.9038; found,
364.9032. General procedure (B) of asymmetric catalytic Ni/Cr-mediated coupling with trans bromoenone X-14-X-18
Figure imgf000141_0002
[00357] To a mixture of natural sulfonamide X-12 (5.20 mg, 11.0 µmol), proton sponge (Aldrich, purified by sublimation; 2.36 mg, 11.0 µmol) and CrCl2 (Aldrich, 99.99% mg, 1.23 mg, 10.0 µmol) was added MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 100 µL) in a glovebox. The mixture was stirred for 60 min at rt under nitrogen. To the second new vial were added Zr(cp)2Cl2 (Aldrich, 98%; 43.8 mg, 0.15 mmol), Mn powder (Aldrich, 99.99%, powder; 11.0 mg, 0.20 mmol), LiCl (Aldrich, anhydrous, grinded; 8.5 mg, 0.20 mmol), NiCl2 catalyst X- 13b (0.033 mg, 0.05 µmol), aldehyde (32.7 mg, 0.10 mmol), trans-bromoenone X-14-X-18 (0.15 mmol) and MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 150 µL). The mixture in the first vial was transferred to the second vial with syringe under nitrogen. The reaction mixture was stirred under nitrogen until the reaction was completed in about 3 h (by TLC), and diluted with EtOAc (2.0 mL). Florisil (ca.50 mg) was added, and the mixture was stirred for 30 min, filtered through a short silica gel pad using EtOAc/hexanes (1:1). The eluent was
concentrated in vacuo to furnish the crude coupling product. The crude product was purified by preparative TLC (EtOAc/hexanes = 1:4) to give X-11 to XS-21 as a yellow liquid.
Figure imgf000142_0001
[00358] (E)-1-((tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy)-2-hydroxydodec-3-en-5-one (XS-10): 84% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.73 (dd, J = 15.5, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.40 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 4.39-4.33 (m, 1H), 3.74 (dd, J = 10.0, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 3.49 (dd, J = 10.0, 7.5 Hz, 1H), 2.70 (d, J = 4.5 Hz, 1H), 2.53 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.64-1.56 (m, 2H), 1.33-1.21 (m, 8H), 0.90 (s, 9H), 0.87 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H), 0.08 (s, 3H), 0.07 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 200.4, 143.2, 129.5, 71.5, 66.2, 40.9, 31.6, 29.2, 29.0, 25.8, 24.1, 22.6, 18.2, 14.0, -5.4, -5.5; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C18H36NaO3Si, 351.2331; found, 351.2321.
Figure imgf000142_0002
X
[00359] (E)-1-((R)-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)-1-hydroxyundec-2-en-4-one (XS-11): 86% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.75 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.43 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.50-4.44 (m, 1H), 4.15 (q, J = 6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.94 (dd, J = 8.5, 6.5 Hz, 1H), 3.87 (dd, J = 8.5, 6.5 Hz, 1H), 2.53 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.64-1.55 (m, 2H), 1.44 (s, 3H), 1.35 (s, 3H), 1.32-1.19 (m, 8H), 0.86 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 200.3, 142.1, 129.6, 109.8, 70.6, 64.7, 41.1, 31.6, 29.1, 29.0, 26.4, 24.9, 24.0, 22.6, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C16H28NaO4, 307.1885; found, 307.1879.
Figure imgf000142_0003
[00360] (E)-10-hydroxy-2,2,3,3,16,16-hexamethyl-15,15-diphenyl-4,14-dioxa-3,15- disilahept-adec-8-en-7-one (XS-12): 92% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.70-7.64 (m, 4H), 7.47-7.36 (m, 6H), 6.82 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.36 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.41-4.34 (m, 1H), 3.94 (t, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 3.70 (d, J = 5.5 Hz, 2H), 2.98 (br, 1H), 2.79 (t, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 1.86-1.77 (m, 1H), 1.74-1.61 (m, 3H), 1.06 (s, 9H), 0.88 (s, 9H), 0.06 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 199.2, 148.4, 135.5, 133.2, 129.7, 128.6, 127.7, 70.8, 64.0, 59.0, 43.6, 33.9, 28.3, 26.8, 26.7, 25.8, 19.1, 18.2; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C31H48NaO4Si2, 563.2989; found, 563.2980.
Figure imgf000143_0001
[00361] (E)-9-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)-6-hydroxy-1-phenylnon-4-en-3-one (XS-13): 80% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.69-7.64 (m, 4H), 7.46-7.36 (m, 6H), 7.31-7.26 (m, 2H), 7.22-7.17 (m, 3H), 6.80 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.35 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 4.40-4.33 (m, 1H), 3.70 (t, J = 5.5 Hz, 2H), 2.96 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.89 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.84-1.76 (m, 1H), 1.72-1.59 (m, 3H), 1.06 (s, 9H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 199.4, 148.2, 141.1, 135.5, 133.2, 129.8, 128.5, 128.4, 128.0, 127.7, 126.1, 70.8, 64.1, 42.4, 34.0, 30.0, 28.3, 26.8, 19.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C31H38NaO3Si, 509.2488; found, 509.2479.
Figure imgf000143_0002
[00362] (E)-4-hydroxy-2-methyltetradeca-2,5-dien-7-one (XS-14): 82% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.73 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.28 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 5.15 (dt, J = 9.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.08-5.01 (m, 1H), 2.55 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.76 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 3H), 1.74 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 3H), 1.63-1.58 (m, 2H), 1.35-1.20 (m, 8H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 201.0, 146.2, 137.4, 127.7, 124.3, 68.4, 40.6, 31.7, 29.2, 29.1, 25.8, 24.1, 22.6, 18.4, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C15H26NaO2, 261.1830; found, 261.1835.
Figure imgf000144_0001
[00363] (E)-1-hydroxy-1-phenylundec-2-en-4-one (XS-15): 83% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.42-7.30 (m, 5H), 6.88 (dd, J = 15.5, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.42 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.38 (d, J = 4.0 Hz, 1H), 2.56 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.15 (br, 1H), 1.66-1.54 (m, 4H), 1.36-1.18 (m, 6H), 0.87 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 200.8, 146.0, 141.0, 128.9, 128.4, 128.1, 126.5, 73.8, 40.8, 31.7, 29.2, 29.1, 24.1, 22.6, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C17H25O2, 261.1855; found, 261.1873.
Figure imgf000144_0002
[00364] (E)-1-cyclohexyl-1-hydroxyundec-2-en-4-one (XS-16): 91% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.80 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.29 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.09 (q, J = 5.0 Hz, 1H), 2.55 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.82-1.72 (m, 3H), 1.71-1.65 (m, 2H), 1.64-1.59 (m, 2H), 1.55-1.47 (m, 1H), 1.33-1.24 (m, 8H), 1.24-1.00 (m, 6H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 200.4, 143.2, 129.5, 71.5, 66.2, 40.9, 31.6, 29.2, 29.0, 25.8, 24.1, 22.6, 18.2, 14.0, -5.4, -5.5; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C17H31O2, 267.2324; found, 267.2333.
Figure imgf000144_0003
[00365] (E)-1-(furan-2-yl)-1-hydroxyundec-2-en-4-one (XS-17): 83% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.41 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 6.94 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.46 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 6.35 (dd, J = 3.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 6.28 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 5.41 (s, 1H), 2.58 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.40 (br, 1H), 1.65-1.56 (m, 2H), 1.36-1.16 (m, 8H), 0.87 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 200.5, 153.2, 142.9, 142.5, 129.4, 110.5, 107.6, 67.0, 41.0, 31.6, 29.2, 29.0, 24.0, 22.6, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C15H22NaO3,
273.1467; found, 273.1473.
Figure imgf000145_0001
[00366] (E)-6-hydroxy-1,6-diphenylhex-4-en-3-one (XS-18): 83% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.39-7.35 (m, 2H), 7.34-7.30 (m, 3H), 7.29-7.24 (m, 2H), 7.21-7.16 (m, 3H), 6.87 (dd, J = 13.5, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 6.41 (dd, J = 13.5, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.35 (s, 1H), 2.95-2.87 (m, 4H), 2.38 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 199.5, 146.5, 141.0, 140.9, 128.9, 128.5, 128.4, 128.3, 127.9, 126.5, 126.1, 73.7, 42.2, 29.8; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C18H18NaO2, 289.1204; found, 289.1208.
Figure imgf000145_0002
[00367] (E)-6-(furan-2-yl)-6-hydroxy-1-phenylhex-4-en-3-one (XS-19): 90% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.42 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.24-7.18 (m, 3H), 6.95 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.48 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 6.37 (dd, J = 3.5, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 6.28 (d, J = 3.5 Hz, 1H), 6.41 (t, J = 3.5 Hz, 1H), 3.01-2.88 (m, 4H), 2.46 (d, J = 5.0 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 199.2, 153.1, 143.1, 142.9, 141.0, 129.3, 128.5, 128.3, 126.1, 110.5, 107.6, 66.9, 42.4, 29.8; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for
C16H16NaO3, 279.0997; found, 279.1005.
Figure imgf000145_0003
[00368] (E)-9-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)-6-hydroxy-1-(4-iodophenyl)non-4-en-3-one (XS-20): 82% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.68-7.64 (m, 4H), 7.59 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H), 7.44-7.36 (m, 6H), 6.95 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 2H), 6.79 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.35 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 4.38-4.33 (m, 1H), 3.70 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 2H), 3.00 (d, J = 4.5 Hz, 1H), 2.91-2.83 (m, 4H), 1.82-1.77 (m, 1H), 1.71-1.62 (m, 2H), 1.06 (s, 9H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 198.9, 148.3, 140.8, 137.5, 135.5, 133.2, 130.5, 129.8, 127.9, 127.7, 91.1, 70.8, 64.1, 42.0, 34.1, 29.3, 28.3, 26.8, 19.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C31H37INaO3Si, 635.1454; found, 635.1450.
Figure imgf000146_0001
[00369] (E)-9-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)-6-hydroxy-1-(3-iodophenyl)non-4-en-3-one (XS-21): 87% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.67-7.64 (m, 4H), 7.56 (s, 1H), 7.53 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.46-7.41 (m, 2H), 7.40-7.37 (m, 4H), 7.16 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.01 (t, J = 8.0 Hz, 1H), 6.80 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.35 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.40-4.34 (m, 1H), 3.70 (t, J = 5.5 Hz, 2H), 3.00 (d, J = 4.0 Hz, 1H), 2.92-2.83 (m, 4H), 1.84-1.77 (m, 1H), 1.71-1.62 (m, 2H), 1.06 (s, 9H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 198.8, 148.4, 143.6, 137.4, 135.5, 135.5, 135.2, 133.2, 130.2, 129.8, 127.9, 127.7, 94.5, 70.8, 64.1, 42.0, 34.1, 29.3, 28.3, 26.8, 19.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C31H37INaO3Si, 635.1454; found, 635.1446. Synthesis outlined in Figure 9
Synthesis of cis-bromoenone X-19
Figure imgf000146_0002
[00370] To a solution of 1-decyn-3-one XS-2 (0.26 g, 1.7 mmol) in acetic acid (AcOH, 3.4 mL) was added LiBr (174.0 mg, 2.0 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred overnight, and then diluted with 20 mL H2O. The aqueous solution was extracted with Et2O (20 mL x 3) and combined organic extracts were washed with saturated aq. NaHCO3 solution (20 mL x 2) and 20 mL of brine. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel with eluent of hexanes/Et2O (100:1). The (Z)-1-bromodec-1-en-3-one X-19 was obtained as light yellow oil (70% yield).1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 6.16 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 6.05 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 2.18 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.49 (quint, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.30-1.20 (m, 2H), 1.20- 1.09 (m, 6H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 197.6, 131.6, 115.5, 43.9, 32.0, 29.4, 29.3, 24.0, 22.9, 14.3; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C10H18BrO, 233.0541; found, 233.0544. Asymmetric catalytic Ni/Cr-mediated coupling with cis-bromoenone X-19
Figure imgf000147_0003
[00371] The procedure was the same as procedure B. The products were obtained as a mixture of furan X-20 and X-11 (80% yield, 1:9) (Sammond, D. M.; Sammakia, T.
Tetrahedron Lett.1996, 37, 6065).
Figure imgf000147_0001
[00372] tert-butyl(3-(5-heptylfuran-2-yl)propoxy)diphenylsilane (X-20): 8% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.70-7.64 (m, 4H), 7.45-7.35 (m, 6H), 5.83 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 5.82 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 3.71 (t, J = 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.71 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.55 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.89 (quint, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 1.64-1.54 (m, 4H), 1.38-1.19 (m, 8H), 1.06 (s, 9H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 154.8, 154.0135.6, 134.0, 129.5, 127.6, 105.1, 104.8, 63.1, 31.8, 31.0, 29.2, 29.0, 28.1, 28.0, 26.8, 24.4, 22.6, 19.2, 14.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C30H43O2Si, 463.3032; found, 463.3030. Acid catalyzed formation of furan from corresponding trans-coupling product
Figure imgf000147_0002
[00373] The trans-coupling product (20 µmol) was dissolved in MeCN (0.5 mL) containing p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA, 0.69 mg, 4 µmol) and the reaction mixture was stirred at rt for 2 h. The reaction was quenched with solid NaHCO3 (3.36 mg, 40 µmol) and passed through a short silica gel pad with Hex/EtOAc (10:1). On removal of solvent, the furan product was obtained as yellow oil.
Figure imgf000148_0001
[00374] tert-butyl(3-(5-(2-((tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy)ethyl)furan-2- yl)propoxy)diphenylsil-ane (XS-22): 86% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.70-7.66 (m, 4H), 7.45-7.40 (m, 2H), 7.39-7.36 (m, 4H), 5.92 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 5.84 (d, J = 3.5 Hz, 1H), 3.83 (t, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 3.72 (t, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 2.80 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.71 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.89 (quint, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 1.07 (s, 9H), 0.89 (s, 9H), 0.02 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 154.3, 151.3, 135.6, 134.0, 129.5, 127.6, 106.5, 105.3, 63.1, 61.9, 32.0, 30.9, 26.8, 26.0, 24.4, 19.2, 18.3, -5.4; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C31H46NaO3Si2, 545.2883; found, 545.2879. Synthesis of tri-substituted bromoenone X-21- X-22.
[00375] For the preparation of undec-2-yn-4-one, refer to the proceeding paper (Wender, P. A.; Bi, F. C.; Brodney, M. A.; Gosselin, F. Org. Lett.2001, 3, 2105).
Figure imgf000148_0002
[00376] To a solution of undec-2-yn-4-one (0.33 g, 2 mmol) in trifluoroacetic acid (TFA, 4.0 mL) was added LiBr (208 mg, 2.4 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h, and then poured in 20 mL saturated aq. NaHCO3 solution. NaHCO3 (solid) was added in small portions, and the solution was vigorously stirred until the pH of the reaction mixture became neutral. The reaction mixture was extracted with Et2O (30 mL x 3) and combined organic extracts were washed with 50 mL of saturated NaHCO3 solution and 30 mL of brine. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue, which was separated by preparative TLC (hexanes/EtOAc = 4:1), to give E- isomer X-21 and Z-isomer X-22 as light yellow oils in 30% and 24% yields, respectively.
Figure imgf000148_0003
[00377] (E)-2-bromoundec-2-en-4-one (X-21): 30% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.69 (s, 1H), 2.75 (s, 3H), 2.41 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.64-1.53 (m, 2H), 1.35-1.21 (m, 10H), 0.91-0.82 (m, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 198.5, 143.2, 129.9, 44.5, 31.6, 29.1, 29.0, 26.8, 24.0, 22.6, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C11H20BrO, 247.0698; found, 247.0702.
Figure imgf000149_0001
[00378] (Z)-2-bromoundec-2-en-4-one (X-22): 24% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.56 (s, 1H), 2.53 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.44 (s, 3H), 1.64-1.55 (m, 2H), 1.35-1.21 (m, 10H), 0.91-0.82 (m, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 198.8, 132.3, 127.1, 44.0, 31.7, 31.1, 29.1, 29.0, 23.8, 22.6, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C11H20BrO, 247.0698; found, 247.0690. Asymmetric catalytic Ni/Cr-mediated coupling with tri-substituted bromoenone
Figure imgf000149_0002
[00379] The procedure was similar to procedure A. The NiCl2 catalyst was X-13b with 1.0 mol% loading. By preparative TLC (20% EtOAc in hexanes), alcohol X-23 and furan X-24 were isolated.
Figure imgf000149_0003
[00380] (E)-1-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)-4-hydroxy-5-methyltetradec-5-en-7-one (X- 23): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.69-7.64 (m, 4H), 7.46-7.35 (m, 6H), 6.36 (s, 1H), 4.10 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 1H), 3.69 (t, J = 5.5 Hz, 2H), 2.44 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.08 (s, 3H), 1.83 (quin, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.60-1.52 (m, 4H), 1.38-1.20 (m, 8H), 1.06 (s, 9H), 0.87 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 202.0, 158.0, 135.5, 133.3, 129.8, 127.7, 121.7, 76.0, 64.1, 44.7, 32.4, 31.7, 29.3, 29.1, 28.3, 26.8, 24.2, 22.6, 19.1, 15.8, 14.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z:
[M+Na]+ calcd for C31H46NaO3Si, 517.3114; found, 517.3120.
Figure imgf000150_0001
[00381] tert-butyl(3-(5-heptyl-3-methylfuran-2-yl)propoxy)diphenylsilane (X-24): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.69-7.64 (m, 4H), 7.44-7.34 (m, 6H), 5.73 (s, 1H), 3.67 (t, J = 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.63 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.50 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.89 (s, 3H), 1.83 (quin, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.60-1.52 (m, 4H), 1.38-1.20 (m, 8H), 1.06 (s, 9H), 0.87 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 153.7, 148.7, 135.6, 134.0, 129.5, 127.6, 114.1, 107.6, 63.1, 31.8, 31.6, 29.2, 29.0, 28.1, 28.0, 26.9, 22.6, 22.1, 19.2, 14.1, 9.9. HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C31H45O2Si, 477.3189; found, 477.3194. Synthesis outlined in Figure 11
Competition Studies of Ni/Cr-Mediated Coupling Reactions with trans-bromoenone and alkenyl iodides X-31a-c
Figure imgf000150_0002
[00382] Preparation of chromium sulfonamide solution: In a glove box, to a 5.0 mL black cap vial, was added chiral sulfonamide X-12 (52.0 mg, 0.11 mmol), proton sponge (Aldrich, purified by sublimation; 23.6 mg, 0.11 mmol) and CrCl2 (Aldrich, 99.99% mg, 12.3 mg, 0.1 mmol), and MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 1.0 mL). The mixture was stirred for 60 min at rt under nitrogen and changed to deep green homogeneous solution which is ready to use for coupling reaction.
[00383] To a second 1.0 mL black cap vial were added aldehyde X-10 (16.4 mg, 0.05 mmol), bromoenone X-9b (17.5 mg, 0.075 mmol), vinyl iodide X-31a-c (15.8 mg, 0.075 mmol), LiCl (Aldrich, anhydrous, grinded; 4.3 mg, 0.1 mmol), Mn powder (Aldrich, 99.99%, powder; 5.5 mg, 0.1 mmol), Zr(Cp)2Cl2 (Aldrich, 98%; 21.9 mg, 0.075 mmol), NiCl2 catalyst X-13a or X-13b (x = 0.05 mol%, 0.1 mol%, 0.5 mol% or 1.0 mol%) and MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 75 µL). The green solution of chromium catalyst (50 µL) from the first vial was transferred to the second vial with microliter syringe. The reaction mixture was stirred under nitrogen for 3 h, and diluted with EtOAc (1.0 mL). Florisil (ca.30 mg) was added, and the mixture was stirred for 30 min, filtered through a short silica gel pad twice using
hexanes/EtOAc (1:1) The eluent was concentrated in vacuo to furnish the crude coupling product. The ratio analysis of crude coupling products X-32a-c was done with 1H NMR.
Figure imgf000151_0001
[00384] 1-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)-5-methylenenonan-4-ol (X-32a): Clear oil; 1H NMR (600 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.69-7.67 (m, 4H), 7.45-7.38 (m, 6H), 5.04 (s, 1H), 4.86 (s, 1H), 4.13-4.10 (m, 1H), 3.73-3.67 (m, 2H), 2.12-2.06 (m, 1H), 2.02 (d, J = 3.6 Hz, 1H), 2.02-1.96 (m, 1H), 1.80-1.72 (m, 1H), 1.70-1.60 (m, 3H), 1.50-1.45 (m, 2H), 1.41-1.32 (m, 2H), 1.07 (s, 9H), 0.93 (t, J = 7.2 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (150 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 152.1, 135.6, 134.8, 133.7, 129.6, 127.6, 109.1, 75.0, 63.9, 32.3, 31.3, 30.2, 28.6, 26.8, 22.7, 19.2, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C26H38NaO2Si, 433.2539; found, 433.2541.
Figure imgf000151_0002
[00385] (E)-1-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)dec-5-en-4-ol (X-32b): Clear oil; 1H NMR (600 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.69-7.67 (m, 4H), 7.45-7.38 (m, 6H), 5.64 (dt, J = 15.0, 7.2 Hz, 1H), 5.46 (dd, J = 15.0, 7.2 Hz, 1H), 4.08 (m, 1H), 3.69 (t, J = 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.04 (q, J = 7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.92 (d, J = 3.6 Hz, 1H), 1.66-1.62 (m, 4H), 1.40-1.30 (m, 4H), 1.05 (s, 9H), 0.91 (t, J = 6.6 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (150 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 135.5, 133.8, 132.9, 132.0, 129.6, 127.6, 72.8, 64.0, 34.1, 31.8, 31.3, 28.6, 26.8, 22.2, 19.2, 13.9; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for
C26H38NaO2Si, 433.2539; found, 433.2532.
Figure imgf000151_0003
[00386] (Z)-1-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)dec-5-en-4-ol (X-32c): Clear oil; 1H NMR (600 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.69-7.67 (m, 4H), 7.45-7.38 (m, 6H), 5.51-5.47 (m, 1H), 5.41-5.38 (m, 1H), 4.47 (m, 1H), 3.73-3.67 (m, 2H), 2.13-2.03 (m, 2H), 1.88 (d, J = 3.6 Hz, 1H), 1.72-1.57 (m, 4H), 1.39-1.30 (m, 4H), 1.06 (s, 9H), 0.91 (t, J = 7.2 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (150 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 135.5, 133.7, 132.5, 132.1, 129.6, 127.6, 67.5, 63.9, 34.3, 31.8, 28.5, 27.4, 26.8, 22.3, 19.2, 13.9; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C26H38NaO2Si, 433.2539; found, 433.2529. Table 1. Results
Figure imgf000152_0002
Synthesis outlined in Figure 12
Synthesis of C14-C19 building block XS-27
Figure imgf000152_0001
[00387] A 1000 mL round-bottom flask was charged with penten-1-ol (TCI, 51.8 g, 0.6 mol, 1.0 equiv) and dissolved in CH2Cl2 (500 mL, 1.2 M). The reaction was then added
sequentially with tert-butyldimethylsilyl chloride (99.5 g, 0.66 mol, 1.1 equiv) and imidazole (49.0 g, 0.72 mol, 1.2 equiv), and allowed to stir at rt for 2 h. The reaction slurry was then washed with saturated NaCl solution (200 mL twice). The aqueous phase was extracted with CH2Cl2 (100 mL twice) and the combined organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a crude product, which was purified by house vacuum distillation at 105 °C to afford the product tert-butyldimethyl(pent- 4-en-1-yloxy)silane as a clear oil (119.3 g, 99% yield).
[00388] A solution of oxone (246.0 g, 0.40 mol) in water (1000 mL) was added dropwise at 0 °C to a vigorously stirred biphasic mixture of tert-butyldimethyl(pent-4-en-1-yloxy)silane (40.0 g, 0.4 mol), tetrabutylammonium hydrogen sulfate (22.6 g, 66.6 mmol), acetone (84 mL), CH2Cl2 (840 mL) and a saturated NaHCO3 solution (1400 mL) (Lafont, D.; D’Attoma, J.; Gomez, R.; Goekjian, P. G. Tetrahedron: Asymmetry 2011, 22, 1197). With stirring, the mixture was maintained for 30 min at 0 °C, and 40 h at room temperature. The aqueous phase was extracted with CH2Cl2 (400 mL twice) and the combined organic phases were washed with saturated Na2S2O3 solution (400 mL twice), saturated NaHCO3 solution (600 mL) and brine (400 mL twice) and dried over anhydrous MgSO4. After filtration, the solution was concentrated under reduced pressure and the residue was purified by column chromatography to remove unreacted starting materials (about 10%), and the racemic epoxide XS-23 was obtained as a light yellow oil (38.0 g, 88% yield). [00389] Catalyst activation for Jacobsen kinetic resolution (Tokunaga, M.; Larrow, J. F.; Kakiuchi, F.; Jacobsen, E. N. Science 1997, 277, 936): a mixture of (S,S)-Jacobsen catalyst (604 mg, 1 mmol), toluene (11 mL), and acetic acid (120 mg, 2 mmol, 2 equivalents to catalyst) was stirred while open to the air for 2 h at room temperature. The solvent was removed by rotary evaporation, and the deep brown residue was dried under vacuum overnight.
[00390] The solution of racimic epoxide XS-23 (48 g, 0.22 mol) in tert-BuOMe (50 mL) and water (2.0 g, 0.11 mol) were added to the activated catalyst flask, and then the reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 6 h (1H NMR indicated about 67% conversion). The reaction solvent was removed by reduced pressure and the residue was purified by column chromatography to yield (S)-epoxide product XS-24 (yellow oil, 20.8 g, 43% yield) and crude (R)-diol (23.4 g, 48% yiled).
[00391] To a solution of trimethylsilyl acetylene (12.0 g, 122.2 mmol) in THF (150 mL) was added slowly n-butyllithium (1.6 M in hexanes, 76.4 mL, 122.2 mmol) at -78 ºC. After 1.5 h, a solution of boron trifluoride etherate BF3•Et2O (16.8 mL, 135.8 mmol) in THF (30 mL) was added over 30 min and the mixture was stirred for another 1 h. A solution of chiral epoxide XS-24 (14.7 g, 67.9 mmol) in THF (30 mL) was added over 30 min. The resulting mixture was stirred at -78 ºC for 2 h and then directly poured into a saturated aq. NaHCO3 solution (500 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (500 mL x 3) and hexanes (500 mL). The extracts were washed with brine (500 mL), dried over Na2SO4, passed through a pad of silica gel (60 g), and eluted with hexanes/EtOAc (1:4, 500 mL). The eluent was concentration under reduced pressure, to give the crude product (19.6 g), which was used for the next step without further purification.
[00392] The crude product (19.6 g, 62.3 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous methanol (200 mL). To the solution, anhydrous K2CO3 (17.2 g, 124.6 mmol) was added in one portion and the reaction mixture was stirred at rt for 4 h. The mixture was filtrated to remove excess amount of K2CO3 solids and quenched by saturated NaHCO3 solution (300 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (300 mL x 3) and hexanes (300 mL). The combined extracts were washed with brine (400 mL) and dried over Na2SO4. Concentration of the extracts under reduced pressure gave a residue, which was purified by column chromatography (100 g of silica gel). The homopropargylic alcohol XS-25 was obtained as a yellow liquid (14.2 g, 86.5% in two steps). The optical purity of alcohol XS-25 was determined as >99% ee by 1H NMR (500 MHz) analysis of its (S)-(+)-Mosher ester.
[00393] (S)-7-((tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy)hept-1-yn-4-ol (XS-25): [α] 20
D = -11.0 (c 0.1, CH2Cl2); 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 3.81-3.75 (m, 1H), 3.72-3.63 (m, 2H), 2.40-2.38 (m, 2H), 2.03 (t, J = 2.5 Hz, 1H), 1.82-1.74 (m, 1H), 1.73-1.63 (m, 2H), 1.62-1.54 (m, 1H), 0.89 (s, 9H), 0.07 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3)
Figure imgf000154_0001
81.2, 70.4, 69.8, 63.4, 33.6, 29.1, 27.2, 25.9, 18.3, -5.4; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C13H27O2Si, 243.1780; found, 243.1787.
[00394] To a solution of homopropargylic alcohol XS-25 (7.3 g, 30.0 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (150 mL) was added pyridine (7.1 g, 90 mmol), triphenylphosphine (PPh3, 11.8 g, 45 mmol) and trichloroacetamide (7.3 g, 45 mmol) at rt. The reaction was stirred at rt for 20 h under N2, and then washed with brine (60 mL x 3). The organic layer was dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was passed through a silica gel pad (50 g) with hexanes/EtOAc (30:1, 600 mL), to give homopropargylic chloride XS-26 (7.2 g, 92.0%) as a light yellow oil.
[00395] (R)-tert-butyl((4-chlorohept-6-yn-1-yl)oxy)dimethylsilane (XS-26): [α] 20
D = +30.0 (c 0.1, CH 1
2Cl2); H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 4.06-4.00 (m, 1H), 3.68-3.62 (m, 2H), 2.73- 2.62 (m, 2H), 2.09 (t, J = 2.5 Hz, 1H), 2.08-2.01 (m, 1H), 1.83-1.72 (m, 2H), 1.69-1.59 (m, 1H), 0.89 (s, 9H), 0.05 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 79.9, 70.9, 62.3, 59.8, 33.7, 29.5, 28.6, 25.9, 18.3, -5.3; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C13H26ClOSi, 261.1441; found, 261.1438.
[00396] To a solution of alkyne XS-26 (20.8 g, 80 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (400 mL) was dropped B-iodo-9-BBN (Liu, S.; Kim, J. T.; Dong, C. G.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett.2009, 11, 4520) solution (1 M in CH2Cl2, 96 mL, 96 mmol) at 0 °C and stirred for 4 h at the same temperature prior to the addition of AcOH (18.2 mL, 320 mmol). After stirring at 0 °C for 60 min, the reaction mixture was titrated with 30% aqueous H2O2 solution (red color) and then with slow addition of aqueous Na2S2O3 (colorless) (caution: this process released tremendous heat). The aqueous phase was extracted with CH2Cl2 three times and the combined organic extracts were washed with 10 wt. % Na2S2O3 and saturated NaHCO3 solution, dried over anhydrous MgSO4, and concentrated under vacuum. The residue was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel eluted with hexanes/EtOAc (10:1 to 2:1) to give alcohol XS-27 (18.8 g, 86%) as a light yellow liquid.
[00397] (R)-4-chloro-6-iodohept-6-en-1-ol (XS-27): [α] 20
D = +1.2 (c 1.00, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.73 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 1H), 5.58 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 1H), 4.08-4.00 (m, 1H), 3.20 (t, J = 5.5 Hz, 2H), 2.42 (dd, J = 14.5, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 2.35 (dd, J = 14.5, 5.5 Hz, 1H), 1.57–1.48 (m, 2H), 1.47–1.40 (m, 1H), 1.38–1.28 (1H, m); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 128.7, 106.7, 61.8, 61.2, 53.5, 33.9, 29.6; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for
C7H12OIClNa, 296.9519; found, 296.9513.
[00398] The optical purity of alcohol XS-27 was determined as >99% ee by HPLC analysis (OJ-H chiral column) of its 4-acetylphenylurethane derivative XS-28 prepared from XS-27.
Figure imgf000155_0001
[00399] To a solution of alcohol XS-27 (51 mg, 0.2 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1.0 mL) were added 4-acetylphenyl isocyanate (52 mg, 0.24 mmol) and DMAP (4 mg, 40 µmol) at room temperature. The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h at the same temperature prior to quenching with saturated NaHCO3 solution. The aqueous phase was extracted with EtOAc twice and the combined organic phases were dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated in vacuo. The residue was purified by preparative TLC (hexanes/EtOAc =2:1) to give urethane XS-27' (74 mg, 85%) as a white solid. The optical purity of urethane XS-27' was determined as >99% ee by HPLC analysis (Figure 1).
[00400] HPLC Condition. Column: chiralpak OJ-H; solvent system: hexanes/i- propanol/diethylamine = 85%/15%/0.1%; flow rate = 1.0 mL/min; detector = UV at 277 nm; retention time: 41.6 and 38.2 min for (R)- and (S)-enantiomers, respectively. Synthesis of C12-C19 building block X-34
Figure imgf000156_0001
[00401] Aldehyde X-33 was obtained from Dess-Martin oxidation of alcohol XS-27 with the procedure same as shown in section 3.1.
[00402] To a solution of trimethylsilyl acetylene (3.63 g, 37 mmol) in THF (30 mL) was added slowly n-butyllithium (2.5 M in hexanes, 14.8 mL, 37 mmol) at -78 ºC about 30 min. After 1 h, a solution of boron trifluoride etherate (5.6 g, 39.6 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added over 30 min and the mixture was stirred for another 1 h (Yamauchi, M.; Hirao, I.
Tetrahedron Lett.1983, 24, 391). A solution of aldehyde X-33 (3.6 g, 13.2 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added over another 30 min. The resulting mixture was stirred at -78 ºC for 3 h, then directly poured into a saturated NaHCO3 solution (300 mL), and extracted with EtOAc (200 mL x 3) and hexanes (200 mL x 2). The extracts were washed with brine (300 mL), dried over anhydrous MgSO4, and then passed through a pad of silica gel (40 g). Elution with hexanes/EtOAc (1:4, 500 mL) and concentration gave the crude product, which was purified by silica gel column chromatography (hexanes/CH2Cl2 = 50:1→25:1→10:1→5:1→2:1), to give XS-28 (4.4 g) as a yellow oil.
(6R)-6-chloro-8-iodo-1-(trimethylsilyl)non-8-en-1-yn-3-ol (XS-28): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.18 (s, 1H), 5.85 (s, 1H), 4.42 (d, J = 6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.24-4.12 (m, 1H), 2.77 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.12-1.94 (m, 2H), 1.90-1.74 (m, 2H), 0.17 (s, 9H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 128.9, 106.0, 105.9, 90.1, 62.1,.60.5, 53.4, 34.3, 32.6, -0.16; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C12H21ClIOSi, 371.0095; found, 371.0103.
[00403] To a solution of propargyl alcohol XS-28 (4.4 g, 11.8 mmol) in acetone (60 mL) was added NBS (3.15 g, 17.7 mmol) and silver nitrate AgNO3 (0.4 g, 2.36 mmol) at rt. After 1.0 h, the reaction mixture was diluted with 200 mL EtOAc and quenched by 100 mL saturated aq. Na2S2O3 solution. The aqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc (2 x 100 mL) and the combined organic layer was washed with saturated Na2S2O3 solution (2 x 100 mL) and 200 mL brine. The organic solution was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was passed through a silica gel pad with eluent (2:1 hexanes/EtOAc, 300 mL), to give crude XS-29 (4.1 g, silica gel TLC Rf ~ 0.5 in 6:1 hexanes/EtOAc) as a yellow oil. The crude XS-29 was used for the next step without further purification.
(6R)-1-bromo-6-chloro-8-iodonon-8-en-1-yn-3-ol (XS-29): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.18 (s, 1H), 5.86 (s, 1H), 4.47 (q, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 4.22-4.12 (m, 1H), 2.77 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.08-1.96 (m, 2H), 1.94-1.79 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 129.0, 105.8, 80.4, 62.7, 60.5, 53.4, 45.9, 34.3, 32.6; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C9H12BrClIO, 376.8805; found, 376.8811.
[00404] To a solution of AlCl3 (2.9 g, 21.8 mmol) in Et2O (40 mL) was added slowly DIBAL solution (1.0M in THF, 43.6 mL, 43.6 mmol) at 0 °C. (The white solid was precipitated out from the reaction mixture on adding DIBAL. The white solid dissolved with a continuous addition of DIBAL solution, and eventually the solution became clear yellow or white precipitated yellow color). The reaction mixture was stirred for 10 ^ (40 mL) was added slowly DIBAL solution (1.0M in THF, 43.6 mL, 43.6 mmol) atXS-29 from the previous step in ethyl ether Et2O (40+20+10 mL) was added slowly in the reaction mixture about 10 mins. After 1 h (TLC monitor for no SM left), the reaction mixture was cooled down to 0 °C and quenched slowly by MeOH (20 mL). To the reaction mixture was added the 200 mL saturated sodium potassium tartrate solution and then stirred vigorously for overnight. The white aqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc (3 x 100 mL) and combined organic layer was washed with 200 mL brine. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous MgSO4 and concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography (hexanes/Et2O = 50:1→25:1→10:1→5:1→2:1→1:1), to give XS-30 (3.5 g) as a yellow oil.
[00405] (6R,E)-1-bromo-6-chloro-8-iodonona-1,8-dien-3-ol (XS-30): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.38 (d, J = 13.0 Hz, 1H), 6.25 (ddd, J = 13.0, 6.5, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 6.17 (s, 1H), 5.85 (s, 1H), 4.26-4.08 (m, 2H), 2.76 (d, J = 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.04-1.67 (m, 4H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 140.0, 129.0, 107.8, 107.7, 105.9, 72.2, 71.2, 60.8, 60.6, 53.5, 53.4, 33.5, 33.2, 33.0, 32.5; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C9H13BrClINaO, 400.8781; found,
400.8780.
[00406] Alcohol XS-30 was subjected to Dess-Martin oxidation reaction. The crude product was purified by silica gel column chromatography (hexanes/CH2Cl2 =
100:1→50:1→25:1→10:1→5:1→2:1), to yield trans-bromoenone X-34 (3.0 g) as a light yellow oil. [00407] (R,E)-1-bromo-6-chloro-8-iodonona-1,8-dien-3-one (X-34): [α] 20
D = +10.5 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 6.93 (d, J = 13.5 Hz, 1H), 6.26 (d, J = 14.0 Hz, 1H), 5.68 (s, 1H), 5.55 (s, 1H), 3.98-3.88 (m, 1H), 2.32 (dd, J = 15.0, 9.0 Hz, 1H), 2.26 (dd, J = 15.0, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 2.08 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 1.88 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 1.78-1.67 (m, 1H), 1.58-1.46 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 194.5, 136.5, 129.0, 125.5, 106.1, 60.6, 53.6, 37.4, 31.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C9H12BrClIO, 376.8805; found, 376.8800. Synthesis outlined in Figure 13
Synthesis of polyether phenanthroline ligands
Figure imgf000158_0001
[00408] To a mixture of NaH (60 % dispersion in mineral oil, 0.40 g, 1.0 mmol, 5.5 equiv.) in 18 mL of DMF at 0 °C, was added 15-C-5 (1.25 mL, 3.5 equiv.) and alcohol (1.0 mL, 3.5 equiv.). After 30 min, a solution of 4,7-dichloro-2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline ((a) Larsen, A. F.; Ulven, T. Org. Lett.2011, 13, 3546, (b) Schmittel, M.; Ammon, H. Eur. J. Org. Chem.1998, 5, 785) (0.50 g, 1.8 mmol) in a 1:1 mixture of DMF and THF (total: 16 mL) was slowly added. After addition, the purple solution was warmed to room temperature and stirred for 3 h. The reaction was quenched with addition of 10 mL of water at 0 °C, and concentrated under vacuum. The residue was purified on Wakogel (50NH2; eluted with first 1:1 hexanes/EtOAc, then pure EtOAc, finally 10:1 EtOAc/MeOH), to give the desired product as a yellow solid.
Figure imgf000158_0002
X
[00409] 4,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline (XS-31): The desired product (0.22 g, 34% yield) was obtained from 2-methoxyethanol. m.p.115-117 °C; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 8.11 (s, 2H), 6.86 (s, 2H), 4.37 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 4H), 3.93 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 4H), 3.52 (s, 6H), 2.88 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 161.5, 160.1, 145.7, 119.4, 118.1, 103.4, 70.6, 67.9, 59.4, 26.4; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C20H25N2O4, 357.1814; found, 357.1831.
Figure imgf000159_0001
[00410] 4,7-bis(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethoxy)-2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline (XS-32): The desired product (0.47 g, 58% yield) was obtained from 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethanol. m.p.91-93 °C; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 8.10 (s, 2H), 6.85 (s, 2H), 4.39 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 4H), 4.04 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 4H), 3.80 (m, 4H), 3.60 (m, 4H), 3.40 (s, 6H), 2.87 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 161.2, 159.8, 145.7, 119.1, 117.8, 103.2, 71.7, 70.6, 69.2, 67.6, 58.8, 26.3; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C24H33N2O6445.2339; found, 445.2361.
Figure imgf000159_0002
X
[00411] 4,7-bis(2-(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethoxy)ethoxy)-2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline (X-37c): The desired product (0.94 g, 98% yield) was obtained from triethylene glycol monomethyl ether. m.p.63-64 °C; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 8.06 (s, 2H), 6.81 (s, 2H), 4.33 (t, J = 5.5 Hz, 4H), 3.99 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 4H), 3.77 (m, 4H), 3.67 (m, 4H), 3.62 (m, 4H), 3.50 (m, 4H), 3.32 (s, 6H), 2.83 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 160.8, 159.4, 145.3, 118.8, 117.4, 102.8, 71.2, 70.3, 70.0, 69.9, 68.7, 67.3, 58.3, 25.9; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C28H41N2O8, 533.2863; found, 533.2879. Preparation of NiCl2 complexes X-37a-c
Figure imgf000159_0003
X X- [00412] To a stirred suspension of NiCl2•DME (7.9 mg, 0.036 mmol) in 0.5 mL of MeCN was slowly added the phenanthroline ligand XS-31 (13.4 mg, 0.038 mmol) in 0.5 mL of MeCN. During the reaction, the Ni-complex precipitate out, which was filtered and dried under vacuum. The complex X-37a was obtained as a purple powder in 12.2 mg, which can be used directly for the Ni/Cr-mediated coupling reaction.
Figure imgf000160_0001
[00413] To a stirred suspension of NiCl2•DME (7.9 mg, 0.036 mmol) in 0.5 mL of MeCN was slowly added the phenanthroline ligand XS-32 (16.7 mg, 0.038 mmol) in 0.5 mL of MeCN. The resulting clear purple solution was stirred for 24 h at rt, then filtered, concentrated, and dried under high vacuum. The complex X-37b was obtained as a purple paste in 21.6 mg, which can be used directly for the Ni/Cr-mediated coupling reaction.
Figure imgf000160_0002
[00414] To a stirred suspension of NiCl2·DME (7.9 mg, 0.036 mmol) in 0.5 mL of MeCN was slowly added the phenanthroline ligand XS-33 (20.0 mg, 0.038 mmol) in 0.5 mL of MeCN. The resulting clear purple solution was stirred for 24 h at rt, then filtered, concentrated, and dried under high vacuum. The complex X-37c was obtained as a purple paste in 25.3 mg, which can be used directly for the Ni/Cr-mediated coupling reaction. Synthesis of X-36 from Ni/Cr-mediated coupling reaction between X-34 and X-35
X- X- X-
Figure imgf000160_0003
[00415] Preparation of chromium sulfonamide solution: In a glove box, to a 50 mL round-bottom flask, was added chiral sulfonamide X-12 (1.20 g, 2.2 mmol), proton sponge (Aldrich, purified by sublimation; 542.2 mg, 2.2 mmol) and CrCl2 (Aldrich, 99.99% mg, 246 mg, 2.0 mmol), and MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 30.0 mL). The mixture was stirred for 60 min at rt under nitrogen and changed to a deep green homogeneous solution which is ready to use for coupling reaction.
[00416] To a 250 mL round-bottom flask with C1-C11 aldehyde X-35 (7.09 g, 20 mmol), was added LiCl (Aldrich, anhydrous, grinded; 1.70 mg, 40 mmol), Mn powder (Aldrich, 99.99%, powder; 2.20 g, 40 mmol), Zr(cp)2Cl2 (Aldrich, 98%; 8.77 g, 30 mmol) and a solution of bromoenone X-34 (11.3 g, 30 mmol) in MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 25.0 mL). Then, a red MeCN-solution of NiCl2-catalyst X-37c (6.70 mg, 0.01 mmol, 0.05 mol%; 2.0 mL MeCN (Baker, ultra low water) was added and, lastly, the deep green solution of Cr- catalyst was transferred from the first flask to the reaction flask with syringe. The reaction mixture was stirred under nitrogen for 3 h, and diluted with EtOAc (60 mL). Florisil (ca.1.0 g) was added, and the mixture was stirred for 30 min, filtered through a silica gel pad (ca.60 g) using EtOAc/hexanes (1:1). The eluent was concentrated in vacuo to furnish the crude coupling product, which can be used for the next step without further purification.
[00417] Coupling Product X-36: yellow oil; [α] 20
D = -11.8 (c 0.65, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 7.16 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 6.54 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.73 (d , J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.57 (d , J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.50 (dd, J = 5.0, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 4.21 (dd, J = 8.0, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 4.16 (d , J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.12-4.04 (m, 1H), 4.02 (dt, J = 11.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 3.81- 3.72 (m, 1H), 3.30 (s, 3H), 3.26 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 3.03 (dd, J = 10.0, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 2.54 (ddd, J = 18.0, 8.5, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 2.47 (dd, J = 16.0, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 2.44 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 7.0 Hz, 1H), 2.36 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.47 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 2.30-2.24 (m, 1H), 1.98- 1.87 (m, 2H), 1.85-1.68 (m, 4H), 1.62-1.50 (m, 2H), 1.49-1.38 (m, 4H), 1.34-1.18 (m, 2H), 1.17-1.00 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 197.7, 171.1, 146.2, 129.1, 128.8, 110.7, 106.3, 76.1, 75.0, 74.4, 72.6, 71.7, 71.2, 66.7, 61.0, 53.6, 51.1, 40.3, 36.2, 33.9, 30.8, 30.1, 25.4, 24.3, 23.9; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for
Figure imgf000161_0001
653.1378; found, 653.1369. Synthesis outlined in Figure 14
1100 m mool%l% C CrCrCl
11 2l2,, 1111 m mool%le% P. P S.S..
11 m molo%l% su slfuolfnoanmaimdeid Xe- 1122
88% yield) X-43 (89% yield) X S-35 (78% yield)
Figure imgf000162_0001
[00418] To a mixture of sulfonamide X-12 (2.60 mg, 5.5 µmol), proton sponge (Aldrich, purified by sublimation; 1.18 mg, 5.5 µmol) and CrCl2 (Aldrich, 99.99% mg, 0.62 mg, 5.0 µmol) was added MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 50 µL) in a glovebox. The mixture was stirred for 60 min at rt under nitrogen. To the second new vial were added Zr(cp)2Cl2 (Aldrich, 98%; 21.9 mg, 75 µmol), Mn powder (Aldrich, 99.99%, powder; 5.5 mg, 100 µmol), LiCl (Aldrich, anhydrous, grinded; 4.3 mg, 100 µmol), aldehyde (16.4 mg, 50 µmol), trans-bromoenone X-34 (75 µmol) and MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 75 µL). Ni-catalyst X-37c (0.033 mg, 0.05 µmol) was added as a solution of MeCN (2.0 mg/mL, 16 µL). The mixture in the first vial was transferred to the second vial with syringe under nitrogen. The reaction mixture was stirred under nitrogen until the reaction was completed (TLC minitor) about 3 h, and diluted with EtOAc (1.0 mL). Florisil (ca.30 mg) was added, and the mixture was stirred for 30 min, filtered through a short silica gel pad with 1:1 EtOAc/hexanes. The eluent was concentrated in vacuo to furnish the crude coupling product, which was purified by preparative TLC (EtOAc/hexanes = 1:4) to give the desired product as a yellow liquid.
Figure imgf000162_0002
[00419] (E)-13-((tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)oxy)-4-chloro-10-hydroxy-2-iodotrideca-1,8- dien-7-one (XS-34): 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 7.79-7.68 (m, 4H), 7.26-7.17 (m, 6H), 6.60 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 6.22 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.69 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.54 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.10-4.01 (m, 1H), 3.91-3.83 (m, 1H), 3.54 (t, J = 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.43 (ddd, J = 17.5, 9.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 2.34 (t, J = 4.0 Hz, 2H), 2.30 (ddd, J = 17.5, 8.5, 6.5 Hz, 1H), 1.97-1.85 (m, 1H), 1.78 (br, 1H), 1.52-1.28 (m, 5H), 1.13 (s, 9H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 197.6, 148.0, 135.9, 133.9, 130.1, 128.9, 128.5, 128.3, 106.3, 70.7, 64.3, 61.0, 53.6, 37.6, 33.8, 31.6, 28.7, 27.0, 19.4; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C29H38ClINaO3Si, 647.1221; found, 647.1233.
Figure imgf000163_0001
[00420] (E)-1-((tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy)-8-chloro-2-hydroxy-10-iodoundeca-3,10- dien-5-one (X-37): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.78 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.43 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 6.18 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.85 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.45-4.34 (m, 1H), 4.22-4.12 (m, 1H), 3.75 (dd, J = 10.0, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 3.50 (dd, J = 10.0, 7.0 Hz, 1H), 2.94-2.66 (m, 4H), 2.26-2.15 (m, 1H), 1.97-1.85 (m, 1H), 0.90 (s, 9H), 0.08 (s, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 194.5, 136.5, 129.0, 125.5, 106.1, 60.6, 53.6, 37.4, 31.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C17H30ClINaO3Si, 495.0595; found, 495.0613.
Figure imgf000163_0002
[00421] (E)-7-chloro-1-cyclohexyl-1-hydroxy-9-iododeca-2,9-dien-4-one (X-38): 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 6.65 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.15 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.69 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 1H), 5.54 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.13-4.05 (m, 1H), 3.95-3.87 (m, 1H), 3.58 (t, J = 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.46 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 2.34 (t, J = 4.0 Hz, 2H), 2.30 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 7.0 Hz, 1H), 1.98-1.89 (m, 1H), 1.76-1.65 (m, 1H), 1.64-1.54 (m, 3H), 1.53-1.47 (m, 1H), 1.46-1.39 (m, 1H), 1.19-1.10 (m, 1H), 1.09-0.94 (m, 2H), 0.93-0.80 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 197.5, 147.1, 128.9, 128.8, 128.5, 106.3, 75.4, 61.0, 53.6, 43.8, 37.6, 31.6, 29.2, 28.0, 26.6, 26.4, 26.3; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C16H25ClIO2, 411.0588; found, 411.0580.
Figure imgf000164_0001
[00422] (E)-7-chloro-1-((R)-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)-1-hydroxy-9-iododeca-2,9- dien-4-one (X-39): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.81 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 6.46 (dd, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 6.18 (d, J = 2.0 Hz, 1H), 5.85 (d, J = 2.0 Hz, 1H), 4.53-4.46 (m, 1H), 4.20-4.12 (m, 2H), 3.95 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 3.88 (dd, J = 9.0, 6.5 Hz, 1H), 2.94-2.79 (m, 2H), 2.77 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.43 (d, J = 3.5 Hz, 1H), 2.25-2.15 (m, 1H), 1.96-1.85 (m, 1H), 1.45 (s, 3H), 1.36 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 198.4, 142.8, 129.4, 129.0, 109.8, 105.6, 77.3, 70.6, 64.7, 60.5, 53.6, 37.6, 31.0, 26.4, 24.9; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C15H22ClINaO4, 451.0149; found, 451.0141.
Figure imgf000164_0002
X- 40
[00423] (E)-4-chloro-10-hydroxy-2-iodo-12-methyltrideca-1,8,11-trien-7-one (X-40): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.78 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 6.31 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 6.19 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.85 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.17-5.12 (m, 1H), 5.09-5.04 (m, 1H), 4.20-4.12 (m, 1H), 2.93-2.75 (m, 4H), 2.25-2.16 (m, 1H), 1.95-1.86 (m, 1H), 1.76 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 3H), 1.74 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 3H), 1.64 (d, J = 3.5 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 199.1, 146.9, 137.7, 129.0, 127.5, 124.1, 105.7, 68.4, 60.6, 53.6, 37.2, 31.1, 25.8, 18.4;
HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C14H20ClINaO2, 405.0094; found, 405.0085.
Figure imgf000164_0003
X- 41
[00424] (E)-9-chloro-3-hydroxy-11-iodo-1-phenyldodeca-4,11-dien-6-one (X-41): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.32-7.27 (m, 2H), 7.23-7.17 (m, 3H), 6.84 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.32 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 6.19 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 1H), 5.86 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.39- 4.32 (m, 1H), 4.19-4.12 (m, 1H), 2.91-2.68 (m, 6H), 2.26-2.14 (m, 1H), 1.99-1.84 (m, 3H), 1.75 (d, J = 4.0 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 198.8, 148.0, 141.1, 129.0, 128.5, 128.4, 128.0, 126.1, 105.6, 70.4, 60.5, 53.6, 38.0, 37.4, 31.4, 31.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z:
[M+Na]+ calcd for C18H22ClINaO2, 455.0251; found, 455.0245.
Figure imgf000165_0001
X- 42
[00425] (E)-7-chloro-1-hydroxy-9-iodo-1-phenyldeca-2,9-dien-4-one (X-42): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.45-7.31 (m, 5H), 6.94 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.45 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 6.17 (s, 1H), 5.85 (s, 1H), 5.40 (s, 1H), 4.22-4.12 (m, 1H), 2.95-2.72 (m, 4H), 2.26-2.12 (m, 2H), 1.96-1.84 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 198.9, 146.6, 140.8, 129.0, 128.9, 128.5, 127.8, 126.5, 105.6, 73.7, 60.5, 53.6, 37.4, 31.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z:
[M+Na]+ calcd for C16H18ClINaO2, 426.9938; found, 426.9951.
Figure imgf000165_0002
X- 43
[00426] (E)-7-chloro-1-(furan-2-yl)-1-hydroxy-9-iododeca-2,9-dien-4-one (X-43): 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 7.01 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 1H), 6.76 (dt, J = 16.0, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 6.29 (dt, J = 16.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 6.00 (t, J = 2.5 Hz, 1H), 5.97 (t, J = 3.6 Hz, 1H), 5.72 (s, 1H), 5.57 (s, 1H), 4.92 (s, 1H), 4.07-3.98 (m, 1H), 2.44-2.29 (m, 4H), 2.28-2.18 (m, 1H), 1.93-1.82 (m, 1H), 1.73-1.62 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 197.4, 154.2, 143.0, 142.6, 129.3, 128.9, 110.6, 107.4, 106.3, 67.1, 60.8, 53.6, 37.5, 31.4; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C14H16ClINaO3, 416.9730; found, 416.9733.
Figure imgf000165_0003
[00427] (13S,E)-4,13-dichloro-10-hydroxy-2,15-diiodohexadeca-1,8,15-trien-7-one (XS- 35): 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.85 (dd, J = 15.5, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.46 (dd, J = 15.5 Hz, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 6.19 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 6.17 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.85 (t, J = 2.0 Hz, 2H), 4.46- 4.38 (m, 1H), 4.20-4.12 (m, 2H), 2.94-2.79 (m, 2H), 2.78 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.76 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.26-2.16 (m, 1H), 1.99-1.76 (m, 6H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 198.8, 147.6, 129.1, 128.3, 105.9, 105.6, 70.3, 60.6, 60.5, 53.6, 53.4, 37.5, 33.0, 32.5, 31.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C16H22Cl2I2NaO2, 592.8984; found, 592.8980.
Figure imgf000166_0001
[00428] To a solution of X-36 (11.4 g, 17.5 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (175 mL) were added pyridine (4.5 mL, 52.5 mmol), PNBCl (6.5 g, 35.0 mmol), and DMAP (214 mg, 1.75 mmol) at 0 °C, and the reaction mixture was warmed to room temperature. After stirring for 12 h, the solvent of reaction mixture was removed under reduced pressure and then passed through the silica gel pad with eluent of hexanes/EtOAc (1:1, 1500 mL). The eluent was removed to give the crude product XS-36, which can be used for the next step without further purification.
PNB XS-36: yellow oil; [α] 20
D = -26.5 (c 0.40, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 7.84 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.72 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.23 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 6.41 (dd, J = 16.0, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 6.08 (dt, J = 5.0, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 5.71 (s, 1H), 5.56 (s, 1H), 4.30 (dd, J = 8.0, 3.0 Hz, 1H), 4.08 (d , J = 10.5 Hz, 1H), 4.08-3.98 (m, 1H), 3.84-3.76 (m, 1H), 3.64 (dd, J = 6.5, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 3.31 (s, 3H), 3.09 (dd, J = 10.5, 3.0 Hz, 1H), 2.49 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 6.5 Hz, 1H), 2.47 (dd, J = 16.0, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 2.38 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 7.0 Hz, 1H), 2.33 (d, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 2.00 (dd, J = 16.0, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 1.92-1.72 (m, 4H), 1.68-1.58 (m, 2H), 1.42-1.13 (m, 9H), 1.10-0.96 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 197.2, 171.1, 163.3, 150.9, 140.9, 134.8, 130.9, 130.6, 128.9, 123.7, 111.1, 106.2, 75.9, 75.1, 74.3, 73.6, 71.8, 71.7, 66.9, 60.8, 53.6, 51.1, 40.2, 36.2, 33.8, 30.7, 30.0, 25.3, 24.3, 23.8; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C34H42ClINO11, 802.1491; found, 802.1499.
[00429] To the crude product XS-36 from the previous step was added a solvent mixture of 4:1:5 TFA/H2O/CH2Cl2 (950 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred for 2 h (TLC monitor), and then poured in small portions into saturated aq. NaHCO3 solution (1000 mL). The aqueous mixture solution was neutralized with excess amount of solid NaHCO3, and extracted with EtOAc (500 mL x 5). The combined organic layer was washed with saturated NaHCO3 solution, saturated NH4Cl solution, brine, and dried over MgSO4. The solvent was removed to give crude product XS-37, which can be used for the next step without further purification.
XS-37-major: yellow oil; [α] 20
D = +1.0 (c 0.37, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 8.19 (d, J = 9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.68 (d, J = 9.0 Hz, 2H), 5.69 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.55 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.52-5.56 (m, 1H), 4.20-4.12 (m, 2H), 4.08 (dd, J = 10.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 4.02 (dt, J = 10.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 3.99-3.93 (m, 1H), 3.81-3.73 (m, 1H), 3.66 (dd, J = 10.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 3.29 (s, 3H), 2.83 (s, 1H), 2.73 (dd, J = 10.0, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 2.53 (dd, J = 15.5, 3.0 Hz, 1H), 2.39 (dd, J = 17.0, 7.5 Hz, 1H), 2.30 (dt, J = 15.0, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 2.28 (dt, J = 14.0, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 2.19 (dd, J = 17.0, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 2.17-1.97 (m, 2H), 1.88-1.76 (m, 2H), 1.56-1.44 (m, 1H), 1.32-1.18 (m, 2H), 1.15-1.02 (m, 1H), 0.96-0.82 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 204.4, 170.9, 164.0, 151.0, 134.6, 131.1, 128.9, 123.9, 105.9, 77.3, 75.1, 74.8, 74.7, 73.7, 73.2, 65.9, 65.4, 60.6, 53.4, 51.0, 42.0, 40.3, 39.6, 30.8, 30.2, 30.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C28H34ClINO11, 722.0865; found, 722.0860.
[00430] To a solution of crude product XS-37 from the previous step in 50 mL CH2Cl2 was added a mixture of 18:1 MeOH/H2O (950 mL) and Na2CO3 solid (10.6 g, 100 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred until the reaction was completed (TLC monitor) about 6 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with 500 mL Et2O and passed through a pad of Celite to remove white solid. The eluent was concentrated under reduced pressure, to give the crude product, which was purified by flash silica gel column chromatography (hexanes/EtOAc = 20:1→1:2), to give a mixture of diastereomers (X-45: X-44 = 2:1; 8.2 g) as a yellow liquid.
[00431] Prepartion of ion-exchange resin device ((a) Namba, K.; Jun, H. S.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2004, 126, 7770, (b) Kaburagi, Y.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett.2007, 9, 723.): A cartridge column (Biotage, 25 g) was cleaned, filled with polymer-bound pyridinium p- toluenesulfonate resin (20.0 g, Aldrich #82817, ~3.5 mmol/g toluene 4-sulfonate loading), dehydrating reagent, 3A molecular sieves (Fisher Sci, 3.0 g) and another cartridge column (Biotage, 25 g) was cleaned, filled with polymer-bound 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-2H- pyrimido[1,2-a]pyrimi-dine resin (20.0 g, Aldrich #358754, 2.6 mmol/g loading, 2 % cross- linked with divinylbenzene) and washed with 100 mL 200 proof pure EtOH (Koptec, V1016).
[00432] The mixture of X-44 and X-45 (8.2 g) was dissolved in 500 mL EtOH in a 2000 mL round flask. A pump, reaction flask and ion-exchange column were connected as shown in Figure 2. The mixture (10 mg/mL solution in EtOH) was circulated for 10 h (flow rate: 2 mL/min). The column was washed with ethanol (300 mL). The combined EtOH solutions were concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was passed through a short silica gel plug (elution with hexanes/EtOAc = 10:1 to 1:1) to give product X-46 as a yellow oil.
C1-C19 BB of halichondrin Bs X-46: yellow oil, [α] 20
D = -25.8 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.83 (s, 1H), 5.67 (s, 1H), 4.41 (dt, J = 10.0, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 4.02 (dt, J = 10.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 4.36 (s, 1H), 4.14 (sep, J = 5.0 Hz, 2H), 4.08 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 1H), 3.89 (dd, J = 6.5, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 3.76-3.69 (m, 1H), 3.66 (dd, J = 6.5, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 3.30 (s, 3H), 2.58 (dt, J = 15.0, 5.0 Hz, 2H), 2.51 (dd, J = 15.5, 3.0 Hz, 1H), 2.17 (dd, J = 16.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 2.22- 2.12 (m, 1H), 2.10-1.75 (m, 5H), 1.44-1.37 (m, 1H), 1.35 (dd, J = 13.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 1.33- 1.16 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 170.9, 128.8, 109.7, 106.8, 82.4, 80.8, 78.5, 76.9, 74.9, 74.7, 74.2, 68.5, 61.8, 53.4, 51.1, 47.4, 40.7, 36.3, 32.4, 30.8, 30.7; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C21H29ClIO7, 555.0646; found, 555.0655. S nthesis of C1-C19 thioester for X-ra structure determination
Figure imgf000168_0001
[00433] The C1-C19 carboxylic ester X-46 (200 mg, 0.37 mmol) was dissolved in 3.7 mL of freshly distilled 1,2-dichloroethane and after addition of Me3SnOH (532 mg, 2.94 mmol), the mixture was heated to 80 °C until TLC analysis indicated a complete reaction (about 48 h). After completion of the reaction, the mixture was concentrated in vacuo, and the residue was taken up in 100 mL EtOAc. The organic layer was washed with aqueous 1N HCl solution (20 mL x 3) and then washed with brine (15 mL) and dried over anhydrous MgSO4. Removal of the solvent in vacuo afforded the crude product C1-C19 carboxylic acid, which was used directly for the next step without further purification (Nicolaou, K. C.; Estrada, A. A.; Zak, M.; Lee, S. H.; Safina, B. S. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.2005, 44, 1378).
To the solution of crude C1-C19 carboxylic acid product from the previous step in anhydrous CH2Cl2 (37 mL) was added DCC (169.3 mg, 0.74 mmol), methyl 2-mercaptoacetate (58.9 mg, 0.56 mmol) and DMAP (5.0 mg, 0.0387 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at rt for 4 h (TLC monitor), filtered through a short Celite pad and the eluent was concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by flash chromatography (EtOAc/hexane = 1:1) to give the product XS-38 as a white solid (90 % yield) (Xiao, J. P.; Tolbert, T. J. Org. Lett. 2009, 11, 4144). Compound XS-38 was obtained from the mixture solvent (hexanes and EtOAc) and subjected to X-ray analysis (Figure 3). Coupling efficiency of β-haloenones with aldehydes
[00434] The synthesis of C1-C19 building block X-D relies on a C-C bond formation between aldehyde X-A with a vinylogous acyl anion generated from β-haloenone X-B. There are several methods reported for C-C bond formation between“masked” vinylgous acyl anions and aldehydes (Cohen, T.; Bennett, A. B.; Mura, Jr., A. J. J. Org. Chem.1976, 41, 2506. (b) Debal, A.; Cuvigny, T.; Larcheveque, Tetrahedron Lett.1977, 36, 3187; Piers, E.; Morton, H. E. J. Org. Chem.1979, 44, 3437. (d) Ren, H.; Krasovskiy, A.; Knochel, P. Org. Lett.2004, 6, 4215). In 1992, a coupling reaction between methyl β-iodoacrylate X-2 and aldehyde X-1 was reported, which allowed the effective formation of the C29-C30 bond of halichondrins. Since then, the original stoichiometric, non-asymmetric reaction to the catalytic, asymmetric version has been improved (Aicher, T. D.; Buszek, K. R.; Fang, F. G.; Forsyth, C. J.; Jung, S. H.; Kishi, Y.; Scola, P. M. Tetrahedron Lett.1992, 33, 1549. (b) Chen, C.; Tagami, K.; Kishi, Y. J. Org. Chem.1995, 60, 5386. (c) Namba, K.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett. 2004, 6, 5031. (d) Guo, H.; Dong, C.-G.; Kim, D.-S.; Urabe, D.; Wang, J.; Kim, J. T.; Liu, X.; Sasaki, T.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2009, 131, 15387). Knochel and Rao disclosed a coupling of β-iodocyclohexenone X-4 with aldehydes in the presence of CrCl2 in DMF (Knochel, P.; Rao, C. J. Tetrahedron, 1993, 49, 29). In connection with the synthetic efforts on the taxane class of natural products, the Ni/Cr-mediated coupling reaction was used to construct the taxane ring system, cf., X-7→ X-8 (Kress, M. H.; Ruel, R.; Miller, W. H.; Kishi, Y. Tetrahedron Lett.1993, 34, 6003; Michael H. Kress,“Applications of the
Ni(II)/Cr(II)-Mediated Coupling Reaction to the Synthesis of the Taxane Diterpenes” (January, 1995, Harvard University). (2) Xiaoning Christopher Sheng,“Total Synthesis of (+)-Cinnamoyltaxicin-I Triacetate” (September, 1998, Harvard University). (3) Jongwon Lim,“Total Synthesis of Taxol” (July, 2000, Harvard University)). These examples relied on Cr-organometallics. Based on this observation, Ni/Cr-mediated coupling was focused on, to realize the coupling X-A + X-B→ X-C.
[00435] The first phase of the study was to assess the coupling efficiency of β-iodoenones with aldehydes, with use of model substrates (Figure 7). The coupling efficiency between β- iodoenone X-9a and aldehyde X-10 with 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from (S)- sulfonamide X-12, and 1 mol% (Me)2Phen(H)2•NiCl2 X-13a in MeCN (Figure 7) was tested.
[00436] β-Iodoenone X-9a was compared with β-bromo- and β-chloroenones X-9b,c. X-9b,c might be less reactive than X-9a because of electronic effects and, therefore, might have a better reactivity-balance between the Ni- and Cr-catalytic cycles. This experiment showed that: (1) X- 9b,c gave a better coupling efficiency than X-9a and (2) X-9b gave a slightly better coupling efficiency than X-9c.
[00437] β-bromoenone X-9b was used to conduct a second experiment. The overall coupling efficiency with less reactive Ni-catalyst and, then, with a lesser amount of the Ni-catalyst was tested. (Me)2Phen(OMe)2•NiCl2 X-13b is a slower activator, based on previous studies, of vinyl iodides than (Me)2Phen(H)2•NiCl2 X-13a (Liu, X.; Li, X.; Yu Chen, Hu, Y.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2012, 134, 6136). On replacing X-13a with X-13b, the coupling efficiency was noticeably improved. The ratio of Ni- over Cr-catalysts was optimized; with 10 mol% Cr-catalyst fixed, 1, 0.5.0.1, 0.05, and 0.01 mol% Ni-catalyst loadings were tested, thereby revealing that: (1) the coupling efficiency improved with lowering the Ni-catalyst loading and (2) the coupling efficiency reached the plateau at the 0.05-0.01 mol% Ni-catalyst loading. It is worthwhile noting that the coupling reaction did not proceed without Ni-catalysts.
[00438] The coupling condition of“10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, 0.05 mol% Ni-complex X-13b, Zr(cp)2Cl2 (1.5 eq), LiCl (2 eq), and Mn (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4 M) at room temperature” is used for a study of coupling efficiency. Figure 8 summarizes the coupling efficiency for di-substituted trans-β-bromoenones with aldehydes. The products thus obtained were stable enough to isolate and characterize. However, on standing in benzene, methylene chloride, and other solvents, at room temperature, they gradually decomposed, to yield the corresponding furans. With acid treatment (p-TSA or CSA/MeCN/RT), they gave the furans almost instantaneously. On acylation, however, the coupling products became stable even in the presence of acids (aq. TFA, CH2Cl2, RT).
[00439] Figure 9 summarizes applying this coupling reaction to other types of β- bromoenones. The first case studied was cis-β-bromoenone X-19; a ~9:1 mixture of coupling product X-11 was abtained, similar to the coupling product obtained from trans-β- bromoenone X-9b, and furan X-20. Trans tri-substituted β-bromoenone X-21 gave a 1:1 mixture of coupling product X-23 and furan X-24, whereas cis tri-substituted β-bromoenone 22 gave only furan X-24.
[00440] Overall, the disclosed coupling reaction between an aldehyde and a“naked” vinylogous acyl anion is synthetically useful at least for di-substituted trans-β-bromoenones. Interestingly, the method meets the need to achieve the proposed coupling reaction X-A + X- B→ X-C (Figure 4).
Selective activation of β-bromoenone over vinyl iodide and saturated chloride
[00441] Figure 10 shows exemplary reported selective activation/coupling of a poly- halogenated nucleophile in the Ni/Cr-mediated coupling reactions is shown in Figure 10. The first example shows that a selective activation/coupling is possible with the use of selective activator in the Cr-mediated couplings; namely, cobalt- and iron-salts are known to activate saturated halides, but not vinyl halides (Takai, K.; Nitta, K.; Fujimura, O.; Utimoto, K. J. Org. Chem.1989, 4732). The second example shows that a selective activation of iodoacetylene in the Ni/Cr-mediated reaction is possible without disturbing the vinyl iodide present in the electrophile.
[00442] Competition experiments were conducted to study the selective activation/coupling. Aldehyde X-10 was coupled with a 1:1 mixture of β-bromoenone X-9b and vinyl iodide X- 31a, b, or c in the presence of a different amount of Ni-catalysts X-13a,b, followed by ratio- analysis of the two expected products X-11 and X-32 (1H NMR) (Figure 11). The competition experiments demonstrated that: (1) 0.05 and 0.1 mol% Ni-catalyst loadings, against 10 mol% Cr-catalyst loading, allow selectively to activate/couple β-bromoenone X- 9b over all the three types of vinyl iodides X-31a~c and (2) Ni-catalyst X-13b gives a better discrimination of β-bromoenone X-9b over vinyl iodides X-31a~c than Ni-catalyst X-13a. Interestingly, 0.05 and 0.1 mol% Ni-catalyst loadings coincided with the Ni-catalyst amount ideal for β-bromoenone couplings (see the previous section).
[00443] The coupling study of X-34 and X-35 can be found in Figure 13. Requisite nucleophile 34 was readily prepared from the previously reported, optically pure aldehyde 33 (Figure 12) (Liu, S.; Kim, J. T.; Dong, C.-G.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett.2009, 11, 4520). With respect to the electrophile, several possible protecting groups at C8 and C9 were tested, thereby showing that the cyclohexylidene is the best option.
[00444] Aldehyde X-35 was subjected to the Ni/Cr-coupling reaction (10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from sulfonamide X-12, and 0.05 mol% Ni-catalyst X-13b), to furnish a single coupling product in 46% yield. The spectroscopic analysis (HR-MS, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR) demonstrated that the isolated product was the desired coupling product X-36. In particular, the C10-C11 vicinal proton spin-coupling constant (1.0 Hz) allowed for the assignment of the desired β-configuration to the newly introduced alcohol. Based on the previous examples similar to the present case, the desired diastereomer was anticipated to be formed in a high stereoselectivity with the Cr-catalyst prepared from (S)-sulfonamide X-12 (Aicher, T. D.; Kishi, Y. Tetrahedron Lett.1987, 28, 3463).
[00445] Three polyether-type phenanthrene•NiCl2 complexes X-37a~c were prepared. The solubility of these complexes, particularly X-37b and X-37c, was improved. With the use of X-37c, the coupling yield was improved (The coupling yields with X-37a and X-37b were 59% and 75%, respectively. A Ni-catalyst with n-dodecyloxy substituents is also prepared, i.e., X = n-C12H25O in X-13, but found that its solubility was roughly same as that of X-13b and the coupling yield with this Ni-catalyst was 60%).
[00446] Figure 14 summarizes the coupling of β-bromoenone X-34 with various aldehydes. Among them, the result with aldehyde X-33 shows a selective activation of a β-bromoenone over a vinyl iodide. Activation of vinyl iodide in X-33 can induce cyclization with the aldehyde. Synthesis of C1-C19 building block of halichondrin Bs and analogs thereof
[00447] The coupling product X-36 was prone to furan-formation, but this instability could be overcome by acylation of the resultant allylic alcohol. Among several acyl groups tested, p-nitrobenzoate was chosen, because it was found to be stable under the aq. TFA condition required for hydrolysis of the C8,C9-cyclohexylidene group, cf., step 2 in Figure 15.
[00448] On treatment with aqueous Na2CO3, the p-nitrobenzoate group of aq. TFA- hydrolysis product was smoothly hydrolyzed, followed by an oxy-Michael reaction of the C9 hydroxyl group to the α,β-unsaturated ketone, to furnish a ~1:2 mixture of X-44 and X-45 (Figure 15). In the previous studies, the chemical behaviors of these oxy-Michael products, including: (1) PPTS treatment allows to convert the C12-β oxy-Michael product X-45 to the desired polycycle, cf., X-46; (2) undesired C12-α oxy-Michael product X-44 can be recycled via retro oxy-Michael/oxy-Michael equilibration under basic condition; (3) an ion-exchange resin based device allows to convert the mixture of oxy-Michael products to the desired polycycle without isolation and recycling of the undesired oxy-Michael product (Namba, K.; Jun, H.-S.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2004, 126, 7770. (b) Kaburagi, Y.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett. 2007, 9, 723).
[00449] An experiment was set up to convert oxy-Michael products X-44 and X-45 into polycycle X-46, thereby revealing that: (1) transformation of X-45 into X-46 under the PPTS condition was cleand facile, but (2) isomerization of X-44 to X-45 under the previously established basic conditions or ion-exchange-resin protocol was problematic; one problem identified was the elimination of HCl to form iodo-diene (see the lower half of Figure 15). With this information, a reaction condition to establish the equilibrium between two oxy- Michael products without elimination of HCl was searched for, and eventually found that the equilibration can be established with DBU or tetramethylguanidine in isopropanol or ethanol at room temperature, without the undesired elimination. DBU, Triton B(OMe), and tetramethylguanidine were tested. DBU and tetramethylguanidine established an equilibrium in isopropanol or ethanol at RT without an elimination of HCl, whereas caused an elimination of HCl in DMF and MeCN. Triton B(OMe) caused unknown decomposition of the oxy- Michael products.
[00450] Some of these conditions were translated to an ion-exchange resin based device and found that polymer-bound guanidine base, coupled with polymer-bound PPTS, was effective directly to convert a mixture of oxy-Michael products X-44 and X-45 to polycycle X-46 in a high yield without isolation/separation/equilibration (Figure 16). Basic ion-exchange resins tested included: Amberlite IRA-400, Amberlite IRA-402, Amberlite IRA-900, Amberlite A- 21, Amberlite A-26, ans Amberlite A-27. Acidic ion-exchange resins tested included: Rexyn 101, Amberlite IR-120, Amberlite 15, and Amberlite IRC-86. Both purchased from Aldrich: polymer-bound guanidine: #358754; polymer-bound PPTS: #82817. As ethanol was used as the solvent, an ester exchange was noticed if the reaction was run over 1 day. However, it did not present an issue for preparative purpose, as the conversion was usually complete within 12 hours. The structure of C1-C19 building block X-46 thus synthesized was fully supported by spectroscopic data (HR-MS, 1H and 13C NMR), which was further confirmed by X-ray analysis of its derivative. [00451] The synthesis reported is easy to scale; the overall yield of X-46 from X-36 was 69% in a 11.4 g scale.
[00452] The C1-C19 building block X-46 of halichondrin Bs was synthesized via a selective activation/coupling of β-bromoenone X-34 with aldehyde X-35 in a Ni/Cr-mediated reaction. The first phase of study was a method development to effect a coupling of a“naked” vinylogous anion with an aldehyde. The study with the coupling of X-9 + X-10→ X-11 revealed: (1)β-bromoenone X-9b is a better nucleophile than the corresponding β-iodo- and β-chloroenones X-9a,c; (2) (Me)2Phen(OMe)2•NiCl2 X-13b is a better Ni-catalyst than (Me)2Phen(H)2•NiCl2 X-13a; (3) a low Ni-catalyst loading, for example 0.05~0.01 mol% Ni- catalyst against 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, is crucial for an effective coupling. The second phase of study was a method development to realize a selective activation/coupling of poly- halogenated nucleophiles such as X-34. The competition experiment of X-10 + X-9b over X- 10 + X-31a~c revealed: (1) (Me)2Phen(OMe)2•NiCl2 X-13b is more effective than
(Me)2Phen(H)2•NiCl2 X-13a for the required selective activation/coupling; (2) a low Ni- catalyst loading, for example 0.05~0.01 mol% Ni-catalyst against 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, can be important for discriminating β−bromoenone X-9b from the three types of vinyl iodides X- 31a~c. The third phase of study was an application of the developed method to execute the proposed coupling of X-34 + X-35→ X-36. For this application, a polyether-type Ni-catalyst X-37c, readily soluble in the reaction medium, was introduced to achieve the selective activation/coupling with higher efficiency. With use of ion-exchange-resin based device, the coupling product X-36 was transformed to the C1-C19 building block X-46 of halichondrin Bs without purification/separation of the intermediates.
[00453] Nucleophile X-34 are designed selectively to achieve specific bond-formation in a controlled manner, as illustrated in the synthesis of right-half of halichondrin A (Figure 17).3c Namely, C19 vinyl iodide was used for the Ni/Cr-mediated coupling stereoselectively to form the C19-C20 bond, whereas C17 chloride allowed stereospecifically to form the
tetrahydrofuran ring in an SN2 fashion. Example 2. Unified Synthesis of C1-C19 Building Blocks of halichondrins via Selective Activation/Coupling of Poly-halogenated Nucleophiles in (Ni)/Cr-Mediated Reactions Synthesis outlined in Figure 21
Synthesis of model halo-acetylenic ketones Y-18a-c
Figure imgf000175_0001
[00454] To a solution of trimethylsilyl acetylene (432 mg, 4.4 mmol) in THF (14 mL) was added slowly n-BuLi (2.5 M in hexanes, 1.7 mL, 4.2 mmol) at -78 ºC about 30 minutes. After 1 h, a solution of hexanal (400 mg, 4.0 mmol) in THF (6 mL) was added over another 30 min. The resulting mixture was stirred at -78 ºC for 2 h and then quenched by saturated NH4Cl solution (10 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (15 mL x 3). The extracts were washed with brine (30 mL), dried over anhydrous MgSO4, and then passed through a pad of silica gel (10 g). Elution with hexanes/EtOAc (10:1 to 4:1) and concentration gave the crude product YS-1 as light yellow liquid. This material was immediately used for the next step without further purification.
[00455] To a solution of propargyl alcohol YS-1 (800 mg, 4.0 mmol) in dry acetone (20 mL) was added silver nitrate AgNO3 (135.9 mg, 0.80 mmol) and N-hlaosuccinimide (NIS: 1.50 g; NBS: 1.07 g; NCS: 801 mg; 6.0 mmol) at room temperature. After being stirred at room temperature for 0.5 h (overnight for NCS case), the reaction mixture was diluted with Et2O (40 mL) and then quenched by 30 mL of 10% aqueous Na2S2O3. The aqueous layer was extracted with Et2O (20 mL x 3) and combined organic layer was washed with brine, dried over anhydrous MgSO4, and concentrated under vacuum. Purification of the residue by flash column chromatography on silica gel afforded halogenated propargyl alcohol YS-2 as colorless oil. The material was immediately used for the next step without further purification.
[00456] A solution of halogenated propargyl alcohol YS-2 (4.0 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (40 mL) were added NaHCO3 (3.36 g, 40 mmol) and Dess–Martin periodinane (2.54 g, 6.0 mmol) at room temperature and stirred for 1 h at room temperature. The reaction mixture was diluted with Et2O (60 mL) and then quenched with 10% Na2S2O3 solution (60 mL), 40 mL of saturated NaHCO3 solution and vigorously stirred for 30 min. The aqueous phase was extracted with Et2O three times and the combined organic phases were washed with 10% Na2S2O3 (40 mL x 2), saturated NaHCO3 solution (40 mL), brine (40 mL) and dried over anhydrous MgSO4. After removal of the solvent, the crude material was purified by flash chromatography on short silica gel column to give the halo-acetylenic ketones Y-18a-c as yellow oils.
Figure imgf000176_0001
Y- [00457] Iodo-acetylenic ketone Y-18a: 67% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 2.53 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 1.65 (quint, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.38-1.22 (m, 4H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 186.7, 95.0, 45.1, 31.0, 23.5, 22.3, 18.1, 13.8; IR(ATR) νmax: 2973, 2146, 1662, 1087, 1045, 639; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C8H12IO, 250.9927; found, 250.9936.
Figure imgf000176_0002
Y- [00458] Bromo-acetylenic ketone Y-18b: 61% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 2.54 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 1.65 (quint, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.38-1.22 (m, 4H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 186.6, 79.9, 56.8,.45.3, 31.0, 23.5, 22.3, 13.8; IR(ATR) νmax: 2955, 2179, 1672, 1246, 1220, 687; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C8H12BrO, 203.0072; found, 203.0076.
Figure imgf000176_0003
Y- [00459] Chloro-acetylenic ketone Y-18c: 55% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 2.58 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 1.68 (quint, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.38-1.24 (m, 4H), 0.89 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 187.6, 81.4, 78.2, 45.4, 31.0, 23.4, 22.3, 13.8; IR(ATR) νmax: 2954, 1815, 1731, 1462, 1230, 749; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C8H12ClO,
159.0577; found, 159.0570. Synthesis of model halo-acetylenic ketals Y-19a-c
Figure imgf000177_0001
[00460] To a solution of the above halo-acetylenic ketones Y-18a-c (1.5 mmol) in benzene (30 mL) were added 1,3-propanediol (1.14 g, 15 mmol) and p-TsOH•H2O (14.3 mg, 0.075 mmol) at room temperature and then refluxed for 12 h with azeotropic removal of water using a Dean-Stark trap. The reaction mixture was poured into saturated NaHCO3 aq.
solution, extracted with Et2O and the extract was washed with brine, dried over by anhydrous MgSO4. After removal of the solvent, the crude material was purified by flash
chromatography on short silica gel column to give ketals Y-19a-c as yellow oils.
Figure imgf000177_0002
Y- [00461] Iodo-acetylenic ketal Y-19a: 83% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 4.20 (dt, J = 13.0, 2.5 Hz, 2H), 3.88 (dd, J = 11.5, 5.0 Hz, 2H), 2.09-1.96 (m, 1H), 1.79-1.74 (m, 2H), 1.53-1.44 (m, 2H), 1.39-1.22 (m, 5H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 97.4, 91.6, 62.5, 41.8, 31.6, 25.1, 22.9, 22.5, 14.0, 4.3; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C11H17INaO2, 331.0165; found, 331.0162.
Figure imgf000177_0003
Y- [00462] Bromo-acetylenic ketal Y-19b: 85% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 4.18 (dt, J = 12.0, 3.0 Hz, 2H), 3.87 (dd, J = 12.0, 5.5 Hz, 2H), 2.08-1.95 (m, 1H), 1.79-1.72 (m, 2H), 1.52-1.44 (m, 2H), 1.37-1.23 (m, 5H), 0.87 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 97.1, 76.9, 62.4, 47.1, 41.8, 31.6, 25.1, 22.8, 22.5, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C11H18BrO2, 261.0490; found, 261.0483.
Figure imgf000178_0001
Y- [00463] Chloro-acetylenic ketal Y-19c: 60% yield; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 4.24 (dt, J = 12.5, 2.5 Hz, 2H), 3.88 (dd, J = 12.5, 5.5 Hz, 2H), 2.09-1.98 (m, 1H), 1.80-1.75 (m, 2H), 1.56-1.48 (m, 2H), 1.37-1.23 (m, 5H), 0.88 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 96.2, 79.6, 75.0, 62.3, 41.8, 31.8, 25.2, 22.8, 22.5, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C11H18ClO2, 217.0995; found, 217.0998. General procedure of catalytic, asymmetric (Ni)/Cr-mediated coupling with halo- acetylenic ketones Y-18a-c and halo-acetylenic ketals Y-19a-c
Figure imgf000178_0002
[00464] Synthesis of (S)- Y-21, a, and b is available from Liu, X.; Li, X.; Chen, Y.; Hu, Y.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2012, 134, 6136. Ni-catalyst Y-22 was synthesized with the following procedure.
Figure imgf000178_0003
[00465] To a stirred solution of 1,10-phenanthroline anhydrous (5.0 g, 27.7 mmol) in toluene (200 mL) and THF (25 mL) was added 0.7M i-PrLi in pentane solution (24 mL, 84 mmol) dropwise at room temperature. After stirring for 16 h at room temperature, the mixture was added H2O (100 mL). The separated aqueous layer was extracted with CH2Cl2 (50 mL x3) and the combined organic layer was treated with MnO2 (20 g, 230 mmol) at room
temperature. After stirring for 2 h, the mixture was added MgSO4 (20 g) and stirred for 15 min. The mixture was filtered through Celite and the filtrate was concentrated. The crude mixture was purified by SiO2 flash column chromatography (hexanes/EtOAc = 9:1) to provide (i-Pr)2Phen(H)2 Y-22'(6.3 g, 23.8 mmol, 86%) (Metallinos, C.; Barrett, F. B.; Wang, Y.; Xu, S. F.; Taylor, N. J. Tetrahedron 2006, 62, 11145).
[00466] Y-22': 1H NMR (500MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.48 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 12H), 1.94 (hept, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 7.55 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.68 (s, 2H), 8.14 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 2H); 13C NMR (125MHz, CDCl3) δ 22.9, 37.3, 120.1, 125.4, 127.2, 136.4, 145.2, 167.8; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C18H20N2Na, 287.1524; found, 287.1527.
To a stirred solution of (i-Pr)2Phen(H)2 Y-22' (6.3 g, 23.8 mmol) in EtOH (100 mL) and triethyl oroom temperaturehoformate (3 mL) was added a solution of NiCl2•6H2O (17 g, 71.5 mmol) in EtOH (100 mL) dropwise at room temperature. After stirring for overnight at room temperature, the precipitate was filtered and the resulting solid was washed Et2O. This purple solid was dissolved into CH3CN and the mixture was refluxed under N2 atmosphere. Then this solution was cooled to room temperature, to give purple crystals. The crystals were filtered and washed with Et2O and dried under reduced pressure for overnight to provide Y- 22 (4.5 g, 11.4 mmol, 48%) as purple shiny crystal. General Procedure of Asymmetric Catalytic Ni/Cr-Mediated Coupling.
[00467] Cr-Catalyst Preparation: To a mixture of natural sulfonamide (Guo, H.; Dong, C. G.; Kim, D. S.; Urabe, D.; Wang, J.; Kim, J. T.; Liu, X.; Sasaki, T.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2009, 131, 15387) (S)- Y-21 (3.44 mg, 11.0 µmol), proton sponge (Aldrich, purified by sublimation; 2.36 mg, 11.0 µmol) and CrCl2 (Aldrich, 99.99% mg, 1.23 mg, 10.0 µmol) was added MeCN (Baker, ultra low water; 50 µL) in a glovebox. The mixture was stirred for 60 min at room temperature under nitrogen.
[00468] Coupling: To a separate vial were added ZrCp2Cl2 (Aldrich, 98%; 43.8 mg, 0.15 mmol), Mn powder (Aldrich, 99.99%, powder; 11.0 mg, 0.20 mmol), LiCl (Aldrich, anhydrous, grinded; 8.5 mg, 0.20 mmol), NiCl•
2 complex Y-22 or i or ii (0.05 mol%) or no NiCl•
2 catalyst, aldehyde Y-20 (32.7 mg, 0.10 mmol) and halo-acetylenic ketones Y-18a-c or halo-acetylenic ketals Y-19a-c (0.17 mmol). The deep green Cr-catalyst in the first vial was transferred to the second reaction vial with syringe under nitrogen. The reaction mixture was stirred under nitrogen until the reaction was completed (~3 hr, TLC monitor), and diluted with EtOAc (2.0 mL). Florisil (ca.50 mg) was added, and the mixture was stirred for 30 min, filtered through a short silica gel pad with 1:1 hexanes/EtOAc. The eluent was concentrated in vacuo to furnish the crude coupling product, which was purified by preparative TLC (hexanes/EtOAc = 4:1) to give YS-3 as yellow liquid or YS-4 as colorless oil.
[00469] The isolated yield for coupling reactions with Ni-catalysts Y-22 or i or ii and no added Ni-catalyst are summarized below (Table 2).
Figure imgf000180_0003
Figure imgf000180_0002
[00470] Coupling product YS-3: 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.70-7.61 (m, 4H), 7.47- 7.32 (m, 6H), 4.62 (q, J = 6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.78-3.58 (m, 2H), 3.28 (d, J = 6.0 Hz, 1H), 2.55 (t, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 2.00-1.90 (m, 1H), 1.89-1.79 (m, 1H), 1.77-1.62 (m, 3H), 1.37-1.24 (m, 4H), 1.06 (s, 9H), 1.05-1.02 (m, 2H), 0.89 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 187.9, 135.6, 133.1, 129.8, 127.8, 92.0, 83.6, 63.9, 62.0, 45.4, 34.6, 31.1, 28.1, 26.8, 23.6, 22.4, 19.1, 13.9; IR(ATR) νmax: 2930, 1676, 1427, 1111, 823, 701, 505; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+K]+ calcd for C28H38KO3Si, 489.2222; found, 489.2224.
Figure imgf000180_0001
[00471] Coupling product YS-4: 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.71-7.68 (m, 4H), 7.46- 7.42 (m, 2H), 7.41-7.37 (m, 4H), 4.58 (q, J = 6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.27-4.20 (m, 2H), 3.90-3.85 (m, 2H), 3.77-3.67 (m, 2H), 2.82 (d, J = 6.0 Hz, 1H), 2.09-1.98 (m, 1H), 1.97-1.83 (m, 3H), 1.82- 1.71 (m, 3H), 1.57-1.49 (m, 2H), 1.34-1.26 (m, 5H), 1.06 (s, 9H), 0.88 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 135.5, 133.4, 129.7, 127.7, 96.5, 88.1, 80.6, 63.8, 62.3, 62.1, 41.9, 35.1, 31.7, 28.2, 26.8, 25.3, 23.0, 22.5, 19.1, 14.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+K]+ calcd for C31H44KO4Si, 547.2640; found, 547.2637. Synthesis outlined in Figure 22
Synthesis of C12-C19 vinyl bromide Y-24a
Figure imgf000181_0001
[00472] For the preparation of Y-23a ((a) Liu, S.; Kim, J. T.; Dong, C. G.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett.2009, 11, 4520,(b) Ueda, A.; Yamamoto, A.; Kato, D.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136, 5171).
[00473] To a solution of trimethylsilyl acetylene (4.93 g, 50 mmol) in THF (50 mL) was added slowly n-BuLi (2.5 M in hexanes, 14.56 mL, 53 mmol) at -78 °C. After 1 h, a solution of BF3•Et2O (4.66 mL, 54 mmol) in THF (10 mL) was added over 30 min using syringe pump and the mixture was stirred at -78 °C for 1 h. Then a solution of aldehyde Y-23a (18 mmol) in THF (15 mL) was added over 10 min. After stirring at -78 °C for 3 h, the resulting mixture was poured into a saturated NaHCO3 solution at 0 °C. The aqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc three times and the combined organic layer was washed with brine, dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, and concentrated under vacuum. Purification of the residue by flash column chromatography on silica gel afforded propargylic alcohol YS-5 (3.21 g, 90%) as a colorless oil.
[00474] Propargylic Alcohol YS-5: 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.27 (s, 1H), 5.23 (s, 1H), 4.10-4.05 (m, 2H), 2.42 (dd, J = 15.0, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 2.42 (dd, J = 15.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 1.84-1.55 (m, 4H), 0.17 (s, 9H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 129.7, 119.9, 107.4, 89.3, 62.1, 59.6, 49.9, 34.5, 33.2, -0.07; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C12H20BrClNaOSi, 345.0053; found, 345.0059.
Figure imgf000181_0002
[00475] To a solution of propargyl alcohol YS-5 (998 mg, 3.1 mmol) in dry acetone (12 mL) was added silver nitrate (105 mg, 0.62 mmol) and N-bromosuccinimide (822 mg, 4.6 mmol) at room temperature. The reaction vessel was wrapped by aluminum foil to avoid light. After being stirred at room temperature for 0.5 h, the reaction mixture was cooled to 0 °C and then quenched by water. Then the solution was extracted with ether and the combined organic layer was washed with 10% aqueous Na2S2O3 and brine, dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, and concentrated under vacuum. Purification of the residue by flash column chromatography on silica gel afforded bromo-propargyl alcohol YS-6 as a colorless oil. This material was immediately used for the next step without further purification.
[00476] Bromo-propargylic alcohol YS-6: 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.27 (s, 1H), 5.23 (s, 1H), 4.02-3.96 (m, 1H), 3.94-.3.84 (m, 1H), 2.36 (dd, J = 15.0, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 2.26 (dd, J = 15.0, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 1.72-1.42 (m, 4H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 129.7, 120.0, 81.5, 62.5, 59.5, 49.9, 45.3, 34.3, 33.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C9H12Br2ClO, 328.8943; found, 328.8938.
Figure imgf000182_0001
Y Y
[00477] To a solution of the above proparglic alcohol YS-6 in CH2Cl2 (15 mL) were added NaHCO3 (2.6 g, 31 mmol) and Dess–Martin periodinane (2.0 g, 4.6 mmol) at room temperature and stirred for 0.5 h at room temperature. The reaction mixture was quenched with 10% Na2S2O3 and saturated NaHCO3 solution and vigorously stirred for 30 min. The aqueous phase was extracted with CH2Cl2 three times and the combined organic phases were washed with 10% Na2S2O3 and saturated NaHCO3 solution and then dried over anhydrous Na2SO4. After removal of solvent, the crude material was purified by flash chromatography on short silica gel column to give ynone YS-7 as colorless oil. This material was immediately used for the next step without further purification.
[00478] Acetylenic ketone YS-7: [α] 20
D = +13.5 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.24 (s, 1H), 5.19 (s, 1H), 3.91-3.85 (m, 1H), 2.32 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 2.29 (dd, J = 14.5, 8.5 Hz, 1H), 2.18 (dd, J = 15.0, 5.5 Hz, 1H), 2.13 (ddd, J = 18.5, 9.5, 6.5 Hz, 1H), 1.70-1.62 (m, 1H), 1.52-1.44 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 183.5, 129.3, 120.1, 80.3, 58.8, 56.7, 49.8, 42.2, 31.0; IR(ATR) νmax: 3019, 1677, 1214, 749, 668; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C9H9Br2ClNaO, 348.8606; found, 348.8600.
Figure imgf000183_0001
Y Y- [00479] To a solution of the above ynone YS-7 (3.1 mmol) in benzene (62 mL) were added 1,3-propanediol (2.4 g, 31.0 mmol) and p-TsOH•H2O (29.3 mg, 0.16 mmol) at room temperature and then refluxed for 12 h with azetropic removal of water using a Dean-Stark trap. The reaction mixture was poured into saturated NaHCO3 aq. solution, extracted with EtOAc and the extract was washed with brine, dried over sodium sulfate. After removal of the solvent, the crude material was purified by flash chromatography on short silica gel column to give the ketal derivative Y-24a (976 mg, 82% in three steps) as colorless oil.
[00480] Ketal Y-24a: [α]20
D +6.6 (c 0.92, CHCl3); 1H NMR (600MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.22-5.21 (m, 1H), 5.17-5.16 (m, 1H), 4.13 (tdd, J = 8.7, 5.2, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 3.88-3.84 (m, 2H), 3.48 (ddd, J = 12.0, 5.1, 1.2 Hz, 2H), 2.37 (dd, J = 14.8, 8.5 Hz, 1H), 2.33-2.29 (m, 1H), 2.26-2.21 (m, 1H), 2.07-2.01 (m, 2H), 1.93-1.87 (m, 1H), 1.60 (dddt, J = 18.1, 13.6, 7.8, 5.2 Hz, 1H), 0.55- 0.52 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 129.8, 119.8, 96.8, 77.8, 62.4, 59.6, 49.8, 47.5, 38.9, 31.6, 25.2; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C12H15Br2ClO2Na, 406.9025; found, 406.9029. Synthesis of C12-C19 vinyl iodide Y-24b
Figure imgf000183_0002
Y- Y
[00481] To a solution of trimethylsilyl acetylene (1.0 g, 10.2 mmol) in THF (10 mL) was added slowly n-BuLi (2.5 M in hexanes, 4.1 mL, 10.2 mmol) at -78 °C. After 1 h, a solution of BF3^Et2O (1.4 mL, 11.0 mmol) in THF (2.5 mL) was added over 30 min using syringe pump and the mixture was stirred at -78 °C for 1 h (Yamauchi, M.; Hirao, I. Tetrahedron Lett. 1983, 24, 391). Then a solution of aldehyde Y-23b (1.0 g, 3.6 mmol) in THF (2.5 mL) was added over 30 min. After stirring at -78 °C for 3 h, the resulting mixture was poured into a saturated NaHCO3 solution at 0 °C. The aqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc three times and the combined organic layers were washed with brine, dried over Na2SO4, and concentrated under vacuum. Purification of the residue by flash column chromatography on silica gel afforded proparglic alcohol YS-8 (1.15 g, 80%) as a colorless oil.
[00482] Propargylic Alcohol YS-8: 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.18 (s, 1H), 5.85 (s, 1H), 4.42 (d, J = 6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.24-4.12 (m, 1H), 2.77 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.12-1.94 (m, 2H), 1.90-1.74 (m, 2H), 0.17 (s, 9H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 128.9, 106.0, 105.9, 90.1, 62.1,.60.5, 53.4, 34.3, 32.6, -0.16; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C12H21ClIOSi, 371.0095; found, 371.0103.
Figure imgf000184_0001
[00483] To a solution of the above trimethylsilyl acetylene YS-8 (1.10 g, 3.0 mmol) in dry acetone (15 mL) was added silver nitrate AgNO3 (103 mg, 0.60 mmol) and NBS (806 mg, 4.5 mmol) at room temperature. The reaction vessel was wrapped by aluminum foil to avoid light. After being stirred at room temperature for 0.5 h, the reaction mixture was cooled to 0 °C and then quenched by water. Then the solution was extracted with ether and the combined organic layer was washed with 10% aqueous Na2S2O3 and brine, dried over Na2SO4, and concentrated under vacuum. Purification of the residue by flash column chromatography on silica gel afforded bromoacetylene YS-9 as a colorless oil. This material was immediately used for the next step without further purification.
[00484] Bromoacetylene YS-9: 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 6.18 (s, 1H), 5.86 (s, 1H), 4.47 (q, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 4.22-4.12 (m, 1H), 2.77 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.08-1.96 (m, 2H), 1.94-1.79 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 129.0, 105.8, 80.4, 62.7, 60.5, 53.4, 45.9, 34.3, 32.6; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C9H12BrClIO, 376.8805; found, 376.8811.
Figure imgf000184_0002
Y Y
[00485] A solution of the above propargylic alcohol YS-9 (3.0 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (15 mL) were added NaHCO3 (2.5 g, 30.0 mmol) and Dess-Martin periodinane (1.9 g, 4.5 mmol) at room temperature and stirred for 0.5 h at room temperature. The reaction mixture was quenched with 10% Na2S2O3 solution and saturated NaHCO3 solution and vigorously stirred for 30 min. The aqueous phase was extracted with CH2Cl2 three times and the combined organic phase was washed with 10% Na2S2O3 solution and saturated NaHCO3 solution and then dried over anhydrous Na2SO4. After removal of solvent, the crude material was purified by flash chromatography on short silica gel column to give the ynone YS-10 as colorless oil. This material was immediately used for the next step without further purification.
[00486] Bromo-acetylenic ketone YS-10: [α] 20
D = +10.4 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.65 (s, 1H), 5.53 (s, 1H), 3.87-3.81 (m, 1H), 2.32 (ddd, J = 18.0, 9.0, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 2.24 (dd, J = 14.5, 9.0 Hz, 1H), 2.18 (dd, J = 15.5, 5.5 Hz, 1H), 2.13 (ddd, J = 18.0, 8.5, 6.5 Hz, 1H), 1.69-1.61 (m, 1H), 1.53-1.45 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 183.5, 129.0, 105.9, 80.3, 60.0, 56.7, 53.3, 42.2, 30.8; IR(ATR) νmax: 2900, 2158, 1672, 1614, 1109, 899, 752; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C9H9BrClINaO, 396.8468; found, 396.8459.
Figure imgf000185_0001
Y Y- [00487] To a solution of the above acetylenic ketone YS-10 (3.0 mmol) in benzene (60 mL) were added 1,3-propanediol (2.3 g, 30.0 mmol) and p-TsOH•H2O (28.5 mg, 0.15 mmol) at room temperature and then refluxed for 12 h with azetropic removal of water using a Dean- Stark trap. The reaction mixture was poured into saturated NaHCO3 aq. solution, extracted with EtOAc and the extract was washed with brine, dried over sodium sulfate. After removal of the solvent, the crude material was purified by flash chromatography on short silica gel column to give the ketal Y24b (956 mg, 73% in three steps) as colorless oil.
[00488] Ketal Y24b: [α] 20
D = +5.6 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.66 (s, 1H), 5.51 (s, 1H), 4.12-4.06 (m, 1H), 3.87 (td, J = 12.4, 2.3 Hz, 2H), 3.52-3.48 (m, 2H), 2.33 (d, J = 6.4 Hz, 2H), 2.21-2.15 (m, 1H), 2.05-1.97 (m, 2H), 1.91-1.84 (m, 1H), 1.67-1.58 (m, 1H), 0.60 (ddq, J = 12.1, 2.6, 1.3 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 128.6, 106.5, 96.7, 77.7, 62.4, 60.8, 53.2, 47.5, 38.8, 31.4, 25.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for
C12H15BrClIO2Na, 454.8886; found, 454.8892. Synthesis outlined in Figure 24
Synthesis of Y-27a via (Ni)/Cr-mediated coupling of Y-11 and Y-24a
Figure imgf000186_0001
[00489] To a mixture of CrCl2 (49.2 mg, 0.4 mmol), (R)-Y-21((a) Choi, H.; Demeke, D.; Kang, F.-A.; Kishi, Y.; Nakajima, K.; Nowak, P.; Wan, Z.-K.; Xie, C. Pure Appl. Chem. 2003, 75, 1,(b) Reference 3) (137 mg, 0.44 mmol), and proton sponge (94.3 mg, 0.44 mmol) in a glove box was added EtCN (5.0 mL, 0.4 M) and stirred for 1 h at room temperature. In a separate flask, bromo-acetylene Y-24a (1.35 g, 3.5 mmol), aldehyde Y-11 (1.0 g, 2.0 mmol), LiCl (339.1 mg, 8.0 mmol), Mn (439.5 mg, 8.0 mmol) were mixed together and the Cr- complex solution was transferred to the flask. Then TES-Cl (0.84 mL, 5.0 mmol) was added into the reaction mixture. After stirring for 6 h at room temperature, the reaction was removed from the glove box and diluted with anhydrous Et2O. Sat. aq. NaHCO3, followed by potassium serinate solution, was added carefully to quench the reaction and the
corresponding mixture was stirred vigorously for 30 min. The resultant mixture was filtered through short pad of silica gel and concentrated. The crude material was purified by flash chromatography on silica gel to give TES-protected alcohol YS-11 (1.70g, 92% yield).
[00490] The fractions eluded with 1:10 EtOAc/hexanes were combined and purified with silica gel column chromatography (1:10 EtOAc/hexanes) to give reduced bromoacetylene YS-12 (~400 mg, ~38%) and a fraction containing homo-dimer YS-13. This faction was further purified with preparative TLC (1:10 EtOAc/hexanes), to give homo-dimer YS-13 (5.9 mg, 0.3%).
Coupling product YS-11: [α]20
D -22.3 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (600MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.70 (d, J = 4.4 Hz, 1H), 5.27 (s, 1H), 5.28-5.26 (d, J = 9.5 Hz, 1H), 4.37-4.24 (m, 4H), 4.14-4.12 (m, 1H), 4.09-4.07 (m, 1H), 4.03 (tt, J = 10.1, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 3.85 (dt, J = 6.4, 3.1 Hz, 1H), 3.79- 3.74 (m, 1H), 3.67 (ddd, J = 16.3, 11.3, 5.0 Hz, 2H), 3.34-3.33 (m, 3H), 2.86 (dd, J = 9.5, 2.2 Hz, 1H), 2.53-2.51 (m, 2H), 2.45-2.38 (m, 3H), 2.28-2.21 (m, 2H), 2.18-2.13 (m, 1H), 2.10 (dd, J = 15.1, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 1.85-1.74 (m, 1H), 1.49-1.43 (m, 1H), 1.42-1.32 (m, 1H), 1.25- 1.17 (m, 1H), 1.12 (t, J = 7.9 Hz, 9H), 1.09-1.08 (s, 9H), 0.87 (m, 6H), 0.27 (s, 3H), 0.25 (s, 3H), 0.07 (s, 3H), 0.06 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 170.5, 129.6, 119.5, 96.1, 86.0, 83.2, 81.0, 78.9, 74.12, 72.7, 70.3, 64.5, 63.4, 62.2, 62.0, 59.8, 50.8, 49.8, 40.5, 39.0, 31.7, 30.6, 28.9, 26.3, 26.1, 25.3, 18.8, 18.5, 7.2, 5.6, -4.3, -4.5, -4.7, -5.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C42H77BrClO9Si3, 923.3742; found, 923.3705.
Figure imgf000187_0001
Y
[00491] Reduced bromoacetylene YS-12: [α]20
D +6.9 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.24 (d, J = 2.0 Hz, 1H), 5.21 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.24-4.18 (m, 1H), 4.12 (t, J = 13.0 Hz, 2H), 3.58 (dd, J = 12.0, 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.44 (dd, J = 14.0, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 2.39 (dd, J = 13.5, 5.5 Hz, 1H), 2.36-2.29 (m, 1H), 2.18-2.10 (m, 2H), 2.09 (s, 1H), 2.05-1.97 (m, 1H), 1.74-1.65 (m, 1H), 0.64 (d, J = 13.0 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 129.6, 119.6, 95.7, 79.8, 74.8, 62.0, 59.5, 49.6, 38.7, 31.5, 25.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C12H16BrClNaO2, 218.9914; found, 328.9910.
Figure imgf000187_0002
Y S-13
[00492] Homo-dimer YS-13: [α]20
D +6.8 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.26 (d, J = 2.0 Hz, 1H), 5.22 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 1H), 4.21-4.15 (m, 1H), 4.12 (dt, J = 12.0, 3.0 Hz, 2H), 3.58-3.54 (m, 2H), 2.45-2.33 (m, 3H), 2.18-2.10 (m, 2H), 2.04-1.95 (m, 1H), 1.71-1.60 (m, 1H), 0.60 (d, J = 12.5 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 129.8, 119.9, 96.6, 77.6, 70.6, 62.8, 59.7, 49.9, 39.1, 31.7, 25.1; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C24H31Br2Cl2O4, 610.9906; found, 610.9904. [00493] To a solution of TES-protected alcohol YS-11 (25.5 mg, 27.6 µmol) in CH2Cl2 (89 µL) was added co-solvent mixture TFA/H2O/CH2Cl2 (4:1:10) (42.3 µL) at 0 °C. The reaction mixture was stirred vigorously at room temperature until TLC showed a complete
disappearance of the starting material (around 0.5 h). The reaction was diluted with EtOAc, quenched carefully with sat. NaHCO3 aq., and the organic phases were separated and the aqueous phase was extracted with EtOAc three times, washed with brine. The combined organic phases were dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated. The crude material was flushed through a short silica gel column to afford acetylenic ketone Y-27a (16.1 mg, 78%) as colorless oil.
[00494] Coupling product Y-27a: [α]20
D–52.3 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (600MHz, C6D6) δ: 6.15 (d, J = 9.4 Hz, 1H), 5.21 (s, 1H), 5.16 (s, 1H), 4.11 (s, 1H), 4.08-4.06 (m, 2H), 3.88-3.84 (m, 2H), 3.73-3.67 (m, 2H), 3.33 (s, 3H), 2.79 (dd, J = 9.5, 2.2 Hz, 1H), 2.48 (ddt, J = 17.8, 9.0, 4.3 Hz, 1H), 2.38-2.28 (m, 2H), 2.23 (dd, J = 14.9, 8.8 Hz, 1H), 2.16 (dd, J = 14.9, 5.0 Hz, 1H), .02 (m, 2H), 1.72 (m, 1H), 1.56 (dtd, J = 14.4, 9.5, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 1.39-1.19 (m, 3H), 1.03 (s, 9H), 0.80 (s, 9H), 0.16 (m, 6H), -0.11 (s, 3H), -0.12 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 182.4, 168.0, 126.8, 117.2, 88.8, 81.8, 76.8, 72.9, 71.9, 70.45, 70.3, 62.6, 61.4, 56.2, 48.4, 47.0, 39.6, 37.9, 28.6, 27.7, 27.4, 26.8, 23.5, 23.3, 16.0, 15.6, -6.5, -7.4. IR (ATR) νmax: 3018, 1733, 1675, 1214, 1073, 751; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for
C33H56BrClO8Si2Na, 773.2283; found, 773.2285.
[00495] On treatment with TBS protection (TBS-Cl, imidazole, CH2Cl2), coupling product Y-27a furnished the acetylenic ketone previously synthesized with use of two (Ni)/Cr- mediated coupling reactions (Ueda, A.; Yamamoto, A.; Kato, D.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2014, 136, 5171). Synthesis of Y-27b via (Ni)/Cr-mediated coupling of Y-11 and Y-24b
Y-22b) Y-
Figure imgf000188_0001
[00496] To a mixture of CrCl2 (16.4 mg, 0.13 mmol), (R)- Y-21 (Choi, H.; Demeke, D.; Kang, F.-A.; Kishi, Y.; Nakajima, K.; Nowak, P.; Wan, Z.-K.; Xie, C. Pure Appl. Chem. 2003, 75, 1 )
(41.6 mg, 0.15 mmol), and proton sponge (32.1 mg, 0.15 mmol) in a glove box was added EtCN (1.5 mL) and stirred for 1 h at room temperature. In a separate flask, bromo-acetylene Y-27b (441 mg, 1.0 mmol), aldehyde Y-11 (305 mg, 0.61 mmol), LiCl (103 mg, 2.5 mmol), Mn (133 mg, 2.5 mmol) were mixed together and the Cr-complex solution was transferred to the flask. Then TES-Cl (254 µL, 1.5 mmol) was added into the reaction mixture. After stirring for 6 h at room temperature, the reaction was removed from the glove box and diluted with anhydrous Et2O. Sat. aq. NaHCO3, followed by potassium serinate solution, was added carefully to quench the reaction and the corresponding mixture was stirred vigorously for 30 min. The resultant mixture was filtered through short pad of silica gel and concentrated. The crude material was purified by flash chromatography on silica gel to give TES-protected alcohol YS-14 (529 mg, 89%).
[00497] The fractions eluded with 1:10 EtOAc/hexanes were combined and purified with silica gel column chromatography (1:10 EtOAc/hexanes) to give reduced bromoacetylene YS-15 (~100 mg, ~28%) and a fraction containing homo-dimer YS-16. This faction was further purified with preparative TLC (1:10 EtOAc/hexanes), to give homo-dimer YS-16 (2.6 mg, 0.4%).
Coupling product YS-14: [α]20
D–29.4 (c 0.98, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.78 (m, 1H), 5.74 (d, J = 4.3 Hz, 1H), 5.59 (m, 1H), 4.40-4.25 (m, 3H), 4.16 (m, 1H), 4.12 (dd, J = 6.4, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 4.07 (td, J = 10.2, 4.2 Hz, 1H), 3.91-3.86 (m, 1H), 3.80 (ddd, J = 10.9, 8.0, 5.3 Hz, 1H), 3.74-3.69 (m, 2H), 3.39 (s, 3H), 2.89 (dd, J = 9.5, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 2.57 (dd, J = 14.8, 4.9 Hz, 1H), 2.52-2.44 (m, 3H), 2.35-2.11 (m, 5H), 1.82 (dddt, J = 17.3, 12.8, 8.4, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 1.50-1.46 (m, 1H), 1.14-1.35 (m, 1H), 1.30-1.19 (m, 2H), 1.19 (t, J = 7.9 Hz, 9H), 1.12 (s, 9H), 0.91 (s, 9H), 0.91 (m, 6H), 0.27 (s, 3H), 0.25 (s, 3H), 0.07 (s, 3H), 0.06 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 170.9, 128.7, 106.8, 96.4, 86.3, 83.6, 81.3, 80.5, 79.3, 74.5, 73.1, 70.6, 64.9, 63.8, 62.6, 62.4, 61.3, 53.5, 51.1, 40.9, 39.4, 31.9, 30.9, 29.3, 26.6, 26.5, 25.6, 7.5, 5.9, -4.0, -4.1, -4.3, -4.7. HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C42H76ClIO9Si3Na, 993.3428; found, 993.3429.
Figure imgf000189_0001
Y
[00498] Reduced bromoacetylene YS-15: [α]20
D +6.0 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.67 (d, J = 1.0 Hz, 1H), 5.53 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.21-4.15 (m, 1H), 4.02 (dt, J = 13.0, 2.5 Hz, 2H), 3.58 (dd, J = 12.0, 6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.38 (dd, J = 6.5, 1.0 Hz, 2H), 2.34-2.27 (m, 1H), 2.17-2.11 (m, 2H), 2.10 (s, 1H), 2.05-1.97 (m, 1H), 1.76-1.64 (m, 1H), 0.64 (d, J = 13.0 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 128.4, 106.3, 95.6,.79.8, 74.8, 62.0, 60.7, 53.0, 38.6, 31.3, 25.0; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C12H16ClINaO2, 376.9781; found, 376.9780.
Figure imgf000190_0001
Y S-16
[00499] Homo-coupling product YS-16: [α]20
D +5.9 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.67 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.54 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.17-4.11 (m, 1H), 3.99 (dt, J = 12.0, 3.0 Hz, 2H), 3.58-3.54 (m, 2H), 2.37-2.30 (m, 3H), 2.17-2.08 (m, 2H), 2.03-1.94 (m, 1H), 1.71-1.58 (m, 1H), 0.59 (d, J = 13.0 Hz, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 128.8, 106.5, 96.6, 77.6, 70.6, 62.8, 60.8, 53.2, 39.1, 31.4, 25.1 HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C24H31Cl2I2O4, 706.9683; found, 706.9658.
[00500] To a solution of TES-protected alcohol YS-14 (16.2 g, 16.7 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (167 mL) was added co-solvent mixture TFA/H2O/CH2Cl2 (4:1:10) (25.6 mL) at 0 °C. The reaction mixture was stirred vigorously at room temperature until TLC showed a complete disappearance of the starting material (around 0.5 h). The reaction was diluted with EtOAc, quenched carefully with sat. NaHCO3 aq., and the organic phases were separated and the aqueous phase was extracted with EtOAc three times, washed with brine. The combined organic phases were dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated. The crude material was flushed through a short silica gel column to afford the ynone Y-27b (10.9 g, 79%) as colorless oil.
[00501] Coupling product Y-27b: 1H NMR (500MHz, C6D6) δ: 6.14 (d, J = 9.3 Hz, 1H), 5.63 (s, 1H), 5.50 (s, 1H), 4.11 (s, 1H), 4.07 (s, 1H), 4.07 (t, J = 7.4 Hz, 2H), 3.87-3.81 (m, 2H), 3.70 (td, J = 10.0, 4.0 Hz, 2H), 3.33 (s, 3H), 2.79 (dd, J = 9.5, 2.1 Hz, 1H), 2.47 (ddd, J = 17.9, 9.2, 5.2 Hz, 1H), 2.39-2.27 (m, 2H), 2.18 (m, 2H), 2.06-1.99 (m, 2H), 1.75-1.69 (m, 1H), 1.61-1.54 (m, 1H), 1.35-1.20 (m, 2H), 1.03 (s, 9H), 0.80 (s, 9H), 0.16 (m, 6H), -0.10 (s, 3H), -0.11 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 170.5, 128.5, 128.0, 105.8, 91.2, 84.2, 79.2, 75.4, 74.3, 72.8, 72.7, 65.0, 63.8, 59.8, 52.8, 50.8, 42.0, 40.3, 30.8, 30.1, 29.3, 25.9, 25.7, 18.4, 18.0, -4.1, -5.0, -5.7. HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C33H56ClIO8Si2Na,
821.2145; found, 821.2147. Synthesis outlined in Figure 25
Figure imgf000191_0001
[00502] To a 0 °C solution of acetylenic ketone Y-27b (74.5 mg, 93 µmol) in MeCN (1.9 mL, 0.05 M) and imidazole (443 mg, 6.5 mmol) in a plastic vial was added HF·pyridine complex (70% HF content, 0.17 mL, 6.5 mmol) and stirred at room temperature for 70 h. Then triethylamine (856 mg, 8.5 mmol) was added into the reaction mixture at 0 °C. After stirring at room temperature for 1 h, the reaction was carefully neutralized with saturated NaHCO3 solution and NaHCO3 solid. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc four times, the combined organic phase was washed by 1 N HCl solution and brine before drying over anhydrous Na2SO4, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude material was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel to afford double oxy-Michael product Y-29 (46.3 g, 81%).
[00503] Double oxy-Michael Product Y-29: [α]20
D–15.9 (c 1.20, CHCl3); 1H NMR
(500MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.71 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.57 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.62-4.57 (dt, J = 10.5, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 4.19 (s, 1H), 3.94 (m, 1H), 3.90 (m, 1H), 3.84 (m, 1H), 3.80-3.77 (m, 2H), 3.48 (s, 1H), 3.31 (s, 3H), 2.82 (d, J = 15.0 Hz, 1H), 2.74 (d, J = 9.6 Hz, 1H), 2.52 (d, J = 15.0 Hz, 1H), 2.45 (m, 1H), 2.29 (m, 1H), 2.25 (m, 2H), 2.15-2.10 (m, 1H), 2.04-1.99 (m, 2H), 1.60- 1.53 (m, 2H); 1.29-1.26 (m, 2H), 1.11-1.08 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 206.7, 171.5, 129.3, 108.0, 106.7, 78.5, 78.3, 77.8, 76.1, 75.5, 68.7, 67.5, 61.0, 53.8, 51.5, 45.6, 41.6, 40.9, 31.4, 31.0, 29.9. HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+Na]+ calcd for C21H28ClIO8Na, 593.0410; found, 593.0407.
[00504] To a solution of double oxy-Michael product Y-29 (473 mg, 0.83 mmol) in a mixture of anhydrous THF (69 mL, 0.012M) and allyl alcohol (6.9 mL) was added Hf(OTf)4 (161 mg, 0.21 mmol). The reaction was stirred for 3 h at room temperature in a glovebox. Then the reaction was quenched by triethylamine, diluted with EtOAc, and quenched with saturated NaHCO3 solution. The aqueous layer was extracted with EtOAc, and the combined organic phase was washed with brine, dried over Na2SO4 then concentrated under vacuum.
Purification of the residual material by flash chromatograph on silica gel afforded halichondrin-C C1-C19 building block Y-10 (374 mg, 74%) as white foam.
[00505] Halichondrin-Y-C C1-C19 building block Y-10: [α]20
D–37.0 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.71 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.57 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.62-4.57 (dt, J = 10.5, 4.5 Hz, 1H), 4.19 (s, 1H), 3.94 (m, 1H), 3.90 (m, 1H), 3.84 (m, 1H), 3.80-3.77 (m, 2H), 3.48 (s, 1H), 3.31 (s, 3H), 2.82 (d, J = 15.0 Hz, 1H), 2.74 (d, J = 9.6 Hz, 1H), 2.52 (d, J = 15.0 Hz, 1H), 2.45 (m, 1H), 2.29 (m, 1H), 2.25 (m, 2H), 2.15-2.10 (m, 1H), 2.04-1.99 (m, 2H), 1.60-1.53 (m, 2H); 1.29-1.26 (m, 2H), 1.11-1.08 (m, 1H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 206.7, 171.5, 129.3, 108.0, 106.7, 78.5, 78.3, 77.8, 76.1, 75.5, 68.7, 67.5, 61.0, 53.8, 51.5, 45.6, 41.6, 40.9, 31.4, 31.0, 29.9. HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C24H33ClIO8,
611.0942; found, 611.0959. Synthesis outlined in Figure 26
Synthesis f h li h n rin-B 1- 1 il in l k Y- fr m E-i m r E - Y- 1
Figure imgf000192_0001
Y- (Z)-Y-31
[00506] To a 0 °C solution of acetylenic ketone Y-27b (331 mg, 0.36 mmol) in pyridine (3.0 mL, 36.0 mmol) and MeCN (8.1 mL) in a plastic vial was added HF·pyridine complex (70% HF content, 0.95 mL, 36.2 mmol) and stirred at room temperature. Once the reaction was completed, the reaction was cooled to 0 °C and carefully neutralized with saturated NaHCO3 solution and NaHCO3 solid. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc four times, and the combined EtOAc extracts were dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude material was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel to afford (E)- Y-31 (161 mg, 65%) and (Z)- Y-31 (18.4 mg, 7%).
[00507] Enone (E)-Y-31: [α]20
D–125.3 (c 0.12, CHCl 1
3); H NMR (600MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.75 (1H, d, J = 0.8 Hz, H-13), 5.73 (ddd, J = 1.5, 1.2, 0.9 Hz, 1H), 5.57 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.10 (ddd, J = 7.9, 7.3, 0.8 Hz, 1H), 4.86 (d, J = 7.3 Hz, 1H), 4.30 (ddd, J = 10.5, 9.8, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 4.08 (dddd, J = 9.8, 7.6, 5.9, 3.2 Hz, 1H), 3.91 (dd, J = 4.7, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 3.85 (1H, dd, J = 8.5, 7.9 Hz, 1H), 3.78 (dd, J = 8.5, 4.7 Hz, 1H), 3.68 (dddd, J = 10.9, 8.8, 4.3, 1.9 Hz, 1H), 3.39 (s, 3H), 2.54 (dd, J = 9.8, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 2.53 (ddd, J = 17.1, 8.5, 5.3 Hz, 1H), 2.42-2.34 (m, 3H), 2.33 (dd, J = 15.5, 8.8 Hz, 1H), 2.04-1.96 (m, 3H), 1.73 (dddd, J = 14.6, 9.8, 8.5, 5.3 Hz, 1H), 1.27–1.15 (m, 2H), 1.02 (s, 9H), 0.98–0.91 (m, 1H), 0.19 (s, 3H), 0.16 (s, 3H); 13C NMR (150 MHz, C6D6) δ: 198.0, 176.5, 170.9, 128.8, 106.3, 102.3, 77.4, 77.1, 74.7, 71.1, 69.7, 67.7, 66.0, 60.9, 53.6, 51.1, 40.5, 40.2, 31.9, 30.1, 29.9, 26.0 (3C), 18.7, -4.4, -4.6. HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for
Figure imgf000193_0001
685.1455; found, 685.1455.
Figure imgf000193_0002
[00508] To a slurry of tetramethylammonium triacetoxyborohydride (71 mg, 0.27 mmol) in CH3CN (90 at -30 °C was added acetic acid (90 µL) and the mixture was stirred at this temperature for 30 min. The mixture was then added to a solution of (E)-Y-31 (23.1 mg, 33.7 µmol) in CH3CN (20 µL). The resulting solution was stirred at -30 °C and slowly warmed up to 0 °C. The reaction was quenched by addition of an aqueous solution of sodium, potassium tartrate followed by solid Na2CO3. The aqueous phase was extracted with CH2Cl2, and the combined organic phase was dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated under vacuum. Purification of residual material by flash column chromatograph on silica gel afforded a ketone Y-32 (colorless oil, 19.6 mg, 85% yield) as a ~5:1 mixture of Y-12α and Y-12β diastereomers.
Y-
Figure imgf000193_0003
[00509] To ketone Y-32 (17.5 mg, 25.4 µmol) was added TBAF solution in THF (2 equiv, buffered with 0.25 equiv. of imidazole hydrochloride) at room temperature. After stirring for 0.5 h at the same temperature, the reaction solution was diluted with DCM followed by EtOAc. The mixture was filtered through silica gel pad (5% MeOH in EtOAc) to remove TBAF residue. After removal of the solvent, the crude diol Y-33 (13.2 mg, 91% yield, ~1:1 mixture of Y-12α and Y-12β diastereomers) was directly used for the next step.
Figure imgf000194_0001
Y- Y- [00510] The crude Y-33 was dissolved in CH2Cl2 (0.5 mL) and treated with PPTS (2 equiv) at room temperature. After stirring for 2h at room temperature, the solvent was removed, to give the residue that was purified by PTLC, to furnish halichondrin-B C1-C19 building block Y-9 (6.1 mg, 46%) and undesired Y-12α Y-33 (6.0 mg, 45%).
[00511] Halichondri-B C1-C19 building block 9: yellow oil, [α] 20
D = -25.8 (c 1.0, CHCl3); 1H NMR (500 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.83 (s, 1H), 5.67 (s, 1H), 4.41 (dt, J = 10.0 Hz, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 4.02 (dt, J = 10.0 Hz, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 4.36 (s, 1H), 4.14 (sep, J = 5.0 Hz, 2H), 4.08 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 1H), 3.89 (dd, J = 6.5 Hz, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 3.76-3.69 (m, 1H), 3.66 (dd, J = 6.5 Hz, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 3.30 (s, 3H), 2.58 (dt, J = 15.0 Hz, 5.0 Hz, 2H), 2.51 (dd, J = 15.5 Hz, 3.0 Hz, 1H), 2.17 (dd, J = 16.0 Hz, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 2.22-2.12 (m, 1H), 2.10-1.75 (m, 5H), 1.44-1.37 (m, 1H), 1.35 (dd, J = 13.0 Hz, 5.0 Hz, 1H), 1.33-1.16 (m, 2H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, C6D6) δ: 170.9, 128.8, 109.7, 106.8, 82.4, 80.8, 78.5, 76.9, 74.9, 74.7, 74.2, 68.5, 61.8, 53.4, 51.1, 47.4, 40.7, 36.3, 32.4, 30.8, 30.7; HRMS (ESI) m/z: [M+H]+ calcd for C21H29ClIO7, 555.0646; found, 555.0655.
[00512] On comparison of spectroscopic and chromatographic properties, halichondrin-B C1-C19 building block Y-9 and diol Y-33 thus obtained were found to be identical with the authentic samples synthesized via a different route (Yan, W.; Li, Z.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2015, 137, 0000). Also, that previous work has demonstrated that diol Y-33 with the undesired C12α-stereochemistry can be transformed to Y-9 via ion-exchange resin based device or base-induced equilibration, followed by PPTS treatment. Reduction of (Z)-Y-31 to Y-32
Figure imgf000195_0001
Y- [00513] Following the procedure given above for reduction of (E)- Y-31, (Z)- Y-31 (2.7 mg) was transformed into ketone product that was identical to Y-32, based on comparison of spectroscopic and chromatographic properties. Synthesis of halichondrin-B C1-C19 building block Y-9 from a (E)- and (Z)-mixture of Y-31
Figure imgf000195_0002
[00514] Following the procedures given above, Y-27b (51 mg) was transformed into halichondrin-B C1-C19 building block Y-9 (12.3 mg), without isolation/separation of intermediates.
[00515] In this experiment, the crude Y-33 (13.2 mg, a 1:1 Y-12α- and Y-12β-diastereomeric mixture) was dissolved in 2 mL EtOH in a black-cap vial and then connected to ion-exchange resin based device ((a) Namba, K.; Jun, H. S.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2004, 126, 7770. (b) Kaburagi, Y.; Kishi, Y. Org. Lett.2007, 9, 723). The reaction completed in 10 h, and both basic and acidic resins were washed with ethanol (3 mL). The combined EtOH solutions were concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was passed through a short silica gel plug (elution with hexanes/EtOAc = 10:1 to 1:1) to give product Y-9 (12.3 mg, 34% overall yield from Y-27b). Synthetic Plan
[00516] All of C1-C19 building blocks Y-8~ Y-10 could be synthesized from acetylenic ketone Y-15a,b, by adjusting its oxidation state (Figure 20). C1-C19 building block Y-8 of halichondrin A was synthesized with this strategy (Halichondrin As: Ueda, A.; Yamamoto, A.; Kato, D.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2014, 136, 5171). In the halichondrin A synthesis, acetylenic ketone Y-15a was synthesized via two (Ni)/Cr-mediated couplings. In light of the successful selective activation/coupling of poly-halogenated nucleophile Y-17 in a Ni/Cr- mediated coupling, it was recognized that Y-15a,b could be synthesized in one step, cf., Y-11 + Y-16a,b→ Y-15a,b. In the halichondrin B series, a selective activation/coupling of the trans-β-bromoenone was realized with use of a trace amount of a polyether-type Ni-catalyst (Uemura, D.; Takahashi, K.; Yamamoto, T.; Katayama, C.; Tanaka, J.; Okumura, Y.; Hirata, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.1985, 107, 4796; Hirata, Y.; Uemura, D. Pure Appl. Chem.1986, 58, 701). Activation of halo-acetylenes is achieved with a trace amount of Ni-catalyst or even no added Ni-catalyst. A selective activation of the halo-acetylene over the vinyl iodide or bromide and saturated chloride is established in Y-16a,b (Pettit, G. R.; Herald, C. L.; Boyd, M. R.; Leet, J. E.; Dufresne, C.; Doubek, D. L.; Schmidt, J. M.; Cerny, R. L.; Hooper, J. N. A.; Rützler, K. C. J. Med. Chem.1991, 34, 3339; Pettit, G. R.; Tan, R.; Gao, F.; Williams, M. D.; Doubek, D. L.; Boyd, M. R.; Schmidt, J. M.; Chapuis, J.-C.; Hamel, E.; Bai, R.; Hooper, J. N. A.; Tackett, L. P. J. Org. Chem.1993, 58, 2538; Litaudon, M.; Hart, J. B.; Blunt, J. W.; Lake, R. J.; Munro, M. H. G. Tetrahedron Lett.1994, 35, 9435; Litaudon, M.; Hickford, S. J. H.; Lill, R. E.; Lake, R. J.; Blunt, J. W.; Munro, M. H. G. J. Org. Chem.1997, 62, 1868; Hickford, S. J. H.; Blunt, J. W.; Munro, M. H. G. Bioorg. Med. Chem.2009, 17, 2199). Model Study on Coupling Efficiency
[00517] Six halo-acetylenes Y-18a~c and Y-19a~c and aldehyde Y-20 were chosen (Figure 21). The coupling efficiency of halo-acetylenic ketones Y-18a~c over halo-acetylenic ketals Y-19a~c, under the coupling conditions: 10 mol% Cr-catalyst, prepared from (S)- sulfonamide Y-21, Ni-catalyst Y-22 (0.05 mol%) or no added Ni-catalyst, Zr(cp)2Cl2 (1.5 eq), Mn (2 eq), and LiCl (2 eq) in MeCN ([C] 0.4M) at room temperature were compared (Hart, J. B.; Lill, R. E.; Hickford, S. J. H.; Blunt, J. W.; Munro, M. H. G. Drugs from the Sea, Ed. Fusetani, N., Ed.; Karger, Basel, 2000, 134; Jackson, K. L.; Henderson, J. A.; Phillips, A. J. Chem. Rev.2009, 109, 3044). This experiment demonstrated: (1) halo-acetylenic ketones Y-18a~c gave the desired product in only modest yields, with the order of coupling efficiency being Y-18b (49%) > Y-18c (20%) > Y-18a (11%); (2) halo-acetylenic ketals Y-19a,b gave the desired product in good yields, with the order of coupling efficiency being Y-19b (93%) > Y-19a (82%) >> Y-19c (8%); (3) no significant difference was detected between 0.05 mol% and no added Ni-catalyst. In addition, a brief study on solvents and concentration revealed: (1) the solvent choice being EtCN > MeCN > DME > THF, but not DMF and (2) the optimum concentration being a range of 0.4~0.8 M. Coupling in the Halichodrin Series
[00518] The nucleophiles Y-24a,b were readily prepared from the previously reported, optically pure aldehydes Y-23a,b (Figure 22) (Hart, J. B.; Lill, R. E.; Hickford, S. J. H.;
Blunt, J. W.; Munro, M. H. G. Drugs from the Sea, Ed. Fusetani, N., Ed.; Karger, Basel, 2000, 134; Jackson, K. L.; Henderson, J. A.; Phillips, A. J. Chem. Rev.2009, 109, 3044). With respect to the electrophile, several possible C8,C9-protecting groups were screened, thereby showing bis-TBS aldehyde Y-27 as the best option ((Pettit, G. R.; Herald, C. L.; Boyd, M. R.; Leet, J. E.; Dufresne, C.; Doubek, D. L.; Schmidt, J. M.; Cerny, R. L.; Hooper, J. N. A.; Rützler, K. C. J. Med. Chem.1991, 34, 3339; Pettit, G. R.; Tan, R.; Gao, F.;
Williams, M. D.; Doubek, D. L.; Boyd, M. R.; Schmidt, J. M.; Chapuis, J.-C.; Hamel, E.; Bai, R.; Hooper, J. N. A.; Tackett, L. P. J. Org. Chem.1993, 58, 2538; Litaudon, M.; Hart, J. B.; Blunt, J. W.; Lake, R. J.; Munro, M. H. G. Tetrahedron Lett.1994, 35, 9435; Litaudon, M.; Hickford, S. J. H.; Lill, R. E.; Lake, R. J.; Blunt, J. W.; Munro, M. H. G. J. Org. Chem.1997, 62, 1868; Hickford, S. J. H.; Blunt, J. W.; Munro, M. H. G. Bioorg. Med. Chem.2009, 17, 2199).
[00519] Compounds Y-11 and Y-24a were subjected to the coupling reaction under the condition used in the model study, to furnish the desired product Y-27a in 55% yield, with a 10:1 stereoselectivity. The structure of Y-27a was established via correlation with the authentic sample obtained in the previous route.5c As anticipated, a product derived through activation of the vinyl iodide or saturated chloride present in Y-24a was not detected.
[00520] In order to improve the observed stereoselectivity, the toolbox approach was used and a representative set of sulfonamides was screened (Figure 23) (Guo, H.; Dong, C.-G.; Kim, D.-S.; Urabe, D.; Wang, J.; Kim, J. T.; Xiang Liu, Sasaki, T.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2009, 131, 15387). This screening showed that: (1) as previously observed, the stereochemistry outcome was dictated by the substrate structure rather than the chirality present in the Cr-catalyst and (2) for this coupling, sulfonamides in the (R)-series gave a better stereoselectivity than the corresponding sulfonamides in the (S)-series. Among the tested ligands, sulfonamide (R)-21 and Ni-catalyst 22 were chosen for the following study.
[00521] It was found that the coupling rate with TES-Cl was slower than that with
Zr(cp)2Cl2, yet the coupling yield with TES-Cl was noticeably better than that with
Zr(cp)2Cl2, i.e., 85% with TES-Cl vs.70% with Zr(cp)2Cl2. Although its mechanistic reason was not clear, the TES-Cl condition made it possible to achieve the proposed coupling with the synthetically useful efficiency.
[00522] As noted before, Cr-mediated coupling of a halo-acetylene with an aldehyde is known to proceed with only a trace amount of Ni-catalyst or even no added Ni-catalyst (Aicher, T. D.; Kishi, Y. Tetrahedron Lett.1987, 28, 3463. (b) Usanov, D.; Yamamoto, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2011, 133, 1286). The coupling of Y-11 + Y-24a→ Y-27a was studied “with” and“without” added Ni-catalyst, thereby showing the coupling efficiency to be comparable. There is no definite experimental evidence to conclude whether this coupling involves activation of bromoacetylene with Ni-catalyst, followed by Cr-mediated coupling, or activation/coupling with only a Cr-catalyst. The homo-dimer of bromoacetylene was isolated in ca.0.3% yield (based on Y-24a) in the coupling without added Ni-catalyst. Therefore, the coupling is referred to as (Ni)/Cr-mediated reaction.
[00523] The coupling studies were carried out with both Y-24a,b simultaneously and obtained the virtually identical results in the both series, although a small reduction in yield was noticed in the Y-24b-series. Synthesis of C1-C19 Building Blocks of halichondrins A~C from the Common Synthetic Intermediate Y-27 Synthesis of C1-C19 Building Block of Halichondrin A
[00524] In the halichondrin A synthesis, the transformation of Y-27a into C1-C19 building block Y-8 was established (Figure 25). The key reactions in this transformation included: (1) a selective TBS-deprotection to form E-enone Y-28 and (2) a highly stereoselective DMDO- oxidation to introduce the C13 hydroxyl group. The C1-C19 building block Y-8 bears the C19 vinyl bromide, because the corresponding vinyl iodide was not compatible with the DMDO oxidation (Halichondrin As: Ueda, A.; Yamamoto, A.; Kato, D.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2014, 136, 5171). Synthesis of C1-C19 Building Block of Halichondrin C
[00525] In the halichondrin Y-C synthesis, a synthetic route to construct the polyclic ring system from an acetylenic ketone was reported (Halichondrin Cs: Yamamoto, A.; Ueda, A.; Brémond, P.; Tiseni, P. S.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2012, 134, 893). There was no unexpected difficulty in the transformation of Y-27b to Y-10 in 60% overall yield (Figure 25). The key reactions in this transformation included: (1) double oxy-Michael addition of C8,C9-hydroxyl groups to the acetylenic ketone to form ketal Y-29 and (2) Hf(OTf)4-induced conversion of the double oxy-Michael product Y-29 to polycycle Y-10 in ally alcohol. The structure Y-10 was fully supported by the spectroscopic data (HR-MS, 1H and 13C NMR). Synthesis of C1-C19 Building Block of Halichondrin B
[00526] In order to synthesize C1-C19 building block Y-9 in the halichondrin B series from the common synthetic intermediate, an acetylene-to-olefin reduction was needed and tested first the reactivity of Y-27b and its C11-OTBS derivative against CuH, HN=NH, and CrCl2 (Figure 26), thereby indicating that the C11-OTBS substrate exhibited a very poor reactivity. Based on this observation, Y-27b was used for a search of a satisfactory reducing
reagent/condition. Among reagents tested, (BDP)CuH, a Stryker CuH modified by Lipshutz, gave a mixture of E- and Z-enones (Figure 26). As discussed in the preceding paper, Z-enone was found to form readily the furan (Yan, W.; Li, Z.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2015, 137, 0000). Thus, although it was a minor product, Z-enone was wasted. This reduction gave the desired E-enone Y-31 as the major product, but the isolated yield varied from 55% up to 80%.
[00527] Under this circumstance, (Me)4NBH(OAc)3 reduced the vinylogous ester E-Y-31 to give Y-32 in 80% yield as a 5:1 mixture of Y-12α:Y-12β diastereomers. (Me)4NBH(OAc)3 is so-called hydroxyl-directing setting. It was also found that the substrate with the C11-OH masked with a TBS was inert to the reduction.
[00528] It was observed that (Me)4NBH(OAc)3 reduction of the corresponding Z-enone Z-Y- 31 gave Y-32 as a mixture of 1 Y-2α: Y-12β stereoisomers. Thus, for the preparative purpose, it was not necessary to separate E- and Z-enones Y-31.
[00529] On TBAF treatment, Y-32 furnished Y-33 as a ~1:1 mixture of Y-12α:Y-12β diastereomers. With ion-exchange resin based device, this mixture was transformed cleanly to C1-C19 building block Y-9 of halichondrin B without isolation/separation/equilibration of intermediates. On comparison of spectroscopic data (1H and 13C NMR, MS, TLC), Y-9 thus obtained was found to be superimposable on the authentic sample (Yan, W.; Li, Z.; Kishi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2015, 137, 0000).
[00530] A unified synthesis of the C1-C19 building blocks Y-8~Y-10 of halichondrins A-C was developed from the common synthetic intermediates Y-27a,b. Acetylenic ketones Y- 27a,b were in turn synthesized via selective activation/coupling of poly-halogenated nucleophiles Y-24a,b with aldehyde Y-11 in a (Ni)/Cr-mediated coupling reaction.
Compared with Ni/Cr-mediated couplings of vinyl iodides and aldehydes, this (Ni)/Cr- mediated coupling exhibited two unique features. First, the coupling was found to proceed with a trace amount or no added Ni-catalyst. Second, TES-Cl, a dissociating agent to regenerate the Cr-catalyst, was found to give a better yield than Zr(cp)2Cl2.
An adjustment of the oxidation state was required to transform acetylenic ketones Y-27a,b into C1-C19 building blocks Y-8 and Y-9 of halichondrins A and B, respectively. In the halichondrin B series, a hydroxyl-directed (Me)4NBH(OAc)3 reduction of E- and Z- vinylogous esters Y-31 was found cleanly to achieve the required transformation, whereas a DMDO oxidation of E-vinylogous ester Y-28 allowed to introduce the C13 hydroxyl group with a high stereoselectivity in the halichondrin A series. In the halichondrin C series, Hf(OTf)4 was used to convert double oxy-Michael product Y-29 into C1-C19 building block Y-10. Synthesis of C20-C38 Building Blocks
[00531] One of the key intermediates in the halichondrin syntheses described herein is the C20-C38 aldehyde B, which can be synthesized from methyl ester A. As described herein, this transformation can be achieved in 6 or 7 synthetic steps as depicted in Scheme 4.
Figure imgf000200_0001
[00532] Following the previously reported method (J. Am. Chem. Soc.136, 5171 (2014)), both 5 and 6 can be converted into the right half of halichondrins A-C in 4 steps (1. Ni/Cr- mediated coupling, 2. base-induced cyclization, 3. ester/acetate hydrolysis, 4.
macrolactonization), with modification of the second step of sequence, i.e., CaCO3 or SrCO3 in aq. t-BuOH at 100 °C, instead of AgOTf-Ag2O in THF at 0 °C.
Figure imgf000201_0001
Experimental Procedures for the Synthesis of C20-C38 Building Blocks
Figure imgf000201_0002
[00533] To a solution of P-1 (132 mg) in CH2Cl2 (2.8 mL) at -78 ºC was added DIBAL (1.0 M in hexane, 0.43 mL). After stirred for 1 h at the same temperature, the reaction was quenched with EtOAc (5 mL) at -78 ºC and 10% aqueous Rochelle’s salt (5 mL), then stirred for 1h. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc, and the organic layer was dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated. Flash silica gel column chromatography of the residue
(EtOAc/hexanes 10% to 60%) gave P-2 (108 mg, 89% yield).1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 10.05 (1H, dd, J = 2.9, 2.9 Hz), 7.19 (2H, m), 6.78 (2H, m), 5.13 (1H, ddd, J = 9.1, 9.1, 4.7 Hz), 4.42 (1H, J = 11.2 Hz), 4.24 (1H, J =11.2 Hz), 3.97 (1H, dd, J = 11.4 Hz), 3.55 (1H, dd, J = 3.5, 3.5 Hz), 3.51 (1H, ddd, J = 5.0, 2.8, 2.8 Hz), 3.30 (1H, dd, J = 3.3, 3.3 Hz), 3.28 (3H, s), 3.13 (1H, dd, 2.9, 2.9 Hz), 2.96 (1H, dd, J = 9.4, 2.9 Hz), 2.92 (1H, m), 2.76 (1H, ddd, J = 15.3, 4.7, 2.9 Hz), 2.46 (1H, ddd, J = 15.3, 8.2, 2.9 Hz), 2.26 (1H, m), 1.95 (1H, ddd, 14.7, 2.6, 2.6 Hz), 1.69 (1H, m), 1.56 (1H, m), 1.21-1.30 (7H, m), 0.87 (3H, dd, J = 7.6, 7.6 Hz).
Figure imgf000202_0001
P- [00534] To a mixture of CrCl2 (3.6 mg), sulfonamide-I (15.9 mg), and proton sponge (6.8 mg) in a glove box was added MeCN (0.73 mL) and stirred for 2 h at room temperature. In a separate flask, P-2 (126 mg), P-3 (170 mg), LiCl (24.6 mg), Mn (63.7 mg), Cp2ZrCl2 (84.8 mg) were mixed together and the above Cr-complex solution was transferred to the flask. Then (Me)6Phen-NiCl2 (5.7 mg) was added. After 1 hr, additional (Me)6Phen-NiCl2 (5.7 mg) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred for 3 h (total) at room temperature, and diluted with EtOAc. Florisil was added and the suspension was vigorously stirred for 30 min. The resultant suspension was filtered through a short pad of silica gel (1 cm) with EtOAc, and concentrated. The crude material was purified with silica gel flash column chromatography (EtOAc/hexanes 0% to 50%) to give P-4 (170 mg, 83% yield).1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 7.25 (2H, m), 6.85 (2H, m), 5.67 (1H, s), 5.09 (1H, s), 4.83 (1H, m), 4.74 (1H, d, J = 10.6 Hz), 4.51 (1H, d, J = 11.2 Hz), 4.44 (1H, s), 4.36 (1H, d, J = 11.2 Hz), 4.07 (1H, dd, J = 11.4, 11.4 Hz), 3.57 (1H, m), 3.48 (1H, m), 3.40-3.34 (5H, m), 3.33 (3H, s), 3.27 (2H, m), 3.05 (1H, m), 2.97-2.90 (2H, m), 2.74 (1H, m), 2.61 (2H, m), 2.49 (1H, brd, J = 14.1 Hz), 2.38 (1H, m), 2.27-2.19 (2H, m), 2.13 (1H, dd, J = 14.7, 4.7 Hz), 1.92 (1H, dd, J = 14.7, 7.0 Hz), 1.85 (1H, ddd, J = 14.8, 2.6, 2.6 Hz), 1.79 (1H, ddd, J = 13.9, 10.3, 10.3 Hz), 1.69 (1H, m), 1.64-1.55 (4H, m), 1.42 (3H, d, J = 7.0 Hz), 1.34 (3H, s), 1.18 (1H, ddd, J = 14.8, 4.3, 4.3 Hz), 0.88 (3H, d, J = 7.6 Hz), 0.75 (3H, s), 0.68 (3H, s).
Figure imgf000202_0002
[00535] To a solution of P-4 (100 mg) in CH2Cl2 (2.8 mL) was added triethylsilane (0.68 mL). The mixture was cooled to -78 ºC then TESOTf (0.39 mL) was added. After being stirred for 90 min at the same temperature the reaction was quenched with CH2Cl2 (3 mL) wetted with saturated aqueous NaHCO3, then saturated aqueous NaHCO3 (3 mL). The mixture was warmed to room temperature, and then extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated. Silica gel flash column chromatography of the residue (EtOAc/hexanes 50% to 100% then MeOH/EtOAc 0.5%) gave a (55 mg, 88%).1H-NMR (600 MHz, CD3OD) δ: 4.93 (1H, brs), 4.83 (1H, brd, J = 1.8 Hz), 3.96 (1H, dd, J = 6.0 Hz), 3.92 (1H, m), 3.89 (1H, dd, J = 6.5, 6.5 Hz), 3.73-3.66 (2H, m), 3.65 (3H, s), 3.61 (1H, m), 3.54 (1H, dd, J = 8.8, 4.7 Hz), 3.51 (1H, m), 3.41-3.37 (2H, m), 2.53-2.39 (2H, m), 2.30 (1H, m), 2.20 (1H, ddd, J = 14.2, 5.5, 5.5 Hz), 2.15 (1H, ddd, J = 14.7, 2.9, 2.9 Hz), 1.96-1.85 (4H, m), 1.84-1.64 (5H, m), 1.16 (3H, d, J = 7.0 Hz), 1.10 (3H, d, J = 6.5 Hz), 1.03 (1H, dd, J = 24.0, 12.6 Hz).
Figure imgf000203_0001
[00536] To a (5.0 mg) was added a solution of 2,2-dimethoxypropane (11 µL), 2- methoxypropene (20 µL), PPTS (0.22 mg) in acetone (0.44 mL) at room temperature and the reaction was stirred for 1 day at room temperature. The reaction was quenched with saturated aqueous NaHCO3. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc, and the organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated. Silica gel preparative TLC purification (EtOAc) gave b (4.6 mg, 85% yield).1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 4.95 (1H, brs), 4.74 (1H, brd, J = 1.8 Hz), 4.51 (1H, m), 4.09 (1H, dd, J = 8.2, 4.1 Hz), 3.99 (1H, m), 3.7 (1H, m), 3.65 (1H, m), 3.48 (1H, m), 3.43-3.34 (5H, m), 3.31 (1H, d, J = 7.6 Hz), 3.15 (1H, dd, J = 2.9, 2.9 Hz), 3.05 (1H, m), 2.46-2.40 (2H, m), 2.33 (1H, m), 2.26 (1H, m), 2.19 (1H, ddd, J = 14.4, 4.2, 4.2 Hz), 2.10 (1H, ddd, J = 14.2, 3.7, 3.7 Hz), 1.90 (1H, m), 1.76 (1H, m), 1.73-1.56 (3H, m), 1.39 (1H, ddd, J = 14.1, 4.1, 4.1 Hz), 1.36 (3H, s), 1.29 (3H, s), 1.27 (1H, ddd, J = 12.6, 4.4, 1.8 Hz), 1.16 (3H, d, J = 7.6 Hz), 0.90 (1H, dd, J = 24.1, 12.3 Hz), 0.87 (3H, d, J = 6.5 Hz).
Figure imgf000204_0001
[00537] To a solution of b (4.6 mg) in CH2Cl2 (0.2 mL) at -78 ºC was added DIBAL (1.0 M solution in hexane, 26 µL). After being stirred for 50 min, the reaction was quenched with EtOAc (5 mL) and 10% aqueous Rochelle’s salt (5 mL). The mixture was warmed to room temperature then stirred for 1 h, then extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated to give aldehyde- alcohol, which was used for the next step without further purification.
[00538] To a solution of crude aldehyde-alcohol in CH2Cl2 (0.18 mL) at room temperature was added pyridine (7.1 µL), acetic anhydride (4.2 µL), and DMAP (1.0 mg). After being stirred for 70 min at the same temperature, the reaction was quenched with saturated aqueous NaHCO3. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc, and the organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated. Silica gel flash column chromatography (EtOAc/hexanes 50%) gave P-5 (3.0 mg, 64% yield for 2 steps).1H- NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 9.54 (1H, t, J = 1.5 Hz), 5.03 (1H, s), 4.95 (1H, dd, J = 9.1, 5.6 Hz), 4.80 (1H, brd, J = 2.0 Hz), 4.67 (1H, m), 4.12 (1H, dd, J = 6.5, 6.5 Hz), 4.02 (1H, ddd, J = 12.0, 10.0, 2.1 Hz), 3.63 (1H, ddd, J = 4.4, 4.4, 1.8 Hz), 3.61 (1H, dd, J = 8.8, 4.1 Hz), 3.40 (1H, ddd, J = 11.9, 4.3, 4.3 Hz), 3.3 (1H, m), 3.09 (1H, dd, J = 3.8, 3.8 Hz), 3.04 (1H, m), 2.35-2.17 (5H, m), 1.20 (1H, ddd, J = 14.1, 4.1, 4.1), 1.96 (1H, m), 1.82 (1H, m),1.68 (3H, s), 1.62-1.54 (3H, m), 1.43 (1H, ddd, J = 14.1, 4.7, 4.7 Hz), 1.36 (3H, s), 1.30 (3H, s), 1.27 (1H, ddd, J = 13.0, 4.5, 2.2 Hz), 1.24 (3H, d, J = 7.0 Hz), 0.92 (3H, d, J = 6.5 Hz), 0.91 (1H, dd, J = 23.5, 12.3 Hz).
Figure imgf000204_0002
[00539] To a solution of methyl allylic alcohol P-4 (25 mg) in CH2Cl2 (0.7 mL) was added triethylsilane (0.22 mL). After the mixture was cooled to -78 ºC, TESOTf (47 µL) was added. After being stirred for 15 min, the reaction was quenched CH2Cl2 (2 mL) wetted with saturated aqueous NaHCO3 (2 mL) then saturated aqueous NaHCO3 (2 mL). The mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated. Silica gel preparative TLC purification (EtOAc) gave methyl diol c (14.5 mg, 74% yield).1H-NMR (600 MHz, CD3OD) δ: 7.29 (2H, m), 6.89 (2H, m), 4.87 (1H, brs), 4.81 (1H, brd, J = 1.8 Hz), 4.59 (1H, d, J = 11.2 Hz), 4.48 (1H, d, J = 11.2 Hz), 4.09 (1H, m), 3.89 (1H, m), 3.80-3.75 (4H, m), 3.74-3.68 (2H, m), 3.64 (3H, s), 3.58-3.51 (2H, m), 3.48 (1H, m), 3.35 (1H, m), 3.39-3.28 (3H, m), 2.50-2.37 (2H, m), 2.29-2.10 (4H, m), 1.98-1.83 (3H, m), 1.82-1.64 (4H, m), 1.16 (3H, d, J = 7.6 Hz), 1.09 (3H, d, J = 6.5 Hz), 1.02 (1H, dd, J = 24.0, 12.6 Hz).
Figure imgf000205_0001
[00540] To a solution of diol c (12.3 mg) in CH2Cl2 (0.22 mL) at -78 ºC was added TBSOTf (15 µL). The reaction mixture was stirred for 50 min, and then quenched with saturated aqueous NaHCO3. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc, and the organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated. Silica gel flash column chromatography of the residue (EtOAc/hexanes 0% to 20%) gave 4 (16.4 mg, 95% yield).1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 7.28 (2H, m), 6.81 (2H, m), 5.11 (1H, brs), 4.81 (1H, brd, J = 1.2 Hz), 4.50 (2H, dd, J = 18.0, 11.4 Hz), 4.27-4.19 (2H, m), 3.97 (1H, ddd, J = 9.7, 9.7, 4.1 Hz), 3.78 (1H, m), 3.70 (1H, m), 3.60 (1H, ddd, J = 9.7, 2.5, 2.5 Hz), 3.53 (1H, m), 3.45 (1H, m), 3.39 (3H, s), 3.32 (1H, dd, J = 6.2, 3.8 Hz), 3.30 (3H, s), 3.17 (1H, dd, J = 8.8, 8.8 Hz), 2.49 (1H, m), 2.44-2.35 (2H, m), 2.32-2.20 (2H, m), 2.16-2.03 (3H, m), 1.84-1.72 (3H, m), 1.61 (1H, ddd, J = 14.1, 4.7, .47 Hz), 1.35 (1H, ddd, J =12.3, 4.7, 1.8 Hz), 1.25 (3H, d, J = 7.0 Hz), 1.04 (9H, s), 1.03-0.94 (10H, m), 0.92 (3H, d, J = 6.5 Hz), 0.14 (3H, s), 0.13 (3H, s), 0.11 (3H, s), 0.05 (3H, s).
Figure imgf000206_0001
[00541] To a solution of d (16.4 mg) in CH2Cl2 (0.2 mL) at -78 ºC was added DIBAL (1.0 M in hexane, 41 µL). After being stirred for 50 min at the same temperature, the reaction was quenched with EtOAc (5 mL) followed by 10% aqueous Rochelle’s salt (5 mL). The mixture was stirred for 1 h, and then extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated, to give aldehyde, which was used for the next step without further purification.1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 7.26 (2H, m), 6.81 (2H, m), 5.12 (1H, brs), 4.81 (1H, brd, J = 1.8 Hz), 4.48 (1H, d, J =11.4 Hz), 4.42 (1H, dd, J =11.4 Hz), 4.23-4.14 (2H, m), 3.95 (1H, ddd, J = 9.7, 9.7, 4.7 Hz), 3.78 (1H, m), 3.67 (1H, m), 3.59 (1H, ddd, J = 9.5, 2.9, 2.9 Hz), 3.52 (1H, m), 3.37-3.18 (5H, m), 3.07 (1H, dd, J = 8.8, 8.8 Hz), 2.38 (1H, m), 2.31-2.01 (7H, m), 1.76 (1H, m), 1.65-1.46 (3H, m), 1.42-1.26 (2H, m), 1.23 (3H, d, J = 7.0 Hz), 1.04 (9H, s), 1.00 (9H, s), 0.97-0.88 (4H, m), 0.14 (3H, s), 0.13 (3H, s), 0.11 (3H, s), 0.05 (3H, s).
[00542] To a solution of the above aldehyde in CH2Cl2 (0.6 mL) and phosphate buffer (1.0 M, pH=7.0, 0.2 mL) was added DDQ (7 mg). The reaction was stirred for 30 min then added another DDQ (7 mg). After being stirred for additional 30 min, the reaction was quenched with 10% aqueous Na2S2O3 (3 mL). The mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and
concentrated, to give alcohol C30-alcohol, which was used for next step without further purifications.
[00543] To a solution of C30-alcohol in pyridine (0.2 mL) was added acetic anhydride (20 µL) and DMAP (1 mg). After being stirred for 30 min, the reaction was quenched with saturated aqueous NH4Cl. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc and the organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. Silica gel flash column chromatography of the residue (EtOAc/hexanes 0% to 30%) gave Y-6 (5.3 mg, 38% yield for 3 steps). 1H NMR (600MHz, C6D6) δ: 9.56 (1H, dd, J = 1.5 Hz), 4.99 (1H, br s), 4.96 (1H, dd, J = 8.3, 7.5 Hz), 4.82 (1H, d, J = 1.2 Hz), 4.38 (1H, ddd, J = 8.3, 5.6, 5.6 Hz), 4.08 (1H, dd, J = 6.2, 6.2 Hz), 3.90 (1H, ddd, J = 9.9, 9.6, 4.5 Hz), 3.75 (1H, ddd, J = 9.9, 5.5, 4.2 Hz), 3.59 (1H, ddd, J = 4.5, 4.1, 3.7 Hz), 3.49–3.42 (2H, m), 3.41–3.34 (1H, m), 3.18 (1H, dd, J = 4.8, 3.7 Hz), 2.33–2.24 (3H, m), 2.21 (1H, ddd, J = 7.2, 7.2, 5.0 Hz), 2.15 (1H, ddd, J = 14.4, 6.4, 5.6 Hz), 2.09–2.00 (3H, m), 1.76–1.71 (1H, m), 1.69 (3H, s), 1.62– 1.56 (2H, m), 1.48 (1H, ddd, J = 14.4, 4.5, 4.5 Hz), 1.30 (1H, ddd, J = 12.5, 4.2, 2.1 Hz), 1.21 (3H, d, J = 7.3 Hz), 1.02 (9H, s), 1.01 (9H, s), 0.93 (3H, d, J = 6.4 Hz), 0.94–0.89 (1H, m), 0.11 (3H, s), 0.11 (6H, s), 0.04 (3H, s).
Figure imgf000207_0001
[00544] Using the following sequence, vinyl iodide P-3 was prepared from the previously reported e. To a solution of e (594 mg) in THF (4.9 mL) at room temperature was added a mixture of TBAF (1.0 M in THF, 1.96 mL) and imidazole hydrochloride (20.5 mg). The reaction was stirred for 4 h, and then quenched with aqueous saturated NH4Cl. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc, and the organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated. Silica gel flash column chromatography of the residue (EtOAc/hexanes 10% to 50%) gave primary alcohol (303 mg, 84% yield).1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.91 (1H, brs), 5.57 (1H, brd, J = 1.2 Hz), 3.39 (2H, m), 3.25-3.34 (4H, m), 2.31 (1H, m), 2.03 (1H, dd, J = 14.7, 5.3 Hz), 1.86 (1H, m), 1.67-1.79 (2H, m), 1.62 (2H, m), 1.13 (3H, d, J = 6.5 Hz), 0.75 (3H, s), 0.72 (3H, s).
[00545] To a solution of primary alcohol (157 mg) in CH2Cl2 (2.2 mL) at room temperature was added NaHCO3 (361 mg, 4.3 mmol) and Dess-Martin periodinane (274 mg). After being stirred for 70 min, the reaction was quenched with 10% aqueous Na2S2O3. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc, washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated. Silica gel flash column chromtatography of the residue (EtOAc/hexanes 20%) gave aldehyde (129 mg, 82% yield).1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 9.44 (1H, t, J = 1.5 Hz), 5.85 (1H, brs), 5.54 (1H, brd, J = 1.2 Hz), 3.20-3.32 (2H, m), 3.11-3.17 (2H, m), 2.25 (2H, m), 2.09 (1H, m), 1.97 (1H, m), 1.88 (2H, dd, J = 14.7, 6.5 Hz), 1.57 (1H, dd, J = 15.0, 5.6 Hz), 1.03 (3H, d, J = 7.0 Hz), 0.76 (3H, s), 0.60 (3H, s).
[00546] To a solution of aldehyde (102 mg, 0.28 mmol) in t-BuOH (5.5 mL) and 2-methyl-2- butene (2.2 mL) at room temperature was added a solution of NaClO2 (198 mg) and
NaH2PO4-H2O (304 mg) in H2O (2.0 mL). After being stirred for 2.5 h, diluted with H2O (10 mL) and EtOAc (10 mL). The mixture was extracted with EtOAc, and the organic layer was washed with saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and concentrated to give carboxylic acid, which was used for the next step without further purification.1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.86 (1H, brs), 5.54 (1H, brd, J = 1.3 Hz), 3.28 (2H, m), 3.18 (2H, m), 2.25 (2H, m), 2.14 (2H, m), 2.04 (1H, m), 1.94 (1H, dd, J = 14.8, 5.6 Hz), 1.58 (1H, dd, J = 14.7, 5.7 Hz), 1.02 (3H, d, J = 6.6 Hz), 0.75 (3H, s), 0.61 (3H, s).
[00547] To a solution of carboxylic acid in toluene (2.8 mL) and MeOH (0.28 mL) at room temperature was added TMSCHN2 (2.0 M solution in Et2O, 0.42 mL). After being stirred for 2 h, the reaction was concentrated. Silica gel flash column chromatography of the residue (EtOAc/hexanes 0% to 10%) gave P-3 (99.7 mg, 90% yield for 2 steps).1H-NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.87 (1H, brs), 5.54 (1H, brd, J = 1.8 Hz), 3.37 (3H, s), 3.19-3.32 (4H, m), 2.54 (2H, m), 2.09-2.26 (3H, m), 1.97 (1H, dd, J = 14.7, 5.3 Hz), 1.60 (1H, dd, J = 14.7, 5.9 Hz), 1.04 (3H, d, J = 6.5 Hz), 0.71 (3H, s), 0.66 (3H, s). Exemplary Synthesis of Halichondrins from Right Half/Left Half Fragments
[00548] Using the previously developed methods (See, e.g., J. Am. Chem. Soc.2012, 134, 893; 2014, 136, 5171) requisite enones can be prepared from right and left haves bearing proper protecting groups. An exmemplary procedure for halichondrin C is shown below. Using the same experimental procedures, halichondrins A and B can also be prepared.
Likewise, the enones of norhalichondrins A-C can be prepared from the C39-C53 iodoolefin of norhalichondrin.
Figure imgf000208_0001
[00549] To a solution of bis-TBS ether 1 (280 mg) in THF (5.5 mL) was added TBAF solution (1 M in THF, buffered with 0.5 eq of imidazole·hydrochloride, 1.1 mL) at room temperature. After stirring for 20 h at room temperature, solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by silica gel flash column chromatography (DCM/hexanes 1:1 to EtOAc/hexanes 1/1 to 2/1 to EtOAc) to give diol.
[00550] To a stirred solution of the above diol (azeotropically dried with benzene prior to use) in DCM (5.5 mL) and triethylamine (0.55 mL) at 0 °C was added p-nitrobenzoyl chloride (150 mg). The reaction was quenched with MeOH (0.2 mL) at 0 °C and the resultant mixture was further stirred for 15 min at room temperature. The reaction was diluted with Et2O (8 mL) to precipitate white solid and the reaction flask was sonicated for five seconds. After filtration through a Celite pad (1 cm) and evaporation of the solvent, the crude material was purified by silica gel flash column chromatography (DCM to EtOAc/hexanes 1/3 to 1/2) to give p-nitrobenzoate.
[00551] To a mixture of p-nitrobenzoate (azeotropically dried with benzene prior to use) and imidazole (110 mg) in DCM (3.0 mL) was added TES-Cl (0.14 mL) at room temperature and the reaction mixture was stirred for 5 h at the same temperature prior to the addition of H2O. The aqueous phase was extracted with EtOAc twice and combined organic phases were dried over Na2SO4, concentrated under reduced pressure. The obtained residue was purified by silica gel flash column chromatography (EtOAc/hexanes 1/5 to 1/3) to give TES ether (253 mg, 87% for 3steps).
[00552] 1H NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 7.86 (2H, d, J = 8.7 Hz), 7.72 (2H, d, J = 8.7 Hz), 5.76 (1H, dddd, J = 16.7, 10.5, 5.4, 5.4 Hz), 5.18-5.14 (2H, m), 5.07 (1H, d, J = 1.2 Hz), 4.99-4.95 (2H, m), 4.88-4.83 (2H, m), 4.79 (1H, s), 4.66-4.62 (2H, m), 4.58 (1H, ddd, J = 10.8, 7.2, 5.1 Hz), 4.52 (1H, ddd, J = 10.5, 10.5, 4.2 Hz), 4.38 (1H, dd, J = 3.9, 2.1 Hz), 4.33 (1H, d, J = 4.8 Hz), 4.12 (1H, dd, J = 6.6, 4.8 Hz), 4.05-3.98 (2H, m), 3.85-3.80 (3H, m), 3.74-3.69 (2H, m), 3.50 (1H, dd, J = 8.1, 3.9 Hz), 3.46 (1H, dd, J = 6.3, 4.2 Hz), 3.21 (1H, ddd, J = 9.4, 2.7, 2.7 Hz), 3.09 (1H, dd, J = 3.9, 3.9 Hz), 2.78 (1H, dd, J = 16.5, 7.5 Hz), 2.68-2.64 (1H, m), 2.56(1H, dd, J = 9.6, 1.8 Hz), 2.39-2.08 (14H, m), 1.98-1.84 (3H, m), 1.77-1.72 (1H, m), 1.58-1.56 (1H, m), 1.53-1.42 (4H, m), 1.39-1.30 (2H, m), 1.17 (3H, d, J = 7.2 Hz), 1.13-1.07 (1H, m), 1.05 (9H, t, J = 7.9 Hz), 1.01 (3H, d, J = 6.6 Hz), 0.685 (6H, q, J = 7.9 Hz).
[00553] Enone intermediates can be prepared by coupling left half and right half fragments using Ni/Cr coupling reaction as demonstrated:
Figure imgf000210_0001
[00554] To a solution of 2 (57.3 mg) in DCM (1.0 mL) were added NaHCO3 (55.0 mg) and Dess–Martin periodinane (55 mg) at room temperature and the reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h at the same temperature. The reaction was quenched by adding 10 wt% Na2S2O3 aq. and sat. NaHCO3 aq. and then vigorously stirred for 30 min at room temperature. The aqueous phase was extracted with DCM three times and combined organic phases were dried over Na2SO4. After evaporation of the solvent, the crude material was purified by silica gel flash chromatography (EtOAc/hexanes 1:5 to 1:3 to 1:2) to give aldehyde.
[00555] To a mixture of CrCl2 (40.0 mg), (S)-i-Pr/Me/OMe sulfonamide (111 mg), and proton sponge (76.1 mg) in a glove box was added MeCN (3.2 mL) and stirred for 1 h at room temperature. In a separate flask, above aldehyde, iodoolefin 3 (88.8 mg), NiCl2·DMP (0.10 mg, doped in LiCl), LiCl (5.0 mg), were mixed together and the Cr-complex solution was transferred to the flask. After stirring for 1 h at room temperature, the reaction was removed from the glove box and diluted with EtOAc (1.5 mL) and added florisil and the mixture was stirred vigorously for 30 min. The resultant mixture was filtered through silica gel plug, and concentrated. The crude material was purified by silica gel flash column chromatography (EtOAc/hexanes 1:10 to 1:5 to 1:3) to give allyl alcohol.
[00556] To a solution of the above allyl alcohol in DCM (2.0 mL) were added NaHCO3 (60 mg) and Dess–Martin periodinane (60 mg) at room temperature and the reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h at room temperature. The reaction was quenched with 10 wt% Na2S2O3 aq. and sat. NaHCO3 aq. and vigorously stirred for 30 min. The aqueous phase was extracted with DCM three times and the combined organic phases were dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated under vacuum. The residue was purified by silica gel preparative TLC (EtOAc/hexanes 1:2) to provide 4 (51.2 mg, 45% in 3 steps).
[00557] 1H NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 6.89 (1H, dd, J = 16.2, 4.8 Hz), 6.48 (1H, dd, J = 16.2, 1.8 Hz), 5.76 (1H, dddd, J = 16.8, 10.2, 5.3, 5.3 Hz), 5.20 (1H, brs), 5.17 (1H, dd, J = 17.4, 1.2 Hz), 5.10 (1H, brs), 4.99-4.95 (2H, m), 4.86-4.82 (2H, m), 4.79 (1H, brs), 4.67 (1H, brs, J = 10.2 Hz), 4.52 (1H, ddd, J = 10.2, 10.2, 4.2 Hz), 4.38-4.37 (1H, m), 4.33 (1H, d, J = 4.8 Hz), 4.28-4.25 (1H, m), 4.15 (1H, dd, J = 3.9, 3.9 Hz), 4.12 (1H, dd, J = 6.6, 4.8 Hz), 4.10- 3.98 (5H, m), 3.93 (1H, brd, J = 2.4 Hz), 3.85-3.71 (8H, m), 3.48 (1H, dd, J = 8.7, 4.5 Hz), 3.20-3.15 (2H, m), 3.12 (1H, dd, J = 8.1, 3.9 Hz), 3.09-3.03 (2H, m), 2.83-2.73 (3H, m), 2.57 (1H, dd, J = 10.2, 1.8 Hz), 2.53-2.46 (2H, m), 2.38-2.19 (9H, m), 2.14-2.10 (3H, m), 2.07- 2.06 (1H, m), 2.02-1.94 (3H, m), 1.86-1.83 (1H, m), 1.79-1.72 (2H, m), 1.66-1.60 (2H, m), 1.55-1.49 (3H, m), 1.36-1.29 (2H, m), 1.21 (3H, d, J = 7.2 Hz), 1.17 (9H, t, J = 7.8 Hz), 1.09 (9H, s), 1.08 (9H, t, J = 8.1 Hz), 1.05 (9H, s), 1.02 (9H, s), 1.01 (9H, t, J = 7.8 Hz), 1.09- 0.995 (9H, m), 0.861-0.817 (6H, m), 0.696 (6H, q, J = 8.0 Hz), 0.586 (6H, q, J = 7.6 Hz), 0.293 (3H, s), 0.286 (3H, s), 0.169 (3H, s), 0.167 (3H, s), 0.094 (3H, s), 0.091 (3H, s).
[00558] An exemplary two-step deprotection/cyclization toward halichondrin C is shown below:
Me
TES
Figure imgf000211_0001
[00559] Buffered TBAF solution (0.5 M) was prepared by mixing TBAF (0.5 mL of 1 M solution in THF: TCI (#T1125)), pivalic acid (Pv-OH, 0.3 mL of 1M solution in DMF), and DMF (0.2 mL).
[00560] To a solution of enone (21.8 mg) in DMF (2.1 mL) was added the above TBAF solution (0.23 mL) via a syringe pomp at 0 °C over 1 h. After stirring for 1 h at the same temperature, the cooling bath was removed and the reaction mixture was stirred for 12 h (24 h for Nor-series) at room temperature. The reaction was quenched by adding CaCO3 (500 mg) and DOWEX 50WX8 (1.3 g: 200-400 mesh H+-form). After stirring for 1 h at room temperature, the resulting suspension was diluted with EtOAc (ca.2 mL) and filtered through a pad of Celite, and the filter cake was washed with EtOAc. The obtained solution was concentrated under reduced pressure, and the residue was dissolved in CH2Cl2 (2.3 mL). [00561] To the solution was added PPTS (29 mg) at room temperature. After stirring for 2.5 h at the same temperature, Wakogel 50NH2 (ca.200 mg) and DCM (2.0 mL) was added. The resulting slurry was loaded onto a column of Wakogel 50NH2 (neutral silica gel from Kanto Chemicals was used for Nor-series), and purified (EtOAc/hexanes: 1/5 to 1/2 to 1/1 then MeOH/EtOAc: 1/20 (100% EtOAc for Nor-series)), to furnish a 4:1 mixture of allyl- protected halichondrin-C and its C38-epimer. The obtained mixture was purified with HPLC (YMS-Pack C-18 column; MeCN/H2O, gradient) to give allyl-protected halichondrin C (5.2 mg, 38% for 2 steps) and C38-epi halichondrin C (1.3 mg, 9% for 2 steps).
[00562] 1H NMR (600 MHz, C6D6) δ: 5.75 (1H, dddd, J = 17.3, 10.5, 5.3, 5.3 Hz), 5.15 (1H, dddd, J = 17.3, 1.7, 1.7, 1.7 Hz), 5.03 (1H, d, J = 1.8 Hz), 4.97 (1H, dddd, J = 10.5, 1.5, 1.5, 1.5 Hz), 4.97–4.95 (1H, m), 4.93–4.88 (2H, m), 4.82 (1H, s), 4.63–4.56 (2H, m), 4.54–4.49 (1H, m), 4.39 (1H, dd, J = 3.8, 1.8 Hz), 4.32 (1H, d, J = 4.7 Hz), 4.19 (1H, s), 4.12 (1H, dd, J = 6.6, 4.8 Hz), 4.08 (1H, ddd, J = 10.5, 6.0, 6.0 Hz), 4.05–3.97 (3H, m), 3.96–3.91 (1H, m), 3.87–3.76 (5H, m), 3.72–3.57 (6H, m), 3.55–3.50 (1H, m), 3.43–3.38 (1H, m), 3.35 (1H, t, J = 2.6 Hz), 3.16 (1H, dd, J = 2.6, 1.8 Hz), 3.04–2.98 (1H, m), 2.76–2.64 (3H, m), 2.61 (1H, dd, J = 9.7, 1.8 Hz), 2.41–2.32 (3H, m), 2.32–2.09 (13H, m), 2.08–2.02 (3H, m), 2.01–1.94 (1H, m), 1.92–1.86 (2H, m), 1.85–1.78 (1H, m), 1.73–1.62 (4H, m), 1.57–1.41 (5H, m), 1.39– 1.25 (5H, m), 1.18 (3H, d, J = 6.7 Hz), 1.16–1.09 (1H, m), 1.06 (3H, d, J = 7.0 Hz), 1.04 (3H, d, J = 6.7 Hz), 0.95 (3H, d, J = 7.0 Hz).
[00563] For the deprotection protocol of C11- and C12-hydroxyl groups, see: A. Yamamoto, A. Ueda, P. Brémond, P. S. Tiseni, and Y. Kishi, J. Am. Chem. Soc.134, 893 (2012); A. Ueda, A. Yamamoto, D. Kato, and Y. Kishi, J. Am. Chem. Soc.136, 5171 (2014).
[00564] For the protocol for isomerization of C38-epi halichondrin C to halichondrin C, see: A. Ueda, A. Yamamoto, D. Kato, and Y. Kishi, J. Am. Chem. Soc.136, 5171 (2014). OTHER EMBODIMENTS
[00565] In the claims articles such as“a,”“an,” and“the” may mean one or more than one unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. Claims or descriptions that include“or” between one or more members of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. The invention includes embodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. The invention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.
[00566] Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, and permutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, and descriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introduced into another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on another claim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in any other claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements are presented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of the elements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from the group. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention, or aspects of the invention, is/are referred to as comprising particular elements and/or features, certain embodiments of the invention or aspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, such elements and/or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodiments have not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is also noted that the terms“comprising” and“containing” are intended to be open and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Where ranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwise indicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of one of ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges can assume any specific value or sub–range within the stated ranges in different embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.
[00567] This application refers to various issued patents, published patent applications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any of the incorporated references and the instant specification, the specification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment of the present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodiments are deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may be excluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Any particular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim, for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.
[00568] Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodiments described herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description, but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modifications to this description may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims.

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is: 1. A method of preparing a compound of Formula (I):
Figure imgf000215_0001
(I) or a salt thereof,
the method comprising coupling a compound of Formula (i):
Figure imgf000215_0002
(i) or a salt thereof,
with an aldehyde of Formula (ii):
Figure imgf000215_0003
or a salt thereof,
in the presence of a chromium catalyst and optionally one or more catalysts;
wherein
R1 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
R2 is–OR5;
R5 is optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R3 is–OR6;
R6 is optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
or R2 and R3 are taken together to form =O;
or R5 and R6 are taken together with the intervening atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring;
R4 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
R7 is halogen; and
L is optionally substituted ethenylene or ethynylene. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein R1 is optionally substituted alkyl.
3. The method of claim 2, wherein R1 is of Formula (F-1):
Figure imgf000216_0001
wherein:
each of R1a, R1b, and R1c is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
each instance of R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
n is an integer between 1 to 10, inclusive. 4. The method of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the step of is performed in the presence of a vinyl iodide of Formula (VY-1):
Figure imgf000216_0002
or a salt thereof,
wherein
each of RVY1, RVY2, and RVY3 is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. 5. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-a):
Figure imgf000216_0003
(i-a) or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a):
Figure imgf000217_0001
or a salt thereof; wherein each of R8 and R9 is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-a-1):
Figure imgf000217_0002
or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a-1):
Figure imgf000217_0003
or a salt thereof. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-a):
Figure imgf000217_0004
or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a-2):
Figure imgf000217_0005
or a salt thereof; wherein each of R8 and R9 is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 8. The method of any one of claims 1-7, further comprising a step of cyclizing the compound of Formula (I) to form a compound of Formula (FU-1):
Figure imgf000217_0006
or a salt thereof,
wherein
each of RFU1 and RFU2 is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the step of cyclizing occurs in situ. 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the step of cyclizing occurs upon addition of an acid. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the acid is p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) or camphorsulfonic acid (CSA). 12. The method of claim 5, wherein the compound of Formula (i-a-1) is of Formula (i-a- 3):
Figure imgf000218_0001
or a salt thereof; the aldehyde f F rm l ii i f F rm l ii- ):
Figure imgf000218_0002
or a salt thereof; and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-a-3):
Figure imgf000219_0001
or a salt thereof,
wherein
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
R1d is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
R4b and R4c are each independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b):
Figure imgf000219_0002
(i-b), or a salt thereof,
and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b):
Figure imgf000219_0003
14. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-1):
Figure imgf000220_0001
(i-b-1), or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formul I i f F rm l (I-b-1)
Figure imgf000220_0002
(I-b-1), or a salt thereof. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-2):
Figure imgf000220_0003
(i-b-2), or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b-2):
Figure imgf000220_0004
(I-b-2), or a salt thereof. 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-3):
Figure imgf000220_0005
(i-b-3), or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b-3)
Figure imgf000220_0006
(I-b-3), or a salt thereof. 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-4):
Figure imgf000221_0001
(i-b-4), or a salt thereof, and
the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b-4):
Figure imgf000221_0002
(I-b-4), or a salt thereof. 18. The method of claim 13, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is of Formula (i-b-5)
Figure imgf000221_0003
(i-b-5), or a salt thereof, and the aldehyde of Formula (ii) is of Formula (ii-a):
Figure imgf000221_0004
(ii-a), or a salt thereof, and the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-b-5):
Figure imgf000221_0005
(I-b-5), or a salt thereof, wherein
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R4b and R4c are each independently substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or R4b and R4c taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring;
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. 19. The method of claim 12, wherein the compound of Formula (ii-a) is of Formula (ii-a- 1):
Figure imgf000222_0001
or a salt thereof.
20. The method of claim 12, wherein the compound of Formula (I-a-3) is of the Formula (I-a-3-i):
Figure imgf000223_0001
or a salt thereof.
21. A method of preparing a compound of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000223_0002
or a salt thereof, the method comprising coupling a compound of Formula (III-5):
Figure imgf000223_0003
or a salt thereof, with a compound of Formula (III-6):
Figure imgf000223_0004
or a salt thereof, in the presence of a chromium catalyst and optionally one or more catalysts; wherein
RT3 and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
each RA is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or optionally two RA are taken together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl;
each RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl; and
X3 is a halogen or a leaving group. 22. The method of any one of claims 1-21, wherein the chromium catalyst is chromium sulfonamide.23. The method of claim 22, wherein the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1):
Figure imgf000224_0001
wherein
Rs1 is halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
Rs2 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group;
Rs3 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl;
each instance of Rs4 is independently hydrogen, halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkoxy, an optionally substituted amino group, or optionally substituted acyl;
X1 is halogen;
each instance of X2 is independently a solvent;
u is 0 or an integer between 1 and 4, inclusive; and
g is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-a):
Figure imgf000225_0001
25. The method of claim 22, wherein the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-b):
Figure imgf000225_0002
26. The method of claim 22, wherein the chromium sulfonamide is of Formula (S-1-c):
Figure imgf000225_0003
27. The method of claim 22, wherein the chromium sulfonamide is prepared from contacting a chromium salt with a li and of Formula S-2 :
Figure imgf000226_0001
wherein
Rs1 is halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
Rs2 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group;
Rs3 is optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl;
each instance of Rs4 is independently hydrogen, halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkoxy, an optionally substituted amino group, or optionally substituted acyl;
u is 0 or an integer between 1 and 4, inclusive. 28. The method of claim 22 wherein the li and of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-a)
Figure imgf000226_0002
(S-2-a). 29. The method of claim 22, wherein the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-b):
Figure imgf000226_0003
(S-2-b).
30. The method of claim 22, wherein the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-b-i):
Figure imgf000227_0001
31. The method of claim 22, wherein the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c):
Figure imgf000227_0002
wherein
v is 0 or an integer between 1 and 5, inclusive; and
each instance of Rs5 is independently hydrogen, halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkoxy, an optionally substituted amino group, or optionally substituted acyl. 32. The method of claim 22, wherein the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c-i):
Figure imgf000227_0003
33. The method of claim 22, wherein the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of Formula (S-2-c-iii):
Figure imgf000228_0001
34. The method of any one of claims 23-33, wherein Rs1 is optionally substituted alkyl. 35. The method of any one of claims 23-33, wherein Rs1 is unsubstituted alkyl. 36. The method of claim 35, wherein Rs1 is iso-propyl or tert-butyl. 37. The method of claim 23, wherein the ligand of Formula (S-2) is of one of the followin formulae:
Figure imgf000228_0002
Figure imgf000229_0001
. 38. The method of claim 22, wherein the chromium sulfonamide is of the following formula:
Figure imgf000229_0002
,
wherein:
X1 is halogen;
each instance of X2 is independently a solvent;and
g is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. 39. The method of any one of claims 23-38, wherein the chromium salt is chromium halide. 40. The method of any one of claims 23-39, wherein the chromium salt is CrCl2.
41. The method of any one of claims 1-40, wherein the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 30 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 42. The method of any one of claims 1-40, wherein the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 1 mol% to about 20 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 43. The method of any one of claims 1-40, wherein the chromium catalyst is at a concentration of about 10 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 44. The method of any one of claims 1-43, wherein a second catalyst is present in the step of coupling. 45. The method of claim 44, wherein the second catalyst is a transition metal or transition metal complex. 46. The method of claim 45, wherein the second catalyst is a nickel complex. 47. The method of claim 46, wherein the nickel complex is of Formula (N-1):
Figure imgf000230_0001
wherein
each instance of Rn1 and Rn2 is independently hydrogen, halogen, -CN, -NO2, -N3, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted alkoxy, an optionally substituted amino group, or optionally substituted acyl; each of Rn3 and Rn4 is independently halogen, -CN, -NO2, optionally substituted alkoxy, or an optionally substituted amino group;
s is an integer between 1 and 3, inclusive; and
t is an integer between 1 and 3, inclusive. 48. The method of claim 47, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-a):
Figure imgf000231_0001
49. The method of claim 47, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-b):
Figure imgf000231_0002
50. The method of claim 47, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of Formula (N-1-c):
Figure imgf000231_0003
wherein
e is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; and
f is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
51. The method of claim 47, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of one of the following formulae:
,
Figure imgf000232_0001
. 52. The method of claim 47, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is of the following formulae:
Figure imgf000233_0001
53. The method of any one of claims 46-52, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is at a concentration of about 0.001 mol% to about 30 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 54. The method of any one of claims 46-52, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is at a concentration of about 0.01 mol% to about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 55. The method of any one of claims 46-52, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is at a concentration of about 0.1 mol% to about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 56. The method of any one of claims 46-52, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is at a concentration of about 0.05 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 57. The method of any one of claims 46-52, wherein the nickel complex of Formula (N-1) is at a concentration of about 0.1 mol% of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 58. The method of any one of claims 1-57, wherein an additional catalyst is present in the step of coupling. 59. The method of claim 58, wherein the third catalyst is a zirconium complex. 60. The method of claim 59, wherein the zirconium complex is Zr(Cp)2Cl2. 61. The method of any one of claims 59-60, wherein the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.0 eq to about 5.0 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii).
62. The method of any one of claims 59-60, wherein the zirconium complex is at a concentration of about 1.5 eq of the compound of Formula (i) or Formula (ii). 63. The method of any one of claims 1-62, wherein the step of coupling is performed in the presence of an inorganic salt. 64. The method of claim 63, wherein the inorganic salt is LiCl. 65. The method of any one of claims 1-64, wherein the step of coupling is performed in a solvent selected from the group consisting of EtCN, MeCN, demineratised water (DMW), and tetrahydrofuran (THF). 66. The method of claim 65, wherein the step of coupling is performed in EtCN. 67. The method of any one of claims 1-66, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is at a concentration of about 0.1-5.0 M. 68. The method of any one of claims 1-66, wherein the compound of Formula (i) is at a concentration of about 0.4-0.8 M. 69. The method of any one of claims 6-68, wherein R1a is I. 70. The method of any one of claims 6-69, wherein R1d is Cl. 71. The method of any one of claims 12-71, wherein R4b and R4c are independently oxygen protecting groups. 72. The method of any one of claims 1-71, wherein the compound of Formula (i) comprises a chloride attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon. 73. The method of any one of claims 1-72, wherein the compound of Formula (i) comprises a vinyl iodide moiety.
74. A method of preparin a com ound of Formula I-a-4):
Figure imgf000235_0001
(I-a-4),
or a salt thereof, comprising c clizin a com ound of Formula I-a-5):
Figure imgf000235_0002
or a salt thereof,
wherein
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R4b and R4c are each independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or R4b and R4c are taken with the intervening oxygen atoms to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring;
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
RPA is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group.
75. The method of claim 74, wherein the step of cyclizing comprises deprotecting the compound of Formula (I-a-5). 76. The method of claim 75, further comprising equilibrating the deprotected compound of Formula (I-a-5) with one or more bases. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the bases are 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) and tetramethylguanidine. 78. The method of claim 76 or 77, further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with an acid. 79. The method of claim 78, wherein the acid is pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS). 80. The method of any one of claims 76-79, further comprising contacting the equilibrating reaction mixture with one or more ion-exchange-resins. 81. The method of claim 80, wherein the ion-exchange resins are polymer-bound guanidine and a polymer-bound pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate (PPTS). 82. The method of any one of claims 74-81, further comprising the step of protecting a compound of Formula (I-a-3):
Figure imgf000236_0001
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-a-5):
Figure imgf000237_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein RPA is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group. 83. A method of preparing a compound of Formula (I-b-6):
Figure imgf000237_0002
or a salt thereof, comprising contacting a compound of Formula (I-b-7):
Figure imgf000237_0003
or a salt thereof,
with a Lewis acid and an alcohol;
wherein R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R10 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. 84. The method of any one of claims 82-83, wherein the alchol is allyl alcohol. 85. The method of any one of claims 82-84, further comprising the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
Figure imgf000238_0001
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-b-7):
Figure imgf000239_0001
ĨI-b-7),
or a salt thereof,
wherein
R4b is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group; and
R4c is optionally substituted alkyl or an oxygen protecting group. 86. The method of claim 85, wherein the step of deprotecting is performed in the presence of HF·pyridine.
87. The method of claim 85 or 86 further comprising the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-5):
Figure imgf000240_0001
o
Figure imgf000240_0002
88. A method of preparing a compound of Formula (I-b-9):
Figure imgf000240_0003
or a salt thereof com risin the ste s of c clizin a com ound of Formula (I-b-10):
Figure imgf000241_0001
I-b-10), or a salt thereof, wherein
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R4b is an oxygen protecting group;
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. 89. The method of claim 88 further comprising the step of reducing a compound of Formula (I-b-11):
Figure imgf000241_0002
(I-b-11),
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-b-10):
Figure imgf000242_0001
or a salt thereof. 90. The method of claim 89 further comprising the step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
Figure imgf000242_0002
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-b-11):
Figure imgf000242_0003
or a salt thereof, wherein R4c is an oxygen protecting group.
91. A method of preparin a com ound of Formula I-a-4):
Figure imgf000243_0001
(I-a-4),
or a salt thereof, comprisin the ste s of de rotectin a com ound of Formula (I-b-12):
Figure imgf000243_0002
or a salt thereof; and cyclizing the deprotected compound;
wherein
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R4b is an oxygen protecting group;
R4c is an oxygen protecting group;
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
92. The method of claim 91 further comprising the step of reducing a compound of Formula (I-b-8):
Figure imgf000244_0001
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (I-b-12):
Figure imgf000244_0002
or a salt thereof. 93. The method of claim 92, wherein the reduction step is performed in the presence of 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)benzenecopper hydride ((BDP)CuH).
94. A method of re arin a com ound of Formula I-b-13):
Figure imgf000245_0001
(I-b-13), or a salt thereof, com risin c clizin a com ound of Formula I-b-14):
Figure imgf000245_0002
(I-b-14), or a salt thereof,
wherein
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R4b is an oxygen protecting group;
10 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R11 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
95. The method of claim 94, further comprising deprotecting a compound of Formula (I- b-8):
Figure imgf000246_0001
or a salt thereof, to give a compound of Formula (I-b-14):
Figure imgf000246_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein R4c is an oxygen protecting group.
96. The method of any one of claims 81-95, wherein R4b is tert-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS). 97. The method of any one of claims 81-95, wherein R4c is tert-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS).
98. A method of preparing a compound of Formula (TI):
Figure imgf000247_0001
the method comprising:
cyclizing a compound of Formula (TF-1):
Figure imgf000247_0002
or a salt thereof,
wherein
RP1, RP2, RP3
, RP4, RP6, and RP7 are each independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
each instance of RT4 is independently is hydrogen, halogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT4 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000247_0003
group; each instance of RT6 is independently hydrogen, halo en substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT6 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000247_0004
group; RTX is hydrogen or–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RTY is hydrogen or–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RTX and RTY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring, under sufficient conditions to provide a compound of Formula (TI). 99. The method of claim 98 further comprising the steps of:
joining a compound of Formula (TE-1):
Figure imgf000248_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein
RZ4 is–CH2ORZ4a or–CHO, wherein RZ4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RP4 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; RT3 and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
each instance of RT4 is independently is hydrogen, halogen, su or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT4 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000248_0002
group;
each instance of RT6 is independently hydrogen, halo en substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT6 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000248_0003
group;
RTX is hydrogen or–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RTY is hydrogen or–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and RTX and RTY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring,
with a compound of Formula (TI-1):
Figure imgf000249_0001
wherein
RP1, RP2, RP3, RP6 and RP7 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT3 and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RT1 and RT2 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl; and
XT is a halogen,
under sufficient conditions to provide a compound of Formula (TF-1) and optionally protecting or deprotecting a compound of Formula (TF-1). 100. The method of claim 99 further comprising cyclizing a compound of Formula (TD-1):
Figure imgf000249_0002
or a salt thereof, to provide a compound of Formula (TE-1),
wherein
RZ1 is–CO2RZ1a, wherein RZ1a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
101. The method of claim 100 further comprising the step of:
contacting a compound of Formula (TJ-1):
Figure imgf000250_0001
(TJ-1) or a salt thereof,
with a compound of F rm l T -1
Figure imgf000250_0002
or a salt thereof,
to provide a compound of Formula (TD-1),
wherein
RZ2 is a halogen or a leaving group;
RZ3 is a halogen;
RTX is hydrogen or–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RTY is hydrogen or–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RTX and RTY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring.
102. A compound of F rm l I- -
Figure imgf000251_0001
(I-b-6), or a salt thereof,
wherein
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;
R1d is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
R10 is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group. 103. A compound f F rm l I- -
Figure imgf000251_0002
(I-b-7), or a salt thereof,
wherein
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl. 104. A compound of Form l I- -12
Figure imgf000252_0001
(I-b-12),
or a salt thereof,
wherein
R4a is–CO2R4d, wherein R4d is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R4b is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R4c is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
R1a is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl; and
R1d is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl.
105. A compound of Formula (TD-1):
Figure imgf000253_0001
or a salt thereof,
wherein
RZ1 is–CO2RZ1a, wherein RZ1a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RZ4 is–CH2ORZ4a or–CHO, wherein RZ4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RP4 and RP5 are each independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT3 and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
each instance of RT4 is independently is hydrogen, halogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT4 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000253_0002
group;
each instance of RT6 is independently hydrogen, halo en, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two R6 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000253_0003
group;
RX is hydrogen or–ORX1, wherein RX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RTY is hydrogen or–ORY1, wherein RY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RX and RY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring.
106. A compound of Formula (TE-1):
Figure imgf000254_0001
or a salt thereof,
wherein
RZ4 is–CH2ORZ4a or–CHO, wherein RZ4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RP4 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; RT3 and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
each instance of RT4 is independently is hydrogen, halogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT4 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000254_0002
group;
each instance of RT6 is independently hydrogen, halo en substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT6 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000254_0003
group;
RTX is hydrogen or–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RTY is hydrogen or–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RTX and RTY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring.
107. A compound of Formula (TF-1):
Figure imgf000255_0001
or a salt thereof,
wherein
RP1, RP2, RP3
, RP4, RP6, and RP7 are each independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
each instance of RT4 is independently is hydrogen, halogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT4 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000255_0002
group; each instance of RT6 is independently hydrogen, halo en substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT6 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000255_0003
group;
RTX is hydrogen or–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RTY is hydrogen or–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RTX and RTY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring.
108. A compound of Formula (TG-1):
Figure imgf000256_0001
or a salt thereof,
wherein
RP8, RP9, RP10, and RP11 are each independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
each instance of RT4 is independently is hydrogen, halogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT4 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000256_0002
group;
each instance of RT6 is independently hydrogen, halo en substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT6 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000256_0003
group;
RT7 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; RTX is hydrogen or–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RTY is hydrogen or–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RTX and RTY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring.
109. A compound of Formula (TH-1):
Figure imgf000257_0001
or a salt thereof,
wherein
RP12, RP13, RP14, RP15 and RP16 are each independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT1, RT2, RT3, and RT5 are each independently hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
each instance of RT4 is independently is hydrogen, halogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT4 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000257_0002
group; each instance of RT6 is independently hydrogen, halo en substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or two RT6 groups can be taken together to form a
Figure imgf000257_0003
group;
RTX is hydrogen or–ORTX1, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RTY is hydrogen or–ORTY1, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RTX and RTY can be taken with their intervening atoms to form a substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic ring. 110. The compound of any one of claims 104-109, wherein RTX is hydrogen. 111. The compound of any one of claims 104-109, wherein RTX is–ORTX1.
112. The compound of claim 111, wherein RTX1 is hydrogen. 113. The compound of claim 111, wherein RTX1 is an oxygen protecting group. 114. The compound of any one of claims 104-113, wherein RTY is hydrogen. 115. The compound of any one of claims 104-113, wherein RTY is–ORTY1. 116. The compound of claim 115, wherein RTY1 is hydrogen. 117. The compound of claim 115, wherein RTY1 is an oxygen protecting group. 118. The method of claim 98, or the compound of claim 107, wherein RP1, RP2, RP3, RP4, RP7, and RP8 are each independently an oxygen protecting group. 119. The method of claim 98, or the compound of claim 107, wherein RP1, RP2, and RP8 are tert-butyldimethylsilyl (TBS) protecting groups, and RP3, RP7, and RP4 are TES protecting groups. 120. The compound of claim 108, wherein RP8, RP9, and RP10 are each independently oxygen protecting groups. 121. The compound of claim 108, wherein RP8 and RP9 are TES protecting groups; and RP10 is a TBS protecting group. 122. A method of preparing a compound of Formula (III-1):
Figure imgf000258_0001
or a salt thereof, the method comprising a step of reducing a compound of Formula (III-2):
Figure imgf000259_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RP4 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RZ4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. 123. The method of claim 122, wherein the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride source. 124. The method of claim 123, wherein the hydride source is diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL). 125. The method of claim 122, further comprising a step of deprotecting a compound of Formula (III-1):
Figure imgf000259_0002
(III-1), or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-1-a):
Figure imgf000260_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP4 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RZ4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. 126. The method of claim 125, wherein RP5 is a para-methoxybenzyl (MPM) protecting group. 127. The method of claim 126, wherein the step of deprotection is carried out in the presence of 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ). 128. The method of claim 126, further comprising a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-1-a):
Figure imgf000260_0002
(III-1-a). or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-1):
Figure imgf000261_0001
or salt thereof, wherein RP5 is a acyl protecting group. 129. The method of claim 128, wherein RP5 is a acetyl (–C(=O)CH3) protecting group. 130. The method of claim 129, wherein the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl chloride or acetyl anhydride; and coupling reagent. 131. The method of claim 130, wherein the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl anhydride and 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP). 132. The method of claim 122, further comprising a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-3):
Figure imgf000261_0002
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-2):
Figure imgf000262_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RP4 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RZ4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. 133. The method of claim 132, wherein RZ4a and RP4 are trialkylsilyl protecting groups; and the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of a trialkylsilyl halide or a trialkylsilyl sulfonate. 134. The method of claim 132, wherein RZ4a and RP4 are tert-butyldimethylsilyl protecting groups; and the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of tert-butyldimethylsilyl triflate (TBSOTf).
135. The method of any one of claims 122-134 further comprising a step of deprotecting and cyclizing a compound of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000263_0001
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-3):
Figure imgf000263_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
each RA is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or optionally two RA are joined to thether with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 136. The method of claim 135, wherein the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of an acid. 137. The method of claim 135, wherein the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilyl triflate (TESOTf) and triethylsilane.
138. The method of any one of claims 122-137 further comprising a step of coupling a compound of Formula (III-5):
or a salt thereof, with a comp
Figure imgf000264_0001
or a salt thereof, in the presence of a chromium cayalyst and optionally one or more catalysts, to yield a compound of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000264_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
each RA is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or optionally two RA are joined to thether with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 139. The method of claim 138, wherein the chromium catalyst is a chromium sulfonamide.
140. The method of claim 139, wherein the chromium sulfonamide is of the following formula:
Figure imgf000265_0001
,
wherein:
X1 is halogen;
each instance of X2 is independently a solvent; and
g is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. 141. The method of claim 138, wherein the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of a nickel catalyst. 141. The method of claim 141, wherein the nickel catalyst is of the following formula:
Figure imgf000265_0002
,
wherein:
each of Rn3 and Rn4 is independently halogen, -CN, -NO2, optionally substituted alkoxy, or an optionally substituted amino group. 142. The method of claim 138, wherein the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of a zirconium complex. 143. The method of claim 142, wherein the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of Cp2ZrCl2.
144. The method of claim 138, wherein the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of a lithium salt. 145. The method of claim 144, wherein the lithium salt is lithium chloride. 148. The method of claim 138, wherein the step of coupling is carried out in the presence of manganese metal. 149. The method of any one of claims 122-148 further comprising a step of reducing a compound of Formula (III-7):
Figure imgf000266_0001
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-5):
Figure imgf000266_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl; and RPC is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. 150. The method of claim 149, wherein the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride source. 151. The method of claim 150, wherein the hydride source is diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL).
152. A method of preparing a compound of Formula (III-11):
Figure imgf000267_0001
or salt thereof, the method comprising a step of protecting a compound of Formula (III-10):
Figure imgf000267_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 153. The method of claim 152, wherein RP5 is a acetyl (–C(=O)CH3) protecting group. 154. The method of claim 153, wherein the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl chloride or acetyl anhydride; and coupling reagent. 155. The method of claim 154, wherein the step of protecting is carried out in the presence of acetyl anhydride and 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP).
156. The method of any one of claims 152-155 further comprising a step of reducing a compound of Formula (III-9):
Figure imgf000268_0001
or a salt thereof, to yield a compound of Formula (III-10):
Figure imgf000268_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 157. The method of claim 156, wherein the step of reducing is carried out in the presence of a hydride source. 158. The method of claim 157, wherein the hydride source is diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL).
159. The method of any one of claims 152-158 further comprises a step of contacting a compound of Formula (III-8):
Figure imgf000269_0001
or a salt thereof, with a compound of the formula: ,
or a salt thereof, in the presence of an acid to yield a compound of Formula (III-9):
Figure imgf000269_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 160. The method of claim 159, wherein the acid is pyridinium p-toluene sulfonate (PPTS).
161. The method of any one of claims 152-160 further comprising comprising steps of deprotecting and cyclizing a compound of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000270_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
each RA is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or optionally two RA are joined to thether with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 162. The method of claim 161, wherein the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of an acid. 163. The method of claim 161, wherein the step of deprotecting and cyclizing is carried out in the presence of triethylsilyl triflate (TESOTf) and triethylsilane.
164. A compound of Formula (III-2):
Figure imgf000271_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RP4 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
RZ4a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. 165. The compound of claim 164, wherein the compound is of Formula (III-3):
Figure imgf000271_0002
or a salt thereof.
166. A compound of Formula (III-4):
Figure imgf000272_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
each RA is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, or an oxygen protecting group; or optionally two RA are joined to thether with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 167. A compound of Formula (III-5):
Figure imgf000272_0002
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl.
168. The compound of claim 165, wherein the compound is of Formula (III-8):
Figure imgf000273_0001
or a salt thereof. 169. A compound of Formula (III-9):
Figure imgf000273_0002
(III-9),
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RZ5a is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 170. A compound of Formula (III-10):
Figure imgf000273_0003
or a salt thereof, wherein: RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 171. A compound of Formula (III-11):
Figure imgf000274_0001
or a salt thereof, wherein:
RT3 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl;
RP5 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;
RT5 is hydrogen, halogen, or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl; and
each instance of RB is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted alkyl. 172. The method of any one of claims 98-101 and 122-163, or the compound of any one of claims 105-121 and 164-171, wherein RT3 is optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. 173. The method or compound of claim 172, wherein RT3 is methyl. 174. The method of any one of claims 100, 101, and 122-163, or the compound of any one of claims 105, 164-167, and 171, wherein RP5 is an oxygen protecting group. 175. The compound or method of claim 174, wherein RP5 is para-methyoxybenzyl (MPM). 176. The compound or method of claim 174, wherein RP5 is an acyl protecting group. 177. The compound or method of claim 176, wherein RP5 is an acetyl group (–C(=O)CH3).
178. The method of any one of claims 98-101, 122-148, and 152-163, or the method of any one of claims 105-121, 164-166, and 168-171, wherein RT5 is optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. 179. The method or compound of claim 178, wherein RT5 is methyl. 180. The method of any one of claims 135-148 and 161-163, or the compound of claim 166, wherein two RA are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocycly. 181. The method or d of claim 180, wherein two RA are joined together to form
the following formula:
Figure imgf000275_0001
182. The method of any one of claims 122-124, 132-148, and 156-163, or the compound of any one of claims 164-166, and 168-169, wherein RZ5a is optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. 183. The method or compound of claim 182, wherein RZ5a is methyl. 184. The method of any one of claims 122-134 or the compound of claim 164, wherein RP4 is an oxygen protecting group. 185. The method or compound of claim 184, wherein RP4 is a trialkylsilyl protecting group. 186. The method of compound of claim 185, wherein RP4 is a tert-butyldimethylsilyl group. 187. The method of any one of claims 122-134, or the compound of claim 164, wherein RZ4a is an oxygen protecting group. 188. The method or compound of claim 184, wherein RZ4a is a trialkylsilyl protecting group.
189. The method or compound of claim 185, wherein RZ4a is a tert-butyldimethylsilyl group. 190. The method of any one of claims 135-163, or the compound of any one of claims 166- 167, and 169-171, wherein each RB is independently optionally substituted C1-6 alkyl. 191. The method or compound of claim 190, wherein each RB is methyl.
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