WO2015089427A1

WO2015089427A1 - Crispr-cas systems and methods for altering expression of gene products, structural information and inducible modular cas enzymes

Info

Publication number: WO2015089427A1
Application number: PCT/US2014/070068
Authority: WO
Inventors: Feng Zhang; Bernd ZETSCHE
Original assignee: The Broad Institute Inc.; Massachusetts Institute Of Technology
Priority date: 2013-12-12
Filing date: 2014-12-12
Publication date: 2015-06-18
Also published as: US11149259B2; US10377998B2; US20180066242A1; AU2014361834A8; AU2014361834A1; EP3080260B1; US20190330605A1; EP3080260A1; JP2017503485A; KR20160097327A; CN105899657A; CA2932439A1; AU2014361834B2

Abstract

The invention provides for systems, methods, and compositions for altering expression of target gene sequences and related gene products. Provided are structural information on the Cas protein of the CRISPR-Cas system, use of this information in generating modified components of the CRISPR complex, vectors and vector systems which encode one or more components or modified components of a CRISPR complex, as well as methods for the design and use of such vectors and components. Also provided are methods of directing CRISPR complex formation in eukaryotie cells and methods for utilizing the CRISPR-Cas system. In particular the present invention comprehends the engineering of optimized modular CRISPR-Cas enzyme systems.

Description

C ISPR-CAS SYSTEMS AND METBODS FOR ALTERING EXPRESSION OF GENE PRODUCTS, STRUCTURAL INFORMATION AND INDUCIBLE MODULAR CAS

ENZYMES

RELATED APPLICATIONS AND/OR INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0Θ01] This application claims priority from Priority is claimed to US provisional patent application 61 /915,267, filed December 12, 201 3, US provisional patent application 61/939,228, filed February 12, 2014.

[0002] The foregoing applications, and all documents cited therein or during their prosecution ("appln cited documents") and all documents cited or referenced in the appln cited documents, and all documents cited or referenced herein ("herein cited documents"), and all documents cited or referenced in herein cited documents, together with any manufacturer's instructions, descriptions, product specifications, and product sheets for any products mentioned herein or in any document incorporated by reference herein, are hereby incorporated herein by reference, and may be employed in the practice of the invention. More specifically, all referenced documents are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual document was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0003] The present invention generally relates to systems, methods and compositions used for the control of gene expression involving sequence targeting, such as genome perturbation or gene-editing, that may use vector systems related to Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and components thereof. In particular the present invention comprehends the engineering of optimized modular CRISPR-Cas enzyme systems.

STATEM ENT AS TO FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

[0004] This invention was made with government support under N IH Pioneer Award DP I MH 100706, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0005] Recent advances in genome sequencing techniques and analysis methods have significantly accelerated the ability to catalog and map genetic factors associated with a diverse range of biological functions and diseases. Precise genome targeting technologies are needed to enable systematic reverse engineering of causal genetic variations by allowing selective perturbation of individual genetic elements, as well as to advance synthetic biology, biotechnologieal, and medical applications. Although genome-editing techniques such as designer zinc fingers, transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs), or homing nieganucl eases are available for producing targeted genome perturbations, there remains a need for new genome engineering technologies that are affordable, easy to set up, scalable, and amenable to targeting multiple positions within the eukaryotie genome.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0006] There exists a pressing need for alternative and robust systems and techniques for sequence targeting with a wide array of applications. This invention addresses this need and provides related advantages. The CRISPR/Cas or the CRISPR-Cas system (both terms are used interchangeably throughout this application) does not require the generation of customized proteins to target specific sequences but rather a single Cas enzyme can be programmed by a short RNA molecule to recognize a specific DNA target, in other words the Cas enzyme can be recruited to a specific DNA target using said short RNA molecule. Adding the CRISPR-Cas system to the repertoire of genome sequencing techniques and analysis methods may significantly simplify the methodology and accelerate the ability to catalog and map genetic factors associated with a diverse range of biological functions and diseases. To utilize the CRISPR-Cas system effectively for genome editing without deleterious effects, it is critical to understand aspects of engineering and optimization of these genome engineering tools, which are aspects of the claimed invention.

[0007] In an aspect the invention provides a non-naturaliy occurring or engineered inducible CRISPR-Cas system, comprising:

a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible dimer and a second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a second half of the inducible dimer, wherein the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operably linked to one or more nuclear localization signals,

wherein the second CRISPR enzyme fusion constnict is operably linked to one or more nuclear export signals, wherein contact with an inducer energy source brings the first and second halves of the inducible dimer together,

wherein bringing the first and second halves of the mducibie dimer together allows the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs to constitute a functional CRISPR-Cas system.

wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a guide RNA (sgRNA) comprising a guide sequence capabl e of hybridizing to a target sequence in a genomic locus of interest in a ceil, and wherein the functional CRISPR-Cas system binds to the target sequence and, optionally, edits the genomic locus to alter gene expression.

[0008] In an aspect of the invention in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the inducible dimer is or comprises or consists essentially of or consists of an inducible heterodimer. In an aspect, in inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the first half or a first portion or a first fragment of the inducible heterodimer is or comprises or consists of or consists essentially of an FKBP, optionally FKBP 12. In an aspect of the invention, in the inducibie CRISPR-Cas system, the second half or a second portion or a secong fragment of the inducible heterodimer is or comprises or sonsists of or consists essentially of FRB. In an aspect of the invention, in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the arrangement of the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is or comprises or consists of or consists essentially of N' terminal Cas9 part- FRB - NES. In an aspect of the invention, in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the arrangement of the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is or comprises or consists of or consists essentially of NES-N' terminal Cas9 part- FRB - NES. In an aspect of the invention, in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the arrangement of the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is or comprises or consists essentially of or consists of C terminal Cas9 part-FKBP-NLS. in an aspect the invention provides in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the arrangement of the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is or comprises or consists of or consists essentially of NLS-C terminal Cas9 part-FKBP-NLS. In an aspect, in inducible CRISPR-Cas system there can be a linker that separates the Cas9 part from the half or portion or fragment of the inducible dimer. In an aspect, in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the inducer energy source is or comprises or consists essentially of or consists of rapamycin. In an aspect, in inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the inducible dimer is an inducible homodimer. In an aspect, in inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the CRISPR enzyme is Cas9, e.g., SpCas9 or SaCas9. In an aspect in mducibie CRISPR-Cas system, the Cas9 is split into two parts at any one of the following split points, according or with reference to SpCas9: a split position between 202A/203S; a split position between 255F/256D; a split position between 310E/311I; a split position between 534R/535 ; a split position between 572E/573C; a split position between 713S/714G; a split position between 1003L/104E; a split position between 1 G54G/1 Q55E; a split position between 11 14N/1115S; a split position between 1152K/1153S; a split position between 1245K/1246G; or a split between 1098 and 1099. In an aspect, in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, one or more functional domains are associated with one or both parts of the Cas9 enzyme, e.g., the functional domains optionally including a transcriptional activator, a transcriptional or a nuclease such as a f ^'ok I nuclease. In an aspect, in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the functional CRISPR-Cas system binds to the target sequence and the enzyme is a deadCas9, optionally having a diminished nuclease activity of at least 97%, or 100% (or no more than 3% and advantageously 0%) nuclease activity) as compared with the CRISPR enzyme not having the at least one mutation. In an aspect, in the inducible CRISPR-Cas system, the deadCas9 (CRISPR enzyme) comprises two or more mutations wherein two or more of DIG, E762, H840, N854, N863, or D986 according to SpCas9 protein or any corresponding ortholog or N580 according to SaCas9 protein are mutated, or the CRISPR enzyme comprises at least one mutation, e.g., wherem at least H840 is mutated. The invention further comprehends and an aspect of the invention provides, a polynucleotide encoding the inducible CRISPR-Cas system as herein discussed.

[0009] With respect to mutations of the CRISPR enzyme, when the enzyme is not SpCas9, mutations may be made at any or all residues corresponding to positions 10, 762, 840, 854, 863 and/or 986 of SpCas9 (which may be ascertained for instance by standard sequence comparison tools). In particular, any or ail of the following mutations are preferred in SpCas9: D10A, E762A, H840A. N854A. N863A and/or D986A; as well as conservative substitution for any of the replacement amino acids is also envisaged. In an aspect the invention provides as to any or each or all embodiments herein-discussed wherem the CRISPR enzyme comprises at least one or more, or at least two or more mutations, wherein the at least one or more mutation or the at least two or more mutations is as to D10, E762, H840, N854, N863, or D986 according to SpCas9 protein, e.g., D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A and/or D986A as to SpCas9, or N580 according to SaCas9, e.g., N580A as to SaCas9, or any corresponding mutation (s) in a Cas9 of an ortholog to Sp or Sa, or the CRISPR enzyme comprises at least one mutation wherein at least H840 or N863A as to Sp Cas9 or N580A as to Sa Cas9 is mutated; e.g., wherein the CRISPR enzyme comprises H840A, or D.10A. and H840A, or D10A and N863A, according to SpCas9 protein, or any corresponding mutation(s) in a Cas9 of an ortholog to Sp protein or Sa protein.

[0010J In an aspect, the invention provides a vector for delivery of the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, attached to a first half or portion or fragment of an inducible dimer and operably linked to one or more nuclear localization signals, according as herein discussed. In an aspect, the invention provides a vector for delivery of the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, attached to a second half or portion or fragment of an inducible dimer and operably linked to one or more nuclear export signals.

[0011] In an aspect, the invention provides a vector for delivery of both : the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, attached to a first half or portion or fragment of an inducible dimer and operably linked to one or more nuclear localization signals, as herein discussed; and the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, attached to a second half or portion or fragment of an inducible dimer and operably linked to one or more nuclear export signals, as herein discussed.

[0012] In an aspect, the vector can be single plasmid or expression cassette.

[0013] The invention, in an aspect, provides a eukaryotic host cell or cell line transformed with any of the vectors herein discussed or expressing the inducible CRISPR-Cas system as herein discussed.

[0014] The invention, in an aspect provides, a transgenic organism transformed with any of the vectors herein discussed or expressing the inducible CRISPR-Cas system herein discussed, or the progeny thereof. In an aspect, the invention provides a model organism which constitutively expresses the inducible CRISPR-Cas system as herein discussed.

[0015] In an aspect, the invention provides non-naturally occurring or engineered inducible CRISPR-Cas system, comprising:

a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible heterodimer and a second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a second half of the inducible heterodimer,

wherein the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operably linked to one or more nuclear localization signals,

wherein the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operabl linked to a nuclear export signal, wherein contact with an inducer energy source brings the first and second halves of the inducible heterodimer together,

wherein bringing the first and second halves of the inducible heterodimer together allows the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs to constitute a functional CRISPR-Cas system.

wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a guide RNA (sgRNA) comprising a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in a genomic locus of interest in a ceil, and wherein the functional CRISPR-Cas system edits the genomic locus to alter gene expression.

[0016] In an aspect, the invention provides a method of treating a subject in need thereof, comprising inducing gene editing by transforming the subject with the polynucleotide as herein discussed or any of the vectors herein discussed and administering an inducer energy source to the subject. The invention comprehends uses of such a polynucleotide or vector in the manufacture of a medicament, e.g., such a medicament for treating a subject or for such a method of treating a subject. In an aspect, in the method, a repair template is also provided, for example delivered by a vector comprising said repair template.

[0017] The invention also provides a method of treating a subject in need thereof, comprising inducing transcriptional activation or repression by transforming the subject with the polynucleotide herein discussed or any of the vectors herein discussed, wherem said polynucleotide or vector encodes or comprises the catalytically inactive CRISPR enzyme and one or more associated functional domains as herein discussed; the method further comprising administering an inducer energy source to the subject.

[0018] Accordingly, the invention comprehends inter alia homodimers as well as heterodimers, dead Cas9 or Cas9 having essentially no nuclease activity, e.g., through mutation, systems or complexes wherein there is one or more NLS and/or one or more NES; functional domain(s) linked to split Cas9; methods, including methods of treatment, and uses.

[0019] It will be appreciated that where reference is made herein to a CRISPR. enzyme, Cas or Cas protein; this includes the present split Cas9. In one aspect, the invention provides a method for altering or modifying expression of a gene product. The said method may comprise introducing into a cell containing and expressing a DNA molecule encoding the gene product an engineered, non-naturally occurring CRISPR-Cas system comprising a Cas protein and guide RNA thai targets the DNA molecule, whereby the guide RNA. targets the DNA molecule encoding the gene product and the Cas protein cleaves the DNA. molecule encoding the gene product, whereby expression of the gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas protein and the guide RNA do not naturally occur together. The invention comprehends the guide RNA comprising a guide sequence fused to a tracr sequence. The invention further comprehends the Cas protein being codon optimized for expression in a Eukaryotic cell. In a preferred embodiment the Eukaryotic cell is a mammalian cell and in a more preferred embodiment the mammalian cell is a human cell. In a further embodiment of the invention, the expression of the gene product is decreased.

[0020] In one aspect, the invention provides an engineered, non-naturally occurring CRISPR-Cas system comprising a Cas protein and a guide RN A that targets a DNA molecule encoding a gene product in a cell, whereby the guide RNA targets the DNA molecule encoding the gene product and the Cas protein cleaves the DNA molecule encoding the gene product, whereby expression of the gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas protein and the guide RNA do not naturally occur together; this including the present split Cas9. The invention comprehends the guide RNA comprising a guide sequence fused to a tracr sequence. In an embodiment of the invention the Cas protein is a type II CRISPR-Cas protein and in a preferred embodiment the Cas protein is a Cas9 protein; this includes the present split Cas9. The invention further comprehends the Cas protein being codon optimized for expression in a Eukaryotic cell. In a preferred embodiment the Eukaryotic cell is a mammalian cell and in a more preferred embodiment the mammalian ceil is a human ceil. In a further embodiment of the invention, the expression of the gene product is decreased.

[0021 ] In another aspect, the invention provides an engineered, non-naturally occurring vector system comprising one or more vectors comprising a first regulatory element operably linked to a CRISPR-Cas system guide RNA that targets a DNA molecule encoding a gene product and a second regulatory element operably linked to a Cas protein; this includes the present split Cas9. Components (a) and (b) may be located on same or different vectors of the system. The guide RNA targets the DNA molecule encoding the gene product in a cell and the Cas protein cleaves the DNA molecule encoding the gene product, whereby expression of the gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas protein and the guide RNA do not naturally occur together. The invention comprehends the guide RNA comprising a guide sequence fused to a tracr sequence. In an embodiment of the invention the Cas protem is a type II CRISPR-Cas protein and in a preferred embodiment the Cas protein is a Cas9 protein; this includes the present split Cas9. The invention further comprehends the Cas protem being codon optimized for expression in a Eukaryotic cell. In a preferred embodiment the Eukaryotic cell is a mammalian cell and in a more preferred embodiment the mammalian cell is a human cell. In a further embodiment of the invention, the expression of the gene product is decreased.

10022] In one aspect, the invention provides a vector system comprising one or more vectors. In some embodiments, the system comprises: (a) a first regulatory element operably linked to a tracr mate sequence and one or more insertion sites for inserting one or more guide sequences upstream of the tracr mate sequence, wherein when expressed, the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukaryotic cell, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence; and (b) a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding said CRISPR enzyme comprising a nuclear localization sequence; wherein components (a) and (b) are located on the same or different vectors of the system; this includes the present split Cas9. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises the tracr sequence downstream of the tracr mate sequence under the control of the first regulatory element. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises two or more guide sequences operably linked to the first regulatory element, wherein when expressed, each of the two or more guide sequences direct sequence specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a different target sequence in a eukaryotic ceil. In some embodiments, the system comprises the tracr sequence under the control of a third regulatory element, such as a polymerase III promoter. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence exhibits at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of sequence complementarity along the length of the tracr mate seq uence when optimally aligned. Determining optimal alignment is within the purview of one of skill in the art. For example, there are publically and commercially available alignment algorithms and programs such as, but not limited to, ClustalW, Smith- Waterman in matlab, Bowtie, Geneious, Biopython and SeqMan.

[0023] In some embodiments, the CRISPR complex comprises one or more nuclear localization sequences of sufficient strength to drive accumulation of said CRISPR complex in a detectable amount in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that a nuclear localization sequence is not necessary for CRISPR complex activity in eukaryotes, but that including such sequences enhances activity of the system, especially as to targeting nucleic acid molecules in the nucleus.

[0024] In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a type I I CRISPR system enzyme. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a Cas9 enzyme. In some embodiments, the Cas9 enzyme is S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, or S. thermophilus Cas9, and may include mutated Cas9 derived from these organisms. The enzyme may be a Cas9 homolog or ortholog. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is codon-optimized for expression in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or two strands at the location of the target sequence. In some embodiments, the first regulatory element is a polymerase III promoter. In some embodiments, the second regulatory element is a polymerase II promoter. In some embodiments, the guide sequence is at least 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25 nucleotides, or betw^reen 10-30, or between 15-25, or between 15-20 nucleotides in length.

[0Θ25] In general, and throughout this specification, the term "vector" refers to a nucleic acid molecule capable of transporting another nucleic acid to which it has been linked. Vectors include, but are not limited to, nucleic acid molecules that are single-stranded, double-stranded, or partially double-stranded; nucleic acid molecules that comprise one or more free ends, no free ends (e.g. circular); nucleic acid molecules that comprise DNA, RNA, or both; and other varieties of polynucleotides known in the art. One type of vector is a "plasmid," which refers to a circular double stranded DNA loop into which additional DNA segments can be inserted, such as by standard molecular cloning techniques. Another type of vector is a viral vector, wherein virally-derived DNA or RNA sequences are present in the vector for packaging into a virus (e.g. retroviruses, replication defective retroviruses, adenoviruses, replication defective adenoviruses, and adeno-associated. viruses). Viral vectors also include polynucleotides earned by a virus for transtection into a host cell. Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g. bacterial vectors having a bacterial origin of replication and episomal mammalian vectors). Other vectors (e.g., non-episomal mammalian vectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the host genome. Moreover, certain vectors are capable of directing the expression of genes to which they are operatively-linked. Such vectors are referred to herein as "expression vectors." Common expression vectors of utility in recombinant DNA techniques are often in the form of plasmids.

[0026] Recombinant expression vectors can comprise a nucleic acid of the invention in a form suitable for expression of the nucleic acid in a host cell, which means that the recombinant expression vectors include one or more regulatory elements, which may be selected on the basis of the host ceils to be used for expression, that is operativelv-linked to the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. Within a recombinant expression vector, "operably linked" is intended to mean that the nucleotide sequence of interest is linked to the regulatory element(s) in a manner that allows for expression of the nucleotide sequence (e.g. in an in vitro transcription/translation system or in a host cell when the vector is introduced into the host cell).

[0027] The term "regulatory element" is intended to include promoters, enhancers, internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES), and other expression control elements (e.g. transcription termination signals, such as polyadenyiation signals and poly-U sequences). Such regulatory elements are described, for example, in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990). Regulatory elements include those that direct constitutive expression of a nucleotide sequence in many types of host cell and those that direct expression of the nucleotide sequence only in certain host cells (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory sequences). A. tissue-specific promoter may direct expression primarily in a desired tissue of interest, such as muscle, neuron, bone, skin, blood, specific organs (e.g. liver, pancreas), or particular cell types (e.g. lymphocytes). Regulatory elements may also direct expression in a temporal-dependent manner, such as in a cell-cycle dependent or developmental stage-dependent manner, which may or may not also be tissue or cell-type specific. In some embodiments, a vector comprises one or more pol HI promoter (e.g. 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol I promoters), one or more pol II promoters (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol II promoters), one or more pol I promoters (e.g. 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol I promoters), or combinations thereof. Examples of pol III promoters include, but are not limited to, U6 and HI promoters. Examples of pol II promoters include, but are not limited to, the retroviral Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) LTR promoter (optionally with the RSV enhancer), the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter (optionally with the CMV enhancer) [see, e.g., Boshart et al, Cell, 41 :521 -530 (1985)], the SV40 promoter, the dihydro folate reductase promoter, the β-actin promoter, the phosphoglycerol kinase (PGK) promoter, and the EFla promoter. Also encompassed by the term "regulatory element" are enhancer elements, such as WPRE; CMV enhancers; the R-U5' segment in LTR of HTLV-I (Moi. Cell Biol, Vol. 8(1), p. 466-472, 1988); SV40 enhancer; and the intron sequence between exons 2 and 3 of rabbit β-globin (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., Vol. 78(3), p. 1527-31, 1981). It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art. that the design of the expression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed, the level of expression desired, etc. A vector can be introduced into host cells to thereby produce transcripts, proteins, or peptides, including fusion proteins or peptides, encoded by nucleic acids as described herein (e.g., clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) transcripts, proteins, enzymes, mutant forms thereof fusion proteins thereof, etc.).

[0028] Advantageous vectors include lentiviruses and adeno-associated viruses, and types of such vectors can also be selected for targeting particular types of cells.

[0029] In one aspect, the invention provides a eukarvotic host cell comprising (a) a first regulatory element operably linked to a tracr mate sequence and one or more insertion sites for inserting one or more guide sequences upstream of the tracr mate sequence, wherein when expressed, the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukarvotic cell, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence; and/or (b) a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding said CRISPR enzyme comprising a nuclear localization sequence. In some embodiments, the host cell comprises components (a) and (b); this includes the present split Cas9. In some embodiments, component (a), component (b), or components (a) and (b) are stably integrated into a genome of the host eukarvotic cell. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises the tracr sequence downstream of the tracr mate sequence under the control of the first regulatory element. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises two or more guide sequences operably linked to the first regulatory element, wherein when expressed, each of the two or more guide sequences direct sequence specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a different target sequence in a eukarvotic cell. In some embodiments, the eukarvotic host cell further comprises a third regulatory element, such as a polymerase III promoter, operably linked to said tracr sequence. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence exhibits at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of sequence complementarity along the length of the tracr mate sequence when optimally aligned. The enzyme may be a Cas9 homolog or ortholog. in some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is codon-optimized for expression in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or two strands at the location of the target sequence. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme lacks DNA. strand cleavage activity. In some embodiments, the first regulatory element is a polymerase ill promoter. In some embodiments, the second regulatory element is a polymerase II promoter. In some embodiments, the guide sequence is at least 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25 nucleotides, or between 10-30, or between 15-25, or between 15- 20 nucleotides in length. In an aspect, the invention provides a non-human eukaryotic organism; preferably a multicellular eukaryotic organism, comprising a eukaryotic host cell according to any of the described embodiments. In other aspects, the invention provides a eukaryotic organism; preferably a multicellular eukaryotic organism, comprising a eukaryotic host cell according to any of the described embodiments. The organism in some embodiments of these aspects may be an animal; for example a mammal Also, the organism may be an arthropod such as an insect. The organism also may be a plant. Further, the organism may be a fungus.

[0Θ30] In one aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising one or more of the components described herein. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a vector system and instructions for using the kit. In some embodiments, the vector system comprises (a) a first regulatory element operablv linked to a tracr mate sequence and one or more insertion sites for inserting one or more guide sequences upstream of the tracr mate sequence, wherein when expressed, the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukaryotic cell, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1 ) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence; and/or (b) a second regulator}' element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding said CRISPR enzyme comprising a nuclear localization sequence and advantageously this includes the present split Cas9. In some embodiments, the kit comprises components (a) and (b) located on the same or different vectors of the system. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises the tracr sequence downstream of the tracr mate sequence under the control of the first regulatory element. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises two or more guide sequences operably linked to the first regulatory element, wherein when expressed, each of the two or more guide sequences direct sequence specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a different target sequence in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the system further comprises a third regulatory element, such as a polymerase III promoter, operably linked to said tracr sequence. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence exhibits at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%,, 95%», or 99% of sequence complementarity along the length of the tracr mate sequence when optimally aligned. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme comprises one or more nuclear localization sequences of sufficient strength to drive accumulation of said CRISPR enzyme in a detectable amount in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a type I I CRISPR system enzyme. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a Cas9 enzyme. In some embodiments, the Cas9 enzyme is S, pneumoniae, S, pyogenes or S. thermophiius Cas9, and may include mutated Cas9 derived from these organisms. The enzyme may be a Cas9 homolog or ortholog. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is codon-optimized for expression in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or two strands at the location of the target sequence. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme lacks D^'NA strand cleavage activity. In some embodiments, the first regulatory element is a polymerase III promoter. In some embodiments, the second regulatory element is a polymerase II promoter. In some embodiments, the guide sequence is at least 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25 nucleotides, or between 10-30, or between 15-25, or between 15-20 nucleotides in length.

[0031 J In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying a target polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of said target polynucleotide thereby modifying the target polynucleotide, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within said target polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence. In some embodiments, said cleavage comprises cleaving one or two strands at the location of the target sequence by said CRISPR. enzyme; this includes the present split Cas9. In some embodiments, said cleavage results in decreased transcription of a target gene. In some embodiments, the method further comprises repairing said cleaved target polynucleotide by homologous recombination with an exogenous template polynucleotide, wherein said repair results in a mutation comprising an insertion, deletion, or substitution of one or more nucleotides of said target polynucleotide. In some embodiments, said mutation results in one or more amino acid changes in a protein expressed from a gene comprising the target sequence. In some embodiments, the method further comprises delivering one or more vectors to said eukaryotic cell, wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: the CRISPR enzyme, the guide sequence linked to the tracr mate sequence, and the tracr sequence. In some embodiments, said vectors are delivered to the eukaryotic cell in a subject. In some embodiments, said modifying takes place in said eukaryotic cell in a cell culture. In some embodiments, the method further comprises isolating said eukaryotic cell from a subject prior to said modifying. In some embodiments, the method further comprises returning said eukaryotic ceil and/or cells derived therefrom to said subject.

[0032] In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying expression of a polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell, in some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the polynucleotide such that said binding results in increased or decreased expression of said polynucleotide; wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRI SPR enzyme compiexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within said polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence; this includes the present split Cas9. In some embodiments, the method further comprises delivering one or more vectors to said eukaryotic cells, wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: the CRISPR enzyme, the guide sequence linked to the tracr mate sequence, and the tracr sequence.

[0033] In one aspect, the invention provides a method of generating a model eukaryotic cell comprising a mutated disease gene. In some embodiments, a disease gene is any gene associated an increase in the risk of having or developing a disease. In some embodiments, the method comprises (a) introducing one or more vectors into a eukaryotic cell, wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: a CRI SPR enzyme, a guide sequence linked to a tracr mate sequence, and a tracr sequence; and (b) allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to a target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of the target polynucleotide within said disease gene, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme compiexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence within the target polynucleotide, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence, thereby generating a model eukaryotic cell comprising a mutated disease gene; this includes the present split Cas9. In some embodiments, said cleavage comprises cleaving one or two strands at the location of the target sequence by said CRISPR enzyme. In some embodiments, said cleavage results in decreased transcription of a target gene. In some embodiments, the method further comprises repairing said cleaved target polynucleotide by homologous recombination with an exogenous template polynucleotide, wherein said repair results in a mutation comprising an insertion, deletion, or substitution of one or more nucleotides of said target polynucleotide. In some embodiments, said mutation results in one or more amino acid changes in a protein expression from a gene comprising the target sequence.

[0034] in one aspect, the invention provides a method for developing a biologically active agent that modulates a ceil signaling event associated with a disease gene. In some embodiments, a disease gene is any gene associated an increase in the risk of having or developing a disease. In some embodiments, the method comprises (a) contacting a test compound with a model cell of any one of the described embodiments; and (b) detecting a change in a readout that is indicative of a reduction or an augmentation of a cell signaling event associated with said mutation in said disease gene, thereby developing said biologically active agent that modulates said cell signaling event associated with said disease gene.

[0Θ35] In one aspect, the invention provides a recombinant polynucleotide comprising a guide sequence upstream of a tracr mate sequence, wherein the guide sequence when expressed directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a corresponding target sequence present in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the target sequence is a viral sequence present in a eukaiyotic cell. In some embodiments, the target sequence is a proto-oncogene or an oncogene.

[0036] in one aspect the invention provides for a method of selecting one or more cell(s) by introducing one or more mutations in a gene in the one or more ceil (s), the method comprising: introducing one or more vectors into the cell (s), wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: a CRISPR enzyme, a guide sequence linked to a tracr mate sequence, a tracr sequence, and an editing template; wherein the editing template comprises the one or more mutations that abolish CRISPR enzyme cleavage; allowing homologous recombination of the editing template with the target polynucleotide in the cell(s) to be selected; allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to a target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of the target polynucleotide within said gene, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complex ed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence within the target polynucleotide, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence, wherein binding of the CRISPR complex to the target polynucleotide induces cell death, thereby allowing one or more cell(s) in which one or more mutations have been introduced to be selected; this includes the present split Cas9. In a preferred embodiment, the CRISPR enzyme is Cas9. In another preferred embodiment of the invention the cell to be selected may be a eukaryotic cell. Aspects of the invention allow for selection of specific cells without requiring a selection marker or a two-step process that may include a counter-selection system.

[0037] Herein there is the phrase "this includes the present split Cas9" or similar text; and, this is to indicate that a or the CRISPR enzyme or Cas9 in embodiments herein can be a split Cas9 as herein discussed.

[0038] A "binding site" or an "active site" comprises or consists essentially of a site (such as an atom, a functional group of an amino acid residue or a plurality of such atoms and/or groups) in a binding cavity or region, which may bind to a compound such as a nucleic acid molecule, which is/are involved in binding.

[0039] The structural information of the CRISPR enzyme crystal in herein cited materials allows for interrogation of CRISPR enzyme (e.g. Cas9) interaction with the sgRNA (or chimeric R A) and the target DNA permitting engineering or alteration or generation of modular or multi-part components of the CRISPR enzyme to arrive at new functionality or to optimize functionality of the entire CRISPR-Cas system. Modular or multi-part CRISPR enzymes also allow for the generation of inducible CRISPR-Cas systems that may be further optimized. Aspects of inducible CRISPR-Cas systems as described in PCX Application PCT/US2013/051418, entitled "INDUCIBLE DNA BINDING PROTEINS AND GENOME PERTURBATION TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS THEREOF" filed on July 21 , 2013 and published as PCT Publication WO201401 8423 A2 on January 30, 2014, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0040] In an aspect the invention involves a non-naturally occurring or engineered inducible CRISPR-Cas system, comprising a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible heterodimer and a second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a second half of the inducible heterodimer, wherein the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operably linked to one or more nuclear localization signals, wherein the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operably linked to a nuclear export signal, wherein contact with an inducer energy source brings the first and second halves of the inducible heterodimer together, wherein bringing the first and second halves of the inducible heterodimer together allows the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs to constitute a functional CRISPR-Cas system, wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a guide RNA (sgRNA) comprising a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in a genomic locus of interest in a cell, and wherein the functional CRISPR-Cas system edits the genomic locus to alter gene expression. In an embodiment of the invention the first half of the inducible heterodimer is FKBP12 and the second half of the inducible heterodimer is FRB. In another embodiment of the invention the inducer energy source is rapamycin. In a preferred embodiment of the invention the CRISPR enzyme is Cas9, e.g. Sp Cas9.

[0041] Accordingly, it is an object of the invention not to encompass within the invention any previously known product, process of making the product, or method of using the product such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously known product, process, or method. It is further noted that the invention does not intend to encompass within the scope of the invention any product, process, or making of the product or method of using the product, which does not meet the written description and enablement requirements of the USPTO (35 U.S.C. § 1 12, first paragraph) or the EPO (Article 83 of the EPC), such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously described product, process of making the product, or method of using the product.

[0042] It is noted that in this disclosure and particularly in the claims and/or paragraphs, terms such as "comprises", "comprised", "comprising" and the like can have the meaning attributed to it in U.S. Patent law; e.g., they can mean "includes", "included", "including", and the like; and that terms such as "consisting essentially of and "consists essentially of have the meaning ascribed to them in U.S. Patent law, e.g., they allow for elements not explicitly recited, but exclude elements that are found in the prior art or that affect a basic or novel characteristic of the invention. It may be advantageous in the practice of the invention to be in compliance with Art. 53(c) EPC and Rule 28(b) and (c) EPC. Nothing herein is to be construed as a promise.

[0043] These and other embodiments are disclosed or are obvious from and encompassed by, the following Detailed Description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0Θ44] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

[0045] Figure 1A-D shows the generation of SpCas9~FRBP12 and SpCas9~FRB fusion proteins. (A) Cartoon depicting 1 1 locations (blue triangles) where SpCas9 will be split and fused to FKBP12 (C-terminal fragment) or FRB (N-terminal). (B) Structure of FKBP12 and FRP. Fusion sites are indicated with a yellow circle. (C) Representative illustration of SpCas9 fusion proteins generated from location #12. (D) Table summarizing exact location of the 11 FKBP12/FRB fusions. First number in Fusion side column refers to the amino acid where F BP12 will be fused to the corresponding SpCas9 fragment. The second number refers to the amino acid where FRB will be fused to the corresponding SpCas9 fragment.

[0046] Figure 2A-B shows (A) Cartoon for PX330 and pTB005 plasmids. Representative primer binding sites for generation of SpCas9-FKBP ful5 and SpCas9-FRB ful5 are shown, (B) Cartoon of final SpCas9-F PB ful5 plasmid and intermediate SpCas9-FRP ful 5 plasmid. Final version of SpCas9-FRB constructs have a NES on N-term.

[0047] Figure 3A-C shows the table of PGR primers into which were incorporated Sequences for NLS, 15 amino acid linkers and 20 bp Gibson homology sides.

[0048] Figure 4A-C shows a table of primers into which NLS free FRB-Cas9 fusion pieces that were generated are incorporated.

[0049] Figure 5A-C shows Rapamycin treatment induces assembly of SpCas9- FRB/FKBP12 fusion proteins and results in indel formation at the ΕΜΧΪ gene locus. (A) Cartoon of SpCas9 fusion pieces. The FPB piece contains a nuclear export sequence (NES) on the N-term. The FKBP piece is flanked by nuclear localization sequences (NLSs). (B) Representative SURVEYOR gels showing indel formation mediated by rapamycin induced split Cas9 (top) and uninduced split Cas9 (bottom). (C) Quantification of indel formation mediated by induced (blue) vs. uninduced (orange) split Cas9.

[0050] Figure 6A-G shows generation and optimization of inducible spiit-Cas9. (a) Ribbon representation of Cas9. Triangles indicate split sites for split-4 (green) and split-5 (red) (b) Diagram of inducible split Cas9 fusions. N- and C-term pieces of human codon-optimized S .pyogenes Cas9 are fused to FRB and FKBP dirnerization domains, respectively, (c and d) Strategy for optimizing the split Cas9 system. In the absence of rapamycin (c), the Cas9(N)- FRB-NES piece is sequestered in the cytoplasm due to the addition of an NFS from human PT 2. The Cas9(C)-F BP piece contains two NLSs and is actively imported into the nucleus. In the presence of rapamycin (d), Cas9(N)-FRB-NES binds to Cas9(C)-FKBP. NLSs of the resulting reassembled Cas9 mediate nuclear importation and subsequent binding to the targeted locus, (e) Representative SURVEYOR assay for split-4 and -5 mediated indels at the human EMXl locus, with (left) and without (right) rapamycin. Arrowheads indicate expected SURVEYOR fragments. Nd = not detected (f) Schematic of le ti viral split Cas9 plasmid containing U6 promoter-driven sgRNA, EPS promoter-driven split Cas9 pieces and puromycin resistance gene (puro). 2A self-cleaving peptides (P2A) separate both split Cas9 pieces and puro. (g) Indei frequencies measured by deep sequencing at the EMXl locus and four annotated OT. Indels were measured 4 weeks (wt-Cas9; n=2 biological replicates) or 6 weeks (split Cas9; n=3 biological replicates) after transduction (****p<0.0001). Rapamycin treatments lasted 12 days. Mean ± s.e.m. in all panels.

[0051] Figure 7A-C shows inducible transcriptional activation using split dCas9-VP64 fusions, (a) Schematic of s dCas9(N)-FRB~2xNES and dCas9(C)-FKBP-2xNLS-VP64 fusions used for transcriptional activation. Each piece harbors an annotated point mutation (D10A or N863A), which reconstitutes a dead Cas9 upon rapamycin-induced assembly. A VP64 transcriptional activator domain is fused to the C-term end of the dCas9(C)-FKBP-2xNLS-VP64 piece, (b) ASCL1, MYODI and IL1RN gene expression measured by qPCR in HEK293FT cells transfected with split-4 (Split) and four sgRNAs per gene. Expression was measured in cells with and without rapamycin (n=4 biological replicates), compared to full-length dead Cas9-VP64 (full-length) (n=3 technical replicates). Untransfected cells were used as baseline, (c) ASCL1 expression in HEK293FT and Neurog2 expression in N2A cells measured by qPC 2, 6, 12, 24 and 72 hours after rapamycin treatment (n^:::3 biological replicates for each time point). Cells were treated continually with rapamycin (dark blue circles), only treated for 2 hours ( light blue squares) or untreated (orange triangles). Untransfected cell were used as baseline. Mean ± s.e.m. in all panels. [0052] Figure 8A-G shows Cas9 can be split and Cas9-FRB/FKBP fusion proteins exhibit rapamycin-inducible reassembly, (a) Schematic of Cas9 primary structure with locations of 1 1 splits indicated by red and green arrows. Red arrows signify splits in loop region; green arrows signify splits in unstructured regions. Position of terminal amino acid (aa) in N-terminus. Cas9 split is indicated under split #. BH=bri.dge helix, PI=PAM interacting domain, (b) Diagram of inducible split Cas9 strategy. N- and C-term pieces of human codon-optimized S.pyogeiies Cas9 are fused to FRB and FKBP dimerization domains, respectively. Cas9-FRB/FKBP pieces are separate and inactive until rapamycin-induced dimerization of FRB and FKBP results in reassembly of a functional full-length Cas9 nuclease, (c) Representative SURVEY R assay for split Cas9-mediated indels at the human EMX1 locus for all 11 Cas9 splits, with (top) and without (bottom) rapamycin induction. Arrowheads indicate expected SURVEYOR, fragments, (d) Quantification of (c). Error bars reflect SEM from five technical replicates of two separate biological replicates, (e) Diagram of strategy to test for auto-assembly of N- and C-term Cas9 pieces lacking dimerization domains, (f) Representative SURVEYOR assay for auto-assembly split-4 to -6 and -11 mediated indels at the human EMX1 locus, (g) Quantification of (f). Error bars reflect SEM from three technical replicates of two biological replicates performed.

[0053] Figure 9A-B shows a single vector contract comprising the Split Cas9 (A). The Split Cas9s showed indel formation similar to wild type in the presence of rapamycin, but markedly lower indel formation than the wildtype in the absence of rapamycin (B).

[0054] The figures herein are for illustrative purposes only and are not necessarily drawn to scale.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0055] With respect to general information on CRISPR-Cas Systems, components thereof, and delivery of such components, including methods, materials, delivery vehicles, vectors, particles, AAV, and making and using thereof, including as to amounts and formulations, all useful in the practice of the instant invention, reference is made to: US Patents Nos. 8,697,359, 8,771,945, 8,795,965, 8,865,406, 8,871 ,445, 8,889,356, 8,889,418 and 8,895,308; US Patent Publications US 2014-0310830 (US APP. Ser. No. 14/105,031), US 2014-0287938 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/213,991 ), US 2014-0273234 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/293,674), US2014- 0273232 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/290,575), US 2014-0273231 (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/259,420), US 2014-0256046 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/226,274), US 2014-0248702 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/258,458), US 2014-0242700 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/222,930), US 2014-0242699 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/183,512), US 2014-0242664 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/104,990), US 2014-0234972 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/183,471), US 2014-0227787 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/256,912), US 2014-0189896 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/105,035), US 2014-0186958 (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/105,017), US 2014-0186919 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/104,977), US 2014-0186843 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/104,900), US 2014-0179770 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/104,837) and US 2014-0179006 Al (U.S. App. Ser. No. 14/183,486), US 2014-0170753 (US App Ser No 14/183,429); European Patent Applications EP 2 771 468 (EP13818570.7), EP 2 764 103 (EP13824232.6), and EP 2 784 162 (EP14170383.5); and PCT Patent Publications WO 2014/093661 (PCT/US2013/074743), WO 2014/093694 (PCT/US2013/074790), WO 2014/093595 (PO7US2013/074611), WO 2014/093718 (PCT/US2013/074825), WO 2014/093709 (PCT/US2013/074812), WO 2014/093622 (PCT/US2013/074667), WO 2014/093635 (PCT/US2013/074691), WO 2014/093655 (PCT/US2013/074736), WO 2014/093712 (PCT/US2013/074819), WO2014/093701 (PCT/US2013/074800), and WO2014/018423 (PCT/US2013/051418). Reference is also made to US provisional patent applications 61/758,468; 61 /802,174; 61/806,375; 61/814,263; 61/819,803 and 61/828,130, filed on January 30, 2013; March 15, 2013; March 28, 2013; April 20, 2013; May 6, 2013 and May 28, 2013 respectively. Reference is also made to US provisional patent application 61/836,123, filed on June 17, 2013. Reference is additionally made to US provisional patent applications 61/835,931 , 61/835,936, 61/836,127, 61/836, 101, 61/836,080 and 61 /835,973, each filed June 17, 2013. Further reference is made to US provisional patent applications 61/862,468 and 61/862,355 filed on August 5, 2013; 61/871,301 filed on August 28, 2013; 61/960,777 filed on September 25, 2013 and 61 /961,980 filed on October 28, 2013. Reference is yet further made to: PCT Patent applications Nos: PCT/US2014/041803, PCT/US2014/041800, PCT/US2014/041809, PCT/US2014/041804 and PCT/US2014/041806, each filed June 10, 2014 6/10/14; PCT/US2014/041808 filed June 11, 2014; and PCT/US2014/62558 filed October 28, 2014, and US Provisional Patent Applications Serial Nos.: 61/915, 150, 61/915,301, 61/915,267 and 61/915,260, each filed December 12, 2013; 61/757,972 and 61/768,959, filed on January 29, 2013 and February 25, 2013; 61/835,936, 61/836,127, 61 /836,101 , 61 /836,080, 61/835,973, and 61/835,931 , filed June 17, 2013; 62/010,888 and 62/010,879, both filed June 11, 2014; 62/010,329 and 62/010,441, each filed June 10, 2014; and 62/939,256 and 61/939,242, each filed February 12, 2014; 61/980,012, filed April 15,2014; 62/038,358, filed August 17, 2014; 62/054,490, 62/055,484, 62/055,460 and 62/055,487, each filed September 25, 2014; and 62/069,243, filed October 27, 2014. Reference is also made to US provisional patent applications Nos. 62/055,484, 62/055,460, and 62/055,487, filed September 25, 2014; US provisional patent application 61/980,012, filed April 15, 2014; and US provisional patent application 61/939,242 filed February 12, 2014. Reference is made to PCT application designating, inter alia, the United States, application No. PCT/US 14/41806, filed June 10, 2014. Reference is made to US provisional patent application 61/930,214 filed on January 22, 2014. Reference is made to US provisional patent applications 61/915,251 ; 61/915,260 and 61/915,267, each filed on December 12, 2013. Reference is made to US provisional patent application USSN 61/980,012 filed April 15, 2014. Reference is made to PCT application designating, inter alia, the United States, application No. PCT/US 14/41806, filed June 10, 2014. Reference is made to US provisional patent application 61/930,214 filed on January 22, 2014, Reference is made to US provisional patent applications 61/915,251 ; 61/915,260 and 61/915,267, each filed on December 12, 2013. Reference is made to US provisional patent application 61 /930,214 filed on Januar 22, 2014. Reference is made to US provisional patent applications 61/915,251; 61/915,260 and 61/915,267, each filed on December 12, 2013. Reference is made to US provisional patent application 61/930,214 filed on January 22, 2014. Reference is made to US provisional patent applications 61/915,251; 61/915,260 and 61/915,267, each filed on December 12, 2013. Reference is made to US provisional patent applications 61/736,527, 61/748,427, 61/791,409 and 61 /835,931, all entitled SYSTEMS METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR SEQUENCE MANIPULATION filed on December 12, 2012, Januar 2, 2013, March 15, 2013 and June 17, 2013, respectively. Reference is also made to US provisional applications 61/757,972 and 61/768,959, entitled SYSTEMS METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR SEQUENCE MANIPULATION filed on January 29, 2013 and February 25, 2013, respectively. Reference is also made to US provisional patent applications 61/835,936, 61/836,127, 61/836,101, 61/836,080 and 61/835,973 each filed June 17, 2013. Each of these patents, patent publications, and applications, and ail documents cited therein or during their prosecution ("appln cited documents") and all documents cited or referenced in the appln cited documents, together with any instructions, descriptions, product specifications, and product sheets for any products mentioned therein or in any document therein and incorporated by reference herein, are hereby incorporated herein by reference, and may be employed in the practice of the invention. All. documents (e.g., these patents, patent publications and applications and the appln cited documents) are incorporated herein by reference to the same extent as if each, individual document was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

[0Θ56] Also with respect to general information on CRISPR-Cas Systems, mention is made of the fol lowing (also hereby incorporated herein by reference):

> Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas systems. Cong, L., Ran, F.A., Cox, D., Lin, S,, Barrett©, R., Habib, N., Hsu, P.D., Wu, X., Jiang, W., Marraffini, L.A., & Zhang, F. Science Feb 15;339(6121):819-23 (2013);

> RNA-guided editing of bacterial genomes using CRISPR-Cas systems. Jiang W., Bikard D., Cox D., Zhang F, Marraffini LA. Nat Biotechnol Mar;31(3):233-9 (2013);

> One-Step Generation of Mice Carrying Mutations in Multiple Genes by CRISPR/Cas- Mediated Genome Engineering. Wang H., Yang FL, Shivali!a CS., Dawlaty MM., Cheng AW., Zhang F., Jaenisch R. Cell May 9;153(4):910-8 (2013);

Optical control of mammalian endogenous transcription and epigenetic states. onermann S, Brigham MD, Trevino AE, Hsu PD, Heidenreieh M, Cong L, Piatt RJ, Scott DA, Church CM, Zhang F. Nature. 2013 Aug 22;500(7463):472-6. doi: 10.1038/Naturel2466. Epub 2013 Aug 23;

> Double Nicking by RNA-Guided CRISPR Cas9 for Enhanced Genome Editing Specificity.

Ran, FA., Hsu, PD., Lin, CY., Gootenberg, JS., Konermann, S., Trevino, AE., Scott, DA,, Inoue, A., Matoba, S,, Zhang, Y., & Zhang, F. Cell Aug 28. pii: 80092-8674(13)01015-5.

(2013;,·

> DNA targeting specificity of RNA-guided Cas9 nucleases. Hsu, P., Scott, D., Weinsteiii, J., Ran, FA., onermarm, S., Agarwala, V., Li, Y., Fine, E., Wu, X., Shalem, O., Cradick, TJ., Marraffini, LA., Bao, G., & Zhang, F. Nat Biotechnol doi: 10.1038/nbt.2647 (2013); Genome engineering using the CRISPR-Cas9 system. Ran, FA., Hsu, PD., Wright, J., Agarwala, V., Scott, DA., Zhang, F. Nature Protocols Nov;8(l 1):2281-308. (2013);

> Genome-Scale CRISPR-Cas9 Knockout Screening in Human Cells. Shalem, O., Sanjana, NE., Hartenian, E., Shi, X., Scott, DA., Mikkelson, T., Heckl, D., Ebert, BL., Root, DE., Doench, JG., Zhang, F. Science Dec 12, (2013). [Epub ahead of print]; Crystal structure of cas9 in complex with guide RNA and target DNA. Nishimasu, FL, Ran, FA,, Hsu, PD., Konerrnann, S., Shehata, SI,, Dohmae, ,, Ishitatii, R., Zhang, F., Nureki, O. Cell Feb 27. (2014). 156(5):935-49;

Genome-wide binding of the CRISP R endonuclease Cas9 in mammalian cells. Wu X., Scott DA., Kriz AJ., Chiu AC, Hsu PD., Dadon DB., Cheng AW., Trevino AE., Konemiami S., Chen S., Jaenisch R., Zhang F., Sharp PA. Nat Biotechnol. (2014) Apr 20. doi: 10.1038/nbt.2889,

> CRISPR-Cas9 Knockin Mice for Genome Editing and Cancer Modeling, Piatt et al., Cell 159(2): 440-455 (2014) DOI: 10 1016 j.ce!! 2014 09 014.

> Development and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for Genome Engineering, Hsu et al, Cell 157, 1262-1278 (June 5, 2014) (Hsu 2014),

> Genetic screens in human cells using the CRISPR/Cas9 system, Wang et al, Science.

2014 January 3; 343(6166): 80-84, doi: 10.1126/science.1246981,

> Rational design of highly active sgRNAs for CR1SPR-Cas9 -mediated gene inactivation, Doeiich et al., Nature Biotechnology published online 3 September 2014; doi: 10.1038/nbt.3026, and

> In vivo interrogation of gene function i the mammalian brain using CRISPR-Cas9, Svviech et ai, Nature Biotechnology ; published online 19 October 2014; doi: 10.1038/nbt.3055.

each of which is incorporated herein by reference, and discussed briefly below:

Cong et al. engineered type II CRISPR/Cas systems for use in eukaryoiic cells based on both Streptococcus thermophilus Cas9 and also Streptoccocus pyogenes Cas9 and demonstrated that Cas9 nucleases can be directed by short RNAs to induce precise cleavage of DNA in human and mouse cells. Their study further showed that Cas9 as converted into a nicking enzyme can be used to facilitate bornoiogy-directed repair in eukaryoiic cells with minimal mutagenic activity. Additionally, their study demonstrated that multiple guide sequences can be encoded into a single CRISPR array to enable simultaneous editing of several at endogenous genomic loci sites within the mammalian genome, demonsttating easy programmability and wide applicability of the RNA --guided nuclease technology. This ability to use RNA to program sequence specific DNA cleavage in cells defined a new class of genome engineering tools. These studies further showed that other CRISPR loci are likely to he transplantable into mammalian cells and can also mediate mammalian genome cleavage. Importantly, it can be envisaged that several aspects of the CRISPR/Cas system can be further improved to increase its efficiency and versatility.

Jiang et al. used the clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated Cas9 endonuclease complexed with dual-RNAs to introduce precise mutations in the genomes of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Escherichia coll The approach relied on dual-RNA:Cas9-directed cleavage at the targeted genomic site to kill unmutated cells and circumvents the need for selectable markers or counter-selection systems. The study reported reprogramming dual-RNA:Cas9 specificity by changing the sequence of short CRISPR RNA (crRNA) to make single- and multinucleotide changes carried on editing templates. The study showed that simultaneous use of two crRNAs enabled multiplex mutagenesis. Furthermore, when the approach was used in combination with recombmeering, in S. pneumoniae, nearly 100% of cells that were recovered using the described approach contained the desired mutation, and in E. coii, 65% that were recovered contained the mutation.

> Konermann et al. addressed the need in the art for versatile and robust technologies that enable optical and chemical modulation of DNA-binding domains based CRISPR Cas9 enzyme and also Transcriptional Activator Like Effectors

> Cas9 nuclease from the microbial CRISP R-Cas system is targeted to specific genomic loci by a 20 nt guide sequence, which can tolerate certain mismatches to the DNA target and thereby promote imdesired off-target mutagenesis. To address this, Ran et al. described an approach that combined a Cas9 nickase mutant with paired guide RNAs to introduce targeted double-strand breaks. Because individual nicks in the genome are repaired with high fidelity, simultaneous nicking via appropriately offset guide RNAs is required for double-stranded breaks and extends the number of specifically recognized bases for target cleavage. The authors demonstrated that using paired nicking can reduce off-target activity by 50- to 1,500-fold in cell lines and to facilitate gene knockout in mouse zygotes without sacrificing on-target cleavage efficiency. This versatile strategy enables a wide variety of genome editing applications that require high specificity. Hsu et al. characterized SpCas9 targeting specificity in human cells to inform the selection of target sites and avoid off-target effects. The study evaluated >700 guide RNA variants and SpCas9-indueed indei mutation levels at >100 predicted genomic off-target loci in 293T and 293FT cells. The authors reported that SpCas9 tolerates mismatches between guide RNA and target D^'NA at different positions in a sequence-dependent manner, sensitive to the number, position and distribution of mismatches. The authors further showed that SpCas9-mediated cleavage is unaffected by D^'NA methyl ation and that the dosage of SpCas9 and sgRNA can be titrated to minimize off-target modification. Additionally, to facilitate mammalian genome engineering applications, the authors reported providing a web-based software tool to guide the selection and validation of target sequences as well, as off-target analyses,

Ran et al. described a set of tools for Cas9-mediated genome editing via non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homology-directed repair (HDR) in mammalian cells, as well as generation of modified cell lines for downstream functional studies. To minimize off- target cleavage, the authors further described a double-nicking strategy using the Cas9 nickase mutant with paired guide RNAs. The protocol provided by the authors experimentally derived guidelines for the selection of target sites, evaluation of cleavage efficiency and analysis of off-target activity. The studies showed that beginning with target design, gene modifications can be achieved within as little as 1-2 weeks, and modified clonal cell lines can be derived within 2-3 weeks,

Shalem et al, described a new way to interrogate gene function on a genome-wide scale. Their studies showed that deliveiy of a genome-scale CRISPR-Cas9 knockout (GeCKO) library targeted 18,080 genes with 64,75.1 unique guide sequences enabled both negative and positive selection screening in human cells. First, the authors showed use of the GeCKO library to identify genes essential for cell viability in cancer and piuri potent stem cells. Next, in a melanoma model, the authors screened for genes whose loss is involved in resistance to vemurafenib, a therapeutic that inhibits mutant protein kinase BRAF, Their studies showed that the highest-ranking candidates included previously validated genes NF1 and MED 12 as well as novel hits NF2, CUL3, TADA2B, and TADA1. The authors observed a high level of consistency between independent guide RNAs targeting the same gene and a high rate of hit confirmation, and thus demonstrated the promise of genome-scale screening with Cas9.

> Nishimasu et al. reported the crystal structure of Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 in complex with sgRNA and its target DNA at 2,5 A° resolution. The structure revealed a bilobed architecture composed of target recognition and nuclease lobes, accommodating the sgRNA:DNA heterodupiex in a positively charged groove at their interface. Whereas the recognition lobe is essential for binding sgRNA and DNA, the nuclease lobe contains the HNH and RuvC nuclease domains, which are properly positioned for cleavage of the complementary and non-complementary strands of the target DNA, respectively. The nuclease lobe also contains a carboxyl-terminal domain responsible for the interaction with the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM), This high-resolution structure and accompanying functional analyses have revealed the molecular mechanism of RNA- guided DNA targeting by Cas9, thus paving the way for the rational design of new, versatile genome-editing technologies.

Wu et al mapped genome-wide binding sites of a catalytically inactive Cas9 (dCas9) from Streptococcus pyogenes loaded with single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) in mouse embryonic stem ceils (mESCs). The authors showed that each of the four sgRNAs tested targets dCas9 to between tens and thousands of genomic sites, frequently characterized by a 5-nucleotide seed region in the sgRNA and an NGG protospacer adjacent motif (PAM). Chromatin inaccessibility decreases dCas9 binding to other sites with matching seed sequences; thus 70% of off-target sites are associated with genes. The authors showed that targeted sequencing of 295 dCas9 binding sites in mESCs transfected with catalytically active Cas9 identified only one site mutated above background levels. The authors proposed a two-state model for Cas9 binding and cleavage, in which a seed match triggers binding but extensive pairing with, target DNA is required for cleavage.

> Hsu 2014 is a review article that discusses generally CRJSPR-Cas9 history from yogurt to genome editing, including genetic screening of cells, that is in the information, data and findings of the applications in the lineage of this specification filed prior to June 5, 2014. The general teachings of Hsu 2014 do not involve the specific models, animals of the instant specification. Mention is also made of Tsai et al, "Dimeric CRISPR RNA-guided Fokl nucleases for highly specific genome editing," Nature Biotechnology 32(6): 569-77 (2014) which is not believed to be prior art to the instant invention or application, but which may be considered in the practice of the instant invention,

> And mention is made of U.S. provisional applications 61/915,251 filed December 12, 2013, 61/930,214 filed on January 22, 2014, 61/980,012 filed April 15, 2014; and Nishimasu et al, "Crystal Structure of Cas9 in Complex with Guide RNA and Target DNA," Ceil 156(5):935-949, DOI: htip:. /dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.02.001 (2014), each and all of which are incorporated herein by reference, especial ly as to being "herein cited materials" pertaining to the Cas9 crystal.

[0057] An inducer energy source may be considered to be simply an inducer or a dimerizing agent. The term 'inducer energy source' is used herein throughout for consistency. The inducer energy source (or inducer) acts to reconstitute the Cas9. In some embodiments, the inducer energy source brings the two parts of the Cas9 together through the action of the two halves of the inducible dimer. The two halves of the inducible dimer therefore are brought tougher in the presence of the inducer energy source. The two halves of the dimer will not form into the dimer (dimerize) without the inducer energy source.

[0058] Thus, the two halves of the inducible dimer cooperate with the inducer energy source to dimerize the dimer. This in turn reconstitutes the Cas9 by bringing the first and second parts of the Cas9 together.

[0059] The CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs each comprise one part of the split Cas9. These are fused, preferably via a linker such as a GlySer linker described herein, to one of the two halves of the dimer. The two halves of the dimer may be substantially the same two monomers that together that form the homodimer, or they may be different monomers that together form the heterodiraer. As such, the two monomers can be thought of as one half of th e full dimer.

[0060] The Cas9 is split in the sense that the two parts of the Cas9 enzyme substantially comprise a functioning Cas9. That Cas9 may function as a genome editing enzyme (when forming a complex with the target DNA and the guide), such as a nickase or a nuclease (cleaving both strands of the DNA), or it may be a deadCas9 which is essentially a DNA-binding protein with very little or no catalytic activity, due to typically two or more mutations in its catalytic domains (D10 combined with H840 or N863, and especially DIOA combmed with H840A or N863A are most preferable in Sp Cas9 and corresponding mutants will be appropriate for orthologs).

[0061 J The two parts of the split Cas9 can be thought of as the N' terminal part and the C terminal part of the split Cas9. The fusion is typically at the split point of the Cas9. In other words, the C terminal of the N' terminal part of the split Cas9 is fused to one of the dimer halves, whilst the 1ST terminal of the C terminal part is fused to the other dimer half.

[0062] The Cas9 does not have to be split in the sense that the break is newly created. The split point is typically designed in silico and cloned into the constructs. Together, the two parts of the split Cas9, the N' terminal and C terminal parts, form a full Cas9, comprising preferably at least 70% or more of the wildtype amino acids (or nucleotides encoding them), preferably at least 80% or more, preferably at least 90% or more, preferably at least 95% or more, and most preferably at least 99% or more of the wildtype amino acids (or nucleotides encoding them). Some trimming may be possible, and mutants are envisaged. Non-functional domains such as the Rec2 domain may be removed entirely. What is important is that the two parts may be brought together and that the desired Cas9 function is restored or reconstituted.

[0063] The dimer may be a homodimer or a heterodimer. Examples are provided herein.

[0064] One or more, preferably two, N LSs may be used in operable linkage to the first CRISPR enzyme constnict. One or more, preferably two, NESs may be used in operable linkage to the first CRISPR enzyme construct. The NLSs and/or the NESs preferably flank the split Cas9-dimer (i.e. half dimer) fusion, i.e. one NLS may be positioned at the N' terminal of the first CRISPR enzyme constnict and one NLS may be at the N' terminal of the first CRISPR enzyme construct. Similarly, one NES may be positioned at the N' terminal of the second CRISPR enzyme construct and one NES may be at the N' terminal of the second CRISPR enzyme construct. Where reference is made to N' or C terminals, it will be appreciated that these correspond to 5' ad 3' ends in the corresponding nucleotide sequence.

[0065] A preferred arrangement is that the first CRISPR enzyme construct is arranged 5'- NLS-(N' terminal Cas9 part)-linker-(first half of the dimer)-NLS-3'. A preferred arrangement is that the second CRISPR enzyme construct is arranged S'-NES— (second half of the dimer) -linker ~ (C terminal Cas9 part)-NES-3'. A suitable promoter is preferably upstream of each of thes constructs. The two constructs may be delivered separately or together. [0066] In some embodiments, one or all of the NES(s) in operable linkage to the second CRISPR enzyme construct may be swapped out for an NLS. However, this is typically not preferred and, in other embodiments, the localization signal in operable linkage to the second CRISPR. enzyme construct is one or more NES(s).

[0067] It will also be appreciated that the NES may be operably linked to the N' terminal fragment of the split Cas9 and that the NLS may be operably linked to the C terminal fragment of the split Cas9. However, the arrangement where the NLS is operabby linked to the W terminal fragment of the split Cas9 and that the NES is operably linked to the C terminal fragment of the split Cas9 is preferred.

[0068] The NES functions to localize the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct outside of the nucleus, at least until the inducer energy source is provided (e.g., at least until an an energy- source is provided to the inducer to perform its function). The presence of the inducer stimulates dimerization of the two CRISPR enzyme fusions within the cytoplasm and makes it thermodynamically worthwhile for the dimerized, first and second, CRISPR enzyme fusions to localize to the nucleus. Without being bound by theory, Applicants believe that the NES sequesters the second CRIS R enzyme to the cytoplasm (i.e. outside of the nucleus). The NLS on the first CRISPR enzyme localizes it to the nucleus. In both cases, Applicants use the NES or NLS to shift an equilibrium (the equilibrium of nuclear transport) to a desired direction. The dimerization typically occurs outside of the nucleus (a very small fraction might happen in the nucleus) and the NLSs on the dimerized complex shift the equilibrium of nuclear transport to nuclear localization, so the dimerized and hence reconstituted Cas9 enters the nucleus. A schematic showing ths is provided in Figure 6C and D.

[0069] Beneficially, Applicants have been able to reconstitute function in the split Cas9. Transient transfection was used to prove the concept and dimerization occurred in the background in the presence of the inducer energy source. No activity was seen with separate fragments of the CRISPR enzyme. Stable expression through lenti viral delivery was then used to develop this and show that a split Cas9 approach can be used.

[0070] This present split Cas9 approach is beneficial as it allows the Cas9 activity to be inducible, thus allowing for temporal control. Furthermore, different localization sequences may^¬ be used (i.e. the NES and NLS as preferred) to reduce background activity from auto-assembled complexes. Tissue specific promoters, for example one for each of the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs, may also be used for tissue-specific targeting, thus providing spatial control. Two different tissue specific promoters may be used to exert a finer degree of control if required. The same approach may be used in respect of stage-specific promoters or there may a mixture of stage and tissue specific promoters, where one of the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs is under the control o (i.e. operably linked to or comprises) a tissue- specific promoter, whilst the other of the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs is under the control of (i.e. operably linked to or comprises) a stage-specific promoter.

[0Θ71] The inducible CRISPR-Cas system comprises one or more nuclear localization sequences (NLSs), as described herein, for example as operably linked to the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct. These nuclear localization sequences are ideally of sufficient strength to drive accumulation of said first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct in a detectable amount in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that a nuclear localization sequence is not necessary for CRISPR complex activity in eukaryotes, but that including such sequences enhances activity of the system, especially as to targeting nucleic acid molecules in the nucleus, and assists with the operation of the present 2-part system.

[0072] Equally, the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operably linked to a nuclear export sequence (NES). Indeed, it may be linked to one or more nuclear export sequences. In other words, the number of export sequences used with the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is preferably 1 or 2 or 3. Typically 2 is preferred, but 1 is enough and so is preferred in some embodiments. Suitable examples of NLS and NES are known in the art. Preferred examples are those used in the Examples herein. For example, a preferred nuclear export signal (NES) is human protein tyrosin kinase 2; and (NLS). Preferred signals will be species specific.

[0073] Where the FRB and F BP system are used, the FKBP is preferably flanked by nuclear localization sequences (NLSs). Where the FRB and FKBP system are used, the preferred arrangement is N' terminal Cas9 - FRB - NES : C terminal Cas9-F BP-NLS. Thus, the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct would comprise the C'terminal Cas9 part and the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct would comprise the N' terminal Cas9 part.

[0074] Another beneficial aspect to the present invention is that it may be turned on quickly, i.e. that is has a rapid response. It is believed, without being bound by theory, that Cas9 activity can be induced through dimerization of existing (already present) fusion constructs (through contact with the inducer energy source) more rapidly than through the expression (especially translation) of new fusion constructs. As such, the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs may be expressed in the target cell ahead of time, i.e. before Cas9 activity is required. Cas9 activity can then be temporally controlled and then quickly constituted through addition of the inducer energy source, which ideally acts more quickly (to dimerize the heterodimer and thereby provide Cas9 activity) than through expression (including induction of transcription) of Cas9 delivered by a vector, for example.

[0075] The terms Cas9 and CRISPR enzyme are used interchangeably herein unless otherwise apparent. However, the CRISPR enzyme is preferably a Cas9 and mostly preferably Sp (S. pyogenes) Cas9 or its variants or derivatives.

[0076] In Example 2 Applicants demonstrate that Cas9 can be split into two components, which reconstitute a functional nuclease when brought back together. Employing rapamycin sensitive dimerization domains. Applicants generated a chemically inducible Cas9 for temporal control of Cas9-mediated genome editing and transcription modulation. Put another way, we've demonstrated that Cas9 can be rendered chemical!)' inducible by being split into two fragments and that rapamycin-sensitive dimerization domains may be used for controlled reassembly of the Cas9. Applicants show that the re-assembled Cas9 may be used to mediate genome editing (through nuclease/nickase activity) as well as transcription modulation (as a DNA -binding domain, the so-called "dead Cas9").

[0077] As such, the use of rapamycin-sensitive dimerization domains is preferred. Reassembly of the Cas9 is preferred. R eassembly can be determined by restoration of binding activity. Where the Cas9 is a nickase or induces a double-strand break, suitable comparison percentages compared to a wildtype are described herein.

[0078] Rapamycin treatments lasted 12 days. This was dosed at 20GnM. This temporal and/or molar dosage is an example of an appropriate dose for Human embryonic kidney 293FT (HEK293FT) cell lines and this may also be used in other cell lines. This figure can be extrapolated out for therapeutic use in vivo into, for example, mg/kg. However, it is also envisaged that the standard dosage for administering rapamycin to a subject is used here as well. By the "standard dosage", it is meant the dosage under rapamycin' s normal therapeutic use or primary indication (i.e. the dose used when rapamycin is administered for use to prevent organ rejection). [0079] Figure 8 provides a schematic of a Cas9 primary structure with preferred examples of the locations of 11 splits indicated by red and green arrows. Red arrows (numbers 1 -4 and 10) signify splits in loop region, whereas green arrows (numbers 5-9 and 11) signify splits in unstructured regions. The splits looked at are discussed below.

[0080] it is noteworthy that the preferred arrangement of Cas9-FRB/FKBP pieces are separate and inactive until rapamycin-induced dimerization of FRB and FKBP results in reassembly of a functional full-length Cas9 nuclease. Thus, it is preferred that first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible heterodimer is delivered separately and/or is localized separately from the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible heterodimer.

[0081] To sequester the Cas9(N)-FRB fragment in the cytoplasm, where it is less likely to dimerize with the nuclear-localized Cas9(C)-FKBP fragment, it is preferable to use on Cas9(N)- FRB a single nuclear export sequence (NFS) from the human protein tyrosin kinase 2 (Cas9(N)- FRB-NES). In the presence of ra amycin, Cas9(N)-FRB-NES dimerizes with Cas9(C)-F BP- 2xNLS to reconstitute a complete Cas9 protein, which shifts the balance of nuclear trafficking toward nuclear import and allows D A targeting (Fig. 6C-D).

[0082] High dosage of Cas9 can exacerbate indel frequencies at off-target (OT) sequences which exhibit few mismatches to the guide strand. Such sequences are especially susceptible, if mismatches are non-consecutive and/or outside of the seed region of the guide. Accordingly, temporal control of Cas9 activity could be used to reduce dosage in long-term expression experiments and therefore result in reduced off-target indels compared to constitutively active Cas9.

[0083] Viral delivery is preferred. In particular, a lentiviral or AAV delivery vector is envisaged. Applicants generated a split-Cas9 ientivirus construct, similar to the lentiCRISPR plasmid. The split pieces should be small enough to fit the ~4.7kb size limitation of AAV.

[0084] Applicants' data demonstrate that stable, low copy expression of split Cas9 can be used to induce substantial indels at a targeted locus without significant mutation at off-target sites. Applicants cloned Cas9 fragments (2 parts based on split 5, described herein).

[0085] A dead Cas9 may also be sued. This deadCas9 harbored a D10A point mutation in the FRB fusion (dCas9(N)-FRB-2xNES) and a N863A point mutation in the FKBP fusion and had added a VP64 transactivation domain to Cas9(C)-FKBP-2xNLS (dCas9(C)-FKBP-2xNLS- VP64) (Fig. 7A). These fragments reconstituted a catalytically inactive Cas9-VP64 fusion (dCas9-VP64). Transcriptional activation was induced by VP64 in the presence of rapamycin to induce the dimerization of the Cas9(C)-F BP fusion and the Cas9(N)-FRB fusion. In other words, Applicants tested the inducibility of split dCas9-VP64 and showed that transcriptional activation was induced by split dCas9~VP64 in the presence of rapamycin. As such, the present inducible Cas9 may be associated with one or more functional domain, such as a transcriptional activator or repressor or a nuclease (such as Fold ). A functional domain may be bound to or fused with one part of the split Cas9.

[0086] A preferred arrangement is that the first CRISPR. enzyme construct is arranged 5 '- First Localization Signal-(N' termmal Cas9 part)-linker-(first half of the dimer)-First Localization Signal-3' and the second CRISPR enzyme construct is arranged 5'- Second Localization Signal— (second half of the dimer)-linker-(C' termmal Cas9 part)-Second Localization Signal-Functional Domain-3'. Here, a functional domain is placed at the 3' end of the second CRISPR enzyme construct. Alternatively, a functional domain may be palced at the 5' end of the first CRISPR enzyme construct. One or more functional domains may be used at the 3' end or the 5' end or at both ends. A suitable promoter is preferably upstream of each of thes constructs. The two constructs may be delivered separately or together. The Localization Signals may be an NLS or an NES, so long as they are not inter-mixed on each construct.

[0087] In an aspect the invention provides an inducible CRISPR-Cas system wherein the Cas9 (CRISPR enzyme) has a diminished nuclease activity of at least 97%, or 100% as compared with the CRISPR enzyme not having the at least one mutation. In an aspect the invention provides any aforementioned system wherein the CRISPR enzyme comprises two or more mutations wherein two or more of DI G, E762, H840, 854, N863, or D986 according to SpCas9 protein or any corresponding ortholog or N580 according to SaCas9 protein are mutated, or the CRISPR enzyme comprises at least one mutation wherein at least FJ840 is mutated. In an aspect the invention provides a herein-mentioned system wherein the CRISPR enzyme comprises two or more mutations comprising DIOA, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A or D986A according to SpCas9 protein or any corresponding ortholog, or N580A according to SaCas9 protein, or at least one mutation comprising H840A. In an aspect the invention provides any herein-mentioned system wherein the CRISPR enzyme comprises H840A, or DIOA and H840A, or DIOA and N863A, according to SpCas9 protein or any corresponding ortholog. In an aspect the invention provides any herein-mentioned system wherein the CRISPR enzyme comprises: N580A according to SaCas9 protein or any corresponding ortholog; or D10A according to SpCas9 protein, or any corresponding ortholog, and N580A according to SaCas9 protein.

[0088] Acordingly, it is also preferred that the Cas9 is a dead Cas9. Ideally, the split should always be so that the catalytic domains are unaffected. For the deadCas9 the intention is that DNA binding occurs, but not cleavage or nickase activity is shown.

[0089] in an aspect the invention provides an inducible CRISPR-Cas system as herein discussed wherein one or more functional domains is associated with the Cas9. This functional domain may be associated with (i.e. bound to or fused with) one part of the split Cas9 or both. There may be one associated with each of the two parts of the split Cas9. These may therefore be typically provided as part of the first and/or second CRISPR. enzyme fusion constructs, as fusions within that construct. The functional domains are typically fused via a linker, such as GiySer linker, as discussed herein. The one or more functional domains may be transcriptional activation domain or a repressor domain. Although they may be different domains it is preferred that all the functional domains are either activator or repressor and that a mixture of the two is not used.

[0090] The transcriptional activation domain may comprise VP64, p65, MyoDl , HSF1, RTA or SET7/9.

[0091] In an aspect, the invention provides an inducible CRISPR-Cas system as herein discussed wherein the one or more functional domains associated with the Cas9 is a transcriptional repressor domain.

[0Θ92] In an aspect, the invention provides an inducible CRISPR-Cas system as herein discussed wherein the transcriptional repressor domain is a RAB domain.

[0Θ93] In an aspect, the invention provides an inducible CRISPR-Cas system as herein discussed wherein the transcriptional repressor domain is a NuE domain, NcoR domain, SID domain or a SID4X domain.

[0094] In an aspect the invention provides an inducible CRISPR-Cas system as herein discussed wherein the one or more functional domains associated with the adaptor protein have one or more activities comprising methylase activity, demethylase activity, transcription activation activity, transcription repression activity, transcription release factor activity, histone modification activity, RNA cleavage activity, DNA cleavage activity, DNA integration activity or nucleic acid binding activity,

[0095] Histone modifying domains are also preferred in some embodiments. Exemplary historic modifying domains are discussed below. Transposase domains, HR (Homologous Recombination) machinery domains, recombinase domams, and/or mtegrase domains are also preferred as the present functional domains. In some embodiments, DNA integration activity includes HR machinery domains, mtegrase domains, recombinase domains and/or transposase domains.

[0096] In an aspect the invention provides an inducible CRISPR -Cas system as herein discussed wherein the DNA cleavage activity is due to a nuclease.

[0097] In an aspect the invention provides an inducible CRISPR~Cas system as herein discussed wherein the nuclease comprises a Fokl nuclease.

[0Θ98] The use of such functional domains, which are preferred with the present split Cas9 system, is also discussed in detail in Konermann et al, ("Genome-scale transcriptional activation with an engineered CRISPR-Cas9 cornplex'Nature published 11 Dec 2014). The present system may be used with any guide, but optimized guides are preferred in some embodiments. Particularly preferred are guides in accordance with the Konermann N ature 11 Dec 2014 paper mentioned above. These guides are modified so that protein-binding RNA portions (such as aptamers) are added to or replace the tetraloop and/or stemloop 2. Corresponding RNA-binding protein domains can be sued to then recognise the RNA and recruit functional domains, such as those described herein, to the guide. This is primarily for use with deadCas9s leading to transcriptional activation or repression or DNA cleavage through nucleases such as Fokl . The use of such guides in combination with deadCas9s is powerful, and it is especially powerful if the Cas9 itself is also associated with its own functional domain, as discussed herein. When a dead.Cas9 (with or without its own associated functional domain) is induced to reconstitute in accordance with the present invention, i.e. is a split Cas9, then the tool is especially useful.

[0099] A guide RNA. (sgRNA), also preferred for use in the present invention, can comprise a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in a genomic locus of interest in a cell, wherein at least one loop of the sgRNA is modified by the insertion of distinct RNA seq ence! s) that bind to one or more adaptor proteins, and wherein the adaptor protein is associated with one or more functional domains. The CRISPR enzyme is preferably a deadCas9. It may comprise at least one mutation, such that the CRISPR enzyme has no more than 5% of the nuclease activity of the CRISPR enzyme not having the at least one mutation; and/or at least one or more nuclear localization sequences. Also provided is a non-naturally occurring or engineered composition comprising: one or more guide RNA (sgRNA) comprising a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in a genomic locus of interest in a cell, a CRISPR enzyme comprising at least one or more nuclear localization sequences, wherein the CRISPR enzyme comprises at least one mutation, such that the CRISPR enzyme has no more than 5% of the nuclease activity of the CRISPR enzyme not having the at least one mutation, wherein at least one loop of at least one sgRNA is modified by the insertion of distinct RN A sequencers) that bind to one or more adaptor proteins, and wherein the adaptor protein is associated with one or more functional domains,

[00100] The at least one loop of the sgRNA that is preferably modified by the insertion of distinct RNA sequeiice(s) that bind to one or more adaptor proteins is either one or both of the tetraloop or the stem-loop 2. The insertion of distinct RNA sequence(s) that bind to one or more adaptor proteins is preferably an aptamer sequence or two or more aptamer sequences specific to the same or different adaptor protein(s). The adaptor protein preferably comprises MS2, PP7, Op- F2, GA, fr, JP501, M12, R17, BZ13, JP34, JP500, U1, Mi l, MX ! . TW18, V . SP, FI, ID2, NL95, TW19, AP205, φΟ>5, cj>Cb8r, cbCbl2r, if>Cb23r, 7s, PRR1. Cell lines stably expressing inter alia split dCas9 can be useful.

[OOlOi] Applicants have demonstrated that Cas9 can be split into two distinct fragments, which reconstitute a functional full-length Cas9 nuclease when brought back together using chemical induction. The split Cas9 architecture will be useful for a variety of applications. For example, split Cas9 may enable genetic strategies for restricting Cas9 activity to intersectio al cell populations by putting each fragment under a different tissue specific promoter. Additionally, different chemically inducible dimerization domains such as APA and gibberellin may also be employed.

[00102] The inducer energy source is preferably chemical induction.

[00103] The split position or location is the point at which the first part of the Cas9 enzyme is separated from the second part. In some embodiments, the first will comprise or encode amino acids 1 to X, whilst the second part will comprise or encode amino acids X+l to the end. In this example, the numbering is contiguous, but this may not always be necessary as amino acids (or the nucleotides encoding them) could be trimmed from the end of either of the split ends, provided that sufficient DNA binding activity and, if required, DN A nickase or cleavage activity is retained, for example at least 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or 95% activity compared to wild type Cas9.

[00104] The exemplary numbering provided herein may be in reference to the wildtype protein, preferably the wildtype SpCas9 protein. However, it is envisaged that mutants of the wildtype SpCas9 protein can be used. For example, in the crystal data paper itself, a deadCas9 was used and these are preferred in some embodiments, see the discussion elsewhere herein. The numbering may also not follow exactly the Sp Cas9 numbering as, for instance, some N' or C 'terminal truncations or deletions may be used, but this can be addressed suing standard sequence alignment tools. Orthologs are also preferred as a sequence alignment tool.

[00105] Thus, the split position may be selected using ordinary skill in the art, for instance based on the crystal data provided in the herein cited materials.

[00106] in Examples 1 and 2, Applicants investigated a number of split positions in SpCas9, all of which worked in that Applicants were able to reconstitute Cas9 with the inducible dimerization domains. In Example 1 , the following were tried, as shown in Fig 1 , especially Fig ID, copied below:

[00107] Identifying potential split sides is most simply done with the help of a crystal structure. For Sp mutants, it should be readily apparent what the corresponding position for, for example, a sequence alignment. For non-Sp enzymes one can use the crystal structure of an ortholog if a relatively high degree of homology exists between the ortholog and the intended Cas9.

|00108| ideally, the split position should be located within a region or loop. Preferably, the split position occurs where an interruption of the amino acid sequence does not result in the partial or full destruction of a structural feature (e.g. alpha-helixes or beta-sheets). Unstructured regions (regions that did not show up in the crystal structure because these regions are not structured enough to be "frozen" in a crystal) are often preferred options, in the present Examples, Applicants I made splits in all unstractured regions that are exposed on the surface of SpCas9. The positions within the unstructured regions or outside loops may not need to be exactly the numbers provided above, but may vary by, for example 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or even 10 amino acids either side of the position given above, depending on the size of the loop, so long as the split position still falls within an unstructured region of outside loop,

[00109] A split in an outside loop of the Rec 2 domain is preferred in some embodiments. In other embodiments, a split in an ou tside loop of Rec 1 is preferred. In other embodiments, a split in an outside loop of PI is preferred. In other embodiments, a split in an unstructured region of Rec 1 is preferred. In other embodiments, a split in an unstructured region of R.uvC3 is preferred. In other embodiments, a split in an unstructured region of PI is preferred.

[00110] Applicants followed the following procedure which is provided as a preferred example and as guidance. Since unstructured regions don't show up in the crystal structure, Applicants cross-referenced the surrounding amino acid sequence of the crystal with the primary amino acid sequ ence of the SpCas9. Each unstructured region was made of 3 to 10 amino acids, which did not show up in the crystal . Applicants therefore made the split in between these amino acids. Only 6 splits in unstructured regions were possible in SpCas9. Under the assumption that by testing more splits Applicants would have a higher chance to find one that works (being initially sceptical that a split with a large protein would work at ail). To include more potential split sides Applicants included splits located in loops at the outside of Cas9 using the same criteria as with unstructured regions. It was surprising that ail of the above splits worked. [00111] In some embodiments, the split positon is in an outside loop of the Cas9. In other preferred embodiments, the split position is in an unstructured region of the Cas9. An unstructured region is typically a highly flexible outside loop whose structure cannot be readily determined from a crystal pattern,

[00112] The split preferably occurs between the two amino acids mentioned above, for example C terminal to 202 A in the first row. Any of the above splits are preferred in SpCas9 or corresponding positions in mutant SpCas9 or orthologs. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 202A/203S. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 255F/256D. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 310E/31 II. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 534R/535K. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 572E/573C. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 7138/714G. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 1003L/104E. in some embodiments, the split position may be between 1054G/1055E. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 1114 /1115S. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 1152K/1153S. In some embodiments, the split position may be between 1245K/1246G. Another preferred position is a split between 1098 and 1099, as mentioned in Example 1 .

[00113] Once the split position has been identified, suitable constructs can be designed. For example, one such construct is shown in Fig 1C, in respect of a split between 202A/203S.

[00114] Typically, an NES is positioned at the N' terminal end of the first part of the split amino acid (or the 5 ' end of nucleotide encoding it). In that case, an NLS is positioned at the C terminal end of the second part of the split amino acid (or the 3' end of the nucleotide encoding it). In this way, the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct may be operably linked to one or more nuclear export signals and the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct may be operably linked to a nuclear localization signal,

[00115] Of course, the reverse arrangement may be provided, where an NLS is positioned at the N' terminal end of the first part of the split amino acid (or the 5' end of nucleotide encoding it). In that case, an NES is positioned at the C terminal end of the second part of the split amino acid (or the 3' end of the nucleotide encoding it). Thus, the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct may be operably linked to one or more nuclear localization signals and the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct may be operably linked to a nuclear export signal. [00116] Example 2 builds on the above and uses similar positions. These are set out below and are close to those used above. See also Figure 2, especially Fig. 2A, and Example 2.

[00117] Splits 4, 5 and 6 above are beneficial in one aspect, in that there is some advantage to keeping the two parts (either side of the split) roughly the same length for packing purposes. For example, it is thought to be easier to maintain stoichiometry between both pieces when the transcripts are about the same size.

[00118] In Example 2, the N~ and C-term pieces of human codon-optimized S. yogenes Cas9 are fused to FRB and FKBP dimerization domains, respectively. This arrangement is preferred. They may be switched over (i.e. N' term to FKBP and C term to FRB), this arrangement worked as well but there is a suggestion that this switched arrangement brings the two parts of the Cas9 further apart.

[00119] Linkers such as (GGGGS)₃ are preferably used herein to separate the Cas9 fragment from the dimerization domain, (GGGGS)₃ is preferable because it is a relatively long linker (15 amino acids). The glycine residues are the most flexible and the serine residues enhance the chance that the linker is on the outside of the protein. (GGGGS)e (GGGGS)? or (GGGGS );.?. may preferably be used as alternatives. Other preferred alternatives are (GGGGS)j, (GGGGS)?, (GGGGS)₄, (GGGGS)s, (GGGGS)₇, (GGGGS)g, (GGGGS)_i0, or (GGGGS)n.

[00120] For example, Figure 8 shows (GGGGS)₃ between the N' term Cas9 fragment and FRB. It also show one between FKB and the C term Cas9 fragment.

[00121] Alternative linkers are available, but highly flexible linkers are thought to work best to allow for maximum opportunity for the 2 parts of the Cas9 to come together and thus reconstitute Cas9 activity. One alternative is that the NLS of nucleoplasmin can be used as a linker.

[00122] A linker can also be used between the Cas9 and any functional domain. Again, a (GGGGS)₃ linker may be used here (or the 6, 9, or 12 repeat versions therefore) or the NLS of nucleoplasmin can be used as a linker between Cas9 and the functional domain.

[00123] Alternatives to the FRB F BP system are envisaged. For example the ABA and gibbereliiii, system.

[00124] Accordingly, preferred examples of the I K BP family are any one of the following inducible systems. FKBP which dimerizes with CalcineurinA (CNA), in the presence of FK506; F BP which dimerizes with CyP-Fas, in the presence of F CsA; FKBP which dimerizes with FRB, in the presence of Rapamycin; GyrB which dimerizes with GryB, in the presence of Coumermycin; G.AI which dimerizes with GID1 , in the presence of Gibberellm; or Snap-tag which dimerizes with HaloTag, in the presence of HaXS.

[00125] Alternatives within the FKBP family itself are also preferred. For example, FKBP, which homo-dimerizes (i.e. one FKBP dimerizes with another FKBP) in the presence of FKI012. Thus, also provided is a non-naturally occurring or engineered inducible CRISPR-Cas system, comprisi g:

a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible homoodimer and

a second CRISPR enzyme fusion constmct attached to a second half of the inducible homoodimer,

wherein the first CRISPR enzyme fusion constmct is operabl linked to one or more nuclear localization signals,

wherein the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operabby linked to a (optionally one or more) nuclear export signal(s), wherein contact with an inducer energy source brings the first and second halves of the inducible homoodirner together,

wherein bringing the first and second halves of the inducible homoodirner together allows the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs to constitute a functional CRISPR-Cas system.

[00126] In one embodiment, the homodimer is preferably FKBP and the inducer energy source is preferably FK1012. In another embodiment, the homodimer is preferably GryB and the inducer energy source is preferably Coumermycin. In another embodiment, the homodimer is preferably ABA and the inducer energy source is preferably Gibberellin.

[00127] in other embodiments, the dimer is a heterodimer. Preferred examples of heterodimers are any one of the following inducible systems: FKBP which dimerizes with CalcineurinA (CNA), in the presence of FK506; FKBP which dimerizes with CyP-Fas, in the presence of FKCsA; FKBP which dimerizes with FRB, in the presence of Rapamycin, in the presence of Coumermycin; G AI which dimerizes with GID1 , in the presence of Gibberellin; or Snap-tag which dimerizes with HaioTag, in the presence of HaXS.

[00128] Applicants used FKBP/FRB because it is well characterized and both domains are sufficiently small (<100 amino acids) to assist with packaging. Furthermore, rapamycin has been used for a long time and side effects are well understood. Large dimerization domains (>300 aa) should work too but may require longer linkers to make enable Cas9 reconstitution.

[00129] Paulmurugan and Gambhir (Cancer Res, August 15, 2005 65; 7413) discusses the background to the FRB/FKBP/Rapamycin system. Another useful paper is the article by Crabtree et ai. (Chemistry & Biology 13, 99-107, Jan 2006). Present Figure 6B also shows a useful diagram of the constructs and resulting expression and dimerization in the presence of rapamycin as envisaged by the present invention.

[00130] In Example 3, a single vector, an expression cassette (plasmid) was constructed as shown in Figure 9A. sgRNA was under the control of a U6 promoter. Two different Cas9 splits were used: splits 4 and 5 from Example 2, The split Cas9 construct was based on a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, flanked by NLSs, with FKBP fused to C terminal part of the split Cas9 via a GlySer linker; and a second CR1SPR enzyme fusion construct, flanked by NESs, with FRB fused with the N terminal part of the split Cas9 via a GlySer linker. To separate the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs, P2A was used splitting on transcription. The Split Cas9s showed indel formation similar to wildtype in the presence of rapamycin, but markedly lower indel formation than the wildtype in the absence of rapamycin.

[00131 J Accordingly, a single vector is provided. The vector comprises:

a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible dimer and a second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a second half of the inducible dimer,

wherein the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operably linked to one or more nuclear export signals,

wherein contact with an inducer energy source brings the first and second halves of the inducible heterodimer together,

wherein bringing the first and second halves of the inducible heterodimer together allows the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs to constitute a functional CRISPR-Cas system,

wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a guide RNA (sgRNA) comprising a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in a genomic locus of interest in a cell, and wherein the functional CRISPR-Cas system binds to the target sequence and, optionally, edits the genomic locus to alter gene expression. These elements are preferably provided on a single construct, for example an expression cassette.

[00132] The first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is preferably flanked by at least one nuclear localization signal at each end. The second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is preferably flanked by at least one nuclear export signal at each end.

[00133] Also provided is a method of treating a subject in need thereof, comprising inducing gene editing by transforming the subject with the polynucleotide encoding the system or any of the present vectors and administering an inducer energy source to the subject. A suitable repair template may also be provided, for example delivered by a vector comprising said repair template.

[00134] Also provided is a method of treating a subject in need thereof, comprising inducing transcriptional activation or repression by transforming the subject with the polynucleotide encoding the present system or any of the present vectors, wherein sai d polynucleotide or vector encodes or comprises the catlyticaliy inactive CRISPR enzyme and one or more associated functional domains; the method further comprising administering an inducer energy source to the subject.

[00135] Compositions comprising the present system for use in said method of treatment are also provided. Use of the present system in the manufacture of a medicament for such methods of treatment are also provided.

[00136] Examples of conditions treatable by the present system are described herein or in documents cited herein.

[00137] The single vector can comprise a transcript-splitting agent, for example P2A. P2A splits the transcript in two, to separate the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs. The splitting is due to "ribosomal skipping ". In essence, the ribosome skips an amino acid during translation, which breaks the protein chain and results in two separate polype tides/proteins. The single vector is also useful for applications where low background activity is not of concern but a high inducible activity is desired.

[00138] One example would be the generation of clonal embryonic stem cell lines. The normal procedure is transient transfectioti with plasmids encoding wt Cas9 or Cas9 nickases. These plasmids produce Cas9 molecules, which stay active for several days and have a higher chance of off target acti vity. Using the single expression vector for split Cas9 allows restricting "high" Cas9 activity to a shorter time window (e.g. one dose of an inducer, such as rapamycin). Without continual (daily) inducer (e.g. rapamycin) treatments the activity of single expression split Cas9 vectors is low and presents a reduced chance of causing unwanted off target effects.

[00139] A peak of induced Cas9 activity is beneficial in some embodiments and may most easily be brought about using a single delivery vector, but it is also possible through a dual vector system (each vector delivering one half of the split Cas9). The peak may be high activity and for a short timescale, typically the lifetime of the inducer. [00140] Accordingly, provided is a method for generation of clonal embryonic stem cell lines, comprising transfectmg one or more embryonic stem cells with a polynucleotide encoding the present system or one of the present vectors to express the present split Cas9 and administering or contacting the one or more stem cells with the present inducer energy source to induce reconstitution of the Cas9. A repair template may be provided.

[00i41j As with all methods described herein, it will be appreciated that suitable sgRNA or guides will be required.

[0Θ142] Where functional domains and the like are "associated" with one or other part of the enzyme, these are typically fusions. The term "associated with" is used here in respect of how one molecule 'associates' with respect to another, for example between parts of the CRISPR enzyme and a functional domain. In the case of such protein-protein interactions, this association may be viewed in terms of recognition in the way an antibody recognises an epitope. Alternatively, one protein may be associated with another protein via a fusion of the two, for instance one subunit being fused to another subunit. Fusion typically occurs by addition of the amino acid sequence of one to that of the other, for instance via splicing together of the nucleotide sequences that encode each protein or subunit. Alternatively, this may essentially be viewed as binding between two molecules or direct linkage, such as a fusion protein. In any event, the fusion protein may include a linker between the two subunits of interest (i.e. between the enzyme and the functional domain or between the adaptor protein and the functional domain). Thus, in some embodiments, the part of the CRISPR enzyme is associated with a functional domain by binding thereto. In other embodiments, the CR ISPR enzyme is associated with a functional domain because the two are fused together, optionally via an intermediate linker. Examples of linkers include the GlySer linkers discussed herein.

[00143] Other examples of inducers include light and hormones. For light, the inducible dimers may be heterodimers and include first light-inducibie half of a dimer and a second (and complimentary) !ight-inducible half of a dimer. A preferred example of first and second light- inducibie dimer halves is the CIB1 and CRY2 system. The CIB1 domain is a heterodimeric binding partner of the light-sensitive Cryptoehrome 2 (CRY2).

[00144] The invention comprehends that the inducer energy source may be heat, ultrasound, electromagnetic energy or chemical. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the inducer energy source may be an antibiotic, a small molecule, a hormone, a hormone derivative, a steroid or a steroid derivative. In a more preferred embodiment, the inducer energy source maybe abscisic acid (ABA), doxycycline (DOX), cumate, rapamycin, 4-hydrox.ytamoxifen (40HT), estrogen or ecdysone. The invention provides that the at least one switch may be selected from the group consisting of antibiotic based inducible systems, electromagnetic energy based inducible systems, small molecule based inducible systems, nuclear receptor based inducible systems and hormone based inducible systems. In a more preferred embodiment the at least one switch may be selected from the group consisting of tetracycline (Tet)/DOX inducible systems, light inducible systems, ABA inducible systems, cumate represser/operator systems, 40HT/estrogen inducible systems, ecdysone -based inducible systems and FKBP12/FRAP (FKBP 12-rapamycin complex) inducible systems. Such inducers are also discussed herein and in PCT/US2Q 13/05.141.8, incorporated herein by reference.

[00145] In general, any use that can be made of a Cas9, whether wt, nickase or a deadCas9 (with or without associated functional domains) can be pursued using the present split Cas9 approach. E benefit remains the inducible nature of the Cas9 activity

[0Θ146] As a further example, split Cas9 fusions with fluorescent proteins like GFP can be made. This would allow imaging of genomic loci (see "Dynamic Imaging of Genomic Loci in Living Human Cells by an Optimized CRISPR/Cas System" Chen B et al. Cell 2013), but in an inducible manner. As such, in some embodiments, one or more of the Cas9 parts may be associated (and in particular fused with) a fluorescent protein, for example GFP.

[00.147] Further experiments address whether there is a difference in off-target cutting, between wild type (wt) and split Cas9, when on-target cutting is at the same level. To do this, Applicants use transient transfection of wt and split Cas9 plasmids and harvest at different time points. Applicants look for off-target activatation after finding a set of samples where on-target cutting is within +/- 5%. Applicants make cell lines with stable expression of wt or split Cas9 without guides (using lentivirus). After antibiotic selection, guides are delivered with a separate lentivirus and there is harvest at different time points to measure on-/off-target cutting.

[00148] Concerning a system for inducible transcription, Applicants cloned a different architecture of the split dCas9 using split-11. Split- 11 has the least binding surface between the two Cas9 fragments as it was expected that the complex would be less stable and therefore more likely to dissociate after rapamycin withdrawal. This approach had induction, albeit less induction, more background and it was also not reversible. [00149] Applicants introduced a destabilizing sequence (PEST, see "Use of mRNA- and protein-destabilizing elements to develop a highly responsive reporter system" Voon DC et al. Nucleic Acids Research 2005) into the FRB(N)Cas9-NES fragment to facilitate faster degradation and therefore reduced stability of the split dCas9-VP64 complex. Such destabilizing sequences (including PEST) can be advantageous in the present system.

[00150] Cell lines stably expressing split dCas9-VP64 and MS2-p65-HSFl + guide are generated. A PLX resistance screen can demonstrate that a non-reversible, timed transcriptional activation can be useful in drug screens. This approach is may be advantageous when a split dCas9-VP64 is not reversible.

[00151] In general, the CRISPR-Cas or CRISPR system is as used in the foregoing documents, such as WO 2014/093622 (PCT/US2013/074667) and refers collectively to transcripts and other elements involved in the expression of or directing the activity of CRI8PR- associated ("Cas") genes, including sequences encoding a Cas gene, a tracr (trans-activating CRISPR) sequence (e.g. tracrRNA or an active partial tracrRNA), a tracr-mate sequence (encompassing a "direct repeat" and a tracrRNA-processed partial direct repeat in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system), a guide sequence (also referred to as a "spacer" in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system), or "RNA(s)" as that term is herein used (e.g., RNA(s) to guide Cas9, e.g. CRISPR RNA and transact! vating (tracr) RNA or a single guide RNA (sgRNA) (chimeric RNA)) or other sequences and transcripts from a CRISPR locus. In general, a CRISPR system is characterized by elements that promote the formation of a CRISPR complex at the site of a target sequence (also referred to as a protospacer in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system). In the context of formation of a CRISPR complex, "target sequence" refers to a sequence to which a guide sequence is designed to have complementarity, where hybridization between a target sequence and a guide sequence promotes the formation of a CRISPR complex. A target sequence may comprise any polynucleotide, such as DNA or RNA. polynucleotides. In some embodiments, a target sequence is located in the nucleus or cytoplasm of a cell. In some embodiments, direct repeats may be identified in silico by searching for repetitive motifs that fulfill any or all of the following criteria: 1. found in a 2Kb window of genomic sequence flanking the type II CRISPR locus; 2. span from 20 to 50 bp; and 3. interspaced by 20 to 50 bp. In some embodiments, 2 of these criteria may be used, for instance 1 and 2, 2 and 3, or 1 and 3. [00152] In some embodiments, all 3 criteria may be used. In some embodiments it may be preferred in a CRISPR complex that the tracr sequence has one or more hairpins and is 30 or more nucleotides in length, 40 or more nucleotides in length, or 50 or more nucleotides in length; the guide sequence is between 10 to 30 nucleotides in length, the CRISPR/Cas enzyme is a Type II Cas9 enzyme.

[00153] In embodiments of the invention the terms guide sequence and guide RNA are used interchangeably as in foregoing cited documents such as WO 2014/093622 (PCT/US2013/074667). In general, a guide sequence is any polynucleotide sequence having sufficient complementarity with a target polynucleotide sequence to hybridize with the target sequence and direct sequence-specific binding of a CRJSPR complex to the target sequence, in some embodiments, the degree of complementarity between a guide sequence and its corresponding target sequence, when optimally aligned using a suitable alignment algorithm, is about or more than about 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97.5%, 99%, or more. Optimal alignment may be determined with the use of any suitable algorithm for aligning sequences, non-limiting example of which include the Smith-Waterman algorithm, the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm, algorithms based on the Burrows- Wheeler Transform (e.g. the Burrows Wheeler Aligner), ClustaiW, Clustal X, BLAT, Novoalign (Novocraft Technologies; available at www.novocraft.com), ELAND (Illumina, San Diego, CA), SOAP (available at soap.genomics.org.cn), and Maq (available at maq.sourceforge.net). In some embodiments, a guide sequence is about or more than about 5, 10, 1 1 , 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 , 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 75, or more nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, a guide sequence is less than about 75, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 12, or fewer nucleotides in length. Preferably the guide sequence is 10 - 30 nucleotides long. The ability of a guide sequence to direct sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence may be assessed by any suitable assay. For example, the components of a CRISPR system sufficient to form a CRISPR complex, including the guide sequence to be tested, may be provided to a host cell having the corresponding target sequence, such as by transfection with vectors encoding the components of the CRISPR sequence, followed by an assessment of preferential cleavage within the target sequence, such as by Surveyor assay as described herein. Similarly, cleavage of a target polynucleotide sequence may be evaluated in a test tube by providing the target sequence, components of a CRISPR complex, including the guide sequence to be tested and a control guide sequence different from the test guide sequence, and comparing binding or rate of cleavage at the target sequence between the test and control guide sequence reactions. Other assays are possible, and will occur to those skilled in the art. A guide sequence may be selected to target any target sequence. In some embodiments, the target sequence is a sequence within a genome of a cell. Exemplar)' target sequences include those that are unique in the target genome. For example, for the S. pyogenes Cas9, a unique target sequence in a genome may include a Cas9 target site of the form MM MMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXGG where NNNNNNNNNNNNXGG (N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. A unique target sequence in a genome may include an S. pyogenes Cas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNXGG where NNNNNNNNNNNXGG (N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. For the S. thermophilus CRISPR1 Cas9, a unique target sequence in a genome may include a Cas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW where NNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW (N is A, G, T, or C; X can be anything; and W is A or T) has a single occurrence in the genome. A unique target sequence in a genome may include an S. thermophilus CRISPR1 Cas9 target site of the form

MMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW where NNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW^" (N is A, G, T, or C; X can be anything; and W is A. or T) has a single occurrence in the genome. For the S. pyogenes Cas9, a unique target sequence in a genome may include a Cas9 target site of the fonn MMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG where NNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG (N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. A unique target sequence in a genome may include an S. pyogenes Cas9 target site of the form MMMMMM MMMNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG where NNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG (N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. In each of these sequences "M" may be A, G, T, or C, and need not be considered in identifying a sequence as unique. In some embodiments, a guide sequence is selected to reduce the degree secondary structure within the guide sequence. In some embodiments, about or less than about 75%, 50%, 40%, 30%», 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%», 1%, or fewer of the nucleotides of the guide sequence participate in self-complementary base pairing when optimally folded. Optimal folding may be determined by any suitable polynucleotide folding algorithm. Some programs are based on calculating the minimal Gibbs free energy. An example of one such algorithm is niFoid, as described by Ztrker and Stiegler (Nucleic Acids Res. 9 (1981), 133- 148). Another example folding algorith is the online webserver RNAfold, developed at Institute for Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Vienna, using the centroid structure prediction algorithm (see e.g. A.R. Gruber et al., 2008, Cell 106(1): 23-24; and PA Carr and GM Church, 2009, Nature Biotechnology 27(12): 1 151 -62).

[00154] In general, a tracr mate sequence includes any sequence that has sufficient complementarity with a tracr sequence to promote one or more of: (1 ) excision of a guide sequence flanked by tracr mate sequences in a cell containing the corresponding tracr sequence; and (2) formation of a CRISPR complex at a target sequence, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the tracr mate sequence hybridized to the tracr sequence. In general, degree of complementarity is with reference to the optimal alignment of the tracr mate sequence and tracr sequence, along the length of the shorter of the two sequences. Optimal alignment may be determined by any suitable alignment algorithm, and may further account for secondary structures, such as self-complementarity within either the tracr sequence or tracr mate sequence. In some embodiments, the degree of complementarity between the tracr sequence and tracr mate sequence along the length of the shorter of the two when optimally aligned is about or more than about 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%», 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%», 95%, 97.5%, 99%», or higher. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence is about or more than about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 , 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or more nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence and tracr mate sequence are contained within a single transcript, such that hybridization between the two produces a transcript having a secondary structure, such as a hairpin. In an embodiment of the invention, the transcript or transcribed polynucleotide sequence has at least two or more hairpins. In preferred embodiments, the transcript has two, three, four or five hairpins. In a further embodiment of the invention, the transcript has at most five hairpins. In a hairpin structure the portion of the sequence 5' of the final "N" and upstream of the loop corresponds to the tracr mate sequence, and the portion of the sequence 3' of the loop corresponds to the tracr sequence Further non-limiting examples of single polynucleotides comprising a guide sequence, a tracr mate sequence, and a tracr sequence are as follows (listed 5 ' to 3'), where "N" represents a base of a guide sequence, the first block of lower case letters represent the tracr mate sequence, and the second block of lower case letters represent the tracr sequence, and the final poly-T sequence represents the transcription terminator: (1) N N N N N N N NNNNNgtttttgiactc caagatttaGAi _ taaatcttgcagaagciacaaagataa ggcttcatgccgaaatcaacaccctgtcattt ggcagggtgttttcg^tttaaTTTTTT; (2) N N N NNN N NNNNNNNNgtttttgtactctcaGAA_^Atgcagaagctacaaagataaggcttcatgccg aaatcaacaccctgtcattt ggcagggtgttttcgttatttaaTTTTTT; (3) NNNNNNNN NNNNNNgtttttgtactctcaGAAAtgcagaagctacaaagataaggcttcatgccg aaatcaacaccctgtcattttatggcagggtgtTTTTTT; (4) NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNgttttagagctaGAAAtagcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttaicaacit gaaaaagtggcaccgagtc ggtgcTTTTTT ; (5 )

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgitttagagcta

ttgaaaaagtgTTTTTTT; and (6)

NNNNNNNNNNNN^

TTTTTT. In some embodiments, sequences (1) to (3) are used in combination with Cas9 from S. t ermophilus CRISPRl. In some embodiments, sequences (4) to (6) are used in combination with Cas9 from S. pyogenes. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence is a separate transcript from a transcript comprising the tracr mate sequence,

[00155] In some embodiments, candidate tracrRNA may be subsequently predicted by sequences that fulfill any or all of the following criteria: 1. sequence homology to direct repeats (motif search in Geneious with up to 18-bp mismatches); 2. presence of a predicted Rho- independent transcriptional terminator in direction of transcription; and 3. stable hairpin secondary structure between tracrRNA and direct repeat. In some embodiments, 2 of these criteria may be used, for instance 1 and 2, 2 and 3, or 1 and 3. In some embodiments, ail 3 criteria may be used.

[00156] In some embodiments, chimeric synthetic guide RNAs (sgRNAs) designs may incorporate at least 12 bp of duplex structure between the direct repeat and tracrRNA.

[00157] For minimization of toxicity and off-target effect, it will be important to control the concentration of CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA delivered. Optimal concentrations of CRJSPR. enzyme mRNA and guide RNA. can be determined by testing different concentrations in a cellular or non-human eukaryote animal model and using deep sequencing the analyze the extent of modification at potential off-target genomic loci. For example, for the guide sequence targeting 5 '-GAGTCCGAGCAGAAGAAGAA-3 ' in the EMX1 gene of the human genome, deep sequencing can be used to assess the level of modification at the following two off-target loci, 1 : 5 '-GAGTCCTAGCAGGAGAAGAA-3 ' and 2: 5 '-GAGTCTAAGCAGAAGAAGAA- 3'. The concentration that gives the highest level of cm-target modification while minimizing the level of off-target modification should be chosen for in vivo delivery. Alternatively, to minimize the level of toxicity and off-target effect, CRISPR. enzyme nickase mRNA (for example S. pyogenes Cas9 with the D10A mutation) can be delivered with a pair of guide R As targeting a site of interest. The two guide RNAs need to be spaced as follows. Guide sequences and strategies to mimize toxicity and off-target effects can be as in WO 2014/093622 (PCT/US2013/074667).

[00158] The CRISPR system is derived advantageously from a type II CRISPR system. In some embodiments, one or more elements of a CRISPR system is derived from a particular organism comprising an endogenous CRISPR system, such as Streptococcus pyogenes. In preferred embodiments of the invention, the CRISPR system is a type II CRISPR system and the Cas enzyme is Cas9, which catalyzes DNA cleavage. Non-limiting examples of Cas proteins include Casl , Casl B, Cas2, Cas3, Cas4, Cas5, Cas6, Cas7, Cas8, Cas9 (also known as Csnl and Csxl2), CaslO, Csyl, Csy2, Csy3, Csel, Cse2, Cscl, Csc2, Csa5, Csn2, Csm2, Csm3, Csm4, Csm5, Csm6, Cmrl, Cmr3, Cmr4, Cmr5, Cmr6, Csbl , Csb2, Csb3, Cs l7, Csxl 4, CsxlO, Csxl6, CsaX, Csx3, Csxl, Csxl5, Csfl, Cs£2, CsG, Csf4, homologues thereof, or modified versions thereof.

[00159] In some embodiments, the unmodified CRISPR enzyme has DNA cleavage activity, such as Cas9. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or both strands at the location of a target sequence, such as within the target sequence and/or within the complement of the target sequence. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or both strands within about 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500, or more base pairs from the first or last nucleotide of a target sequence. In some embodiments, a vector encodes a CRISPR enzyme that is mutated to with respect to a corresponding wild-type enzyme such that the mutated CRISPR enzyme lacks the ability to cleave one or both strands of a target polynucleotide containing a target sequence. For example, an aspartate-to-alanine substitution (D10A) in the RuvC I catalytic domain of Cas9 from S. pyogenes converts Cas9 from a nuclease that cleaves both strands to a nickase (cleaves a single strand). Other examples of mutations that render Cas9 a nickase include, without limitation, H840A, N854A, and N863A. As a further example, two or more catalytic domains of Cas9 (RuvC I, RuvC II, and RuvC III or the HNH domain) may be mutated to produce a mutated Cas9 substantially lacking all DNA cleavage activity. In some embodiments, a D10A mutation is combined with one or more of H840A, N854A, or N863A mutations to produce a Cas9 enzyme substantially lacking all DNA cleavage activity. In some embodiments, a CRISPR enzyme is considered to substantially lack all DNA cleavage activity when the DNA cleavage activity of the mutated enzyme is about no more than 25%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 0.1%, 0.01%, or less of the DNA cleavage activity of the non- mutated form of the enzyme; an example can be when the DNA cleavage activity of the mutated form is nil or negligible as compared with the non-mutated form. Where the enzyme is not SpCas9, mutations may be made at any or all residues corresponding to positions 10, 762, 840, 854, 863 and/or 986 of SpCas9 (which may be ascertained for instance by standard sequence comparison tools). In particular, any or all of the following mutations are preferred in SpCas9: D10A, E762A, H840A, N854A, N863A and/or D986A, with reference to SpCas9; as well as similar or same mutations in other orthologs, e.g., N580A in SaCas9; and conservative substitution for any of the replacement amino acids are also envisaged. The same (or conservative substitutions of these mutations) at corresponding positions in other Cas9s are also preferred. Particularly preferred are D10 and H840 in SpCas9. However, in other Cas9s, residues corresponding to SpCas9 D10 and H840 are also preferred. Orthologs of SpCas9 can be used in. the practice of the invention. A Cas enzyme may be identified Cas9 as this can refer to the general class of enzymes that share homology to the biggest nuclease with multiple nuclease domains from the type II CRISPR system. Most preferably, the Cas9 enzyme is from, or is derived from, spCas9 (S. pyogenes Cas9) or saCas9 (8. aureus Cas9). StCas9" refers to wild type Cas9 from S. tiiermophiius, the protein sequence of which is given in the SwissProt database under accession number G3ECR1. Similarly, S pyogenes Cas9 or spCas9 is included in SwissProt under accession number Q99ZW2, By derived, Applicants mean that the derived enzyme is largely based, in the sense of having a high degree of sequence homology with, a wildtype enzyme, but that it has been mutated (modified) in some way as described herein. It will be appreciated that the terms Cas and CRISPR enzyme are generally used herein interchangeably, unless otherwise apparent. As mentioned above, many of the residue numberings used herein refer to the Cas9 enzyme from the type II CRISPR locus in Streptococcus pyogenes. However, it will be appreciated that this invention includes many more Cas9s from other species of microbes, such as SpCas9, SaCa9, StlCas9 and so forth. Enzymatic action by Cas9 derived from Streptococcus pyogenes or any closely related Cas9 generates double stranded breaks at target site sequences which hybridize to 20 nucleotides of the guide sequence and that have a protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM) sequence (examples include NGG/NRG or a PAM that can be determined as described herein) following the 20 nucleotides of the target sequence. CRISPR activity through Cas9 for site-specific DNA recognition and cleavage is defined by the guide sequence, the tracr sequence that hybridizes in part to the guide sequence and the PAM sequence. More aspects of the CRISPR system are described in Kargino v and Harmon, The CRISPR system: small RNA-guided defence in bacteria and archaea, Mole Cell 2010, January 15; 37(1): 7. The type II CRISPR locus from Streptococcus pyogenes SF370, which contains a cluster of four genes Cas9, Cas h Cas2, and Csnl , as well as two non-coding RNA elements, tracrRNA and a characteristic array of repetitive sequences (direct repeats) interspaced by short stretches of non-repetitive sequences (spacers, about 30bp each). In this system, targeted DNA double-strand break (DSB) is generated in four sequential steps. First, two non-coding R As, the pre-crRNA array and tracrRNA, are transcribed from the CRISPR locus. Second, tracrRNA hybridizes to the direct repeats of pre-crRNA, which is then processed into mature crRNAs containing individual spacer sequences. Third, the mature crRNA: tracrRNA complex directs Cas9 to the DNA target consisting of the protospacer and the corresponding PAM via heteroduplex formation between the spacer region of the crRNA and the protospacer DNA. Finally, Cas9 mediates cleavage of target DNA upstream of PAM to create a DSB within the protospacer. A pre-crRNA. array consisting of a single spacer flanked by two direct repeats (DRs) is also encompassed by the term "tracr-mate sequences"). In certain embodiments, Cas9 may be constitutively present or mducibly present or conditionally present or administered or delivered. Cas9 optimization may be used to enhance function or to develop new functions, one can generate chimeric Cas9 proteins. And Cas9 may be used as a generic DNA binding protein.

[00160] In an aspect, the CRISPR enzyme comprises H840A, or D10A and H840A, or D10A and N863A, according to SpCas9 protein or any corresponding ortholog. N580 in Sa corresponds to N863 in Sp Cas9. Accordingly, in an aspect, the CRISPR enzyme comprises: N580A according to SaCas9 protein or any corresponding ortholog; or D10A according to SpCas9 protein, or any corresponding ortholog, and N580A according to SaCas9 protein. [00161] Typically, in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system, formation of a CRISPR complex (comprising a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence and complexed with one or more Cas proteins) results in cleavage of one or both strands in or near (e.g. within 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 50, or more base pairs from) the target sequence. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the tracr sequence, which may comprise or consist of al l or a portion of a wild- type tracr sequence (e.g. about or more than about 20, 26, 32, 45, 48, 54, 63, 67, 85, or more nucleotides of a wild-type tracr sequence), may also form part of a CRISPR complex, such as by hybridization along at least a portion of the tracr sequence to ail or a portion of a tracr mate sequence that is operably linked to the guide sequence.

[00162] An example of a codon optimized sequence, is in this instance a sequence optimized for expression in a eukaryote, e.g., humans (i.e. being optimized for expression in humans), or for another eukaryote, animal or mammal as herein discussed; see, e.g., SaCas9 human codon optimized sequence in WO 2014/093622 (PCT/US2013/074667). Whilst this is preferred, it will be appreciated that other examples are possible and codon optimization for a host species other than human, or for codon optimization for specific organs is known. In some embodiments, an enzyme coding sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme is codon optimized for expression in particular cells, such as eukaryotic cells. The eukaryotic cells may be those of or derived from a particular organism, such as a mammal, including but not limited to human, or non-human eukaryote or animal or mammal as herein discussed, e.g., mouse, rat, rabbit, dog, livestock, or non-human mammal or primate. In some embodiments, processes for modifying the germ line genetic identity of human beings and/or processes for modifying the genetic identity of animals which are likely to cause them suffering without any substantial medical benefit to man or animal, and also animals resulting from such processes, may be excluded. In general, codon optimization refers to a process of modifying a nucleic acid sequence for enhanced expression in the host cells of interest by replacing at least one codon (e.g. about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, or more codons) of the native sequence with codons that are more frequently or most frequently used in the genes of that host cell while maintaining the native amino acid sequence. Various species exhibit particular bias for certain codons of a particular amino acid. Codon bias (differences in codon usage between organisms) often correlates with the efficiency of translation of messenger RNA (mRNA), which is in turn believed to be dependent on, among other things, the properties of the codons being translated and the availability of particular transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules. The predominance of selected tRNAs in a cell is generally a reflection of the codons used most frequently in peptide synthesis. Accordingly, genes can be tailored for optimal gene expression in a given organism based on codon optimization. Codon usage tables are readily available, for example, at the "Codon Usage Database" available at www.kazusa.orjp/codoriy'' and these tables can be adapted in a number of ways. See Nakamura, Y., et al. "Codon usage tabulated from the international DNA sequence databases: status for the year 2000" Nucl. Acids es. 28:292 (2000). Computer algorithms for codon optimizing a particular sequence for expression in a particular host cell are also available, such as Gene Forge (Aptagen; jacobus, PA), are also available. In some embodiments, one or more codons (e.g. 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, or more, or all codons) in a sequence encoding a CR1SPR enzyme correspond to the most frequently used codon for a particular amino acid.

[00163] In some embodiments, a vector encodes a CRISPR enzyme comprising one or more nuclear localization sequences (NLSs), such as about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more NLSs. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme comprises about or more than about I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more NLSs at or near the amino -terminus, about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more NLSs at or near the carboxy-terminus, or a combination of these (e.g. zero or at least one or more NLS at the amino-terminus and zero or at one or more NLS at the carboxy terminus). When more than one NLS is present, each may be selected independently of the others, such that a single N LS may be present in more than one copy and/or in combination with one or more other NLSs present in one or more copies. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the CRISPR enzyme comprises at most 6 NLSs, In some embodiments, an NLS is considered near the N- or C-terminus when the nearest amino acid of the NLS is within about 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or more amino acids along the polypeptide chain from the N- or C-terminus. Non-limiting examples of NLSs include an NLS sequence derived from: the NLS of the SV40 virus large T-antigen, having the amino acid sequence PKKKRKV; the NLS from nucieoplasmin (e.g. the nucleoplasmin bipartite NLS with the sequence KRPAAT KAGQAKK K); the c-myc NLS having the amino acid sequence PAAKRVKLD or RQRRNELKRSP; the hRNPAl M9 NLS having the sequence NQSSNFGPMKGGNFGGRSSGPYGGGGQYFAKPRNQGGY; the sequence

R RiZFK-N Gi DTAELRRRRVEVSVELR A KDEQILi RR V of the IBB domain from importin-alpha; the sequences VSRKRPRP and PPKKARED of the myoma T protein; the sequence POPKKKPL of human p53; the sequence SALI K K MAP of mouse c-abl IV; the sequences DRLRR and P Q KRK of the influenza virus NS1; the sequence R i .K K I K i . of the Hepatitis virus delta antigen; the sequence REKKKFLKRR of the mouse Mxl protein; the sequence KRKGDEVDGVDEVAK KSK of the human poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; and the sequence RKCLQAG NLEAR TK of the steroid hormone receptors (human) glucocorticoid. In general, the one or more NLSs are of sufficient strength to drive accumulation of the CRISPR enzyme in a detectable amount in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. In general, strength of nuclear localization activity may derive from the number of NLSs in the CRISPR enzyme, the particular NLS(s) used, or a combination of these factors. Detection of accumulation in the nucleus may be performed by any suitable technique. For example, a detectable marker may be fused to the CRISPR enzyme, such that location within a cell may be visualized, such as in combination with a means for detecting the location of the nucleus (e.g. a stain specific for the nucleus such as DAPI). Cell nuclei may also be isolated from ceils, the contents of which may then be analyzed by any suitable process for detecting protein, such as immunohiStochemistry, Western blot, or enzyme activity assay. Accumulation in the nucleus may also be determined indirectly, such as by an assay for the effect of CRISPR complex formation (e.g. assay for DNA cleavage or mutation at the target sequence, or assay for altered gene expression activity affected by CRISPR complex formation and/or CRISPR enzyme activity), as compared to a control no exposed to the CRISPR enzyme or complex, or exposed to a CRISPR. enzyme lacking the o e or more LSs.

[00164] Aspects of the invention relate to the expression of the gene product being decreased or a template polynucleotide being further introduced into the DNA molecule encoding the gene product or an intervening sequence being excised precisely by allowing the two 5' overhangs to reanneal and ligate or the activity or function of the gene product being altered or the expression of the gene product being increased. In an embodiment of the invention, the gene product is a protein. Only sgRNA pairs creating 5' overhangs with less than 8bp overlap between the guide sequences (offset greater than -8 bp) were able to mediate detectable indel formation. Importantly, each guide used in these assays is able to efficiently induce indels when paired with wildtype Cas9, indicating that the relative positions of the guide pairs are the most important parameters in predicting double nicking activity. Since Cas9n and Cas9H840A nick opposite strands of DNA, substitution of Cas9n with Cas9H840A with a given sgRNA pair should have resulted in the inversion of the overhang type; but no indel formation is observed as with Cas9H840A indicating that Cas9H840A is a CRISPR enzyme substantially lacking all DNA cleavage activity (which is when the DNA cleavage activity of the mutated enzyme is about no more than 25%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 0,1 %, 0.01%, or less of the DNA cleavage activity of the non- mutated form of the enzyme; whereby an example can be when the DNA cleavage activity of the mutated form is nil or negligible as compared with the non-mutated form, e.g., when no indel formation is observed as with Cas9H840A in the eukaryotic system in contrast to the biochemical or prokaryotic systems). Nonetheless, a pair of sgRNAs that will generate a 5' overhang with Cas9n should in principle generate the corresponding 3' overhang instead, and double nicking. Therefore, sgRNA pairs that lead to the generation of a 3' overhang with Cas9n can be used with another mutated Cas9 to generate a 5' overhang, and double nicking. Accordingly, in some embodiments, a recombination template is also provided. A recombination template may be a component of another vector as described herein, contained in a separate vector, or provided as a separate polynucleotide, in some embodiments, a recombination template is designed to serve as a template in homologous recombination, such as within or near a target sequence nicked or cleaved by a CRiSPR enzyme as a part of a CRiSPR complex. A template polynucleotide may be of any suitable length, such as about or more than about 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 500, 1000, or more nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the template polynucleotide is complementary to a portion of a polynucleotide comprising the target sequence. When optimally aligned, a template polynucleotide migh overlap with one or more nucleotides of a target sequences (e.g. about or more than about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, or more nucleotides). In some embodiments, when a template sequence and a polynucleotide comprising a target sequence are optimal ly aligned, the nearest nucleotide of the template polynucleotide is within about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 1000, 5000, 10000, or more nucleotides from the target sequence.

[00165] In some embodiments, one or more vectors driving expression of one or more elements of a CRISPR system are introduced into a host cell such that expression of the elements of the CRISPR system direct formation of a CRISPR complex at one or more target sites. For example, a Cas enzyme, a guide sequence linked to a tracr-mate sequence, and a tracr sequence could each be operably linked to separate regulatory elements on separate vectors. Or, RNA(s) of the CRISPR System can be delivered to a transgenic Cas9 animal or mammal, e.g., an animal or mammal that constitutively or inducibly or conditionally expresses Cas9; or an animal or mamma] that is otherwise expressing Cas9 or has cells containing Cas9, such as by way of prior administration thereto of a vector or vectors that code for and express in vivo Cas9. Alternatively, two or more of the elements expressed from the same or different regulatory elements, may be combined in a single vector, with one or more additional vectors providing any components of the CRISPR system not included in the first vector. CRISPR system elements that are combined in a single vector may be arranged in any suitable orientation, such as one element located 5' with respect to ("upstream" of) or 3' with respect to ("downstream" of) a second element. The coding sequence of one element may be located on the same or opposite strand of the coding sequence of a second element, and oriented in the same or opposite direction. In some embodiments, a single promoter drives expression of a transcript encoding a CRISPR enzyme and one or more of the guide sequence, tracr mate sequence (optionally operablv linked to the guide sequence), and a tracr sequence embedded within one or more intro sequences (e.g. each in a different intron, two or more in at least one intron, or all in a single intron). In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme, guide sequence, tracr mate sequence, and tracr sequence are operablv linked to and expressed from the same promoter. Delivery vehicles, vectors, particles, nanoparticles, formulations and components thereof for expression of one or more elements of a CRISPR system are as used in the foregoing documents, such as WO 2014/093622 (PCT/US2013/074667). In some embodiments, a vector comprises one or more insertion sites, such as a restriction endonuclease recognition sequence (also referred to as a "cloning site"). In some embodiments, one or more insertion sites (e.g. about or more than about I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more insertion sites) are located upstream and/or downstream of one or more sequence elements of one or more vectors. In some embodiments, a vector comprises an insertion site upstream of a tracr mate sequence, and optionally downstream of a regulatory element operablv linked to the tracr mate sequence, such that following insertion of a guide sequence into the insertion site and upon expression the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, a vector comprises two or more insertion sites, each insertion site being located between two tracr mate sequences so as to allow insertion of a guide sequence at each site. In such an arrangement, the two or more guide sequences may comprise two or more copies of a single guide sequence, two or more different guide sequences, or combinations of these. When multiple different guide sequences are used, a single expression construct may be used to target CRISPR activity to multiple different, corresponding target sequences within a cell. For example, a single vector may comprise about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, or more guide sequences. In some embodiments, about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more such guide-sequence-containing vectors may be provided, and optionally delivered to a cell. In some embodiments, a vector comprises a regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme- coding sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme, such as a Cas protein. CRISPR enzyme or CRISPR enzyme mRNA or CRISPR guide RNA or RNA(s) can be delivered separately; and advantageously at least one of these is delivered via a nanoparticie complex. CRISPR enzyme mRNA can be delivered prior to the guide RNA to give time for CRISPR enzyme to be expressed. CRISPR enzyme mRNA might be administered 1-12 hours (preferably around 2-6 hours) prior to the administration of guide RNA. Alternatively, CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA can be administered together. Advantageously, a second booster dose of guide RNA can be administered 1-12 hours (preferably around 2-6 hours) after the initial administration of CRISPR enzyme mRNA + guide RNA. Additional administrations of CRISPR enzyme mRNA and/or guide RNA might be useful to achieve the most efficient levels of genome modification.

[00166] In one aspect, the invention provides methods for using one or more elements of a CRISPR. system. The CRISPR. complex of the invention provides an effective means for modifying a target polynucleotide. The CRISPR complex of the invention has a wide variety of utility including modifying (e.g., deleting, inserting, translocating, inactivating, activating) a target polynucleotide in a multiplicity of cell types. As such the CRISPR complex of the invention has a broad spectrum of applications in, e.g., gene therapy, drug screening, disease diagnosis, and prognosis. An exemplary CRISPR. complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme compiexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within the target polynucleotide. The guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence, which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence. In one embodiment, this invention provides a method of cleaving a target polynucleotide. The method comprises modifying a target polynucleotide using a CRISPR complex that binds to the target polynucleotide and effect cleavage of said target polynucleotide. Typically, the CRISPR complex of the invention, when introduced into a cell, creates a break (e.g., a single or a double strand break) in the genome sequence. For example, the method can be used to cleave a disease gene in a cell. The break created by the CRISPR complex can be repaired by a repair processes such as the error prone non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway or the high fidelity homology-directed repair (HDR). During these repair process, an exogenous polynucleotide template can be introduced into the genome sequence. In some methods, the HDR process is used modify genome sequence. For example, an exogenous polynucleotide template comprising a sequence to be integrated flanked by an upstream sequence and a downstream sequence is introduced into a cell. The upstream and downstream sequences share sequence similarity with either side of the site of integration in the chromosome. Where desired, a donor polynucleotide can be DNA, e.g., a DNA plasmid, a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC), a viral vector, a linear piece of DNA, a PCR fragment, a naked nucleic acid, or a nucleic acid complexed with a delivery vehicle such as a liposome or poloxamer. The exogenous polynucleotide template comprises a sequence to be integrated (e.g., a mutated gene). The sequence for mtegration may be a sequence endogenous or exogenous to the cell. Examples of a sequence to be integrated include polynucleotides encoding a protein or a non-coding RNA (e.g., a microRNA). Thus, the sequence for integration may be operably linked to an appropriate control sequence or sequences. Alternatively, the sequence to be integrated may provide a regulatory function. The upstream and downstream sequences in the exogenous polynucleotide template are selected to promote recombination between the chromosomal sequence of interest and the donor polynucleotide. The upstream sequence is a nucleic acid sequence that shares sequence similarity with the genome sequence upstream of the targeted site for integration. Similarly, the downstream sequence is a nucleic acid sequence that shares sequence similarity with the chromosomal sequence downstream of the targeted site of integration. The upstream and downstream sequences in the exogenous polynucleotide template can have 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% sequence identity with the targeted genome sequence. Preferably, the upstream and downstream sequences in the exogenous polynucleotide template have about 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% sequence identity with the targeted genome sequence. In some methods, the upstream and downstream sequences in the exogenous polynucleotide template have about 99% or 100% sequence identity with the targeted genome sequence. An upstream or downstream sequence may comprise from about 20 bp to about 2500 bp, for example, about 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1 100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2400, or 2500 bp. In some methods, the exemplary upstream or downstream sequence have about 200 bp to about 2000 bp, about 600 bp to about 1000 bp, or more particularly about 700 bp to about 1000 bp. In some methods, the exogenous polynucleotide template may further comprise a marker. Such a marker may make it easy to screen for targeted integrations. Examples of suitable markers include restriction sites, fluorescent proteins, or selectable markers. The exogenous polynucleotide template of the invention can be constructed using recombinant techniques (see, for example, Sambrook et al., 2001 and Ausubel et al., 1996). In a method for modifying a target polynucleotide by integrating an exogenous polynucleotide template, a double stranded break is introduced into the genome sequence by the CRISPR complex, the break is repaired via homologous recombination an exogenous polynucleotide template such that the template is integrated into the genome. The presence of a double-stranded break facilitates integration of the template. In other embodiments, this invention provides a method of modifying expression of a polynucleotide in a eukaryofie cell. The method comprises increasing or decreasing expression of a target polynucleotide by using a CRISPR complex that binds to the polynucleotide. In some methods, a target polynucleotide can be inactivated to effect the modification of the expression in a cell. For example, upon the binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a cell, the target polynucleotide is inactivated such that the sequence is not transcribed, the coded protein is not produced, or the sequence does not function as the wild-type sequence does. For example, a protein or microRNA coding sequence may be inactivated such that the protein or microRNA or pre-microRNA transcript is not produced. In some methods, a control sequence can be inactivated such that it no longer functions as a control sequence. As used herein, "control sequence" refers to any nucleic acid sequence that effects the transcription, translation, or accessibility of a nucleic acid sequence. Examples of a control sequence include, a promoter, a transcription terminator, and an enhancer are control sequences. The target polynucleotide of a CRISPR complex can be any polynucleotide endogenous or exogenous to the eukaryofie cell. For example, the target polynucleotide can be a polynucleotide residing in the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell. The target polynucleotide can be a sequence coding a gene product (e.g., a protein) or a non-coding sequence (e.g., a regulatory polynucleotide or a junk DNA). Examples of target polynucleotides include a sequence associated with a signaling biochemical pathway, e.g., a signaling biochemical pathway- associated gene or polynucleotide. Examples of target polynucleotides include a disease associated gene or polynucleotide. A "disease-associated" gene or polynucleotide refers to any gene or polynucleotide which is yielding transcription or translation products at an abnormal level or in an abnormal form in cells derived from a disease-affected tissues compared with tissues or ceils of a non disease control. It may be a gene that becomes expressed at an abnormally high level; it may be a gene that becomes expressed at an abnormally low level, where the aitered expression correlates with the occurrence and/or progression of the disease. A disease-associated gene also refers to a gene possessing mutatioii(s) or genetic variation that is direct!)' responsible or is in linkage disequilibrium with a gene(s) that is responsible for the etiology of a disease. The transcribed or translated products may be known or unknown, and may be at a normal or abnormal level. The target polynucleotide of a CRJSPR. complex can be any polynucleotide endogenous or exogenous to the eukaryotic cell. For example, the target polynucleotide can be a polynucleotide residing in the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell. The target polynucleotide can be a sequence coding a gene product (e.g., a protein) or a non-coding sequence (e.g., a regulatory polynucleotide or a junk DNA). Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the target sequence should be associated with a PAM (protospacer adjacent motif); that is, a short sequence recognized by the CRISPR complex. The precise sequence and length requirements for the PAM differ depending on the CR ISPR enzyme used, but PAMs are typically 2-5 base pair sequences adjacent the protospacer (that is, the target sequence). Examples of PAM sequences are given in the examples section below, and the skilled person will be able to identify further PAM sequences for use with a given CRISPR enzyme. In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of said target polynucleotide thereby modifying the target polynucleotide, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within said target polynucleot de, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence. In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying expression of a polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRJSPR complex to bind to the polynucleotide such that said binding results in increased or decreased expression of said polynucleotide; wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within said polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence. Similar considerations and conditions apply as above for methods of modifying a target polynucleotide. In fact, these sampling, cuiruring and re-introduction options apply across the aspects of the present invention. In one aspect, the invention provides for methods of modifying a target polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell, which may he in vivo, ex vivo or in vitro. In some embodiments, the method comprises sampling a cell or population of cells from a human or non-human animal, and modifying the cell or cells, Cuiruring may occur at any stage ex vivo. The cell or cells may even be re-introduced into the non-human animal or plant. For re-introduced cells it is particularly preferred that the cells are stem cells.

[0Θ167] Indeed, in any aspect of the invention, the CRISP complex may comprise a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence, wherein said guide sequence may be linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn may hybridize to a tracr sequence.

[00168] The invention relates to the engineering and optimization of systems, methods and compositions used for the control of gene expression involving sequence targeting, such as genome perturbation or gene-editing, that relate to the CRISP -Cas system and components thereof. In advantageous embodiments, the Cas enzyme is Cas9. An advantage of the present methods is that the CRISPR system minimizes or avoids off-target binding and its resulting side effects. This is achieved using systems arranged to have a high degree of sequence specificity for the target DNA.

Delivery generally

[00169] Vector delivery, e.g., plasmid, viral delivery: The CRISPR enzyme, for instance a Cas9, and/or any of the present RNAs, for instance a guide RNA, can be delivered using any suitable vector, e.g., plasmid or viral vectors, such as adeno associated vims (AAV), lentivirus, adenovirus or other viral vector types, or combinations thereof. Cas9 and one or more guide RNAs can be packaged into one or more vectors, e.g., plasmid or viral vectors. In some embodiments, the vector, e.g., plasmid or viral vector is delivered to the tissue of interest by, for example, an intramuscular injection, while other times the delivery is via intravenous, transdermal, intranasal, oral, mucosal, or other delivery methods. Such delivery may be either via a single dose, or multiple doses. One skilled in the art understands that the actual dosage to be delivered herein may vary greatly depending upon a variety of factors, such as the vector choice, the target cell, organism, or tissue, the general condition of the subject to be treated, the degree of transformation/modification sought, the administration route, the administration mode, the type of transibrmatiori/modification sought, etc.

[00170] Such a dosage may further contain, for example, a carrier (water, saline, ethanol, glycerol, lactose, sucrose, calcium phosphate, gelatin, dextran, agar, pectin, peanut oil, sesame oil, etc.), a diluent, a pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier (e.g., phosphate-buffered saline), a pharmaceutically-acceptable excipient, and/or other compounds known in the art. The dosage may further contain one or more pharmaceutically acceptable salts such as, for example, a mineral acid salt such as a hydrochloride, a hydrobromide, a phosphate, a sulfate, etc.; and the salts of organic acids such as acetates, propionates, malonates, benzoates, etc. Additionally, auxiliary substances, such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering substances, gels or gelling materials, flavorings, colorants, microspheres, polymers, suspension agents, etc. may also be present herein. In addition, one or more other conventional pharmaceutical ingredients, such as preservatives, humectants, suspending agents, surfactants, antioxidants, aiiticaking agents, fillers, chelating agents, coating agents, chemical stabilizers, etc. may also be present, especially if the dosage form is a reconstitutable form. Suitable exemplary ingredients include microcrystalline celiulose, carboxymethylcellulose sodium, poiysorbate 80, phenylethyi alcohol, ehlorobutanol, potassium sorbate, sorbic acid, sulfur dioxide, propyl gallate, the parabens, ethyl vanillin, glycerin, phenol, parachlorophenol, gelatin, albumin and a combination thereof. A thorough discussion of pharmaceutically acceptable excipients is available in REMINGTON'S PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES (Mack Pub. Co., N.J. 1991) which is incorporated by reference herein.

[00171] In an embodiment herein the delivery is via an adenovirus, which may be at a single booster dose containing at least 1 x 10⁵ particles (also referred to as particle units, pu) of adenoviral vector. In an embodiment herein, the dose preferably is at least about 1 x I0⁶ particles (for example, about 1 x 10⁶~1 x 1Q¹² particles), more preferably at least about 1 x 10^'' particles, more preferably at least about 1 x 10⁸ particles (e.g., about 1 x 10^δ-1 x 10^{3 J} particles or about 1 x 10 -1 x 10" particles), and most preferably at least about 1 x 10' particles (e.g., about 1 x 10⁹-1 x 10¹⁰ particles or about 1 x 10⁹-1 x 10¹² particles), or even at least about 1 x 10^{i 0} particles (e.g., about 1 x I0^IU-1 x 10^U particles) of the adenoviral vector. Alternatively, the dose comprises no more than about 1 x 10^{f 4} particles, preferably no more than about 1 x l O¹' particles, even more preferably no more than about 1 x 10 ^" particles, even more preferably no more than about 1 x 10^ri particles, and most preferably no more than about 1 x 10 ^!° particles (e.g., no more than about 1 x ! 0⁹ articles). Thus, the dose may contain a single dose of adenoviral vector with, for example, about 1 x 10⁶ particle units (pu), about 2 x 10⁶ pu, about 4 x 10⁶ pu, about 1 x 10⁷ pu, about 2 x 10⁷ pu, about 4 x 10 ' pu, about 1 x 10⁸ pu, about 2 x 10⁸ pu, about 4 x 10 pu, about 1 x 10^' pu, about 2 x HY pu, about 4 x 10' pu, about 1 10 ^" pu, about 2 x 10³⁰ pu, about 4 x 10¹⁰ pu, about 1 x 10¹¹ pu, about 2 x I0¹¹ pu, about 4 x I0ⁿ pu, about I x 10 ^{l '} pu, about 2 x 10^f pu, or about 4 x 1 G¹² pu of adenoviral vector. See, for example, the adenoviral vectors in U.S. Patent No. 8,454,972 B2 to Nabel, et. al, granted on June 4, 2013; incorporated by reference herein, and the dosages at col 29, lines 36-58 thereof. In an embodiment herein, the adenovirus is delivered via multiple doses.

[00172] In an embodiment herein, the delivery is via an AAV. A therapeutically effective dosage for in vivo delivery of the AAV to a human is believed to be in the range of from about 20 to about 50 ml of saline solution containing from about I x I0^1J to about I x I0^1J functional AAV/ml solution. The dosage may be adjusted to balance the therapeutic benefit against any side effects. In an embodiment herein, the AAV dose is generally in the range of concentrations of from about 1 x 10⁵ to 1 x 10⁵⁰ genomes AAA'^', from about 1 x 10⁸ to 1 x 10"° genomes AAV, from about 1 x 10^{i 0} to about 1 x 10^{! (1} genomes, or about 1 x I Q to about 1 x 10^{i 6} genomes AAV. A human dosage may be about 1 x 10^lj genomes AAV. Such concentrations may be delivered in from about 0.001 ml to about 100 ml, about 0.05 to about 50 ml, or about 10 to about 25 ml of a carrier solution. Other effective dosages can be readily established by one of ordinary skill in the art through routine trials establishing dose response curves. See, for example, U.S. Patent No. 8,404,658 B2 to Hajjar, et al, granted on March 26, 2013, at col. 27, lines 45-60.

[00173] In an embodiment herein the delivery is via a plasmid. In such plasmid compositions, the dosage should be a sufficient amount of plasmid to elicit a response. For instance, suitable quantities of plasmid DNA in plasmid compositions can be from about 0.1 to about 2 mg, or from about 1 _ug to about 10 μ£ per 70 kg individual. Plasmids of the invention will generally comprise (i) a promoter; (ii) a sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme, operably linked to said promoter; (iii) a selectable marker; (iv) an origin of replication; and (v) a transcription terminator downstream of and operably linked to (ii). The plasmid can also encode the RNA components of a CRISPR complex, but one or more of these may instead be encoded on a different vector. [00174] The doses herein are based on an average 70 kg individual. The frequency of administration is within the ambit of the medical or veterinary practitioner (e.g., physician, veterinarian), or scientist skilled in the art. It is also noted that mice used in experiments are typically about 20g and from mice experiments one can scale up to a 70 kg individual.

[00175] in some embodiments the RNA molecules of the invention are delivered in liposome or lipofectin formulations and the like and can be prepared by methods well known to those skilled in the art. Such methods are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,593,972, 5,589,466, and 5,580,859, which are herein incorporated by reference. Delivery systems aimed specifically at the enhanced and improved delivery of siRNA into mammalian cells have been developed, (see, for example, Shen et ai FEBS Let. 2003, 539: 111-1 14; Xia et al., Nat. Biotech.

2002, 20: 1006-1010; Reich et al., Mol. Vision. 2003, 9: 210-216; Sorensen et al, J. Viol. Biol.

2003, 327: 761-766; Lewis et al., Nat. Gen. 2002, 32: 107-108 and Simeoni et al, NAR 2003, 31, 11 : 2717-2724) and may be applied to the present invention. siRNA has recently been successfully used for inhibition of gene expression in primates (see for example. Tolentino et al., Retina 24(4): 660 which may also be applied to the present invention.

|00176| indeed, RNA deliver is a useful method of in vivo delivery. It is possible to deliver Cas9 and gRNA (and, for instance, HR repair template) into cells using liposomes or nanoparticles. Thus deliver}' of the CRISPR enzyme, such as a Cas9 and/or delivery of the RNAs of the invention may be in RNA form and via microvesicles, liposomes or nanoparticles. For example, Cas9 mRNA and gRNA can be packaged into liposomal particles for delivery in vivo. Liposomal transfection reagents such as lipofectamine from Life Technologies and other reagents on the market can effectively deliver RNA molecules into the liver.

[00177] Means of delivery of RNA also preferred include delivery of RNA via nanoparticles (Clio, S., Goldberg, M., Son, S., Xu, Q., Yang, F., Mei, Y., Bogatyrev, S., Langer, R. and Anderson, D., Lipid-like nanoparticles for small interfering RN A delivery to endothelial cells, Advanced Functional Materials, 19: 31 12-3118, 2010) or exosomes (Schroeder, A., Levins, C, Cortez, C, Langer, R., and Anderson, D., Lipid-based nanotherapeutics for siRNA delivery. Journal of Internal Medicine, 267: 9-21, 2010, PMID: 20059641). Indeed, exosomes have been shown to be particularly useful in delivery siRNA, a system with some parallels to the CRISPR system. For instance, Ei-Andaloussi S, et al. ("Exosome -mediated deliver}' of siRNA in vitro and in vivo." Nat Protoc. 2012 Dec;7(12):2112-26. doi: 10.1038/nprot.2012.131. Epub 2012 Nov 15.) describe how exosomes are promising tools for drag delivery across different biological barriers and can be harnessed for delivery of siRNA in vitro and in vivo. Their approach is to generate targeted exosomes through transfection of an expression vector, comprising an exosoraal protein fused with a peptide ligand. The exosomes are then purify and characterized from transfected cell supernatant, then RNA is loaded into the exosomes. Delivery or administration according to the invention can be performed with exosomes, in particular but not limited to the brain. Vitamin E ( a-tocophero 1) may be conjugated with CRISPR Cas and delivered to the brain along with high density lipoprotein (HDL), for example in a similar manner as was done by Uno et ai. (HUMAN GENE THERAPY 22:711-719 (June 201 1)) for delivering short-interfering RNA (siRNA) to the brain. Mice were infused via Osmotic minipumps (model 1007D; Alzet, Cupertino, CA) filled with phosphate -buffered saline (PBS) or free TocsiBACE or Toc-siBACE/HDL and connected with Brain Infusion Kit 3 (Alzet). A brain- infusion cannula was placed about 0.5mm posterior to the bregma at midline for infusion into the dorsal third ventricle. Uno et al. found that as little as 3 nmol of Toc-siRNA with HDL could induce a target reduction in comparable degree by the same ICV infusion method. A similar dosage of CRISPR Cas conjugated to α-tocophero 1 and co-administered with HDL targeted to the brain may be contemplated for humans in the present invention, for example, about 3 nmol to about 3 μτηο! of CRISPR Cas targeted to the brain may be contemplated. Zou et al. ((HUMAN GENE THERAPY 22:465-475 (April 201 1)) describes a method of Ientiviral -mediated delivery of short-hairpin RNAs targeting PKCy for in vivo gene silencing in the spinal cord of rats. Zou et ai. administered about 10 μΐ of a recombinant lentivirus having a titer of 1 x 10 transducing units (TU)/ml by an intrathecal catheter. A similar dosage of CRISPR Cas expressed in a Ientiviral vector targeted to the brain may be contemplated for humans in the present invention, for example, about 10-50 ml of CRISPR Cas targeted to the brain in a lentivirus having a titer of 1 X 10⁹ transducing units (TU)/ml may be contemplated.

[00178] In terms of local delivery to the brain, this can be achieved in various ways. For instance, material can be delivered i trastriatally e.g. by injection. Injection can be performed stereotactically via a craniotomy.

[0Θ179] Enhancing NHEJ or HR efficiency is also helpful for delivery. It is preferred that NHEJ efficiency is enhanced by co-expressing end-processing enzymes such as Trex2 (Dumitraciie et al. Genetics. 2011 August; 188(4): 787-797). It is preferred that HR efficiency is increased by transiently inhibiting NHEJ machineries such as u70 and Ku86. HR efficiency can also be increased by co-expressing prokaryotic or eukaryotic homologous recombination enzymes such as RecBCD, RecA.

Packaging and Promoters generally

[00180] Ways to package Cas9 coding nucleic acid molecules, e.g., D A, into vectors, e.g., viral vectors, to mediate genome modification in vivo include:

® To achieve NHEJ-mediated gene knockout:

• Single virus vector:

• Vector containing two or more expression cassettes:

® Promoter-Cas9 coding nucleic acid molecule -terminator

® Promoter-gR Al -terminator

• Promoter- g RN A2 -term in ator

• Promoter-gRNA(N)-terminator (up to size limit of vector)

• Double virus vector:

• Vector 1 containing one expression cassette for driving the expression of Cas9 ® Promoter-Cas9 coding nucleic acid molecule-terminator

• Vector 2 containing one more expression cassettes for driving the expression of one or more guideRNAs

® Promoter-gRNA 1 -terminator

• Promoter-gRNA(N)-term.inator (up to size limit of vector)

• To mediate homoiogy-directed repair.

® In addition to the single and double virus vector approaches described above, an additional vector may be used to deliver a homo logy-direct repair template.

[00181] The promoter used to drive Cas9 coding nucleic acid molecule expression can include: AAV ITR can serve as a promoter: this is advantageous for eliminating the need for an additional promoter element (which can take up space in the vector). The additional space freed up can be used to drive the expression of additional elements (gRNA, etc.). Also, ITR activity is relatively weaker, so can be used to reduce potential toxicity due to over expression of Cas9. For ubiquitous expression, any of the following promoters may be used: CMV, CAG, CBh, PG , SV40, Ferritin heavy or light chains, and so forth. For brain or other CNS expression, can use promoters: Synapsini for all neurons, Ca IIalpha for excitatory neurons, GAD67 or GAD65 or VGAT for GABAergic neurons, etc. For liver expression, one can use the Albumin promoter. For lung expression, one can use the use SP-B. For endothelial cells, one can use the use ICAM. For hematopoietic ceils one can use the use IFNbeta or CD45. For Osteoblasts can one can use the OG-2.

[00182] The promoter used to drive guide RNA can include: Pol II I promoters such as U6 or HI . Pol II promoter and intronic cassettes to express gRNA.

Adeno associated is as ( A AV - [0Θ183] Cas9 and one or more guide RNA can be delivered using adeno associated virus (AAV), lentivirus, adenovirus or other plasmid or viral vector types, in particular, using formulations and doses from, for example, US Patents Nos. 8,454,972 (formulations, doses for adenovirus), 8,404,658 (formulations, doses for AAV) and 5,846,946 (formulations, doses for DNA plasmids) and from clinical trials and publications regarding the clinical trials involving lentivirus, AAV and adenovirus. For examples, for AAV, the route of administration, formulation and dose can be as in US Patent No. 8,454,972 and as in clinical trials involving AAV. For Adenovirus, the route of administration, formulation and dose can be as in US Patent No, 8,404,658 and as in clinical trials involving adenovirus. For plasmid delivery, the route of administration, formulation and dose can be as in US Patent No 5,846,946 and as in clinical studies involving plasmids. Doses may be based on or extrapolated to an average 70 kg individual (e.g. a male adult human), and can be adjusted for patients, subjects, mammals of different weight and species. Frequency of administration is within the ambit of the medical or veterinary practitioner (e.g., physician, veterinarian), depending on usual factors including the age, sex, general health, other conditions of the patient or subject and the particular condition or symptoms being addressed. The viral vectors can be injected into the tissue of interest. For cell- type specific genome modification, the expression of Cas9 can be driven by a cell-type specific promoter. For example, liver-specific expression might use the Albumin promoter and neuron- specific expression (e.g. for targeting CNS disorders) might use the Synapsin I promoter. In terms of in vivo delivery, AAV is advantageous over other viral vectors for a couple of reasons: Low toxicity (this may be due to the purification method not requiring ultra centrifugation of cell particles that can activate the immune response).

[00184J Low probability of causing insertional mutagenesis because it doesn't integrate into the host genome. [00185] AAV has a packaging limit of 4.5 or 4.75 Kb. This means that Cas9 as well as a promoter and transcription terminator have to be all fit into the same viral vector. Constructs larger than 4.5 or 4.75 Kb will lead to significantly reduced vims production. SpCas9 is quite large, the gene itself is over 4.1 Kb, which makes it difficult for packing into AAV. Therefore embodiments of the invention include utilizing homologs of Cas9 that are shorter. For example:

Species Cas9 Size

Corynebacter diphtheriae 3252

Eubacteri m ventriosum 3321

Streptococcus pasteurianus 3390

Lactobacillus farciminis 3378

Sphaerochaeta globus 3537

Azospirillum B510 3504

G 1 uconacetobac ter di azotroph icus 3150

Neisseria cinerea 3246

Roseburia intestinaiis 3420

Parvibaculum lavamentivorans 31 1 1

Staphylococcus aureus 3159

Nitratifractor salsuginis DSM 1651 1 3396

Campylobacter lari CF89-12 3009

Streptococcus thermophilus LMD-9 3396

[00186] These species are therefore, in general, preferred Cas9 species.

[00187] As to AAV, the AAV can be AAV l , AAV2, AAV5 or any combination thereof. One can select the AAV of the AAV with regard to the cells to be targeted; e.g., one can select AAV serotypes 1 , 2, 5 or a hybrid capsid AAVl , A AV2, AAV5 or any combination thereof for targeting brain or neuronal ceils; and one can select AAV4 for targeting cardiac tissue. AAV8 is useful for delivery to the liver. The herein promoters and vectors are preferred individually. A tabulation of certain AAV serotypes as to these cells (see Grimm, D. et al, J. Virol. 82: 5887- 591 1 (2008)) is as follows:

eWo 10 100 20 0.3 6.7 10 1 .0 0.2

NIH3T3 10 100 2,9 2.9 0.3 10 0.3 ND

A549 14 100 20 ND 0.5 10 0.5 0.1

HT1 180 20 100 10 0.1 0.3 33 0.5 0.1

Monocytes 1 1 1 1 100 ND ND 125 1429 ND ND

Immature DC 2500 100 ND ND 222 2857 ND ND

Mature DC 2222 100 ND ND 333 3333 ND ND

Lentivirus

[00188] Lenti viruses are complex retroviruses that have the ability to infect and express their genes in both mitotic and post-mitotic cells. The most commonly known lentivirus is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which uses the envelope glycoproteins of other viruses to target a broad range of cell types.

[00189] Lentiviruses may be prepared as follows. After cloning pCasES!O (which contains a lentiviral transfer plasmid backbone), HEK293FT at low passage (p=5) were seeded in a T-75 flask to 50% confluence the day before transfection in DMEM with 10% fetal bovine serum and without antibiotics. After 20 hours, media was changed to OptiMEM (serum-free) media and transfection was done 4 hours later. Cells were transfected with 10 iig of lentiviral transfer plasmid (pCasESlO) and the following packaging plasmids: 5 _tug of pMD2.G (VSV-g pseudotype), and 7.5ug of psPAX2 (gag/pol/rev/tat). Transfection was done in 4mL OptiMEM with a cationic lipid delivery agent (50uL Lipofectamme 2000 and lOOul Plus reagent). After 6 hours, the media was changed to antibiotic-free DM EM with 10% fetal bovine serum. These methods use serum during cell culture, but serum-free methods are preferred.

[00190] Lentivirus may be purified as follows. Viral supernatants were harvested after 48 hours. Supernatants were first cleared of debris and filtered through a 0.45um low protein binding (PVDF) filter. They were then spun in a ultracentrifuge for 2 hours at 24,000 rpm. Viral pellets were resuspended in 50ul of DMEM overnight at 4C. They were then aliquotted and immediately frozen at -80°C.

[00191] In another embodiment, minimal non-primate lentiviral vectors based on the equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) are also contemplated, especially for ocular gene therapy (see, e.g., Balagaan, J Gene Med 2006; 8: 275 - 285). In another embodiment, RetinoStat®, an equine infectious anemia virus-based lentiviral gene therapy vector that expresses angiostatic proteins endostatm and angiosiatin that is delivered via a subretinal injection for the treatment of the web form of age-related macular degeneration is also contemplated (see, e.g., Binley et ai., HUMAN GENE THERAPY 23:980-991 (September 2012)) and this vector may be modified for the CRISPR-Cas system of the present invention.

[00192] In another embodiment, self-inactivating lentiviral vectors with an siRNA targeting a common exon shared by HIV tat/rev, a nucleolar-locaiizing TAR decoy, and an anti~CC 5- specific hammerhead ribozyme (see, e.g., DiGiusto et al. (2010) Sci Transl Med 2:36ra43) may be used/and or adapted to the CR ISPR-Cas system of the present invention. A minimum of 2.5 x 106 CD34+ cells per kilogram patient weight may be collected and prestimulated for 16 to 20 hours in X-VIVO 15 medium (Lonza) containing 2 moi/L-glutamine, stem cell factor (100 ng/ml), Flt-3 ligand (Flt-3L) (100 ng/ml), and thrombopoietin (10 ng/ml) (CellGenix) at a density of 2 x 106 cells/ml. Prestimulated cells may be transduced with lentiviral at a multiplicity of infection of 5 for 16 to 24 hours in 75-cm2 tissue culture flasks coated with fibronectin (25 mg/cm2) (RetroNectin,Takara Bio Inc.).

[00193] Lentiviral vectors have been disclosed as in the treatment for Parkinson's Disease, see, e.g., US Patent Publication No. 20120295960 and US Patent Nos. 7303910 and 7351585. Lentiviral vectors have also been disclosed for the treatment of ocular diseases, see e.g., US Patent Publication Nos. 20060281180, 20090007284, US201 10117189; US20090017543; US20070054961, US20100317109. Lentiviral vectors have also been disclosed for delivery to the brain, see, e.g., US Patent Publication Nos. US201 10293571; US20110293571, US20040013648, US20070025970, US20090111106 and US Patent No. US7259015.

RNA delivery

[0Θ194] RNA delivery: The CRISPR enzyme, for instance a Cas9, and/or any of the present RNAs, for instance a guide RNA, can also be delivered in the form of RNA. Cas9 mRNA can be generated using in vitro transcription. For example, Cas9 mRNA can be synthesized using a PGR cassette containing the following elements: T7 promoter-kozak sequence (GCCACC)-Cas9-3 ' UTR from beta globin-polyA tail (a string of 120 or more adenines). The cassette can be used for transcription by T7 polymerase. Guide RNAs can also be transcribed using in vitro transcription from a cassette containing T7_promoter-GG-guide RNA sequence.

[0Θ195] To enhance expression and reduce possible toxicity, the CRISPR enzyme-coding sequence and/or the guide RNA can be modified to include one or more modified nucleoside e.g. using pseudo-U or 5-Methyl-C, [00196] mRNA delivery methods are especially promising for liver delivery currently.

[00197] Much clinical work on RNA delivery has focused on RNAi or antisense, but these systems can be adapted for delivery of RNA for implementing the present invention. References below to RNAi etc. should be read accordingly.

Nanoparticles

[00198] CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA may be delivered simultaneously using nanoparticles or lipid envelopes.

[0Θ199] For example, Su X, Fricke J, Kavanagh DG, Indue DJ ("In vitro and in vivo mRNA delivery using lipid-enveloped pH -responsive polymer nanoparticles" Mol Pharm. 201 1 Jun 6;8(3):774-87. doi: 10.1021/mp 100390w. Epub 201 1 Apr 1) describes biodegradable core-shell structured nanoparticles with a poIy(p~amino ester) (PBAE) core enveloped by a phospholipid bilayer shell. These were developed for in vivo mRNA delivery. The pH-responsive PBAE component was chosen to promote endosome disruption, while the lipid surface layer was selected to minimize toxicity of the polycation core. Such are, therefore, preferred for delivering RNA of the present invention.

[00200] In one embodiment, nanoparticles based on self assembling bioadhesive polymers are contemplated, which may be applied to oral delivery of peptides, intravenous delivery of peptides and nasal delivery of peptides, all to the brain. Other embodiments, such as oral absorption and ocular delivery of hydrophobic drugs are also contemplated. The molecular envelope technology involves an engineered polymer envelope which is protected and delivered to the site of the disease (see, e.g., Mazza, M, et al. ACSNano, 2013. 7(2): 1016-1026; Siew, A., et al. Mol Pharm, 2012. 9(1): 14-28; Laiatsa, A., et al. J Contr Rel, 2012. 161(2):523-36; Lalatsa, A., et al., Mol Pharm, 2012. 9(6): 1665-80; Lalatsa, A., et al. Mol Pharm, 2012. 9(6): 1764-74; Garrett, N.L., et al, J Biophotonics, 2012. 5(5-6):458-68; Garrett, NX., et al. J Raman Spect, 2012. 43(5):681-688; Ahmad, S., et al. J Royal Soc Interface 2010. 7:8423-33; Uchegbu, I.F. Expert Opii Drug Deliv, 2006. 3(5):629-40; Qu, X.,et al. Biomacromolecules, 2006. 7(12):3452- 9 and Uchegbu, IF., et al. Int. J Pharm, 2001. 224: 185-199). Doses of about 5 mg/kg are contemplated, with single or multiple doses, depending on the target tissue.

[00201] In one embodiment, nanoparticles that can deliver RNA to a cancer ceil to stop tumor growth developed by Dan Anderson's lab at MIT may be used/and or adapted to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. In particular, the Anderson lab developed fully automated, combinatorial systems for the synthesis, purification, characterization, and formulation of new biom.ateri.als and nanoformuiations. See, e.g., Aiabi et a!., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Aug 6:110(32): 12881-6; Zhang et al., Adv Mater. 2013 Sep 6;25(33):4641-5; Jiang et al.., Nano Lett. 2013 Mar 13;13(3): 1059-64; Karagianms et al, ACS Nano. 20.12 Oct 23;6(10):8484-7; Whitehead et al, ACS Nano. 2012 Aug 28;6(8):6922-9 and Lee et al., Nat Nanotechnol. 2012 Jun 3;7(6):389-93.

[00202 J US patent application 201 10293703 relates to lipidoid compounds are also particularly useful in the administration of polynucleotides, which may be applied to deliver the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. In one aspect, the aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds are combined with an agent to be delivered to a cell or a subject to form microparticles, nanoparticles, liposomes, or micelles. The agent to be delivered by the particles, liposomes, or micelles may be in the form of a gas, liquid, or solid, and the agent may be a polynucleotide, protein, peptide, or small molecule. The minoalcohol lipidoid compounds may be combined with other aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds, polymers (synthetic or natural), surfactants, cholesterol, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, etc. to form the particles. These particles may then optionally be combined with a pharmaceutical excipient to form a pharmaceutical composition.

[00203] US Patent Publication No. 201 10293703 also provides methods of preparing the aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds. One or more equivalents of an amine are allowed to react with one or more equivalents of an epoxide -terminated compound under suitable conditions to form an aminoalcohol lipidoid compound of the present invention. In certain embodiments, all the amino groups of the amine are fully reacted with the epoxide-terminated compound to form tertiary amines. In other embodiments, all the amino groups of the amine are not fully reacted with the epoxide-terminated compound to form tertiary amines thereby resulting in primary or secondary amines in the aminoalcohol lipidoid compound. These primary or secondary amines are left as is or may be reacted with another electrophile such as a different epoxide-terminated compound. As will be appreciated by one skilled in the art, reacting an amine with less than excess of epoxide-terminated compound will result in a plurality of different aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds with various numbers of tails. Certain amines may be fully functionalized with two epoxide-derived compound tails while other molecules will not be completely functionalized with epoxide-derived compound tails. For example, a diamine or polyamine may include one, two, three, or four epoxide-derived compound tails off the various amino moieties of the molecule resulting in primary, secondary, and tertiary amines. In certain embodiments, all the amino groups are not fully funetionaiized. in certain embodiments, two of the same types of epoxide-terminated compounds are used. In other embodiments, two or more different epoxide- terminated compounds are used. The synthesis of the aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds is performed with or without solvent, and the synthesis may be performed at higher temperatures ranging from 30-100 °C, preferably at approximately 50-90 °C. The prepared aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds may be optionally purified. For example, the mixture of aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds may be purified to yield an aminoalcohol lipidoid compound with a particular number of epoxide-derived compound tails. Or the mixture may be purified to yield a particular stereo- or regioisomer. The aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds may also be alkylated using an alkyl halide (e.g., methyl iodide) or other alkylating agent, and/or they may be acylated.

[0Θ204] US Patent Publication No. 20110293703 also provides libraries of aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds prepared by the inventive methods. These aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds may be prepared and/or screened using high-throughput techniques involving liquid handlers, robots, microliter plates, computers, etc. In certain embodiments, the aminoalcohol lipidoid compounds are screened for their ability to transfeet polynucleotides or other agents (e.g., proteins, peptides, small molecules) into the cell.

[00205] US Patent Publication No. 20130302401 relates to a class of poly(beta-ammo alcohols) (PBAAs) has been prepared using combinatorial polymerization. The inventive PBAAs may be used in biotechnology and biomedical applications as coatings (such as coatings of films or multilayer films for medical devices or implants), additives, materials, excipients, non- biofouling agents, micropatterning agents, and cellular encapsulation agents. When used as surface coatings, these PBAAs elicited different levels of inflammation, both in vitro and in vivo, depending on their chemical structures. The large chemical diversity of this class of materials allowed us to identify polymer coatings that inhibit macrophage activation in vitro. Furthermore, these coatings reduce the recruitment of inflammatory cells, and reduce fibrosis, following the subcutaneous implantation of carboxylated polystyrene microparticles. These polymers may be used to form polyelectrolyte complex capsules for cell encapsulation. The invention may also have many other biological applications such as antimicrobial coatings, D A or si NA deliver}', and stem cell tissue engineering. The teachings of US Patent Publication No. 20130302401 may be applied to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

[00206] In another embodiment, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are contemplated. An antitransthyretin small interfering RNA has been encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles and delivered to humans (see, e.g., Coelho et al,, N Engl J Med 2013;369:819-29), and such a ssystem may be adapted and applied to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. Doses of about 0,01 to about 1 mg per kg of body weight administered intravenously are contemplated. Medications to reduce the risk of infusion-related reactions are contemplated, such as dexamethasone, acetampmophen, diphenhydramine or eetirizine, and ranitidine are contemplated. Multiple doses of about 0.3 mg per kilogram every 4 weeks for five doses are also contemplated.

[00207] LNPs have been shown to be highly effective in delivering siRNAs to the liver (see, e.g., Tabemero et al, Cancer Discovery, April 2013, Vol. 3, No. 4, pages 363-470) and are therefore contemplated for delivering RNA encoding CRISPR Cas to the liver. A dosage of about four doses of 6 mg/kg of the LNP every two weeks may be contemplated. Tabemero et al. demonstrated that tumor regression was observed after the first 2 cycles of LNPs dosed at 0.7 mg/kg, and by the end of 6 cycles the patient had achieved a partial response with complete regression of the lymph node metastasis and substantial shrinkage of the liver tumors. A complete response was obtained after 40 doses in this patient, who has remained in remission and completed treatment after receiving doses over 26 months. Two patients with RCC and extrahepatic sites of disease including kidney, lung, and lymph nodes that were progressing following prior therapy with VEGF pathway inhibitors had stable disease at all sites for approximately 8 to 12 months, and a patient with PNET and liver metastases continued on the extension study for 18 months (36 doses) with stable disease.

[00208] However, the charge of the LNP must be taken into consideration. As cationic lipids combined with negatively charged lipids to induce nonbilayer structures that facilitate intracellular delivery. Because charged LNPs are rapidly cleared from circulation following intravenous injection, ionizable cationic lipids with p&a values below 7 were developed (see, e.g., Rosin et al, Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no. 12, pages 1286-2200, Dec. 2011). Negatively charged polymers such as RNA may be loaded into LNPs at low pH values (e.g., pH 4) where the ionizable lipids display a positive charge. However, at physiological pH values, the LNPs exhibit a low surface charge compatible with longer circulation times. Four species of iomzahle cationic lipids have been focused upon, namely l,2-dilineoyI-3-dimethylammonium-propane (DLinDAP), 1 ,2-dilinoleyloxy-3-N,N-dimethylaminopropane (DLinDMA), 1 ,2-dilinoleyloxy- keto-N,N-dim.ethyl-3-ammopropane (DLinKDMA), and 1 ,2-dilinoleyi-4-(2- dimethyiammoethyl)-[l ,3]-dioxolane (DLinKC2-DMA). it has been shown that LNP siR A systems containing these lipids exhibit remarkably different gene silencing properties in hepatocytes in vivo, with potencies varying according to the series DLinKC2- DMA>DLinKDMA>DLinDMA»DLinDAP employing a Factor VII gene silencing model (see, e.g., Rosin et al, Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no. 12, pages 1286-2200, Dec. 2011). A dosage of 1 pg ml of LNP or CRISPR-Cas RNA in or associated with the LNP may be contemplated, especially for a formulation containing DLinKC2-DMA.

[00209] Preparation of LNPs and CRISPR Cas encapsulation may be used/and or adapted from Rosin et al, Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no. 12, pages 1286-2200, Dec. 2011). The cationic lipids 1 ,2-dilineoyl-3-dimethyiammonium-propane (DLinDAP), 1 ,2-dilinoleyloxy-3~N,N- dimethylaminopropane (DLinDMA), 1 ,2-dilmoleyloxyketo-N,N-dimethyl-3 -aminopropane (DLinK-DMA), l,2-dilinoleyl-4-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)-[l,3]-dioxoiane (DLinKC2~DMA), (3- o-[2"-(methoxypolyethyleneglycol 2000) succinoyl]- 1 ,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycol (PEG-S-DMG), and R-3-[(o)~methoxy-poiy(ethylene giycol)2000) carbamoyl] - 1 ,2-dimyristyloxlpropy i-3 -amine (PEG-C-DOMG) may be provided by Tekmira Pharmaceuticals (Vancouver, Canada) or synthesized. Cholesterol may be purchased from Sigma (St Louis, MO). The specific CRISPR Cas RNA may be encapsulated in LNPs containing DLinDAP, DLinDMA, DLinK-DMA, and DLinKC2-DMA (cationic lipid:DSPC:CHOL: PEGS-DMG or PEG-C-DOMG at 40:10:40: 10 molar ratios). When required, 0.2% SP~DiOC18 (Invitrogen, Burlington, Canada) may be incorporated to assess cellular uptake, intracellular delivery, and biodistribution. Encapsulation may be performed by dissolving lipid mixtures comprised of cationic lipid:DSPC:cholesterol:PEG-c-DOMG (40: 10:40:10 molar ratio) in ethanol to a final lipid concentration of 10 mmol/1. This ethanol solution of lipid may be added drop-wise to 50 mrnol/1 citrate, pH 4.0 to form multilamellar vesicles to produce a final concentration of 30% ethanol vol/vol. Large unilamellar vesicles may be formed following extrusion of multilamellar vesicles through two stacked 80 nm Nuclepore polycarbonate filters using the Extmder (Northern Lipids, Vancouver, Canada). Encapsulation may be achieved by adding RNA dissolved at 2 mg ml in 50 mmoi/1 citrate, H 4.0 containing 30% ethanol vol/vol drop-wise to extruded preformed large unilamellar vesicles and incubation at 31 °C for 30 minutes with constant mixing to a final RNA/lipid weight ratio of 0.06/1 wt/^'wt. Removal of ethanol and neutralization of formulation buffer were performed by dialysis against phosphate -buffered saline (PBS), pB 7.4 for 16 hours using Spectra/Por 2 regenerated cellulose dialysis membranes. Natioparticle size distribution may be determmed by dynamic light scattering using a NICOMP 370 particle sizer, the vesicle/intensity modes, and Gaussian fitting (Nicomp Particle Sizing, Santa Barbara, CA). The particle size for all three LNP systems may be -70 nm in diameter. RNA encapsulation efficiency may be determined by removal of free RNA using VivaPureD MiniH columns (Sartorius Stedim Biotech) from samples collected before and after dialysis. The encapsulated RNA may be extracted from the eluted nanopardcles and quantified at 260 nm. RNA to lipid ratio was determined by measurement of cholesterol content in vesicles using the Cholesterol E enzymatic assay from Wako Chemicals USA (Richmond, VA). In conjunction with the herein discussion of LNPs and PEG lipids, PEGylated liposomes or LNPs are likewise suitable for delivery of a CRISPR-Cas system or components thereof.

[00210J Preparation of large LNPs may be used/and or adapted from Rosin et al, Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no. 12, pages 1286-2200, Dec. 2011. A lipid premix solution (20.4 mg/ml total lipid concentration) may be prepared in ethanol containing DLmKC2-DMA, DSPC, and cholesterol at 50: 10:38.5 molar ratios. Sodium acetate may be added to the lipid premix at a molar ratio of 0.75:1 (sodium acetate:DLin C2-DMA). The lipids may be subsequently hydrated by combining the mixture with 1 .85 volumes of citrate buffer (10 mmol/i, pH 3.0) with vigorous stirring, resulting in spontaneous liposome formation in aqueous buffer containing 35% ethanol. The liposome solution may be incubated at 37 °C to allow for time-dependent increase in particle size. Aliquots may be removed at various times during incubation to investigate changes in liposome size by dynamic light scattering (Zetasizer Nano ZS, Malvern Instruments, Worcestershire, UK). Once the desired particle size is achieved, an aqueous PEG lipid solution (stock ^::: 10 mg/ml PEG-DMG in 35% (vol/vol) ethanol) may be added to the liposome mixture to yield a final PEG molar concentration of 3.5% of total lipid. Upon addition of PEG-lipids, the liposomes should their size, effectively quenching further growth. RNA may then be added to the empty liposomes at an RNA to total lipid ratio of approximately 1 : 10 (wt:wt), followed by incubation for 30 minutes at 37 °C to form loaded LNPs. The mixture may be subsequently dialyzed overnigh in PBS and filtered with a 0,45~μτη syringe filter.

[00211] Spherical Nucleic Acid (SNA™) constructs and other nanoparticies (particularly gold nanoparticies) are also contemplated as a means to delivery CRISPR-Cas system to intended targets. Significant data show that AuraSense Therapeutics' Spherical Nucleic Acid (SNA™) constructs, based upon nucleic acid-functionaiized gold nanoparticies, are useful.

[00212 J Literature that may be employed in conjunction with herein teachings include: Cutler et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011 133:9254-9257, Hao et al., Small. 2011 7:3158-3162, Zhang et al., ACS Nano. 2011 5:6962-6970, Cutler et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc, 2012 134: 1376-1391 , Young et al., Nano Lett. 2012 12:3867-71 , Zheng et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2012 109: 11975- 80, Mirkin, Nanomedicine 2012 7:635-638 Zhang et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 2012 134: 16488- 1691, Weintraub, Nature 2013 495:S14-S 16, Choi et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2013 110(19):7625-7630, Jensen et al, Sci. Transl. Med. 5, 209ral52 (2013) and Mirkin, et al, Small, 10: 186-192,

[0Θ213] Self-assembling nanoparticies with RNA may be constructed with polyethyieneimine (PEI) that is PEGylated with an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptide ligand attached at the distal end of the polyethylene glycol (PEG). This system has been used, for example, as a means to target tumor neovascttlature expressing integrins and deliver siRNA inhibiting vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGF R2) expression and thereby achieve tumor angiogenesis (see, e.g., Schiffelers et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 2004, Vol. 32, No. 19). Nanoplexes may be prepared by mixing equal volumes of aqueous solutions of cationic polymer and nucleic acid to give a net molar excess of ionizable nitrogen (polymer) to phosphate (nucleic acid) over the range of 2 to 6. The electrostatic interactions between cationic polymers and nucleic acid resulted in the formation of polyplexes with average particle size distribution of about 100 nm, hence referred to here as nanoplexes. A dosage of about 100 to 200 mg of CRISPR Cas is envisioned for delivery in the self-assembling nanoparticies of Schiffelers et al.

[00214] The nanoplexes of Bartlett et al. (PNAS, September 25, 2007,voi. 104, no. 39) may also be applied to the present invention. The nanoplexes of Bartlett et al. are prepared by mixing equal volumes of aqueous solutions of cationic polymer and nucleic acid to give a net molar excess of ionizable nitrogen (polymer) to phosphate (nucleic acid) over the range of 2 to 6. The electrostatic interactions between cationic polymers and nucleic acid resulted in the formation of polyplexes with average particle size distribution of about 100 nm, hence referred to here as nanoplexes. The DOTA-siRNA of Bartiett et al. was synthesized as follows: 1,4,7,10- tetraazacyclododecane- 1 ,4,7, 10-tetraacetic acid mono(N-hydroxysuccinimide ester) (DOTA- NHSester) was ordered from Macrocyclics (Dallas, TX). The amine modified RNA sense strand with a 100-fold molar excess of DOTA-NBS-ester in carbonate buffer (pH 9) was added to a microcentrifuge tube. The contents were reacted by stirring for 4 h at room temperature. The DOTA-RNAsense conjugate was ethanol-precipitated, resuspended in water, and annealed to the unmodified antisense strand to yield DOTA-siRNA. Ail liquids were pretreated with Chelex-100 (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA) to remove trace metal contaminants. Tf-targeted and nontargeted siRNA nanoparticles may be formed by using cyclodextrin-eontaining polyeations. Typically, nanoparticles were formed in water at a charge ratio of 3 (+./-) and an siRNA concentration of 0.5 g/liter. One percent of the adamantane-PEG molecules on the surface of the targeted nanoparticles were modified with Tf (adamantane-PEG-Tf). The nanoparticles were suspended in a 5% (wt/vol) glucose carrier solution for injection.

[0Θ215] Davis et al. (Nature, Vol 464, 15 April 2010) conducts a RNA clinical trial that uses a targeted tianoparticle-defivery system (clinical trial registration number NCT00689065), Patients with solid cancers refractory to standard-of-care therapies are administered doses of targeted nanoparticles on days 1 , 3, 8 and 10 of a 21 -day cycle by a 30-min intravenous infusion. The nanoparticles consist of a synthetic delivery system containing: (1) a linear, cyclodextrin-based polymer (CDP), (2) a human transferrin protein (TF) targeting ligand displayed on the exterior of the nanoparticle to engage TF receptors (TFR) on the surface of the cancer cells, (3) a hydropiiiiic polymer (polyethylene glycol (PEG) used to promote nanoparticle stability in biological fluids), and (4) siRNA designed to reduce the expression of the RRM2 (sequence used in the clinic was previously denoted siR2B+5). The TFR has long been known to be upregulated in malignant cells, and RRM2 is an established anti-cancer target. These nanoparticles (clinical version denoted as CALAA-01) have been shown to be well tolerated in multi-dosing studies in non-human primates. Although a single patient with chronic myeloid leukaemia has been administered siRNAby liposomal delivery, Davis et al.'s clinical trial is the initial human trial to systemicallv deliver siRNA with a targeted deliver}_' system and to treat patients with solid cancer. To ascertain whether the targeted deliver system can provide effective delivery of functional siRNA to human tumours, Davis et al. investigated biopsies from three patients from three different dosing cohorts; patients A, B and C, all of whom had metastatic melanoma and received CALAA-01 doses of 18, 24 and 30 mg m^" siRNA, respectively. Similar doses may also be contemplated for the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. The delivery of the invention may be achieved with nanoparticles containing a linear, cyclodextrin-based polymer (CDP), a human transferrin protein (TF) targeting ligand displayed on the exterior of the nanoparticle to engage TF receptors (TFR) on the surface of the cancer cells and/or a hydrophilic polymer (for example, polyethylene glycol (PEG) used to promote nanoparticle stability in biological fluids).

Particle delivery systems and/or formulations :

[00216] Several types of particle delivery systems and/or formulations are known to be useful in a diverse spectrum of biomedical applications. In general, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit with respect to its transport and properties. Particles are further classified according to diameter Coarse particles cover a range between 2,500 and 10,000 nanometers. Fine particles are sized between 100 and 2,500 nanometers, Ultrafine particles, or nanoparticles, are generally between I and 100 nanometers in size. The basis of the 100-nm limit is the fact that novel properties that differentiate particles from the bulk material typically develop at a cri tical length scale of under 100 nm.

[00217] As used herein, a particle delivery system/formulation is defined as any biological delivery system/formulation which includes a particle in accordance with the present invention. A particle in accordance with the present invention is any entity having a greatest dimension (e.g. diameter) of less than 100 microns (μτη). in some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension of less than 10 itm. In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension of less than 2000 nanometers (nm). In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension of less than 1000 nanometers (nm). In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension of less than 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, or 100 nm. Typically, inventive particles have a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 500 nm or less. In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 250 nm or less. In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 200 nm or less. In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 150 nm or less. In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 100 nm or less. Smaller particles, e.g., having a greatest dimension of 50 nm or less are used in some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, inventive particles have a greatest dimension ranging between 25 nm and 200 nm.

[00218] Particle characterization (including e.g., characterizing morphology, dimension, etc.) is done using a variety of different techniques. Common techniques are electron microscopy (TEM, SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray photoeiectron spectroscopy (XPS), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-ffight mass spectiOmetry(MALDI-TOF), ultraviolet- visible spectroscopy, dual polarisation interferometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR.). Characterization (dimension measurements) may be made as to native particles (i.e., preloading) or after loading of the cargo (herein cargo refers to e.g., one or more components of CRJSPR-Cas system e.g., CRISPR enzyme or mRNA or guide RNA, or any combination thereof, and may include additional carriers and/or excipients) to provide particles of an optimal size for delivery for any in vitro, ex vivo and/or in vivo application of the present invention. In certain preferred embodiments, particle dimension (e.g., diameter) characterization is based on measurements using dynamic laser scattering (DLS). Mention is made of US Patent No. 8,709,843; US Patent No. 6,007,845; US Patent No. 5,855,913; US Patent No. 5,985,309; US. Patent No. 5,543,158; and the publication by James E. Dahlman and Carmen Barnes et al. Nature Nanotechnology (2014) published online 11 May 2014, doi: 10.1038/nnano.2014.84, concerning particles, methods of making and using them and measurements thereof.

[00219 J Particles deliver)' systems within the scope of the present invention may be provided in any form, including but not limited to solid, semi-solid, emulsion, or colloidal particles. As such any of the delivery systems described herein, including but not limited to, e.g., lipid-based systems, liposomes, micelles, microvesicles, exosomes, or gene gun may be provided as particle delivery systems within the scope of the present invention.

Nanopa.rti.cles

[00220] In terms of this invention, it is preferred to have one or more components of CRISPR complex, e.g., CRISPR enzyme or mRNA or guide RNA delivered using nanoparticles or lipid envelopes. Other deliver}' systems or vectors are may be used in conjunction with the nanoparticle aspects of the invention. [00221] In general, a "nanopartiele" refers to any particle having a diameter of less than 1000 rim. In certain preferred embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension (e.g., diameter) of 500 nm or less. In other preferred embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension ranging between 25 nm and 200 nm. In other preferred embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension of 100 nm or less. In other preferred embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension ranging between 35 nm and 60 nm.

[0Θ222] Nanoparticles encompassed in the present invention may be provided in different forms, e.g., as solid nanoparticles (e.g., metal such as silver, gold, iron, titanium), non-metal, lipid-based solids, polymers), suspensions of nanoparticles, or combinations thereof. Metal, dielectric, and semiconductor nanoparticles may be prepared, as well as hybrid structures (e.g., core-shell nanoparticles). Nanoparticles made of semiconducting material may also be labeled quantum dots if they are small enough (typically sub 10 nm) that quantization of electronic energy levels occurs. Such nanoscale particles are used in biomedical applications as drug carriers or imaging agents and may be adapted for similar purposes in the present invention.

[00223 J Semi-solid and soft nanoparticles have been manufactured, and are within the scope of the present invention. A prototype nanopartiele of semi-solid nature is the liposome. Various types of liposome nanoparticles are currently used clinically as delivery systems for anticancer drugs and vaccines. Nanoparticles with one half hydrophilic and the other half hydrophobic are termed Janus particles and are particularly effective for stabilizing emulsions. They can self- assemble at water/oil interfaces and act as solid surfactants.

[0Θ224] US Patent No. 8,709,843, incorporated herein by reference, provides a drug delivery system for targeted delivery of therapeutic agent-containing particles to tissues, cells, and intracellular compartments. The invention provides targeted particles comprising comprising polymer conjugated to a surfactant, hydrophilic polymer or lipid.

[00225] US Patent No. 6,007,845, incorporated herein by reference, provides particles which have a core of a multiblock copolymer formed by covalently linking a multifunctional compound with one or more hydrophobic polymers and one or more hydrophilic polymers, and conatm a biologically active material.

[00226] US Patent No. 5,855,913, incorporated herein by reference, provides a particulate composition having aerodynamically light particles having a tap density of less than 0.4 g cm3 with a mean diameter of between 5 μηι and 30 μηι, incorporating a surfactant on the surface thereof for drug delivery to the pulmonary system.

[00227] US Patent No, 5,985,309, incorporated herein by reference, provides particles incorporating a surfactant and/or a hydrophilic or hydrophobic complex of a positively or negatively charged therapeutic or diagnostic agent and a charged molecule of opposite charge for delivery to the pulmonary system,

[00228] US, Patent No, 5,543,158, incorporated herein by reference, provides biodegradable injectable nanoparticles having a biodegradable solid core containing a biologically active material and poiy(alkylene glycol) moieties on the surface.

[00229] WO2012135025 (also published as US20120251560), incorporated herein by reference, describes conjugated polyethyleneimine (PEI) polymers and conjugated aza- macrocycles (collectively referred to as "conjugated lipomer" or "lipomers"). In certain embodiments, it can envisioned that such conjugated lipomers can be used in the context of the CRISPR-Cas system to achieve in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo genomic perturbations to modify gene expression, including modulation of protein expression.

[00230] In one embodiment, the nanoparticle may be epoxide -modified lipid-polymer, advantageously 7C1 (see, e.g., James E. Dahlman and Carmen Barnes et al. Nature Nanotechnology (2014) published online 11 May 2014, doi: 10.1038/nnano.2014.84). C71 was synthesized by reacting C15 epoxide-terminated lipids with PEI600 at a 14: 1 molar ratio, and was formulated with C14PEG2000 to produce nanoparticles (diameter between 35 and 60 nm) that were stable in PBS solution for at least 40 days.

[00231] An epoxide-modified lipid-polymer may be utilized to deliver the CRISPR-Cas system of the present invention to pulmonary, cardiovascular or renal cells, however, one of skill in the art may adapt the system to deliver to other target organs. Dosage ranging from about 0.05 to about 0,6 mg kg are envisioned. Dosages over several days or weeks are also envisioned, with a total dosage of about 2 mg/kg.

Exosomes

[00232] Exosomes are endogenous nano-vesicles that transport RNAs and proteins, and which can deliver RNA to the brain and other target organs. To reduce immunogenicity, Alvarez -Erviti et al, (2011, Nat Biotechnol 29: 341) used self-derived dendritic cells for exosome production. Targeting to the brain was achieved by engineering the dendritic cells to express Lamp2b, an exosomal membrane protein, fused to the neuron-specific RVG peptide. Purified exosomes were loaded with exogenous RNA by electroporation. Intravenously injected RVG-targeted exosomes delivered GAPDH siRNA specifically to neurons, microglia, oligodendrocytes in the brain, resulting in a specific gene knockdown. Pre-exposure to RVG exosomes did not attenuate knockdown, and non-specific uptake in other tissues was not observed. The therapeutic potential of exosome-mediated siRNA delivery was demonstrated by the strong mRNA (60%) and protein (62%) knockdown of BACEl, a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease.

[0Θ233] To obtain a pool of immunologically inert exosomes, Alvarez-Erviti et ai, harvested bone marrow from inbred C57BL/6 mice with a homogenous major histocompatibility complex (MHC) haplotype. As immature dendritic ceils produce large quantities of exosomes devoid of T-cell activators such as MHC-II and CD86, Aivarez-Endti et al. selected for dendritic cells with granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) for 7 d. Exosomes were purified from the culture supernatant the following day using well-established uitracentrifugation protocols. The exosomes produced were physically homogenous, with a size distribution peaking at 80 nm in diameter as determined by naiioparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and electron microscopy. Alvarez-Erviti et al. obtained 6-12 μg of exosomes (measured based on protein concentration) per 10⁶ cells.

[00234] Next, Aivarez-Endti et al. investigated the possibility of loading modified exosomes with exogenous cargoes using electroporation protocols adapted for nanoscale applications. As electroporation for membrane particles at the nanometer scale is not well -characterized, nonspecific Cy5-labeled RNA was used for the empirical optimization of the electroporation protocol. The amount of encapsulated RNA was assayed after uitracentrifugation and lysis of exosomes. Electroporation at 400 V and 125 μΡ resulted in the greatest retention of RNA and was used for ail subsequent experiments.

[00235] Alvarez-Erviti et al. administered 150 g of each BACEl siRNA encapsulated in 150 g of RVG exosomes to normal C57BL/6 mice and compared the knockdown efficiency to four controls: untreated mice, mice injected with RVG exosomes only, mice injected with BACEl siRNA complexed to an in vivo cationic liposome reagent and mice injected with BACEl siRNA complexed to RVG-9R, the RVG peptide conjugated to 9 D-arginines that electrostatically binds to the siRNA. Cortical tissue samples were analyzed 3 d after administration and a significant protein knockdown (45%, P < 0.05, versus 62%, P < 0.01) in both siRNA-RVG-9R-treated and siRNARVG exosome-treated mice was observed, resulting from a significant decrease in BACEl rnRNA levels (66% [+ or ~] 15%, P < 0,001 and 61 % [+ or -] 13% respectively, P < 0.01). Moreover, Applicants demonstrated a significant decrease (55%, P < 0.05) in the total [betaj-arnyloid 1-42 levels, a main component of the amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's pathology, in the RVG-exosome-treated animals. The decrease observed was greater than the β-amyloid 1 - 40 decrease demonstrated in normal mice after intraventricular injection of BACEl inhibitors. Alvarez- Erviti et al, carried out 5'-rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) on BACEl cleavage product, which provided evidence of RNAi-mediated knockdown by the siRNA.

[00236] Finally, Alvarez-Erviti et al. investigated whether RNA-RVG exosomes induced immune responses in vivo by assessing IL-6, IP- 10, TNFa and IFN-a serum concentrations. Following exosome treatment, nonsignificant changes in all cytokines were registered similar to siRNA-transfection reagent treatment in contrast to siRNA-RVG-9R, which potently stimulated IL-6 secretion, confirming the immunologically inert profile of the exosome treatment. Given that exosomes encapsulate only 20% of siRNA, delivery with RVG-exosome appears to be more efficient than RVG-9R delivery as comparable rnRNA knockdown and greater protein knockdown was achieved with fivefold less siRNA without the corresponding level of immune stimulation. This experiment demonstrated the therapeutic potential of RVG-exosome technology, which is potentially suited for long-term silencing of genes related to neurodegenerative diseases. The exosome delivery system of Alvarez-Erviti et al. may be applied to deliver the CRISPR-Cas system of the present invention to therapeutic targets, especially neurodegenerative diseases. A dosage of about 100 to 1000 mg of CRISPR Cas encapsulated in about 100 to 1000 mg of RVG exosomes may be contemplated for the present invention.

[00237] El-Andaloussi et al. (Nature Protocols 7,21 12-2126(2012)) discloses how exosomes derived from cultured cells can be harnessed for delivery of RNA in vitro and in vivo. This protocol first describes the generation of targeted exosomes through transfection of an expression vector, comprising an exosomal protein fused with a peptide ligand. Next, El-Andaloussi et al. explain how to purify and characterize exosomes from transfected cell supernatant. Next, El- Andaloussi et al. detail crucial steps for loading RNA into exosomes. Finally, El-Andaloussi et al. outline how to use exosomes to efficiently deliver RNA in vitro and in vivo in mouse brain. Examples of anticipated results in which exosome -mediated RNA delivery is evaluated by functional assays and imaging are also provided. The entire protocol takes ~3 weeks. Delivery or administration according to the invention may be performed using exosomes produced from self- derived dendritic cel ls. From the herein teachings, this can be employed in the practice of the invention.

[00238] In another embodiment, the plasma exosomes of Wahlgren et al. (Nucleic Acids Research, 2012, Vol. 40, No. 17 el 30) are contemplated, Exosomes are nano-sized vesicles (30- 90nm in size) produced by many cell types, including dendritic ceils (DC), B cells, T cells, mast cells, epithelial cells and tumor cells. These vesicles are formed by inward budding of late endosomes and are then released to the extracellular environment upon fusion with the plasma membrane. Because exosomes naturally carry RN A between cells, this property may be useful in gene therapy, and from this disclosure can be employed in the practice of the instant invention.

[00239] Exosomes from plasma can be prepared by centrifugation of buffy coat at 900g for 20 min to isolate the plasma followed by harvesting ceil supernatants, centrifuging at 300g for 10 mill to eliminate cells and at 16 500g for 30 min followed by filtration through a 0.22 mm filter, Exosomes are pelleted by ultracentrifugation at 120 OOOg for70 min. Chemical transfection of siRNA into exosomes is carried out according to the manufacturer's instructions in RNAi Human/Mouse Starter Kit (Q iagen, Hilden, Germany), siRNA is added to 100 ml PBS at a final concentration of 2 mmoi/ml. After adding HiPerFeet transfection reagent, the mixture is incubated for 10 min at RT. In order to remove the excess of micel les, the exosomes are re- isolated using aidehyde/sulfate latex beads. The chemical transfection of CRISPR Cas into exosomes may be conducted similarly to siRNA. The exosomes may be co -cultured with monocytes and lymphocytes isolated from the peripheral blood of healthy donors. Therefore, it may be contemplated that exosomes containing CRISPR Cas may be introduced to monocytes and lymphocytes of and autologously reintroduced into a human. Accordingly, delivery or administration according to the invention may be performed using plasma exosomes.

Liposomes

[00240] Delivery or administration according to the invention can be performed with liposomes. Liposomes are spherical vesicle structures composed of a uni- or multilamellar lipid biiayer surrounding internal aqueous compartments and a relatively impermeable outer lipophilic phospholipid biiayer. Liposomes have gained considerable attention as drug delivery carriers because they are biocompatible, nontoxic, can deliver both hydrophilie and lipophilic drug molecules, protect their cargo from degradation by plasma enzymes, and transport their load across biological membranes and the blood brain barrier (BBB) (see, e.g., Spuch and Navarro, Journal of Drug Delivery, vol. 2011 , Article ID 469679, 12 pages, 2011. doi: 10.1155/201 1 469679 for review).

[00241 ] Liposom.es can be made from, several different types of lipids; however, phospholipids are most commonly used to generate liposomes as dnig carriers. Although liposome formation is spontaneous when a lipid film is mixed with an aqueous solution, it can also be expedited by applying force in the form of shaking by using a homogenizer, sonicator, or an extrusion apparatus (see, e.g., Spuch and Navarro, Journal of Drug Delivery, vol. 2011, Article ID 469679, 12 pages, 2011. doi: 10.1155/201 1/469679 for review).

[00242] Several other additives may be added to liposomes in order to modify their structure and properties. For instance, either cholesterol or sphingomyelin may be added to the liposomal mixture in order to help stabilize the liposomal structure and to prevent the leakage of the liposomal inner cargo. Further, liposomes are prepared from hydrogenated egg phosphatidylcholine or egg phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, and dicetyl phosphate, and their mean vesicle sizes were adjusted to about 50 and 100 nm. (see, e.g., Spuch and Navarro, Journal of Drug Delivery, vol. 201 1 , Article ID 469679, 12 pages, 2011. doi: 10.1 155/2011/469679 for review).

[00243] A liposome formulation may be mainly comprised of natural phospholipids and lipids such as 1 ,2-distearoryl-sn-glycero-3 -phosphatidyl choline (DSPC), sphingomyelin, egg phosphatidylcholines and monosialoganglioside. Since this formulation is made up of phospholipids only, liposomal formulations have encountered many chal lenges, one of the ones being the instability in plasma. Several attempts to overcome these challenges have been made, specifically in the manipulation of the lipid membrane. One of these attempts focused on the manipulation of cholesterol. Addition of cholesterol to conventional formulations reduces rapid release of the encapsulated bioactive compound into the plasma or 1 ,2~dioleoyl-sn~glycero-3~ phosphoethanolamine (DOPE) increases the stability (see, e.g., Spuch and Navarro, Journal of Drug Delivery, vol. 20.1 1 , Article ID 469679, 12 pages, 2011. doi: .10.1.155/201 1/469679 for review).

[0Θ244] In a particularly advantageous embodiment, Trojan Horse liposomes (also known as Molecular Trojan Horses) are desirable and protocols may be found at http://cshproiocols.cship,org/coiiteni/2010/4/pdb.prot5407.lorig. These particles allow delivery of a transgene to the entire brain after an intravascular injection. Without being bound by limitation, it is believed that neutral lipid particles with specific antibodies conjugated to surface allow crossing of the blood brain barrier via endocytosis. Applicant postulates utilizing Trojan Horse Liposomes to deliver the CRISPR family of nucleases to the brain via an intravascular injection, which would allow whole brain transgenic animals without the need for embryonic manipulation. About 1-5 g of DNA or RNA may be contemplated for in vivo administration in liposomes.

[0Θ245] In another embodiment, the CRISPR Cas system may be administered in liposomes, such as a stable nucleic-acid-lipid particle (SNALP) (see, e.g., Morrissey et al., Nature Biotechnology, Vol. 23, No. 8, August 2005). Daily intravenous injections of about 1, 3 or 5 rng/kg/day of a specific CRISPR Cas targeted in a SNALP are contemplated. The daily treatment may be over about three days and then weekly for about five weeks. In another embodiment, a specific CRISPR Cas encapsulated SNALP) administered by intravenous injection to at doses of about 1 or 2.5 mg/kg are also contemplated (see, e.g., Zimmerman et al., Nature Letters, Vol. 441, 4 May 2006). The SNALP formulation may contain the lipids 3-N- [(wmethoxypoly(ethylene glycol) 2000) carbamoyl] -1 ,2-dimyristyloxy-propylamine (PEG-CDMA), 1 ,2-dilinoleyloxy-N,N-dimethyl-3-aminopropane (DLinDMA), 1 ,2-distearoyl-sn- glycero-3-phosphochoIine (DSPC) and cholesterol, in a 2:40:10:48 molar per cent ratio (see, e.g., Zimmerman et al., Nature Letters, Vol. 441 , 4 May 2006).

[00246] In another embodiment, stable nucleic-acid-lipid particles (SNALPs) have proven to be effective delivery molecules to highly vascularized HepG2-derived liver tumors but not in poorly vascularized HCT-116 derived liver tumors (see, e.g., Li, Gene Therapy (2012) 19, 775- 780). The SNALP liposomes may be prepared by formulating D -Lin-DMA and PEG-C-DMA with distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC), Cholesterol and siRNA using a 25:1 lipid/siRNA ratio and a 48/40/10/2 moiar ratio of Cholesterol/D-Lin-DMA/DSPC PEG-C-DMA. The resulted SNALP liposomes are about 80-100 nm in size.

[00247] In yet another embodiment, a SNALP may comprise synthetic cholesterol (Sigma- Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA), dipalmitoylphosphatidyl choline (Avanti Polar Lipids, Alabaster, AL, USA), 3-N-[(w-methoxy polyethylene glycol)2000)carbamoyl]-l,2- dimyrestyioxypropylamine, and cationic 1 ,2-dilinoieyloxy-3-N,Ndimethyiammopropane (see, e.g., Geisbert et al., Lancet 2010; 375: 1896-905). A dosage of about 2 mg/kg total CRISPR Cas per dose administered as, for example, a bolus intravenous infusion may be contemplated.

[00248] In yet another embodiment, a SNALP may comprise synthetic cholesterol (Sigma- Aldrieh), i,2-distearoyl~sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC; Avanti Polar Lipids Inc.), PEG- cDMA, and l ,2-diimoley!oxy-3-(N;N-dimethyl)aminopiOpane (DLinDMA) (see, e.g., Judge, J, Clin. Invest. 119:661-673 (2009)). Formulations used for in vivo studies may comprise a final lipid/RNA mass ratio of about 9: 1 .

[00249] The safety profile of RNAi nanomedicines has been reviewed by Barros and Gollob of Alnylam Pharmaceuticals (see, e.g., Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 64 (2012) 1730-1737). The stable nucleic acid lipid particle (SNALP) is comprised of four different lipids— an ionizable lipid (DLinDMA) that is catiomc at low pi I. a neutral helper lipid, cholesterol, and a diffusible polyethylene glycol (PEG)-lipid. The particle is approximately 80 nm in diameter and is charge-neutral at physiologic pH. During formulation, the ionizable lipid serves to condense lipid with the anionic RNA during particle formation. When positively charged under increasingly acidic endosomal conditions, the ionizable lipid also mediates the fusion of SNALP with the endosomal membrane enabling release of RNA into the cytoplasm. The PEG-iipid stabilizes the particle and reduces aggregation during formulation, and subsequently provides a neutral hydrophilic exterior that improves pharmacokinetic properties.

[00250] To date, two clinical programs have been initiated using SNALP formulations with RNA. Tekmira Pharmaceuticals recently completed a phase I single-dose study of SNALP-ApoB in adult volunteers with elevated LDL cholesterol. ApoB is predominantly expressed in the liver and jejunum and is essential for the assembly and secretion of VLDL and LDL. Seventeen subjects received a single dose of SN ALP-ApoB (dose escalation across 7 dose levels). There was no evidence of liver toxicity (anticipated as the potential dose-limiting toxicity based on preclinical studies). One (of two) subjects at the highest dose experienced flu-like symptoms consistent with immune system stimulation, and the decision was made to conclude the trial .

[00251 ] Alnylam Pharmaceuticals has similarly advanced ALN-TTR01, which employs the SNALP technology described above and targets hepatoeyte production of both mutant and wild- type TTR to treat TTR amyloidosis (ATTR). Three ATTR syndromes have been described: familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP) and familial amyloidotic cardiomyopathy (FAC) both caused by autosomal dominant mutations in TTR; and senile systemic amyloidosis (SSA) cause by wildtype TTR. A placebo-controlled, single dose-escalation phase I trial of ALN- TTR01 was recently completed in patients with ATTR. ALN-TTR01 was administered as a 15- minute IV infusion to 31 patients (23 with study drug and 8 with placebo) within a dose range of 0.01 to 1.0 mg/kg (based on siRNA). Treatment was well tolerated with no significant increases in liver function tests. Infusion-related reactions were noted in 3 of 23 patients at>0.4 mg/kg; all responded to slowing of the infusion rate and all continued on study. Minimal and transient elevations of serum cytokines IL-6, IP- 10 and IL-lra were noted in two patients at the highest dose of 1 mg kg (as anticipated from preclinical and NHP studies). Lowering of serum TTR, the expected pharmacodynamics effect of ALN-TTR01, was observed at 1 mg/kg.

[00252] In yet another embodiment, a SNALP may be made by sohibilizing a cationic lipid, DSPC, cholesterol and PEG-lipid e.g., in ethanol, e.g., at a molar ratio of 40: 10:40: 10, respectively (see, Semple et al., Nature Niotechnology, Volume 28 Number 2 February 2010, pp. 172-177). The lipid mixture was added to an aqueous buffer (50 niM citrate, pH 4) with mixing to a final ethanol and lipid concentration of 30% (vol/vol) and 6.1 mg/ml, respectively, and allowed to equilibrate at 22 °C for 2 min before extrusion. The hydrated lipids were extruded through two stacked 80 nm pore-sized filters (Nuclepore) at 22 °C using a Lipex Extruder (Northern Lipids) until a vesicle diameter of 70-90 nm, as determined by dynamic light scattering analysis, was obtained. This generally required 1-3 passes. The siRNA (solubilized in a 50 fflM citrate, pH 4 aqueous solution containing 30% ethanol) was added to the pre- equilibrated (35 °C) vesicles at a rate of ~5 ml/min with mixing. After a final target siRNA/lipid ratio of 0.06 (wt wt) was reached, the mixture was incubated for a further 30 min at 35 °C to allow vesicle reorganization and encapsulation of the siRNA. The ethanol was then removed and the external buffer replaced with PBS (155 mM NaCl, 3 mM Na₂HP0₄, 1 mM B₂P0₄, p J 7.5) by either dialysis or tangential flow diafiltration. siRNA were encapsulated in SNALP using a controlled step-wise dilution method process. The lipid constituents of KC2-SNALP were DLin- C2-DMA (cationic lipid), dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC; Avanti Polar Lipids), synthetic cholesterol (Sigma) and PEG-C-DMA used at a molar ratio of 57.1 :7.1 :34.3 : 1 .4. Upon formation of the loaded particles, SNALP were dialyzed against PBS and filter sterilized through a 0.2 um filter before use. Mean particle sizes were 75-85 nm and 90-95% of the siRNA was encapsulated within the lipid particles. The final siRNA/lipid ratio in formulations used for in vivo testing was ~0.15 (wt wt). LNP-siRNA systems containing Factor VII siRNA were diluted to the appropriate concentrations in sterile PBS immediately before use and the formulations were administered intravenously through the lateral tail vein in a total volume of 10 ml/kg. This method and these delivery systems may be extrapolated to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

Other Lipids

[0Θ253] Other cationic lipids, such as amino lipid 2,2-diiinoleyl-4-dimethylaminoethyi-[l,3]- dioxolane (DLin~&C2~DMA) may be utilized to encapsulate CRISPR Cas or components thereof or nucleic acid molecule(s) coding therefor e.g., similar to SiRNA (see, e.g., Jayaraman, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 8529 -8533), and hence may be employed in the practice of the invention. A preformed vesicle with the following lipid composition may be contemplated: amino lipid, distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC), cholesterol and (R)-2,3-bis(octadecyloxy) propyl- l-(methoxy poly( ethylene glyco 1)2000 )propyiearbamate (PEG-lipid) in the molar ratio 40/10/40/10, respectively, and a FVII siRNA/total lipid ratio of approximately 0.05 (w/^'w). To ensure a narrow particle size distribution in the range of 70-90 nm and a low polydispersity index of 0.11+0.04 (n=56), the particles may be extruded up to three times through 80 nm membranes prior to adding the CRISPR Cas RNA. Particles containing the highly potent amino lipid 16 may be used, in which the molar ratio of the four lipid components 16, DSPC, cholesterol and PEG-lipid (50/10/38.5/1.5) which may be further optimized to enhance in vivo activity.

[00254] Michael S D Kormann et al . ("Expression of therapeutic proteins after delivery of chemically modified mRNA in mice: Nature Biotechnology, Volume:29, Pages: 154-157 (2011)) describes the use of lipid envelopes to deliver RNA. Use of lipid envelopes is also preferred in the present invention.

[00255] In another embodiment, lipids may be formulated with the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention to form lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), Lipids include, but are not limited to, DLin- C2-DMA4, C12-200 and colipids disteroyiphosphatidyl choline, cholesterol, and PEG- DMG may be formulated with CRISPR. Cas instead of siRNA (see, e.g., Novobrantseva, Molecular Therapy-Nucleic Acids (2012) 1 , e4; doi: 10.1038/mtna.2011.3) using a spontaneous vesicle formation procedure. The component molar ratio may be about 50/10/38.5/1.5 (DLin- KC2-DMA or C 12-200/disteroyiphosphatidyl choline/cholesterol/PEG-D G). The final lipid:siRNA weight ratio may be -12: 1 and 9: 1 in the case of DLin- C2-DMA and C 12-200 lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), respectively. The formulations may have mean particle diameters of ~80 nm with >90% entrapment efficiency. A 3 mg/kg dose may be contemplated.

[00256] Tekmira has a portfolio of approximately 95 patent families, in the U.S. and abroad, that are directed to various aspects of LNPs and LNP formulations (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,982,027; 7,799,565; 8,058,069; 8,283,333; 7,901 ,708; 7,745,651 ; 7,803,397; 8,101,741 ; 8,188,263; 7,915,399; 8,236,943 and 7,838,658 and European Pat. Nos 1766035; 1519714; 1781593 and 1664316), all of which may be used and/or adapted to the present invention.

[00257] The C ISPR Cas system or components thereof or nucleic acid molecule(s) coding therefor may be delivered encapsulated in PLGA. Microspheres such as that further described in US published applications 20130252281 and 20130245107 and 20130244279 (assigned to Moderna Therapeutics) which relate to aspects of formulation of compositions comprising modified nucleic acid molecules which may encode a protein, a protein precursor, or a partially or fully processed form of the protein or a protein precursor. The formulation may have a molar ratio 50: 10:38.5: 1.5-3,0 (cationic lipid:fusogenic iipid:cholesterol:PEG lipid). The PEG lipid may be selected from, but is not limited to PEG-c-DOMG, PEG-DMG. The fusogenic lipid may be DSPC. See also, Schrum et a!,, Delivery and Formulation of Engineered Nucleic Acids, US published application 20120251618.

[00258] Nanoraerics' technology addresses bioavailability challenges for a broad range of therapeutics, including low molecular weight hydrophobic drags, peptides, and nucleic acid based therapeutics (plasm id, siRNA, miRNA). Specific administration routes for which the technology has demonstrated clear advantages include the oral route, transport across the blood- brain-barrier, delivery to solid tumours, as well as to the eye. See, e.g., Mazza et ai, 2013, ACS Nano. 2013 Feb 26;7(2): 1016-26; Uchegbu and Siew, 2013, J Pharm Sci. 102(2):305-10 and Lalatsa et al., 2012, J Control Release. 2012 Jul 20; 161(2):523-36.

[00259] US Patent Publication No. 20050019923 describes cationic dendrimers for delivering bioactive molecules, such as polynucleotide molecules, peptides and polypeptides and/or pharmaceutical agents, to a mammalian body. The dendrimers are suitable for targeting the delivery of the bioactive molecules to, for example, the liver, spleen, lung, kidney or heart (or even the brain). Dendrimers are synthetic 3 -dimensional macromolecules that are prepared in a step-wise fashion from simple branched monomer units, the nature and functionality of which can be easily controlled and varied. Dendrimers are synthesised from the repeated addition of building blocks to a multifunctional core (divergent approach to synthesis), or towards a multifunctional core (convergent approach to synthesis) and each addition of a 3 -dimensional shell of building blocks leads to the formation of a higher generation of the dendrimers. Polypropyienimine dendrimers start from a diaminobutane core to which is added twice the number of amino groups by a double Michael addition of acrylonitrile to the primary amines followed by the hydrogenation of the nitriles. This results in a doubling of the amino groups. Polypropyienimine dendrimers contain 100% protonable nitrogens and up to 64 terminal amino groups (generation 5, DAB 64). Protonable groups are usually amine groups which are able to accept protons at neutral pH. The use of dendrimers as gene delivery agents has largely focused on the use of the poiyamidoamine. and phosphorous containing compounds with a mixture of amine/amide or N--P(0₂)S as the conjugating units respectively with no work being reported on the use of the lower generation polypropyienimine dendrimers for gene delivery. Polypropyienimine dendrimers have also been studied as pH sensitive controlled release systems for dr g delivery and for their encapsulation of guest molecules when chemically modified by peripheral amino acid groups. The cytotoxicity and interaction of poh'propyienimine dendrimers with D A as well as the transfection efficacy of DAB 64 has also been studied.

[00260] US Patent Publication No. 20050019923 is based upon the observation that, contrary to earlier reports, cationic dendrimers, such as polypropyienimine dendrimers, display suitable properties, such as specific targeting and low toxicity, for use in the targeted delivery of bioactive molecules, such as genetic material. In addition, derivatives of the cationic dendrimer also display suitable properties for the targeted delivery of bioactive molecules. See also, Bioactive Polymers, US published application 20080267903, which discloses "Various polymers, including cationic poiyamine polymers and dendrimeric polymers, are shown to possess anti-proliferative activity, and may therefore be useful for treatment of disorders characterised by undesirable cellular proliferation such as neoplasms and tumours, inflammatory disorders (including autoimmune disorders), psoriasis and atherosclerosis. The polymers may be used alone as active agents, or as delivery vehicles for other therapeutic agents, such as drug molecules or nucleic acids for gene therapy. In such cases, the polymers' own intrinsic anti- tumour activity may complement the activity of the agent to be delivered." The disclosures of these patent publications may be employed in conjunction with herein teachings for delivery of CRISPR Cas system(s) or component(s) thereof or nucleic acid molecule(s) coding therefor. Supercharged proteins

[00261] Supercharged proteins are a class of engineered or naturally occurring proteins with unusually high positive or negative net theoretical charge and may be employed in delivery of CRISPR Cas system(s) or component(s) thereof or nucleic acid molecule(s) coding therefor. Both supernegatively and superpositively charged proteins exhibit a remarkable ability to withstand thermally or chemically induced aggregation. Superpositively charged proteins are also able to penetrate mammalian cells. Associating cargo with these proteins, such as plasmid DNA, RNA, or other proteins, can enable the functional delivery of these macromolecules into mammalian cells both in vitro and in vivo. David Liu's lab reported the creation and characterization of supercharged proteins in 2007 (Lawrence et al., 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society 129, 10110-10112).

[00262] The nonviral delivery of RNA and plasmid DNA into mammalian cells are valuable both for research and therapeutic applications (Akinc et al., 2010, Nat, Biotech. 26, 561-569). Purified +36 GFP protein (or other superpositively charged protein) is mixed with RNAs in the appropriate serum-free media and allowed to complex prior addition to cells. Inclusion of serum at this stage inhibits formation of the supercharged protein-RNA complexes and reduces the effectiveness of the treatment. The following protocol has been found to be effective for a variety of cell lines (McNaughton et al, 2009, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106, 61 11-6116). However, pilot experiments varying the dose of protein and RNA should be performed to optimize the procedure for specific cell lines.

(1 ) One day before treatment, plate 1 x 10⁵ cells per well in a 48-wel l plate.

(2) On the day of treatment, dilute purified +36 GFP protein in serumfree media to a final concentration 200n . Add RNA to a final concentration of 5()nM, Vortex to mix and incubate at room temperature for lOmin.

(3) During incubation, aspirate media from cells and wash once with PBS.

(4) Following incubation of +36 GFP and RNA, add the protein-RNA complexes to cells.

(5) Incubate cells with complexes at 37 °C for 4h.

(6) Following incubation, aspirate the media and wash three times with 20 U/mL heparin PBS. Incubate cells with serum -containing media for a further 48h or longer depending upon the assay for activity. (7) Analyze cells by immunoblot, qPCR, phenotypic assay, or other appropriate method,

[00263] David Liu's lab has further found +36 GFP to be an effective plasmid delivery reagent in a range of cel ls. As plasmid DMA is a larger cargo than siRNA, proportionately more +36 GFP protein is required to effective])' complex plasmids. For effective plasmid deliver}' Applicants have developed a variant of +36 GFP bearing a C -terminal HA2 peptide tag, a known endosome-disrupting peptide derived from the influenza vims hemagglutinin protein. The following protocol has been effective in a variety of cells, but as above it is advised that plasmid DNA and supercharged protein doses be optimized for specific cell lines and delivery applications.

(1 ) One day before treatment, plate 1 x 10⁵ per well in a 48- well plate.

(2) On the day of treatment, dilute purified p36 GFP protein in serumfree media to a final concentration 2 mM. Add Img of plasmid DNA. Vortex to mix and incubate at room temperature for lOmin,

(3) During incubation, aspirate media from cells and wash once with PBS.

(4) Following incubation of p36 GFP and plasmid DNA, gently add the protem-DNA complexes to cells.

(5) Incubate cells with complexes at 37 C for 4h.

(6) Following incubation, aspirate the media and wash with PBS. Incubate cells in serum-containing media and incubate for a further 24-48h.

(7) Analyze plasmid delivery (e.g., by plasmid-driven gene expression) as appropriate.

[00264] See also, e.g., McNaughton et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106, 61 1 1-61 16 (2009); Cronican et al., ACS Chemical Biology 5, 747-752 (2010); Cronican et al., Chemistry & Biology 18, 833-838 (2011); Thompson et al., Methods in Enzymology 503, 293-319 (2012); Thompson, D.B., et ai.. Chemistry & Biology 19 (7), 831 -843 (2012). The methods of the super charged proteins may be used and/or adapted for delivery of the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. These systems of Dr. Lui and documents herein in inconjunction with herein teachints can be employed in the delivery of CRISPR Cas system(s) or component(s) thereof or nucleic acid molec le(s) coding therefor.

Implantable devices [00265] In another embodiment, implantable devices are also contemplated for delivery of the CRISPR Cas system or component(s) thereof or nucleic acid molecule(s) coding therefor. For example, US Patent Publication 201 10195123 discloses an implantable medical device which elutes a drug locally and in prolonged period is provided, including several types of such a device, the treatment modes of implementation and methods of implantation. The device comprising of polymeric substrate, such as a matrix for example, that is used as the device body, and drugs, and in some cases additional scaffolding materials, such as metals or additional polymers, and materials to enhance visibility and imaging. An implantable delivery device can be advantageous in providing release locally and over a prolonged period, where drug is released directly to the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the diseased area such as tumor, inflammation, degeneration or for symptomatic objectives, or to injured smooth muscle cells, or for prevention. One kind of drag is RNA, as disclosed above, and this system may be used/and or adapted to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. The modes of implantation in some embodiments are existing implantation procedures that are developed and used today for other treatments, including brachytherapy and needle biopsy. In such cases the dimensions of the new implant described in this invention are similar to the original implant. Typically a few devices are implanted during the same treatment procedure.

[00266] As described in US Patent Publication 20110195123, there is provided a drug delivery implantable or insertable system, including systems applicable to a cavity such as the abdominal cavity and/or any other type of administration in which the drug delivery system is not anchored or attached, comprising a biostable and/or degradable and/or bioabsorbable polymeric substrate, which may for example optionally be a matrix. It should be noted that the term "insertion" also includes implantation. The drug delivery system is preferably implemented as a "Loder" as described in US Patent Publication 20110195123.

[00267] The polymer or plurality of polymers are biocompatible, incorporating an agent and/or plurality of agents, enabling the release of agent at a controlled rate, wherein the total volume of the polymeric substrate, such as a matrix for example, in some embodiments is optionally and preferably no greater than a maximum volume that permits a therapeutic level of the agent to be reached. As a non-limiting example, such a volume is preferably within the range of 0.1 rn to 1000 mm³, as required by the volume for the agent load. The Loder may optionally be larger, for example when incorporated with a device whose size is determined by functionality, for example and without limitation, a knee joint, an mtra-uterine or cemcal ring and the like.

[00268] The drug deliver}' system (for delivering the composition) is designed in some embodiments to preferably employ degradable polymers, wherein the main release mechanism is bulk erosion; or in some embodiments, non degradable, or slowly degraded polymers are used, wherein the main release mechanism is diffusion rather than bulk erosion, so that the outer part functions as membrane, and its internal part functions as a drug reservoir, which practically is not affected by the surroundings for an extended period (for example from about a week to about a few months). Combinations of different polymers with different release mechanisms may also optionally be used. The concentration gradient at the surface is preferably maintained effectively constant during a significant period of the total drug releasing period, and therefore the diffusion rate is effectively constant (termed "zero mode" diffusion). By the term "constant" it is meant a diffusion rate that is preferably maintained above the lower threshold of therapeutic effectiveness, but which may still optionally feature an initial burst and/or may fluctuate, for example increasing and decreasing to a certain degree. The diffusion rate is preferably so maintained for a prolonged period, and it can be considered constant to a certain level to optimize the therapeutically effective period, for example the effective silencing period.

[00269] The drug delivery system optionally and preferably is designed to shield the nucleotide based therapeutic agent from degradation, whether chemical in nature or due to attack from enzymes and other factors in the body of the subject.

[00270] The dmg delivery system as described in US Patent Publication 20110195123 is optionally associated with sensing and/or activation appliances that are operated at and/or after implantation of the device, by non and/or minimally invasive methods of activation and/or acceleration/deceleration, for example optionally including but not limited to thermal heating and cooling, laser beams, and ultrasonic, including focused ultrasound and/or RF (radiofrequency) methods or devices.

[00271] According to some embodiments of US Patent Publication 201 10195123, the site for local delivery may optionally include target sites characterized by high abnormal proliferation of cells, and suppressed apoptosis, including tumors, active and or chronic inflammation and infection including autoimmune diseases states, degenerating tissue including muscle and nervous tissue, chronic pain, degenerative sites, and location of bone fractures and other wound locations for enhancement of regeneration of tissue, and injured cardiac, smooth and striated muscle,

[00272] The site for implantation of the composition, or target site, preferably features a radius, area and/or volume that is sufficiently small for targeted local delivery. For example, the target site optionally has a diameter in a range of from about 0.1 mm to about 5 cm.

[0Θ273] The location of the target site is preferably selected for maximum therapeutic efficacy. For example, the composition of the drug delivery system (optionally with a device for implantation as described above) is optionally and preferably implanted within or in the proximity of a tumor environment, or the blood supply associated thereof.

[00274] For example the composition (optionally with the device) is optionally implanted within or in the proximity to pancreas, prostate, breast, liver, via the nipple, within the vascular system and so forth.

[00275] The target location is optionally selected from the group consisting of (as non- limiting examples only, as optional!)' any site within the body may be suitable for implanting a Loder): 1. brain at degenerative sites like in Parkinson or Alzheimer disease at the basal ganglia, white and gray matter; 2. spine as in the case of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS); 3. uterine cervix to prevent HPV infection; 4. active and chronic inflammatory joints; 5. dermis as in the case of psoriasis; 6. sympathetic and sensoric nervous sites for analgesic effect; 7. Intra osseous implantation; 8. acute and chronic infection sites; 9. Intra vaginal; 10. Inner ear— auditory system, labyrinth of the inner ear, vestibular system; 1 1. Intra tracheal; 12. Intra-cardiac; coronary, epicardiac; 13. urinary bladder; 14. biliary system; 15. parenchymal tissue including and not limited to the kidney, liver, spleen; 16. lymph nodes; 17. salivary glands; 18. dental gums; 19. Intra-articular (into joints); 20. Intra-oeular; 21. Brain tissue; 22. Brain ventricles; 23. Cavities, including abdominal cavity (for example but without limitation, for ovary cancer); 24. Intra esophageal and 25. Intra rectal.

[00276] Optionally insertion of the system (for example a device containing the composition) is associated with injection of material to the ECM at the target site and the vicinity of that site to affect local pH and/or temperature and/or other biological factors affecting the diffusion of the drug and/or drug kinetics in the ECM, of the target site and the vicinity of such a site.

[00277] Optionally, according to some embodiments, the release of said agent could be associated with sensing and/or activation appliances that are operated prior and/or at and/or after insertion, by non and/or minimally invasive and/or else methods of activation and/or acceleration/deceleration, including laser beam, radiation, thermal heating and cooling, and ultrasonic, including focused ultrasound and/or RF (radiofrequency) methods or devices, and cherai cal acti valors .

[00278] According to other embodiments of US Patent Publication 201 10195123, the drug preferably comprises a RNA, for example for localized cancer cases in breast, pancreas, brain, kidney, bladder, lung, and prostate as described below. Although exemplified with RNAi, many drugs are applicable to be encapsulated in Loder, and can be used in association with this invention, as long as such drugs can be encapsulated with the Loder substrate, such as a matrix for example, and this system may be used and/or adapted to deliver the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

[00279] As another example of a specific application, neuro and muscular degenerative diseases develop due to abnormal gene expression. Local delivery of RNAs may have therapeutic properties for interfering with such abnormal gene expression. Local delivery of anti apoptotic, anti inflammatory and anti degenerative drugs including small drugs and macromolecules may also optional!)' be therapeutic. In such cases the Loder is applied for prolonged release at constant rate and/or through a dedicated device that is implanted separately. All of this may be used and/or adapted to the CRISPR. Cas system of the present invention.

[00280] As yet another example of a specific application, psychiatric and cognitive disorders are treated with gene modifiers. Gene knockdown is a treatment option. Loders locally delivering agents to central nervous system sites are therapeutic options for psychiatric and cognitive disorders including but not limited to psychosis, bi-polar diseases, neurotic disorders and behavioral maladies. The Loders could also deliver locally drugs including small drugs and macromolecules upon implantation at specific brain sites. All of this may be used and/or adapted to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention.

[00281] As another example of a specific application, silencing of innate and/or adaptive immune mediators at local sites enables the prevention of organ transplant rejection. Local delivery of RNAs and immunomodulating reagents with the Loder implanted into the transplanted organ and/or the implanted site renders local immune suppression by repelling immune cells such as CDS activated against the transplanted organ. All of this may be used/and or adapted to the CRISPR Cas system of the present invention. [00282] As another example of a specific application, vascular growth factors including VEGFs and angiogenic and others are essential for neovascularization. Local delivery of the factors, peptides, peptidomimetics, or suppressing their repressors is an important therapeutic modality; sil encing the repressors and local delivery of the factors, peptides, macromoleeules and small drugs stimulating angiogenesis with the Loder is therapeutic for peripheral, systemic and cardiac vascular disease.

[00283 J The method of insertion, such as implantation, may optional ly already be used for other types of tissue implantation and/or for insertions and/or for sampling tissues, optionally without modifications, or alternatively optionally only with non-major modifications in such methods. Such methods optionally include but are not limited to brachytherapy methods, biopsy, endoscopy with and/or without ultrasound, such as ERCP, stereotactic methods into the brain tissue, Laparoscopy, including implantation with a laparoscope into joints, abdominal organs, the bladder wall and body cavities.

Patient-specific screening methods

[00284] A CRISPR-Cas system that targets nucleotide, e.g., trinucleotide repeats can be used to screen patients or patent samples for the presence of such repeats. The repeats can be the target of the RNA of the CRISPR-Cas system, and if there is binding thereto by the CRISPR-Cas system, that binding can be detected, to thereby indicate that such a repeat is present. Thus, a CRISPR-Cas system can be used to screen patients or patient samples for the presence of the repeat. The patient can then be administered suitable compound (s) to address the condition; or, can be administed a CRISPR-Cas system to bind to and cause insertion, deletion or mutation and alleviate the condition.

Nuclei c acids, amino ac ds and proteins, Regulatory sequences. Vectors, etc

[00285] Nucleic acids, amino acids and proteins: The invention uses nucleic acids to bind target DNA sequences. This is advantageous as nucleic acids are much easier and cheaper to produce than proteins, and the specificity can be varied according to the length of the stretch where homology is sought. Complex 3-D positioning of multiple fingers, for example is not required. The terms "polynucleotide", "nucleotide", "nucleotide sequence", "nucleic acid" and "oligonucleotide" are used interchangeably. They refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides, or analogs thereof. Polynucleotides may have any three dimensional structure, and may perform any function, known or unknown. The following are non-limiting examples of polynucleotides: coding or non-coding regions of a gene or gene fragment, loci (locus) defined from linkage analysis, exons, introns, messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA, ribosomai RNA, short interfering RNA (siRNA), short-hairpin RNA (shRNA), micro-RNA (miRNA), ribozymes, cDNA, recombinant polynucleotides, branched polynucleotides, plasmids, vectors, isolated D^'NA of any sequence, isolated RNA of any sequence, nucleic acid probes, and primers. The term also encompasses nucleic-acid-like structures with synthetic backbones, see, e.g., Eckstein, 1991 ; Baserga et al., 1992; Milligan, 1993; WO 97/03211; WO 96/39154; Mata, 1997; Strauss-Soukup, 1997; and Samstag, 1996. A polynucleotide may comprise one or more modified nucleotides, such as methylated nucleotides and nucleotide analogs. If present, modifications to the nucleotide structure may be imparted before or after assembly of the polymer. The sequence of nucleotides may be interrupted by non-nucleotide components. A polynucleotide may be further modified after polymerization, such as by conjugation with a labeling component. As used herein the term "wild type" is a term of the art understood by skilled persons and means the typical form of an organism, strain, gene or characteristic as it occurs in nature as distinguished from mutant or variant forms. A "wild type" can be a base line. As used herein the term " ariant" should be taken to mean the exhibition of qualities that have a pattern that deviates from what occurs in nature. The terms "non-naturally occurring" or "engineered" are used interchangeably and indicate the involvement of the hand of man. The terms, when referring to nucleic acid molecules or polypeptides mean that the nucleic acid molecule or the polypeptide is at least substantially free from at least one other component with which they are naturally associated in nature and as found in nature. "Complementarity" refers to the ability of a nucleic acid to form hydrogen bond(s) with another nucleic acid sequence by either traditional Watson-Crick base pairing or other non-traditional types. A percent complementarity indicates the percentage of residues in a nucleic acid molecule which can form hydrogen bonds (e.g., Watson-Crick base pairing) with a second nucleic acid sequence (e.g., 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 out of 10 being 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%», and 100% complementary). "Perfectly complementary" means that all the contiguous residues of a nucleic acid sequence will hydrogen bond with the same number of contiguous residues in a second nucleic acid sequence. "Substantially complementary" as used herein refers to a degree of complementarity that is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% over a region of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, or more nucleotides, or refers to two nucleic acids that hybridize under stringent conditions. As used herein, "stringent conditions" for hybridization refer to conditions under which a nucleic acid having complementarity to a target sequence predominantly hybridizes with the target sequence, and substantially does not hybridize to non-target sequences. Stringent conditions are generally sequence-dependent, and vary depending on a number of factors, in general, the longer the sequence, the higher the temperature at which the sequence specifically hybridizes to its target sequence. Non-limiting examples of stringent conditions are described in detail in Tijssen (1993), Laboratory Techniques In Biochemistry And Molecular Biology- Hybridization With Nucleic Acid Probes Part I, Second Chapter "Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid probe assay", Elsevier, N.Y. Where reference is made to a polynucleotide sequence, then complementary or partially complementary sequences are also envisaged. These are preferably capable of hybridising to the reference sequence under highly stringent conditions. Generally, in order to maximize the hybridization rate, relatively iow-stringency hybridization conditions are selected: about 20 to 25° C lower than the thermal melting point (T„, ). The T_m is the temperature at which 50% of specific target sequence hybridizes to a perfectly complementary probe in solution at a defined ionic strength and pH. Generally, in order to require at least about 85% nucleotide complementarity of hybridized sequences, highly stringent washing conditions are selected to be about 5 to 15° C lower than the T_m . In order to require at least about 70%) nucleotide complementarity of hybridized sequences, moderately-stringent washing conditions are selected to be about 15 to 30° C lower than the T_m . Highly permissive (very low stringency) washing conditions may be as low as 50° C below the T_m , allowing a high level of mis-matching between hybridized sequences. Those skilled in the art will recognize that other physical and chemical parameters in the hybridization and wash stages can also be altered to affect the outcome of a detectable hybridization signal from a specific level of homology between target and probe sequences. Preferred highly stringent conditions comprise incubation in 50%) formamide, 5^XSSC, and 1% SDS at 42° C, or incubation in 5*SSC and 1% SDS at 65° C, with wash in 0.2xSSC and 0.1% SDS at 65° C. "Hybridization" refers to a reaction in which one or more polynucleotides react to form a complex that is stabilized via hydrogen bonding between the bases of the nucleotide residues. The hydrogen bonding may occur by Watson Crick base pairing, Hoogstein binding, or in any other sequence specific manner. The complex may comprise two strands forming a duplex structure, three or more strands forming a multi stranded complex, a single self-hybridizing strand, or any combination of these. A hybridization reaction may constitute a step in a more extensive process, such as the initiation of PCJR, or the cleavage of a polynucleotide by an enzyme. A sequence capable of hybridizing with a given sequence is referred to as the "complement" of the given sequence. As used herein, the term "genomic locus" or "locus" (plural loci) is the specific location of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome. A "gene" refers to stretches of DNA or RNA that encode a polypeptide or an RNA chain that has functional role to play in an organism and hence is the molecular unit of heredity in living organisms. For the purpose of this invention it may be considered that genes include regions which regulate the production of the gene product, whether or not such regulator}' sequences are adjacent to coding and/or transcribed sequences. Accordingly, a gene includes, but is not necessarily limited to, promoter sequences, terminators, translational regulatory sequences such as ribosome binding sites and internal ribosome entry sites, enhancers, silencers, insulators, boundary elements, replication origins, matrix attachment sites and locus control regions. As used herein, "expression of a genomic locus" or "gene expression" is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. The products of gene expression are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as rRNA genes or tRNA genes, the product is functional RNA. The process of gene expression is used by all known life - eukaryotes (including multicellular organisms), prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) and viruses to generate functional products to survive. As used herein "expression" of a gene or nucleic acid encompasses not only cellular gene expression, but also the transcription and translation of nucleic acid(s) in cloning systems and in any other context. As used herein, "expression" also refers to the process by which a polynucleotide is transcribed from a DNA template (such as into and mRNA or other RNA transcript) and/or the process by which a transcribed mRNA is subsequently translated into peptides, polypeptides, or proteins. Transcripts and encoded polypeptides may be collectively referred to as "gene product." If the polynucleotide is derived from genomic DNA, expression may include splicing of the mRNA in a eukaryotic cell. The terms "polypeptide", "peptide" and "protein" are used interchangeably herein to refer to polymers of amino acids of any length. The polymer may be linear or branched, it may comprise modified amino acids, and it may be interrupted by non amino acids. The terms also encompass an amino acid polymer that has been modified; for example, disulfide bond formation, glycosyiation, lipidation, acetylation, phosphorylation, or any other manipulation, such as conjugation with a labeling component. As used herein the term "amino acid" includes natural and/or unnatural or synthetic amino acids, including glycine and both the D or L optical isomers, and amino acid analogs and peptidomirneti.es. As used herein, the term "domain" or "protein domain" refers to a part of a protein sequence that may exist and function independently of the rest of the protein chain. As described in aspects of the invention, sequence identity is related to sequence homology. Homology comparisons may be conducted by eye, or more usually, with the aid of readily available sequence comparison programs. These commercially available computer programs may calculate percent (%) homology between two or more sequences and may also calculate the sequence identity shared by two or more amino acid or nucleic acid sequences. In some preferred embodiments, the capping region of the dTALEs described herein have sequences that are at least 95% identical or share identity to the capping region amino acid sequences provided herein. Sequence homologies may be generated by any of a number of computer programs known in the art, for example BLAST or FAST A, etc, A suitable computer program for carrying out such an alignment is the GCG Wisconsin Bestfit package (University of Wisconsin, U.S.A; Devereux et a!,, 1984, Nucleic Acids Research 12:387). Examples of other software than may perform sequence comparisons include, but are not limited to, the BLAST package (see Ausubei et al., 1999 ibid - Chapter 18), FASTA (Atschul et al, 1990, J. Moi. Biol, 403-410) and the GENEWORKS suite of comparison tools. Both BLAST and FASTA are available for offline and online searching (see Ausubei et al., 1999 ibid, pages 7-58 to 7-60). However it is preferred to use the GCG Bestfit program. Percentage (%) sequence homology may be calculated over contiguous sequences, i.e., one sequence is aligned with the other sequence and each amino acid or nucleotide in one sequence is directly compared with the corresponding amino acid or nucleotide in the other sequence, one residue at a time. This is called an "ungapped" alignment. Typically, such ungapped alignments are performed only over a relatively short number of residues. Although this is a very simple and consistent method, it fails to take into consideration that, for example, in an otherwise identical pair of sequences, one insertion or deletion may cause the following amino acid residues to be put out of alignment, thus potentially resulting in a large reduction in % homology when a global alignment is performed. Consequently, most sequence comparison methods are designed to produce optimal alignments that take into consideration possible insertions and deletions without unduly penalizing the overall homology or identity score. This is achieved by inserting "gaps" in the sequence alignment to try to maximize local homology or identity. However, these more complex methods assign "gap penalties" to each gap that occurs in the alignment so that, for the same number of identical amino acids, a sequence alignment with as few gaps as possible - reflecting higher relatedness between the two compared sequences - may achieve a higher score than one with many gaps, "Affinity gap costs" are typically used that charge a relatively high cost for the existence of a gap and a smaller penalty for each subsequent residue in the gap. This is the most commonly used gap scoring system. High gap penalties may, of course, produce optimized alignments with fewer gaps. Most alignment programs allow the gap penalties to be modified. However, it is preferred to use the default values when using such software for sequence comparisons. For example, when using the GCG Wisconsin Bestfit package the default gap penalty for amino acid sequences is -12 for a gap and -4 for each extension. Calculation of maximum % homology therefore first requires the production of an optimal alignment, taking into consideration gap penalties. A suitable computer program for carrying out such an alignment is the GCG Wisconsin Bestfit package (Devereux et al., 1984 Nuc. Acids Research 12 p387). Examples of other software than may perform sequence comparisons include, but are not limited to, the BLAST package (see Ausubel et al., 1999 Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 4^th Ed. - Chapter 18), FASTA (Aitschui et al, 1990 J. Mol. Biol. 403-410) and the GENEWORKS suite of comparison tools. Both BLAST and FASTA are available for offline and online searching (see Ausubel et al., 1999, Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, pages 7-58 to 7-60). However, for some applications, it is preferred to use the GCG Bestfit program, A new tool, called BLAST 2 Sequences is also available for comparing protein and nucleotide sequences (see FEMS Microbiol Lett 1999 174(2): 247-50; FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1999 177( 1 ): 187-8 and the website of the National Center for Biotechnology information at the website of the National Institutes for Health). Although the final % homology may be measured in terms of identity, the alignment process itself is typically not based on an all-or- nothing pair comparison. Instead, a scaled similarity score matrix is generally used that assigns scores to each pair-wise comparison based on chemical similarity or evolutionary distance. An example of such a matrix commonly used is the BLOSUM62 matrix - the default matrix for the BLAST suite of programs. GCG Wisconsin programs generally use either the public default values or a custom symbol comparison table, if supplied (see user manual for further details). For some applications, it is preferred to use the public default values for the GCG package, or in the case of other software, the default matrix, such as BLOSUM62. Alternatively, percentage homologies may be calculated using the multiple alignment feature in DNASIS^lM (Hitachi Software), based on an algorithm, analogous to CLUSTAL (Higgins DG & Sharp PM (1988), Gene 73(1 ), 237-244). Once the software has produced an optimal alignment, it is possible to calculate % homology, preferably % sequence identity. The software typically does this as part of the sequence comparison and generates a numerical result. The sequences may also have deletions, insertions or substitutions of amino acid residues which produce a silent change and result in a functionally equivalent substance. Deliberate amino acid substitutions may be made on the basis of similarity in amino acid properties (such as polarity, charge, solubility, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and/or the amphipathic nature of the residues) and it is therefore useful to group amino acids together in functional groups. Amino acids may be grouped together based on the properties of their side chains alone. However, it is more useful to include mutation data as well. The sets of amino acids thus derived are likely to be conserved for structural reasons. These sets may be described in the form of a Venn diagram (Livingstone CD. and Barton G.J. (1993) "Protein sequence alignments: a strategy for the hierarchical analysis of residue conservation" Comput. Appl. Biosci. 9: 745-756) (Taylor W.R. (1986) "The classification of amino acid conservation" J. Theor. Biol. 1 19; 205-218). Conservative substitutions may be made, for example according to the table below which describes a generally accepted Venn diagram grouping of amino acids.

[0Θ286] Embodiments of the invention include sequences (both polynucleotide or polypeptide) which may comprise homologous substitution (substitution and replacement are both used herein to mean the interchange of an existing amino acid residue or nucleotide, with an alternative residue or nucleotide) that may occur i.e., like-for-like substitution in the case of amino acids such as basic for basic, acidic for acidic, polar for polar, etc. Non-homologous substitution may also occur i.e., from one class of residue to another or alternatively involving the inclusion of unnatural amino acids such as ornithine (hereinafter referred to as Z), diaminobutyric acid ornithine (hereinafter referred to as B), norleucine ornithine (hereinafter referred to as O), pyriylalanine, thienylalanine, naphthylalanine and pheny!g!ycine. Variant amino acid sequences may include suitable spacer groups that may be inserted between any two amino acid residues of the sequence including alkyl groups such as methyl, ethyl or propyl groups in addition to amino acid spacers such as glycine or β-alamne residues. A further form of variation, which involves the presence of one or more amino acid residues in peptoid form, may be well understood by those skilled in the art. For the avoidance of doubt, "the peptoid form" is used to refer to variant amino acid residues wherein the a-carbon substituent group is on the residue's nitrogen atom rather than the a-carbon. Processes for preparing peptides in the peptoid form are known in the art, for example Simon RJ et a!., PNAS (1992) 89(20), 9367-9371 and Horn c! l DC, Trends Biotechnol. (1995) 13(4), 132-134.

[00287 J For purpose of this invention, amplification means any method employing a primer and a polymerase capable of replicating a target sequence with reasonable fidelity. Amplification may be carried out by natural or recombinant DNA polymerases such as TaqGold™, T7 DNA polymerase, Klenow fragment of E.coli DNA polymerase, and reverse transcriptase. A preferred amplification method is PGR.

[00288] In certain aspects the invention involves vectors. A used herein, a "vector" is a tool that allows or facilitates the transfer of an entity from one environment to another. It is a replicon, such as a plasmid, phage, or cosmid, into which another DNA segment may be inserted so as to bring about the replication of the inserted segment. Generally, a vector is capable of replication when associated with the proper control elements. In general, the term "vector" refers to a nucleic acid molecule capable of transporting another nucleic acid to which it has been linked. Vectors include, but are not limited to, nucleic acid molecules that are single-stranded, double-stranded, or partially double-stranded; nucleic acid molecules that comprise one or more free ends, no free ends (e.g. circular); nucleic acid molecules that comprise DNA, RNA, or both; and other varieties of polynucleotides known in the art. One type of vector is a "plasmid," which refers to a circular double stranded DNA loop into which additional DNA segments can be inserted, such as by standard molecular cloning techniques. Another type of vector is a viral vector, wherein virally-derived DNA or RNA sequences are present in the vector for packaging into a virus (e.g. retroviruses, replication defective retroviruses, adenoviruses, replication defective adenoviruses, and adeno-associated viruses (AAVs)). Viral vectors also include polynucleotides carried by a virus for transfection into a host cell. Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g. bacterial vectors having a bacterial origin of replication and episomal mammalian vectors). Other vectors (e.g., non-episoraal mammalian vectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the host genome. Moreover, certain vectors are capable of directing the expression of genes to which they are operatively- linked. Such vectors are referred to herein as "expression vectors." Common expression vectors of utility in recombinant DNA techniques are often in the form of plasmids.

[00289] Recombinant expression vectors can comprise a nucleic acid of the invention in a form suitable for expression of the nucleic acid in a host cell, which means that the recombinant expression vectors include one or more regulatory elements, which may be selected on the basis of the host cells to be used for expression, that is operatively-lmked to the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. Within a recombinant expression vector, "operably linked" is intended to mean that the nucleotide sequence of interest is linked to the regulatory element(s) in a manner that allows for expression of the nucleotide sequence (e.g. in an in vitro transcription/translation system or in a host cell when the vector is introduced into the host cell). With regards to recombination and cloning methods, mention is made of U.S. patent application 10/815,730, published September 2, 2004 as US 2004-0171156 Al , the contents of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[00290] Aspects of the invention relate to bicistronic vectors for chimeric RNA and Cas9. Bicistronic expression vectors for chimeric RNA and Cas9 are preferred. In general and particularly in this embodiment Cas9 is preferably driven by the CBh promoter. The chimeric RNA may preferably be driven by a Pol III promoter, such as a U6 promoter. Ideally the two are combined. The chimeric guide RNA typically consists of a 20bp guide sequence (Ns) and this may be joined to the tracr sequence (running from the first "U" of the lo wer strand to the end of the transcript). The tracr sequence may be truncated at various positions as indicated. The guide and tracr sequences are separated by the tracr-mate sequence, which may be GUUUUAGAGCUA. This may be followed by the loop sequence GAAA as shown. Both of these are preferred examples. Applicants have demonstrated Cas9-mediated indels at the human EMX1 and PVALB loci by SURVEYOR assays. Ch.iR.NAs are indicated by their "+n" designation, and crRNA refers to a hybrid R A where guide and tracr sequences are expressed as separate transcripts. Throughout this application, chimeric RNA may also be called single guide, or synthetic guide RNA (sgRNA). The loop is preferably GAAA, but it is not limited to this sequence or indeed to being only 4bp in length. Indeed, preferred loop forming sequences for use in hairpin structures are four nucleotides in length, and most preferably have the sequence GAAA. However, longer or shorter loop sequences may be used, as may alternative sequences. The sequences preferably include a nucleotide triplet (for example, AAA), and an additional nucleotide (for example C or G). Examples of loop forming sequences include CAAA and AAAG. In practicing any of the methods disclosed herein, a suitable vector can be introduced to a cell or an embryo via one or more methods known in the art, including without limitation, microinjection, electroporation, sonoporation, biolistics, calcium phosphate-mediated transfection, cationic transfection, liposome transfection, dendrimer transfection, heat shock transfection, nucieofection transfection, magnetofection, lipofection, impalefection, optical transfection, proprietary agent-enhanced uptake of nucleic acids, and delivery via liposomes, immunoiiposomes, virosomes, or artificial virions, in some methods, the vector is introduced into an embryo by microinjection. The vector or vectors may be microinjected into the nucleus or the cytoplasm of the embryo. In some methods, the vector or vectors may be introduced into a ceil by nucieofection.

[00291] The term "^'regulatory element" is intended to include promoters, enhancers, internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES), and other expression control elements (e.g. transcription termination signals, such as polyadenylation signals and poly-U sequences). Such regulatory elements are described, for example, in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Caiif. (1990). Regulatory elements include those that direct constitutive expression of a nucleotide sequence in many types of host ceil and those that direct expression of the nucleotide sequence only in certain host cells (e.g., tissue-specific regulator sequences). A tissue-specific promoter may direct expression primarily in a desired tissue of interest, such as muscle, neuron, bone, skin, blood, specific organs (e.g. liver, pancreas), or particular cell types (e.g. lymphocytes). Regulatory elements may also direct expression in a temporal-dependent manner, such as in a cell-cycle dependent or developmental stage-dependent manner, which may or may not also be tissue or cell-type specific. In some embodiments, a vector comprises one or more pol ΠΙ promoter (e.g. 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol IK promoters), one or more pol II promoters (e.g. 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol Π promoters), one or more pol I promoters (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol I promoters), or combinations thereof. Examples of pol 111 promoters include, but are not limited to, U6 and HI promoters. Examples of pol II promoters include, but are not limited to, the retroviral Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) LTR promoter (optionally with the RSV enhancer), the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter (optionally with the CMV enhancer) [see, e.g., Boshart et al, Cell, 41 :521 -530 (1985)], the SV40 promoter, the dihydro folate reductase promoter, the β-actm promoter, the phosphoglycerol kinase (PGK) promoter, and the EFla promoter. Also encompassed by the term "regulatory element" are enhancer elements, such as WPRE; CMV enhancers; the R-U5' segment in LTR of HTLV-I (Mol. Cell. Biol, Vol. 8(1 ), p. 466-472, 1988); SV40 enhancer; and the iiitron sequence between exons 2 and 3 of rabbit β-globin (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., Vol. 78(3), p. 1527-31 , 1981 ). It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the design of the expression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed, the level of expression desired, etc. A vector can be introduced into host cells to thereby produce transcripts, proteins, or peptides, including fusion proteins or peptides, encoded by nucleic acids as described herein (e.g., clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) transcripts, proteins, enzymes, mutant forms thereof, fusion proteins thereof, etc.). With regards to regulatory sequences, mention is made of U.S. patent application 10/491,026, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. With regards to promoters, mention is made of PCT publication WO 2011/028929 and U.S. application 12/511,940, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

[00292] Vectors can be designed for expression of CRISPR transcripts (e.g. nucleic acid transcripts, proteins, or enzymes) in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. For example, CRISPR transcripts can be expressed in bacterial cells such as Escherichia coli, insect cells (using baculovirus expression vectors), yeast cells, or mammalian cells. Suitable host cells are discussed further in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990). Alternatively, the recombinant expression vector can be transcribed and translated in vitro, for example using T7 promoter regulatory sequences and T7 polymerase,

[00293] Vectors may be mtroduced and propagated in a prokaryote or prokaryotic cell, in some embodiments, a prokaryote is used to amplify copies of a vector to be introduced into a e karyotic cell or as an intermediate vector in the production of a vector to be introduced into a eukaryotic ceil (e.g. amplifying a plasmid as part of a viral vector packaging system). In some embodiments, a prokaryote is used to amplify copies of a vector and express one or more nucleic acids, such as to provide a source of one or more proteins for delivery to a host cell or host organism . Expression of proteins in prokaryot.es is most often carried out in Escherichia coli with vectors containing constitutive or inducible promoters directing the expression of either fusion or non-fusion proteins. Fusion vectors add a number of amino acids to a protem encoded therein, such as to the amino terminus of the recombinant protem. Such fusion vectors may serve one or more purposes, such as: (i) to increase expression of recombinant protein; (ii) to increase the solubility of the recombinant protein; and (iii) to aid in the purification of the recombinant protein by acting as a ligand in affinity purification. Often, in fusion expression vectors, a proteolytic cleavage site is introduced at the junction of the fusion moiety and the recombinant protein to enable separation of the recombinant protein from the fusion moiety subsequent to purification of the fusion protein. Such enzymes, and their cognate recognition sequences, include Factor Xa, thrombin and enterokinase. Example fusion expression vectors include pGEX (Pharmacia Biotech Inc; Smith and Johnson, 1988. Gene 67: 31-40), pMAL (New England Biolabs, Beverly, Mass.) and pR(T5 (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.) that fuse glutathione S-transferase (GST), maltose E binding protein, or protein A, respectively, to the target recombinant protein. Examples of suitable inducible non-fusion E. coli expression vectors include pTrc (Amrann et al, (1988) Gene 69:301-315) and pET l id (Studier et al., GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990) 60-89). In some embodiments, a vector is a yeast expression vector. Examples of vectors for expression in yeast Saccharomyces cerivisae include pYepSecl (Baldari, et al., 1987. EMBO J. 6: 229-234), pMFa ( uijan and Herskowitz, 1982. Cell 30: 933- 943), pJRY88 (Schultz et al, 1987. Gene 54: 1 13-123), pYES2 (Invitrogeii Corporation, San Diego, Calif.), and picZ (InVitrogen Corp, San Diego, Calif ). In some embodiments, a vector drives protein expression in insect cells using baculovirus expression vectors. Baculovirus vectors available for expression of proteins in cultured insect cells (e.g., SF9 cells) include the pAc series (Smith, et al., 1983. Mol. Cell. Biol. 3: 2156-2165) and the pVL series (Lucklow and Summers, 1989. Virology 170: 31-39).

[00294] In some embodiments, a vector is capable of driving expression of one or more sequences in mammalian cells using a mammalian expression vector. Examples of mammalian expression vectors include pCDM8 (Seed, 1987. Nature 329: 840) and pMT2PC (Kaufman, et al., 1987. EMBO J. 6: 187-195). When used in mammalian cells, the expression vector's control functions are typically provided by one or more regulatory elements. For example, commonly used promoters are derived from polyoma, adenovirus 2, cytomegalovirus, simian virus 40, and others disclosed herein and known in the art. For other suitable expression systems for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells see, e.g., Chapters 16 and 17 of Sambrook, et al., MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL. 2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989.

[00295] in some embodiments, the recombinant mammalian expression vector is capable of directing expression of the nucleic acid preferentially in a particular cell type (e.g., tissue- specific regulatory elements are used to express the nucleic acid). Tissue-specific regulatory elements are known in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable tissue-specific promoters include the albumin promoter (liver-specific; Pinkert, et al., 1987. Genes Dev. 1 : 268-277), lymphoid-specific promoters (Caiame and Eaton, 1988. Adv. Immunol. 43: 235-275), in particular promoters of T cell receptors (Winoto and Baltimore, 1989. EMBO J. 8: 729-733) and immunoglobulins (Baneiji, et al., 1983. Cell 33: 729-740; Queen and Baltimore, 1983. Cell 33: 741-748), neuron-specific promoters (e.g., the neurofilament promoter; Byrne and Ruddle, 1989. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 5473-5477), pancreas-specific promoters (Edlund, et al., 1985. Science 230: 912-916), and mammary gland-specific promoters (e.g., milk whey promoter; U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,316 and European Application Publication No. 264,166). Developmentally- regulated promoters are also encompassed, e.g., the murine hox promoters (Kessel and Grass, 1990. Science 249: 374-379) and the a-fetoprotein promoter (Campes and Ti.ighm.an, 1989. Genes Dev. 3: 537-546). With regards to these prokaryotic and eukaryotic vectors, mention is made of U.S. Patent 6,750,059, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. Other embodiments of the invention may relate to the use of viral vectors, with regards to which mention is made of U.S. Patent application 13/092,085, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. Tissue-specific regulatory elements are known in the art and in this regard, mention is made of U.S. Patent 7,776,321, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety, in some embodiments, a regulatory element is operabiy linked to one or more elements of a CR1SPR system so as to drive expression of the one or more elements of the CRISPR system. In general, CRJSPRs (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), also known as SPIDRs (SPacer Interspersed Direct Repeats), constitute a family of DNA loci that are usually specific to a particular bacterial species. The CRISPR locus comprises a distinct class of interspersed short sequence repeats (SSRs) that were recognized in E. coli (Ishino et al., J. Bacterial, 169:5429-5433 [1987]; and Nakata et al., J. Bacterid., 171 :3553-3556 [1989]), and associated genes. Similar interspersed SSRs have been identified in Haloferax mediterranei, Streptococcus pyogenes, Anabaena, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (See, Groenen et al., Mol. Microbiol., 10:1057-1065 [ 1993]; Hoe et al., Emerg. Infect. Dis., 5:254-263 [1999]; Masepohl et al, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1307:26-30 [1996]; and Mojica et al., Mol. Microbiol, 17:85-93 [1995]). The CRISPR loci typically differ from other SSRs by the structure of the repeats, which have been termed short regularly spaced repeats (SRSRs) (Janssen et al., OMICS J. Integ. Biol., 6:23-33 [2002]; and Mojica et al., Mol. Microbiol., 36:244-246 [2000]). In general, the repeats are short elements that occur in clusters that are regularly spaced by unique intervening sequences with a substantially constant length (Mojica et al., [2000], supra). Although the repeat sequences are highly conserved between strains, the number of interspersed repeats and the sequences of the spacer regions typically differ from strain to strain (van Embden et al., J. Bacterid., 182:2393-2401 [2000]). CRISPR loci have been identified in more than 40 prokaryotes (See e.g., Jansen et al, Mol. Microbiol., 43: 1565-1575 [2002]; and Mojica et al., [2005]) including, but not limited to Aeropyrum, Pyrobaculum, Sulfolobus, Archaeoglobus, Halocarcula, Methanobacterium, Methanoeoccus, Methanosarcina, Methanopyrus, Pyrococcus, Picrophilus, Thermoplasma, Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, Streptomyces, Aquifex, Porphyromonas, Chlorobium, Thermus, Bacillus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Clostridium, Thermoanaerobacter, Mycoplasma, Fusobacterium, Azarcus, Chromobacterium, Neisseria, Nitrosomonas, Desulfovibrio, Geobacter, Myxococcus, Campylobacter, Wolinella, Acinetobacter, Erwinia, Escherichia, Legionella, Methylococcus, Pasteurella, Photobacterium, Salmonella, Xantbomonas, Yersinia, Treponema, and Tbermotoga. [00296] In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is part of a fusion protein comprising one or more heterologous protein domains (e.g. about or more than about 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more domains in addition to the CRISPR enzyme). A CRISPR enzyme fusion protein may comprise any additional protein sequence, and optionally a linker sequence between any two domains. Examples of protein domains that may be fused to a CRISPR enzyme include, without limitation, epitope tags, reporter gene sequences, and protein domains having one or more of the following activities: methylase activity, demethylase activity, transcription activation activity, transcription repression activity, transcription release factor activity, histone modification activity, RNA cleavage activity and nucleic acid binding activity. Non-limiting examples of epitope tags include histidine (His) tags, V5 tags, FLAG tags, influenza hemagglutinin (HA) tags, Myc tags, VSV-G tags, and thioredoxm (Trx) tags. Examples of reporter genes include, but are not limited to, glutathione-S-transferase (GST), horseradish peroxidase (HRP), chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) beta-gaiactosidase, beta-glucuronidase, luciferase, green fluorescent protein (GFP), HcRed, DsRed, cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), and autofluorescent proteins including blue fluorescent protein (BFP). A CRISPR enzyme may be fused to a gene sequence encoding a protein or a fragment of a protein that bind DNA molecules or bind other cellular molecules, including but not limited to maltose binding protein (MBP), S-tag, Lex A DNA. binding domain (DBD) fusions, GAL4 DNA binding domain fusions, and herpes simplex virus (HSV) BP 16 protein fusions. Additional domains that may form part of a fusion protein comprising a CRISPR enzyme are described in US201 1G059502, incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, a tagged CRISPR enzyme is used to identify the location of a target sequence.

[00297] In some embodiments, a CRISPR enzyme may form a component of an inducible system. The inducible nature of the system would allow for spatiotemporal control of gene editing or gene expression using a form of energy. The form of energy may include but is not limited to electromagnetic radiation, sound energy, chemical energy and thermal energy. Examples of inducible system include tetracycline inducible promoters (Tet-On or Tet-Qff), small molecule two-hybrid transcription activations systems (FKBP, ABA, etc), or light inducible systems (Phytochrome, LGV domains, or cryptochrome).In one embodiment, the CRISPR enzyme may be a part of a Light Inducible Transcriptional Effector (LITE) to direct changes in transcriptional activity in a sequence-specific manner. The components of a light may include a CRISPR enzyme, a light-responsive cytochrome heterodimer (e.g. from Arabidopsis thaliana), and a transcriptional activation/repression domain. Further examples of inducible DNA binding proteins and methods for their use are provided in US 61/736465 and US 61/721 ,283, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[00298] The practice of the present invention employs, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of immunology, biochemistry, chemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, cell biology, genomics and recombinant DNA, which are within the skill of the art. See Sambrook, Fritsch and Maniatis, MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL, 2nd edition (1989); CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (F. M. Ausubel, et al. eds., (1987)); the series METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY (Academic Press, Inc.): PGR 2; A PRACTICAL APPROACH (M.J. MacPherson, B.D. Flames and GR. Taylor eds. (1995)), Harlow and Lane, eds. (1988) ANTIBODIES, A LABORATORY MANUAL, and ANIMAL CELL CULTURE, (R.I. Freshney, ed. (1987)).

Modifying a target

[0Θ299] In one aspect, the invention provides for methods of modifying a target polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell, which may be in vivo, ex vivo or in vitro. In some embodiments, the method comprises sampling a cell or population of cells from a human or non- human animal, and modifying the cell or cells. Culturing may occur at any stage ex vivo. The cell or cells may even be re -introduced into the non-human animal or plant. For re-introduced cells it is particularly preferred that the cells are stem cells.

[00300] In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of said target polynucleotide thereby modifying the target polynucleotide, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizabie to a target sequence within said target polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence.

[00301] In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying expression of a polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the polynucleotide such that said binding results in increased or decreased expression of said polynucleotide; wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizabie to a target sequence within said polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence. Similar considerations and conditions apply as above for methods of modifying a target polynucleotide, in fact, these sampling, culturing and re -introduction options apply across the aspects of the present invention.

[00302] Indeed, in any aspect of the invention, the CRJSPR complex may comprise a CRiSPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized or hybridizable to a target sequence, wherein said guide sequence may be linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn may hybridize to a tracr sequence. Similar considerations and conditions apply as above for methods of modifying a target polynucleotide.

Kits

[00303] In one aspect, the invention provides kits containing any one or more of the elements disclosed in the above methods and compositions. Elements may be provided individually or in combinations, and may be provided in any suitable container, such as a vial, a bottle, or a tube. In some embodiments, the kit includes instnictions in one or more languages, for example in more than one language.

[00304] In some embodiments, a kit comprises one or more reagents for use in a process utilizing one or more of the elements described herein. Reagents may be provided in any suitable container. For example, a kit may provide one or more reaction or storage buffers. Reagents may be provided in a form that is usable in a particular assay, or in a form that requires addition of one or more other components before use (e.g. in concentrate or lyophilize form). A buffer can be any buffer, including but not limited to a sodium carbonate buffer, a sodium bicarbonate buffer, a borate buffer, a Tris buffer, a MOPS buffer, a HEPES buffer, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the buffer is alkaline. In some embodiments, the buffer has a pH from about 7 to about 10. In some embodiments, the kit comprises one or more oligonucleotides corresponding to a guide sequence for insertion into a vector so as to operably link the guide sequence and a regulatory element. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a homologous recombination template polynucleotide. In some embodiments, the kit comprises one or more of the vectors and/or one or more of the polynucleotides described herein. The kit may advantageously allows to provide all elements of the systems of the invention.

CRISPR enzyme mR A and guide RNA [00305] CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA might also be delivered separately.

CRISPR enzyme mRNA can be delivered prior to the guide RNA. to give time for CRISPR enzyme to be expressed. CRISPR enzyme mRNA might be administered 1-12 hours (preferably around 2-6 hours) prior to the administration of guide RNA. Alternatively, CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA can be administered together. Advantageously, a second booster dose of guide RNA can be administered 1-12 hours (preferably around 2-6 hours) after the initial administration of CRISPR enzyme mRNA + guide RNA. Additional administrations of CR ISPR enzyme mRNA and/or guide RNA might be useful to achieve the most efficient levels of genome modification. For minimization of toxicity and off-target effect, it will be important to control the concentration of CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA delivered. Optimal concentrations of CRISPR enzyme mRNA and guide RNA can be determined by testing different concentrations in a cellular or animal model and using deep sequencing the analyze the extent of modification at potential off-target genomic loci. For example, for the guide sequence targeting 5 '-GAGTCCGAGC AGAAGAAGAA-3 ' in the EMX1 gene of the human genome, deep sequencing can be used to assess the level of modification at the following two off-target loci, 1 : 5 '-GAGTCCTAGCAGGAGAAGAA-3 ' and 2: 5 '-GAGTCTAAGCAGAAGAAGAA- 3'. The concentration that gives the highest level of on-target modification while minimizing the level of off-target modification should be chosen for in vivo delivery.

[00306] Crystallization of CRJSPR-Cas9 and Characterization of Crystal Structure: The crystals of the invention can be obtained by techniques of protein crystallography, including batch, liquid bridge, dialysis, vapor diffusion and hanging drop methods. Generally, the crystals of the invention are grown by dissolving substantially pure CRISPR-Cas9 and a nucleic acid molecule to which it binds in an aqueous buffer containing a precipitant at a concentration just below that necessary to precipitate. Water is removed by controlled evaporation to produce precipitating conditions, which are maintained until crystal growth ceases.

[00307] Uses of the Crystals, Crystal Structure and Atomic Structure Co-Ordinates: The CRISPR enzyme crystals, and particularly the atomic structure co-ordinates obtained therefrom, have a wide variety of uses. The crystals and structure co-ordinates are particularly useful for identifying compounds (nucleic acid molecules) that bind to CRISPR-Cas9, and CRISPR-Cas9s that can bind to particular compounds (nucleic acid molecules). Thus, the structure co-ordinates described herein can be used as phasing models in determining the crystal structures of additional synthetic or mutated CRISPR-Cas9s, Cas9s, nickases, binding domains. The provision of the crystal structure of CRISPR-Cas9 complexed with a nucleic acid molecule as in herein cited materials provide the skilled artisan with a detailed insight into the mechanisms of action of CRJSPR-Cas9. This insight provides a means to design modified CRISPR-Cas9s, such as by attaching thereto a functional group, such as a repressor or activator. While one can attach a functional group such as a repressor or activator to the N or C terminal of CRISPR-Cas9, the crystal structure demonstrates that the N terminal seems obscured or hidden, whereas the C terminal is more available for a functional group such as repressor or activator. Moreover, the crystal structure demonstrates that there is a flexible loop between approximately CRISPR-Cas9 (S. pyogenes) residues 534-676 which is suitable for attachment of a functional group such as an activator or repressor. Attachment can be via a linker, e.g., a flexible glycine-serine (GlyGlyGlySer) or (GGGS)₃ or a rigid alpha-helical linker such as (Ala(GluAlaAlaAlaLys)Ala). In addition to the flexible loop there is also a nuclease or H3 region, an H2 region and a helical region. By "helix" or "helical", is meant a helix as known in the art, including, but not limited to an alpha-helix. Additionally, the term helix or helical may also be used to indicate a c -terminal helical element with an N-terminal turn.

[00308] The provision of the crystal structure of CRJSPR-Cas9 complexed with a nucleic acid molecule allows a novel approach for drug or compound discovery, ide tification, and design for compounds that can bind to CRISPR-Cas9 and thus the invention provides tools useful in diagnosis, treatment, or prevention of conditions or diseases of multicellular organisms, e.g., algae, plants, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, avians, mammals; for example domesticated plants, animals (e.g., production animals such as swine, bovine, chicken; companion animal such as felines, canines, rodents (rabbit, gerbil, hamster); laboratory animals such as mouse, rat), and humans. Accordingly, the invention involves a computer-based method of rational design of CRISPR-Cas9 complexes. This rational design can comprise: providing the structure of the CRJSPR-Cas9 complex as defined by some or all (e.g., at least 2 or more, e.g., at least 5, advantageously at least 10, more advantageously at least 50 and even more advantageously at least 100 atoms of the structure) co-ordinates in the herein cited materials; providing a structure of a desired nucleic acid molecule as to which a CRISPR-Cas9 complex is desired; and fitting the structure of the CRISP R-Cas9 complex as defined by some or all coordinates in the herein cited materials to the desired nucleic acid molecule, including in said fitting obtaining putati ve modifications) of the CRISPR-Cas9 complex as defined by some or all co-ordinates in the herein cited materials for said desired nucleic acid molecule to bind for CRISPR-Cas9 complex(es) involving the desired nucleic acid molecule. The method or fitting of the method may use the co-ordinates of atoms of interest of the CRISP R-Cas9 complex as defined by some or all co-ordinates in the herein cited materials which are in the vicinity of the active site or binding region (e.g., at least 2 or more, e.g., at least 5, advantageously at least 10, more advantageously at least 50 and even more advantageously at least 100 atoms of the structure) in order to model the vicimty of the active site or binding region. These co-ordinates may be used to define a space which is then screened "in silico" against a desired or candidate nucleic acid molecule. Thus, the invention provides a computer-based method of rational design of CRISPR-Cas9 complexes. This method may include: providing the co-ordinates of at least two atoms of the herein cited materials ("selected co-ordinates"); providing the structure of a candidate or desired nucleic acid molecule; and fitting the structure of the candidate to the selected co-ordinates. In this fashion, the skilled person may also fit a functional group and a candidate or desired nucleic acid molecule. For example, providing the structure of the CRISPR- Cas9 complex as defined by some or all (e.g., at least 2 or more, e.g., at least 5, advantageously at least 10, more advantageously at least 50 and even more advantageously at least 100 atoms of the structure) co-ordinates in the herein cited materials; providing a structure of a desired nucleic acid molecule as to which a CRISPR-Cas9 complex is desired; fitting the structure of the CRISPR-Cas9 complex as defined by some or all co-ordinates in the herein cited materials to the desired nucleic acid molecule, including in said fitting obtaining putative modifications ) of the CRISPR-Cas9 complex as defined by some or all co-ordinates in the herein cited materials for said desired nucleic acid molecule to bind for CRISPR-Cas9 complex(es) involving the desired nucleic acid molecule; selecting putative fit CRISPR-Cas9— desired nucleic acid molecule compiex(es), fitting such putative fit CRISPR~Cas9— desired nucleic acid molecule complex(es) to the functional group (e.g., activator, repressor), e.g., as to locations for situating the functional group (e.g., positions within the flexible loop) and/or putative modifications of the putative fit CRISPR-Cas9— desired nucleic acid molecule complex(es) for creating locations for situating the functional group. As alluded to, the invention can be practiced using co-ordinates in the herein cited materials which are in the vicinity of the active site or binding region; and therefore, the methods of the invention can employ a sub-domain of interest of the CRISPR-Cas9 complex. Methods of the invention can be practiced using coordinates of a domain or sub-domain. The methods can optionally mclude synthesizing the candidate or desired nucleic acid molecule and/or the CRISPR-Cas9 systems from the "in silico" output and testing binding and/or activity of "wet" or actual a functional group linked to a "wet" or actual CRISP R-Cas9 system bound to a "wet" or actual candidate or desired nucleic acid molecule. The methods can include synthesizing the CRISPR-Cas9 systems (including a functional group) from the "in silico" output and testing binding and/or activity of "wet" or actual a functional group linked to a "wet" or actual CRISPR-Cas9 system bound to an in vivo "wet" or actual candidate or desired nucleic acid molecule, e.g., contacting "wet" or actual CR1SPR-Cas9 system including a junctional group from the "in silico" output with a cell containing the desired or candidate nucleic acid molecule. These methods can include observing the cell or an organism containing the cell for a desired reaction, e.g., reduction of symptoms or condition or disease. The step of providing the structure of a candidate nucleic acid molecule may involve selecting the compound by computationally screening a database containing nucleic acid molecule data, e.g., such data as to conditions or diseases. A 3-D descriptor for binding of the candidate nucleic acid molecule may^¬ be derived from geometric and functional constraints derived from the architecture and chemical nature of the CRISPR-Cas9 complex or domains or regions thereof from the herein cited materials. In effect, the descriptor can be a type of virtual modification^) of the CR1SPR-Cas9 complex crystal structure herein for binding CRISPR-Cas9 to the candidate or desired nucleic acid molecule. The descriptor may then be used to interrogate the nucleic acid molecule database to ascertain those nucleic acid molecules of the database that have putatively good binding to the descriptor. The herein "wet" steps can then be performed using the descriptor and nucleic acid molecules that have putatively good binding.

[0Θ309] "Fitting" can mean determining, by automatic or semi-automatic means, interactions between at least one atom of the candidate and at least one atom of the CRISPR-Cas9 complex and calculating the extent to which such an interaction is stable. Interactions can include attraction, repulsion, brought about by charge, steric considerations, and the like. A "sub- domain" can mean at least one, e.g., one, two, three, or four, complete element(s) of secondary stmcture. Particular regions or domains of the CRISPR-Cas9 include those identified in the herein cited materials. [00310] The determination of the three-dimensional structure of CRISPR-cas 9 (S. pyogenes Cas9) complex provides a basis for the design of new and specific nucleic acid molecules that bind to CRISPR-cas 9 (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9), as well as the design of new CRISPR-Cas9 systems, such as by way of modification of the CRISPR-Cas9 system to bind to various nucleic acid molecules, by way of modification of the CRISP R-Cas9 system to have linked thereto to any one or more of various functional groups that may interact with each other, with the CRISPR-Cas9 (e.g., an inducible system that provides for self-activation and/or self-termination of function), with the nucleic acid molecule nucleic acid molecules (e.g., the functional group may be a regulatory or functional domain which may be selected from the group consisting of a transcriptional repressor, a transcriptional activator, a nuclease domain, a DNA methyl transferase, a protein acetyltransferase, a protein deacetylase, a protein methyltransferase, a protein deaminase, a protein kinase, and a protein phosphatase; and, in some aspects, the functional domain is an epigenetic regulator; see, e.g., Zhang et al., US Patent No. 8,507,272, and it is again mentioned that it and all documents cited herein and all appln cited documents are hereby incorporated herein by reference), by way of modification of Cas9, by way of novel nickases). Indeed, the herewith CRISP -Cas9 (5. pyogenes Cas9) crystal structure has a multitude of uses. For example, from knowing the three-dimensional structure of CRJSPR-Cas9 (S. pyogenes Cas9) crystal structure, computer modelling programs may be used to design or identify different molecules expected to interact with possible or confirmed sites such as binding sites or other structural or functional features of the CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9). Compound that potentially bind ("binder") can be examined through the use of computer modeling using a docking program. Docking programs are known; for example GRAM, DOCK or AUTODOCK (see Walters et al. Drug Discovery Today, vol. 3, no. 4 (1998), 160-1 78, and Dunbrack et al. Folding and Design 2 (1997), 27-42), This procedure can include computer fitting of potential binders ascertain how well the shape and the chemical structure of the potential binder will bind to a CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9). Computer-assisted, manual examination of the active site or binding site of a CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9) may be performed. Programs such as GRID (P. Goodford, J. Med. Chem, 1985, 28, 849-57)— a program that determines probable interaction sites between molecules with various functional groups may also be used to analyze the active site or binding site to predict partial structures of binding compounds. Computer programs can be employed to estimate the attraction, repulsion or steric hindrance of the two binding partners, e.g., CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9) and a candidate nucleic acid molecule or a nucleic acid molecule and a candidate CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9); and the CRISPR-Cas9 crystal structure (S, pyogenes Cas9) herewith enables such methods. Generally, the tighter the fit, the fewer the steric hindrances, and the greater the attractive forces, the more potent the potential binder, since these properties are consistent with a tighter binding constant. Furthermore, the more specificity in the design of a candidate CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9), the more likely it is that it will not interact with off-target molecules as well. Also, "wet" methods are enabled by the instant invention. For example, in an aspect, the invention involves a method for determining the structure of a binder (e.g., target nucleic acid molecule) of a candidate CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9) bound to the candidate CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9), said method comprising, (a) providing a first crystal of a candidate CRISPR-Cas9 system (S. pyogenes Cas9) according to the invention or a second crystal of a candidate a candidate CR1SPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9), (b) contacting the first crystal or second crystal with said binder under conditions whereby a complex may form; and (c) determining the structure of said a candidate (e.g., CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9) or CRISPR-Cas9 system (S. pyogenes Cas9) complex. The second crystal may have essentially the same coordinates discussed herein, however due to minor alterations in CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., from the Cas9 of such a system being e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9 versus being S. pyogenes Cas9), wherein "e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9" indicates that the Cas9 is a Cas9 and can be of or derived from S. pyogenes or an ortholog thereof), the crystal may form in a different space group.

[00311] The invention further involves, in place of or in addition to "in silico" methods, other "wet" methods, including high throughput screening of a binder (e.g., target nucleic acid molecule) and a candidate CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9), or a candidate binder (e.g., target nucleic acid molecule) and a CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9), or a candidate binder (e.g., target nucleic acid molecule) and a candidate CRJ8PR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9) (the foregoing CRISPR-Cas9 system(s) with or without one or more functional group(s)), to select compounds with binding activity. Those pairs of binder and CR1SPR-Cas9 system which show binding activity may be selected and further crystallized with the CRISPR-Cas9 crystal having a structure herein, e.g., by co-ci stallization or by soaking, for X-ray analysis. The resulting X-ray structure may be compared with that of the herein cited materials for a variety of purposes, e.g., for areas of overlap. Having designed, identified, or selected possible pairs of binder and CRJSPR-Cas9 system by determining those which have favorable fitting properties, e.g., predicted strong attraction based on the pairs of binder and CR1SPR-Cas9 crystral structure data herein, these possible pairs can then be screened by "wet" methods for activity. Consequently, in an aspect the invention can involve: obtaining or synthesizing the possible pairs; and contacting a binder (e.g., target nucleic acid molecule) and a candidate CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9), or a candidate binder (e.g., target nucleic acid molecule) and a CRISPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9), or a candidate binder (e.g., target nucleic acid molecule) and a candidate CR1SPR-Cas9 system (e.g., S. pyogenes Cas9) (the foregoing CRISPR~Cas9 system(s) with or without one or more functional group(s)) to determine ability to bind, in the latter step, the contacting is advantageously under conditions to determine function. Instead of, or in addition to, performing such an assay, the invention may include: obtaining or synthesizing complex(es) from said contacting and analyzing the compiex(es), e.g., by X-ray diffraction or NMR or other means, to determine the ability to bind or interact. Detailed structural information can then be obtained about the binding, and in light of this information, adjustments can be made to the structure or functionality of a candidate CRISPR~Cas9 system or components thereof. These steps may be repeated and re- repeated as necessary. Alternatively or additionally, potential CRISPR-Cas9 systems from or in the foregoing methods can be with nucleic acid molecules in vivo, including without limitation by way of administration to an organism (including non -human animal and human) to ascertain or confirm function, including whether a desired outcome (e.g., reduction of symptoms, treatment) results therefrom.

[00312] The invention further involves a method of determining three dimensional structures of CRISPR-cas systems or complex(es) of unknown structure by using the structural co-ordinates of the herein cited materials. For example, if X-ray ciystallographic or NMR spectroscopic data are provided for a CRI SPR-cas system or complex of unknown crystal structure, the structure of a CRISPR-Cas9 complex as defined in the herein cited materials may be used to interpret that data to provide a likely structure for the unknown system or complex by such techniques as by phase modeling in the case of X-ray crystallography. Thus, the in vention can in vol ve: aligning a representation of the CRISPR-cas system or complex having an unknown crystral structure with an analogous representation of the CRISPR-cas(9) system and complex of the crystal stmcture herein to match homologous or analogous regions (e.g., homologous or analogous sequences); modeling the structure of the matched homologous or analogous regions (e.g., sequences) of the CRISPR-cas system or complex of unknown crystal structure based on the structure as defined in the herein cited materials of the corresponding regions (e.g., sequences); and, determining a conformation (e.g. taking into consideration favorable interactions should be formed so that a low energy conformation is formed) for the unknown crystal structure which substantially preserves the structure of said matched homologous regions. "Homologous regions" describes, for example as to amino acids, amino acid residues in two sequences that are identical or have similar, e.g., aliphatic, aromatic, polar, negatively charged, or positively charged, side-chain chemical groups. Homologous regions as ot nucleic acid molecules can include at least 85% or 86% or 87% or 88% or 89% or 90%» or 91% or 92%, or 93% or 94% or 95% or 96% or 97%, or 98%) or 99% homology or identity. Identical and similar regions are sometimes described as being respectively "invariant" and "conserved" by those skilled in the art. Advantageously, the first and third steps are performed by computer modeling. Homology modeling is a technique that is well known to those skilled in the art (see, e.g., Greer, Science vol. 228 (1985) 1055, and Blundell et al. Eur J Biochem vol 172 (1988), 513). The computer representation of the conserved regions of the CRISPR-Cas9 crystrai structure in herein cited material and those of a CRISPR-cas system of unknown crystral structure aid in the prediction and determination of the crystral structure of the CRISPR-cas system of unknown crystal structure. Further still, the aspects of the invention which employ the CRISPR-Cas9 crystrai structure in siiico may be equally applied to new CRISPR-cas crystral structures divined by using the herein CRISPR-Cas9 crystral structure. In this fashion, a library of CRISPR-cas crystral structures can be obtained. Rational CRISPR-cas system design is thus provided by the instant invention. For instance, having determined a conformation or crystral structure of a CRISPR-cas system or complex, by the methods described herein, such a conformation may be used in a computer-based methods herein for determining the conformation or crystal structure of other CRISPR-cas systems or complexes whose crystral structures are yet unkown. Data from all of these crystal structures can be in a database, and the herein methods can be more robust by having herein comparisons involving the herein crystral stmcture or portions thereof be with respect to one or more crystal structures in the library. The invention further includes systems, such as computer systems, intended to generate structures and/or perform rational design of a CRISPR-cas system or complex. The system can contain; atomic co-ordinate data according to the herein cited materials or be derived therefrom e.g., by modeling, said data defining the three-dimensional structure of a CRJSPR-cas system or complex or at least one domain or sub-domain thereof, or structure factor data therefor, said structure factor data being derivable from the atomic co-ordinate data of the herein cited materials. The invention also involves computer readable media with: atomic coordinate data according to the herein cited materials or derived therefrom e.g., by homology modeling, said data defining the three-dimensional structure of a CRISPR-cas system or complex or at least one domain or sub-domain thereof!, or structure factor data therefor, said structure factor data being derivable from the atomic co-ordinate data of the herein cited materials. "Computer readable media" refers to any media which can be read and accessed directly by a computer, and includes, but is not limited to: magnetic storage media; optical storage media; electrical storage media; cloud storage and hybrids of these categories. By providing such computer readable media, the atomic co-ordinate data can be routinely accessed for modeling or other "in silico" methods. The invention further comprehends methods of doing business by providing access to such computer readable media, for instance on a subscription basis, via the Internet or a global communicationxomputer network; or, the computer system can be available to a user, on a subscription basis. A "computer system" refers to the hardware means, software means and data storage means used to analyze the atomic co-ordinate data of the present invention. The minimum hardware means of computer-based systems of the invention may comprise a central processing unit (CPU), input means, output means, and data storage means. Desirably, a display or monitor is provided to visualize structure data. The invention further comprehends methods of transmitting information obtained in any method or step thereof described herein or any information described herein, e.g., via telecommunications, telephone, mass communications, mass media, presentations, internet, email, etc. The crystal structures of the invention can be analyzed to generate Fourier electron density map(s) of CRISPR-cas systems or complexes; advantageously, the three-dimensional structure being as defined by the atomic co-ordinate data according to the herein cited materials. Fourier electron density maps can be calculated based on X-ray diffraction patterns. These maps can then be used to determine aspects of binding or other interactions. Electron density maps can be calculated using known programs such as those from the CCP4 computer package (Collaborative Computing Project, No. 4. The CCP4 Suite: Programs for Protein Crystallography, Acta Crystallographica, D50, 1994, 760-763). For map visualization and model building programs such as "QUANTA" (1994, San Diego, Calif : Molecular Simulations, Jones et at, Acta Crystallography A47 (1991), 110- 1 19) can be used,

[00313] The herein cited materials gives atomic co-ordinate data for a CR1SPR-Cas9 (S, pyogenes), and lists each atom by a unique number; the chemical element and its position for each amino acid residue (as determined by electron density maps and ant body sequence comparisons), the amino acid residue in which the element is located, the chain identifier, the number of the residue, co-ordinates (e.g., X, Y, Z) which define with respect to the crystallographie axes the atomic position (in angstroms) of the respective atom, the occupancy of the atom in the respective position, "B", isotropic displacement parameter (in angstroms ) which accounts for movement of the atom around its atomic center, and atomic number.

[0Θ314] In particular embodiments of the invention, the conformational variations in the crystal structures of the CRISP R-Cas9 system or of components of the CRISPR-Cas9 provide important and critical information about the flexibility or movement of protein structure regions relative to nucleotide (R A or D^'NA) structure regions that may be important for CRISPR-Cas system function. The structural information provided for Cas9 (e.g. S. pyogenes Cas9) as the CRISPR enzyme in the present invention may be used to further engineer and optimize the CRISPR-Cas system and this may be extrapolated to interrogate stracture-function relationships in other CRISPR enzyme systems as well, particularly structure-function relationhips in other Type II CRISPR enzymes or Cas9 orthologs. An aspect of the invention relates to the crystal structure of S. pyogenes Cas9 in complex with sgRNA and its target DNA at 2.4 A resolution. The structure revealed a bilobed architecture composed of target recognition and nuclease lobes, accommodating a sgRNA:DNA duplex in a positively-charged groove at their interface. The recognition lobe is essential for sgRNA. and DNA binding and the nuclease lobe contains the 1 1 \ 1 1 and RuvC nuclease domains, which are properly positioned for the cleavage of complementary and non-complementary strands of the target DNA, respectively. This high- resolution structure and the functional analyses provided herein elucidate the molecular mechanism of RNA-guided DNA targeting by Cas9, and provides an abundance of information for generating optimized CRISPR-Cas systems and components thereof. [00315] The crystal structure may provide a step towards understanding the molecular mechanism of RNA-guided DNA targeting by Cas9. The structural and functional analyses herein provide a useful scaffold for rational engineering of Cas9-based genome modulating technologies and may provide guidance as to Cas9-mediated recognition of PAM sequences on the target DNA or mismatch tolerance between the sgRNA:DNA duplex. Aspects of the invention also relate to truncation mutants, e.g. an S. pyogenes Cas9 truncation mutant may facilitate packaging of Cas9 into size-constrained viral vectors for in vivo and therapeutic applications. Similarly, future engineering of the PAM Interacting (PI) domain may allow programing of PAM specificity, improve target site recognition fidelity, and increase the versatility of the Cas9 genome engineering platform.

[00316] The structural information provided herein allows for interrogation of CRISPR enzyme (e.g. Cas9) interaction with the sgRNA (or chimeric R A) and the target DNA permitting engineering or alteration or generation of modular or multi-part components of the CRISPR enzyme to arrive at new functionality or to optimize functionality of the entire CRISPR- Cas system. Modular or multi-part CRISPR enzymes, e.g. SpCas9 fusion constructs allow for the generation of inducible CRISPR-Cas systems that may be further optimized. Aspects of inducible CRISPR-Cas systems are described in PCT Application PCT/US2013/051418, entitled "INDUCIBLE DNA BINDING PROTEINS AND GENOME PERTURBATION TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS THEREOF" filed on July 21, 2013 and published as PCT Publication WQ2Q 14018423 A2 on January 30, 2014, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0Θ317] In one aspect the invention provides a non-naturally occurring or engineered CRISPR-Cas system which may comprise at least one switch wherein the activity of said CRISPR-Cas system is controlled by contact with at least one inducer energy source as to the switch. In an embodiment of the invention the control as to the at least one switch or the activity of said CRISPR-Cas system may be activated, enhanced, terminated or repressed. The contact with the at least one inducer energy source may result in a first effect and a second effect. The first effect may be one or more of nuclear import, nuclear export, recruitment of a secondary component (such as an effector molecule), conformational change (of protein, DNA or RNA), cleavage, release of cargo (such as a caged molecule or a co-factor), association or dissociation. The second effect may be one or more of activation, enhancement, termination or repression of the control as to the at least one switch or the activity of said CRISPR-Cas system. In one embodiment the first effect and the second effect may occur in a cascade,

[00318] In another aspect of the invention the CRISPR-Cas system may further comprise at least one or more nuclear localization signal (NLS), nuclear export signal (NES), functional domain, flexible linker, mutation, deletion, alteration or truncation. The one or more of the NLS, the NES or the functional domain may be conditionally activated or inactivated. In another embodiment, the mutation may be one or more of a mutation in a transcription factor homology region, a mutation in a DNA binding domain (such as mutating basic residues of a basic helix loop helix), a mutation in an endogenous NLS or a mutation in an endogenous NES. The invention comprehends that the inducer energy source may be heat, ultrasound, electromagnetic energy or chemical. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the inducer energy source may be an antibiotic, a small molecule, a hormone, a hormone derivative, a steroid or a steroid derivative. In a more preferred embodiment, the inducer energy source maybe abseisic acid (ABA), doxycycline (DOX), cumate, rapamycin, 4-hydroxytamoxifen (40HT), estrogen or ecdysone. The invention provides that the at least one switch may be selected from the group consisting of antibiotic based inducible systems, electromagnetic energy based inducible systems, small molecule based inducible systems, nuclear receptor based inducible systems and hormone based inducible systems. In a more preferred embodiment the at least one switch may be selected from the group consisting of tetracycline (Tet)/DOX inducible systems, light inducible systems, ABA inducible systems, cumate repressor/operator systems, 40HT/estrogen inducible systems, ecdysone-based inducible systems and FKBP12/FRAP (FKBP12-rapamycin complex) inducible systems.

[00319] Aspects of control as detailed in this application relate to at least one or more switch(es). The term "switch" as used herein refers to a system or a set of components that act in a coordinated manner to affect a change, encompassing al l aspects of biological function such as activation, repression, enhancement or termination of that function. In one aspect the term switch encompasses genetic switches which comprise the basic components of gene regulatory proteins and the specific DNA sequences that these proteins recognize. In one aspect, switches relate to inducible and repressible systems used in gene regulation. In general, an inducible system may be off unless there is the presence of some molecule (called an inducer) that allows for gene expression. The molecule is said to "induce expression". The manner by which this happens is dependent on the control mechanisms as well as differences in cell type. A repressible system is on except in the presence of some molecule (called a corepressor) that suppresses gene expression. The molecule is said to "repress expression". The manner by which this happens is dependent on the control mechanisms as well as differences in cell type. The term "inducible" as used herein may encompass all aspects of a switch irrespective of the molecular mechanism involved. Accordingly a switch as comprehended by the invention may include but is not limited to antibiotic based inducible systems, electromagnetic energy based inducible systems, small molecule based inducible systems, nuclear receptor based inducible systems and hormone based inducible systems. In preferred embodiments the switch may be a tetracycline (Tet)/DOX inducible system, a light inducible systems, a Abscisic acid (ABA) inducible system, a cumate repressor/operator system, a 40HT/estrogen inducible system, an ecdysone -based inducible systems or a FKBP12/FRAP (F BP 12-rapamyein complex) inducible system.

[0Θ320] CasLITEs are designed to modulate or alter expression of individual endogenous genes in a temporally and spatially precise manner. The CRISPR-Cas system as utilized in CasLITEs may be designed to bind to the promoter sequence of the gene of interest to change gene expression. The CRJSPR enzyme may be spilt into two where one half is fused to one half of the crypto chrome heterodimer (cryptochrome-2 or CIB l), while the remaining cryptochrome partner is fused to the other half of the CRISPR enzyme. In some aspects, a transcriptional effector domain may also be included in the CasLITE system. Effector domains may be either activators, such as VP 16, VP64, or p65, or repressors, such as KRAB, EnR, or SID. In a LITE'S unstimulated state, the one half CRJSPR enzyme-cryptochrome2 protein localizes to the promoter of the gene of interest, but is not bound to the CIBl -effector protein. Upon stimulation of a LITE with blue spectrum light, cryptochrome-2 becomes activated, undergoes a conformational change, and reveals its binding domain. CIBl, in turn, binds to cryptochrome-2 resulting in localization of the second half of the CRISPR. enzyme to the promoter region of the gene of interest and initiating genome editing which may result in gene overexpression or silencing. Aspects of LITEs are further described in Liu, H et al. , Science, 2008 and Kennedy M et al.. Nature Methods 2010, the contents of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

100321 J Activator and repressor domains which may further modulate function may be selected on the basis of species, strength, mechanism, duration, size, or any number of other parameters. Preferred effector domains include, but are not limited to, a transposase domain, integrase domain, recombmase domain, resolvase domain, invertase domain, protease domain, DNA methyltransferase domain, DNA demethylase domain, histone acetvlase domain, histone deaceiyiases domain, nuclease domain, repressor domain, activator domain, nuclear-localization signal domains, transcription-protein recruiting domain, cellular uptake activity associated domain, nucleic acid binding domain or antibody presentation domain.

[00322J There are several different ways to generate chemical inducible systems as well : 1. ABI-PYL based system inducible by Abscisic Acid (ABA) (see, e.g., website at stke.sciencemag.org cgi/c»ntent/abstract sigtrans;4/164/rs2), 2. FKBP-FRB based system inducible by rapamycin (or related chemicals based on rapamycin) (see, e.g., website at nature.com/nmetji/joumal/v2/n6/fuIl/nmeth763.html), 3. GID1-GAI based system inducible by Gibberellin (GA) (see, e.g., website at nature.com/nchembio/joumal/v8/n5/Ml/nchembio.922.html).

[00323] Another system contemplated by the present invention is a chemical inducible system based on change in sub-cellular localization. Applicants also comprehend an inducible CRISPR- Cas system engineered to target a genomic locus of interest wherein the Cas enzyme is split into two fusion constructs that are further linked to different parts of a chemical or energy sensitive protein. This chemical or energy sensitive protein will lead to a change in the sub-cellular localization of either half of the Cas enzyme (i.e. transportation of either half of the Cas enzyme from cytoplasm into the nucleus of the cells) upon the binding of a chemical or energy transfer to the chemical or energy sensitive protein. This transportation of fusion constructs from one subcellular compartments or organelles, in which its activity is sequestered due to lack of substrate for the reconstituted CRISPR-Cas system, into another one in which the substrate is present would allow the components to come together and reconstitute functional activity and to then come in contact with its desired substrate (i.e. genomic DNA in the mammalian nucleus) and result in activation or repression of target gene expression .

[00324] Other inducible systems are contemplated such as, but not limited to, regulation by heavy-metals [Mayo E et al., Cell 1982, 29:99-108; Searle PF et al., Mo Cell Biol 1985, 5: 1480-1489 and Brinster RL et al., Nature (London) 1982, 296:39-42], steroid hormones [Hynes NE et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981, 78:2038-2042; lock G et al., Nature (London) 1987, 329:734-736 and Lee F et al, Nature (London) 1981, 294:228-232.], heat shock [Nouer L: Heat Shock Response. Boca Raton, FL: CRC; 1991] and other reagents have been developed [Mullick A, Massie B: Transcription, translation and the control of gene expression. In Encyclopedia of Cell Technology Edited by: Speir RE. Wiley; 2000: 1 140-1164 and Fussenegger M, . Bioteehnol Prog 2001, 17: 1 -51]. However, there are limitations with these inducible mammalian promoters such as "leakiness" of the "off state and pleiotropic effects of inducers (heat shock, heavy metals, glucocorticoids etc.). The use of insect hormones (ecdysone) has been proposed in an attempt to reduce the interference with cellular processes in mammalian cells [No D et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996, 93:3346-3351], Another elegant system uses rapamycin as the inducer [Rivera VM et ai., Nat Med 1996, 2:1028-1032] but the role of rapamycin as an immunosuppressant was a major limitation to its use in vivo and therefore it was necessary to find a biologically inert compound [Saez E et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000, 97:14512- 14517] for the control of gene expression.

[0Θ325] The invention will now be further described by way of the following non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLES

[00326] The following examples are given for the purpose of illustrating various embodiments of the invention and are not meant to limit the present invention in any fashion. The present examples, along with the methods described herein are presently representative of preferred embodiments, are exemplary, and are not intended as limitations on the scope of the invention. Changes therein and other uses which are encompassed within the spirit of the invention as defined by the scope of the claims will occur to those skilled in the art.

Example 1: Engineering modular or multi-part inducible CRISPR-Cas systems based on S. pyogenes Cas9 Crystral Structure

[00327] The crystal structure information (described in U.S. provisional applications 61/915,251 filed December 12, 2013, 61/930,214 filed on January 22, 2014, 61/980,012 filed April 15, 2014; and Nishimasu et al, "Crystal Structure of Cas9 in Complex with Guide RN A and Target D A," Cell 156(5):935-949, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/! 0.10! /j.cell.2014.02.001 (2014), each and all of which are incorporated herein by reference) provides structural information to truncate and create modular or multi-part CRJSPR. enzym.es which may be incorporated into inducible CRISPR-Cas systems. In particular, structural information is provided for S. pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9) and this may be extrapolated to other Cas9 orthologs or other Type II CRISPR enzymes. A set of chemically-inducible Cas9s were constructed as two- component systems, where one portion of the Cas9 protein is fused to FKBP, and the remainder fused to FRB (e.g. F BP-Cas9(amino acids 1-1098), FRB-Cas(l 099-1368)) (a series of potential fusion constructs may be determined from Fig. 1). In absence of chemical induction, co- transfection of the two inducible Cas9 components have no catalytic activity, but the functional assembly of the components may be induced using Rapamycin [5 nM to ΙΟμΜ],

[00328J SpCas9 fusion constructs were generated by Gibson assembly. Briefly, SpCas9, FKBP and FRB fragments were generated by PCR amplification. Codon optimized SpCas9 from PX33Q was used as template for SpCas9 and pTB005 was used as template for FKBP and FRB as indicated in Fig. 2. Sequences for NLS, 15 amino acid linkers and 20 bp Gibson homology sides were incorporated in PCR primers (Fig. 3). SpCas9 PCR. fragments and FKBP or FRB PCR fragments were incubated with vector backbone for 1 hour in Gibson assembly reagents. Vector backbone was prepared from PX330 cut with Agel and EcoRl and treated with Fast-AP (ail enzymes from Thermo Scientific) (Fig. 2).

[0Θ329] NLS free FRB-Cas9 fusion pieces were generated as described above except no NLS sequences where incorporated in the primers (Fig. 4). NES~FRB~Cas9 fusion pieces were generated by Gibson assembly. Briefly, NES ultramers (Fig. 4) were annealed and incubated with Agel cut NLS free FRB-Cas9 fusion plasmids in Gibson assembly reagent for 1 hour.

[0Θ330] Sequenced verified clones were used for transfection into HEK293FT cells: HEK cells were transfected with IQOng of each SpCas9-FKBP and SPCas9-FRB and lOQng of sgRNA guide targeting EMX1 . For induction of SpCas9 assembly cell were treated with 1 μηι rapamycin immediately after transfection and new rapamycin was added every 24 hours. Untreated transfected cells were used as controls. Cells were harvested 72 hours after transfection and indel formation at targeted EMX1 locus was assessed by SURVEYOR assay (Fig, 5).

Example 2: A Split Cas9 Architecture for Conditional Genome Editing and Transcription Modulation

[00331] CRiSPR-Cas is a microbial adaptive immune system, which provides protection against foreign DNA ^J . The RNA-guided endonuclease Cas9 has been adapted as a tool for genome editing in mammalian cells and animal models ^L . Using a chimeric single-guide RNA (sgRNA) , Cas9 can be used to facilitate efficient genome editing in mammalian cells ⁴' ^J. in addition, strategies employing catalytic inactive Cas can direct effector proteins to genomic targets ^w to achieve transcriptional modulation. Here, Applicants demonstrate that Cas9 can be rendered chemically inducible by being split into two fragments and using rapamycm sensitive dimerization domains for controlled reassembly to mediate genome editing and transcription modulation.

[00332] To develop a split Cas9 system, Applicants identified eleven potential split sites based on a crystal structure of Cas9 in complex with sgRNA and complementary target DNA . Five sites are located in unstructured regions and six in loops on the protein surface (Fig. 6A and Fig. 8A). The resulting C- and N-term Cas9 fragments were fused to FK506 binding protein 12 (FKBP), and FKBP rapamycin binding (FRB) domains ¹¹ of the mammalian target of rapamycm (mTOR) (Fig. 8B and Fig. 6B), respectively. Applicants tested ail eleven split-Cas9 sets by targeting the EMX1 locus in human embryonic kidney 293FT (HEK293FT) cells using a previously validated sgRNA ⁴. Using the SURVEYOR nuclease assay, Applicants were able to detect insertion/deletion, (indels) mutations mediated by all split-Cas9 sets in ceils treated with rapamycin. In addition, moderate levels of indels could also be detected in the absence of rapamycin (Fig, 8C-D). The observed background activity was not due to residual nuclease activity of individual split pieces, since none of the pieces without their counterpart showed detectable levels of indels using SURVEYOR (data not shown). Using a small set of split-Cas9 lacking dimerization domains Applicants found that Cas9 split fragments can auto-assemble in cells (Fig. 8E-G), which explained observed background activity.

[00333] After establishing that background activity in the split-Cas9 system is due to spontaneous auto-assembly of Cas9, Applicants hypothesized that keeping each Cas9 fragment

12

spatially separated may reduce background activity . To sequester the Cas9(N)-FRB fragment in the cytoplasm, where it is less likel to dimerize with the nuclear-localized Cas9(C)-FKBP fragment, Appiicants replaced the two nuclear localization sequences (NLSs) on Cas9(N)-FRB with a single nuclear export sequence (NES) from the human protein tyrosin kinase 2 ^~ (Cas9(N)-FRB-NES). In the presence of rapamycin, Cas9(N)-FRB-NES dimerizes with Cas9(C)-FKBP-2xNLS to reconstitute a complete Cas9 protein, which shifts the balance of nuclear trafficking toward nuclear import and allows DNA targeting (Fig. 6C-D). Applicants tested this strategy with split-4 and split-5 (Fig. 6A), which exhibited high levels of activity (Fig. 8D), and found that a single NES is sufficient to reduce background activity below the detection limit of the SURVEYOR assay (Fig. 6E). Applicants' data show that spatial sequestration of Cas9-FRB F BP split fragments inside the cell, combined with rapamycin activated dimerization, allows for inducibl e activation of the Cas9 nuclease.

[00334] High dosage of Cas9 can exacerbate indel frequencies at off-target (OT) sequences which exhibit few mismatches to the guide strand . Such sequences are especially susceptible if mismatches are non-consecutive and/or outside of the seed region of the guide ⁴' ^{f 4}" ¹⁵. Over time, accumulation of indels at OT sites is observed with constitutively expressed Cas9 ¹⁶. Applicants understood that temporal control of Cas9 activity could be used to reduce dosage in long-term expression experiments and therefore result in reduced off-target indels compared to constitutively active Cas9. To that end, Applicants generated a split-Cas9 lentivirus construct, similar to the lentiCRISPR plasmid ¹⁶ for split-5 (LSC-5 for lenti split-Cas9 split-5) (Fig. 6F). Both split pieces, as well as a purornycin resistant gene (puro), are under the control of an elongation factor la short (EPS) promoter. HEK293FT cells were transduced with an MOI of < 0.3 and selected with purornycin for 5 days.

[00335] Wt-Cas9 transduced HE 293FT cells were analyzed by deep sequencing 4 weeks after transduction, whereas LSC-5 transduced ceils were analyzed after 6 weeks, to account for 12 days of consecutive treatment with 200 tiM rapamycin (Fig, 6G). In cells transduced with a lentivirus carrying both wt-Cas9 and a previously- validated E MX 1 -targeting sgRNA , Applicants detected -95% indels at the on-target site as well as mutations at four validated off- target sites (OT-1 to 4) ^l '. in comparison, on-target indel frequency in cells transduced with LSC-5 was -43% after 12 days of rapamycin treatment. In untreated cells, no significant difference in EM XI on-target indels could be detected between LSC-5 and control samples. Furthermore, no significant increase in OT indels could be detected in ceils transduced with LSC-5 regardless of rapamycin treatment (one-way ANOVA, p>0.9999). These data demonstrate that stable, low copy expression of split Cas9 can be used to induce substantial indels at a targeted locus without significant mutation at off-target sites.

[00336] In addition, the nuclease activity of Cas9 can be rendered inactive, without disturbing DNA binding capability. The resulting catalytieally dead Cas9 (dCas9) can be used to traffic transactivation domains to targeted loci ¹. Applicants sought to show that the split-Cas9 architecture can be applied to dCas9 to mediate inducible transcription activation. To this end, Applicants cloned split-4 fragments harboring a D10A point mutation in the FRB fusion (dCas9(N)-FRB-2xNES) and a N863A point mutation in the FKBP fusion and added a VP64 transactivation domain to Cas9(C)-F BP-2xNLS (dCas9(C)-FKBP-2xNLS-VP64) (Fig. 7A). These fragments will reconstitute a catalytically inactive Cas9-VP64 fusion (dCas9-VP64).

[00337] Applicants tested the inducibility of split dCas9-VP64 by activating ASCL 1 , MYOD 1 or IL1RN transcription in HEK293FT cells, using four previously validated sgRNAs ⁷ per gene. Cells were treated with rapamycin 24 hours after transfection and maintained in 200nM rapamycin until harvested for RNA at 48 hours after transfection. Significant increase in mRNA levels, compared to utitransfected HE 293FT, could be detected using quantitative real-time PGR (qPCR) for all three genes (one-way ANOVA, ASCLl p<0.0001, MYODl p<0.000L IL1RN p<0.0001) (Fig. 7B). Background activity was low compared to rapamycin induced cells (+rapamycm/--rapamycin ratio, ASCLl = 77, MYODl = 29, IL1RN = 649) and not significant compared to untransfected cells (one-way ANOVA, p>0.99). Therefore, transcriptional activation was induced by split dCas9-VP64 in the presence of rapamycin.

[00338] To test if transcriptional activation is reversible upon withdrawal of rapamycin, Applicants activated ASCLl expression in HEK293FT cells and Neurog2 in N2A cells (Fig. 7C). Cells were treated with rapamycin 24 hours after transfection. Rapamycin was either withdrawn after 2 hours or replaced every 24 hours for continual induction. Cells were harvested at 2, 6, 12, 24 and 72 hours post rapamycin treatment and mRNA levels were analyzed by qPCR. ASCLl and Neurog2 levels increased during the entire study with no significant difference between continual rapamycin treatment and a 2 -hour treatment (correlation coefficient, ASCLl = 1 , Neurog2 ^::: 1).

[00339] Applicants demonstrated that Cas9 can be split into two distinct fragments, which reconstitute a functional full-length Cas9 nuclease when brought back together using chemical induction. The split Cas9 architecture is useful for a variety of applications. For example, split Cas9 enables genetic strategies for restricting Cas9 activity to intersectionai cell populations by putting each fragment under a different tissue specific promoter. Additionally, different chemically inducible dimerizafion domains such as APA¹⁸ and gibbereliin ¹⁹ can also be employed to generate an array of inducible Cas9s fused to different modulatory domains to construct synthetic transcriptional networks.

Materials and Methods

Design and construction of split-Cas9 [00340] Individual split-Cas9 plasmids were generated by Gibson Assembly Cloning (Gibson master mix from New England Biolabs). Briefly, individual split~Cas9 pieces were PCR amplified from PX330 and FKBP/FRB pieces were amplified of gBlocks Gene Fragments (Integrated DNA Technologies). Gibson homology, glycine-serine linker, P2A, NLS and/or N ES sequences were introduced by PCR, with primers as follows:

(primer name primer sequence (5' to 3'))

[00342] Split l-FRB-2xNLS Rev AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG

CCACCGCCACCGGCGTTGATGGGGTTTTCCT

[00343] Split2-FRB-2xNLS Rev

AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG CCACCGCCACCGAAGTTGCTCTTGAAGTTGG

[00344] Split3-FRB-2xNLS Rev

AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG CCACCGCCACCCTCGGTGTTCACTCTCAGGA

[00345] SpIit4-FRB-2xNL8 Rev AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG

CCACCGCCACCTCTCATTCCCTCGGTCACGT

[00346] Split5-FRB-2xNLS Rev

AGi SC ( ·{ !^'{ X Π Gi X V\( ^'ΛΊΧ ΊΧ X ^'GAGC X ^'Λί X X X AC ( X S AC X X AC C G< X^'M X X^'GA CCACCGCCACCCTCGATTTTCTTGAAGTAGTCC

[00347] Split6-FRB-2xNLS Rev

AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG CCACCGCCACCGGACACCTGGGCTTTCTGGA

[003481 Split7-FRB-2x LS Rev AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG

CCACCGCCACCCAGCTTAGGGTACTTTTTGA

[00349] Split8-FRB-2xNLS Rev

AGi X X ΊΧ X Π Gi X V\( ^'ΛΊΧ ΊΧ X ^'G GC X V\i X X X AC C X ( ΪΛ( ϊί X Λ( ( X VAi XXX · Λ( i CCACCGCCACCGCCGTTGGCCAGGGTAATCT [00350] Split9-FRB-2xNLS Rev AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG

CCACCGCCACCGTTCCTCTTGGGCAGGATAG

[00351] SplitlO-FRB-2xNLS Rev AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG

CCACCGCCACCCTTGCCCTTTTCCACTTTGGCC

100352! Splitll-FRB-2xNLS Rev

AGGCCCTCGTGCCACATCTCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAGCCACCGCCACCCGAG CCACCGCCACCCTTCAGCTTCTCATAGTGGC

[00353] Split 1 -F BP-2xNLS For TGGAGCTGCTGAAGCTGGAGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTG GCGGTGGCTCGAGCGGCGTGGACGCCAAGGC

[00354] Split2-FKBP-2xNLS For

^·! }(_;Λ( :Ί ΚΊ _;ΛΛα{Ί _;αΛα(_;ο κ^·{;ο _;α{Ί ^·{;ο{π }( : ]α( :Ί(·< _ί ^·Γ(_;

GCGGTGGCTCGGACCTGGCCGAGGATGCCAA

100355! Spiit3-F BP-2x LS For TGGAGCTGCTGAAGCTGGAGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTG GCGGTGGCTCGATCACCAAGGCCCCCCTGAG

[00356] Split4-FKBP-2xNLS For TGGAGCTGCTGAAGCTGGAGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTG

GCGGTGGCTCGAAGCCCGCCTTCCTGAGCGG

[00357] Split5-FKBP-2xNLS For

!Χ}(_;Λ( :ΊΧΚΊ _;ΛΛαίΊ _;αΛα(_;ο κ (iG iGii {;ο{πχ}( : ]α( :Ί( ΓΓ(_;

GCGGTGGCTCGTGCTTCGACTCCGTGGAAAT

[00358] Sp!it6-F BP-2xNLS For TGGAGCTGCTGAAGCTGGAGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTG GCGGTGGCTCGGGCCAGGGCGATAGCCTGCA

[00359] Split7-FKBP~2xNLS For TGGAGCTGCTGAAGCTGGAGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTG GCGGTGGCTCGGAAAGCGAGTTCGTGTACGG [00360] Split8-FKBP-2xNLS For TGGAGCTGCTGAAGCTGGAGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTG GCGGTGGCTCGGAGATCCGGAAGCGGCCTCT

[00361] Split9-FKBP-2xNLS For ra A aXXl 'AAGi T GAG GlX KX SGT GC^

GCGGTGGCTCGAGCGATAAGCTGATCGCCAG

[00362J Splitl O-FKBP-2xNLS For TGGAGCTGCTGAAGCTGGAGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTG GCGGTGGCTCGTCCAAGAAACTGAAGAGTGTG

[00363] Split l l-FKBP-2xNLS For TGGAGCTGCTGAAGCTGGAGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTGGCGGTGGCTCGGGTG

GCGGTGGCTCGGGCTCCCCCGAGGATAATGA

[00364] PX330 2xNLS For

ΛΤί ^'Λ(ΊΎΤΠΎ Ί ^'AGGTiX ;G AC X ΧΚ ϊ Ί G( X ^'Λί X ^"ATGC s( X X X ΛΛΛ( ; AAG A Α( s [00365] ΡΧ330 Rev CTAGAGCTCGCTGATCAGCC

1 0366! FRB For GAGATGTGGCACGAGGGCCT

[00367] FRB 2xNLS Rev

GGCTGATCAGCGAGCTCTAGGAATTCTTACTTTTTCTTTTTTGCCTGGCCGGCCTT

TTTCGTGGCCGCCGGCCTTTTCTGCTTGCTGATTCTTCTGA

[00368] F BP 2xNLS For

Λ·!Χ·Λ{ ΊΊΊΊΊΊΊ ^·ΛΟ( ]Ί Χ = Λί ^·( Γ!Α·! :Χ :Χ ·ΛΛΛΟΛΛ{ ;ΛΛ< :Χ = ΛΛ(:(Π·( ^'G GTATCCACGGAGTCCCAGCAGCCGGCGTGCAGGTGGAGACCAT

[00369] FKBP Rev C ^'' ί ^' ( ^' Λ ( i ( ^' Ί ^' !^'( ^' Λ ( i C Λ ( ^" i ^' Λ

[00370] PX330 no NLS For

ATCACTTTTTTTCAGGTTGGACCGGTGCCATGGACAAGAAGTACAGCATCGGC

[00371] FRB NFS Rev

GGCTGATCAGCGAGCTCTAGgaattcttaGAGGATTAAGCTAGCTAAATCTAGCTGCTT

GCTGATTCTTCTGA

LSC-5 was generated by Gibson Assembly using previously generated split-Cas9 pieces as PGR templates. Transactivating split dCas9-VP64 was generated with a DIOA, N863A mutant Cas9 as PGR template and VP64 with Gibson homology was purchased as gBlocks Gene

Fragments (Integrated DNA Technologies),

Cell culture, transfection and rapamycin treatment.

[00373] Human embryonic kidney 293FT (HEK293FT) cell line (Life Technologies) and mouse Neuro 2a (N2a) cell line (Sigma Aldrich) were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% FBS (HyClone), 2 mM GlutaMAX (Life Technologies), 100 U/ml penicillin, and 100 p.g''ml streptomycin at 37 °C with 5% C02 incubation. HEK293FT cells were seeded onto 2 -well plates (Corning) 24 h before transfection. Cells were transfected using Lipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies) at 80-90% confiuency following the manufacturer's recommended protocol. For each well of a 24-well plate, a total of 500 ng DNA was used. For sp!it-Cas9 transfection, 200ng of FKBP-Cas9 and 200ng of FRB- Cas9 + lOOng of U6-sgR A PGR product were used. For wt-Cas9, 200ng PX330 and 200ng pUC19 + lOOng of U6-sgRNA PCR product were. For transcriptional activation 200ng of FKBP-Cas9 and 200ng of FRB-Cas9 + 25ng for each of the 4 guides carrying plasmids were transfected.

[00374 J Split-Cas9 dimerization was induced with 200nM rapamycin (Abeam). Rapamycin containing media was replaced every 24h with fresh media containing 200nM rapamycin, unless otherwise noted.

SURVEYOR nuclease assay for genome modification.

[00375] HEK293FT cells were transfected with DNA as described above. Cells were incubated at 37 °C for 72 h post-transfection before genomic DNA extraction. Genomic DNA was extracted using the QuickExtract DNA Extraction Solution (Epicentre) following the manufacturer's protocol. Briefly, pelleted cells were resuspended in QuickExtract solution and incubated at 65 °C for 15 min, 68 °C for 15 min, and 98 °C for 10 min. The genomic region flanking the CR1SPR target site for each gene was PCR amplified, wit target sites and primers as follows:

[0Θ376] Primer used to generate amplicons for SURVEYOR-assay and Next-Generation Sequencing.

primer nmne primer Seqiaesice (5' - 3^!)

SUV 901 CCATCCCCTTCTGTGAATGT SUV 902 GGAGATTGGAGACACGGAGA

NGS EMXl .3 For GGAGGACAAAGTACAAACGGC

NGS EMXl .3 Rev ATCGATGTCCTCCCCATTGG

NGS OT-1 For TGGGAGAGAGACCCCTTCTT

NGS OT-1 Rev TCCTGCTCTCACTTAGACTTTCTC

NGS OT-2 For GACATTCCTCCTGAGGGAAAA

NGS OT-2 Rev GATAAAATGTATTCCTTCTCACCATTC

NGS OT-3 For CCAGACTCAGTAAAGCCTGGA

NGS OT-3 Rev TGGCCCCAGTCTCTCTTCTA

NGS OT-4 For CACGGCCTTTGCAAATAGAG

NGS OT-4 Rev CATGACTTGGCCTTTGTAGGA

[00377] Products were purified using QiaQuick Spin Column (Qiagen) following the manufacturer's protocol. 200 ng total of the purified PCR products were mixed with 1 μΐ lQx Taq D A Polymerase PCR buffer (Enzymatics) and ultrapure water to a final volume of 10 μΐ, and subjected to a re-annealing process to enable heterod plex formation: 95 °C for 10 min, 95 °C to 85 °C ramping at 2 °C/s, 85 °C to 25 °C at -0.25 °( s, and 25 °C hold for 1 min. After re- annealing, products were treated with SURVEYOR nuclease and SURVEYOR enhancer S (Transgenomics) following the manufacturer's recommended protocol, and analyzed on 4-20% Novex TBE polyacrylamide gels (Life Technologies). Gels were stained with SYBR Gold DNA stain (Life Technologies) for 30 min and imaged with a Gel Doc gel imaging system (Bio-rad). Quantification was based on relative band intensities. Indel percentage was determined by the formula, 100 ¾ (1 - (1 - (b + c)/(a + b + c))l/2), where a is the integrated intensity of the undigested PCR product, and b and c are the integrated intensities of each cleavage product. Deep sequencing to assess targeting specificity.

[00378] HEK 293 FT cells plated in 24-well plates were transfected with Cas9 plasmid DNA and sgRNA PCR cassette 72 h before genomic DNA extraction. The genomic region flanking the CRISPR target site for EMXl or off-targets were amplified by a fusion PCR method to attach the illumina P5 adapters as well as unique sample-specific barcodes to the target amplicons ¹⁴ with primers as follows:

[00379] Guides used for directing Cas9 binding. primer name guide sequence (5' - 3'}

EMX1 GAGTCCGAGCAGAAGAAGAA

ASCLl guide 1 GCAGCCGCTCGCTGCAGCAG

ASCLl guide 2 ATGGAGAGTTTGCAAGGAGC

ASCLl guide 3 GGCTGGGTGTCCCATTGAAA

ASCLl guide 4 TGTTTATTCAGCCGGGAGTC

MY0D.1 guide 1 GGGCCCCTGCGGCCACCCCG

MY0D.1 guide 2 GAGGTTTGGAA AGGGCGTGC

MY0D1 guide 3 GCCTGGGCTCCGGGGCGTTT

MYOD1 guide 4 CCTCCCTCCCTGCCCGGTAG

IL1RN guide 1 TTGTACTCTCTGAGGTGCTC

IL1RN guide 2 TACGCAGATAAGAACCAGTT

ILlR guide 3 GCATCAAGTCAGCCATCAGC

11. 1 R.\ guide 4 TGAGTCACCCTCCTGGAAAC

Neurog2 guide 1 TGGTTCAGTGGCTGCGTGTC

Neurog2 guide 2 ATACGATGAAAAGAATAAGC

Neurog2 guide 3 GGGGGAGAGGGACTAAAGAA

Neurog2 guide 4 CGGCTTTAACTGGAGTGCCT

[00380 J PC products were purified by gel-extraction using QiaQuick Spin Column (Qiagen) following the manufacturer's recommended protocol. Barcoded and purified DNA samples were quantified by Quant-iT PicoGreen dsDNA Assay Kit or Qubit 2.0 Fluorometer (Life Technologies) and pooled in an equimolar ratio. Sequencing libraries were then sequenced with the Iliumina MiSeq Personal Sequencer (Life Technologies).

Sequencing data analysis and indel detection.

[0Θ381] MiSeq reads were filtered by requiring an average Phred quality (Q score) of at least 30, as well as perfect sequence matches to barcodes and amplicon forward primers. Reads from on- and off-target loci were analyzed by performing Ratcliff-Obershelp string comparison, as implemented in the Python difflib module, against loci sequences that included 30 nt upstream and downstream of the target site (a total of 80 bp). The resulting edit operations were parsed, and reads were counted as indeis if insertion or deleiion operations were found. Analyzed target regions were discarded if part of their alignment fell outside of the MiSeq read itself or if more than five bases were uncalled,

pPCR analysis of relative gene expression.

[00382] RNA was extracted using the RNeasy kit (Qiagen) according to manufacturer's instructions and 1 pg of RNA per sample was reverse-transcribed using qScript (Quanta Biosystems). Relative mRNA levels were measured by reverse transcription and quantitative PCR (qPCR) using TaqMan probes specific for the targeted gene as well as GAPDH as an endogenous control (Life Technologies), with TaqMan probe IDs as follows:

[0Θ383] TaqMan probe IDs

Gesie

ASCLI Hs00269932 ml

MYOD1 Hs02330075_gl

NEUROG2 m00437603_gl

IL IR^'N Hs00893626_ml

[00384 J AACt analysis was used to obtain fold-changes relative to untransfected cells subjected to 200nM rapamycin. The results are shown in Figures 6, 7 and 8 as discussd herein.

[00385] References for Example 2

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3. Jinek, M, et al. A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive

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4. Cong, L, et al. Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas systems. Science (New York, N. Y.) 339, 819-823 (2013).

5. Mali, P. et al. RNA-guided human genome engineering via Cas9. Science 339, 823-826 (2013).

6. Maeder, M.L. et al. CRISPR RNA-guided activation of endogenous human genes. Nature methods 10, 977-979 (2013).

7. Perez-Pinera, P, et al. RNA-guided gene activation by CRISPR-Cas9-based transcription factors. Nature methods 10, 973-976 (2013).

8. Qi, L.S. et al, Repurposing CRISPR as an RNA-guided platform for sequence-specific control of gene expression. Cell 152, 1173-1183 (2013).

9. Gilbert, L.A. et al. CRISPR-mediated modular RNA-guided regulation of transcription in eukaryotes. Cell 154, 442-451 (2013). 10. Nishimasu, H. et al. Crystal structure of cas9 in complex with guide RNA and target DNA. Cell 156, 935-949 (2014).

11. Banaszynski, L.A., Liu, C.W. & Wandless, T.J. Characterization of the

FKBP- Rapamycin- FRB Ternary Complex. Journal of the American Chemical Society 127, 47154721 (2005).

12. Koiiermann, S. et al. Optical control of mammalian endogenous transcription and

epigenetic states. Nature 500, 472-476 (2013).

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15. Fu, Y. et al. High-frequency off-target mutagenesis induced by CRISPR-Cas nucleases in human cells. Nature biotechnology 31, 822-826 (2013).

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Example 3 Single expression vector for delivery of sgRNA and Split Cos 9

[00386] Methods: Vector was constructed as shown in Figure 9A. sgRNA. was under the control of a U6 promoter. Two different Cas9 splits were used: splits 4 and 5 from Example 2. The split Cas9 construct was based on: a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, flanked by NLSs, with F BP fused to C terminal part of the split Cas9 via a GlySer linker; and a second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, flanked by NESs, the N terminal part of the split Cas9 via a GlySer [inker. To separate the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs, P2A was used, splitting on transcription. The splitting is due to "ribosomal skipping " In essence, the ribosom skips an amino acid during translation, which breaks the protein chain and results in two separate proteins. Other features included a polyA tail and a circular plasmid (expression cassette). Vector was tested in HEK293FT cells using a guide targeting EMX1 (same guides as used in Example 2). 500ng single expression vector transfeeted / 24 well. Rapamycin treated for ~72 hours (fresh rapa every 24h). Indels detected by deep sequencing.

[00387 J Results: Quite high background was seen, but it is clear that this approach has merits. Left-hand three columns in Figure 9B are with rapamycin and the right-hand three columns are without. There was little difference between the wildtype enzymes as would be expected in the presence vs absence of rapamycm, but a marked difference between the resul ts for the two split Cas9s (split4 and split 5) in the presence or absence of rapamycin. The Split Sas9s showed indel formation similar to wildtype in the presence of rapamycin, but markedly lower indel formation than the wildtype in the absence of rapamycin.

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[0Θ389] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing f om the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these cl aims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A non-naturally occurring or engineered inducible CRISPR-Cas system, comprising: a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible dimer and a second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a second half of the inducible dimer,

wherein contact with an inducer energy source brings the first and second halves of the inducible dimer together,

wherein bringing the first and second halves of the inducible dimer together allows the first and second CRISPR enzyme fusion constructs to constitute a functional CRISPR-Cas system,

wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a guide RNA (sgRNA) comprising a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in a genomic locus of interest in a cell, and wherein the functional CRISPR-Cas system binds to the target sequence and, optionally, edits the genomic locus to alter gene expression.

2. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of claim 1, wherein the inducible dimer is an ind ucible heterodimer.

3. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of claim 2, wherein the first half of the inducible heterodimer is an F BP, optional!)' FKBP12.

4. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of claim 2, wherein the second half of the inducible heterodimer is FRB.

5. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of claim 4, wherein the arrangement of the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is N' terminal Cas9 part- FRB - NES.

6. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of claim 5, wherein the arrangement of the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is NES-N' terminal Cas9 part- FRB - NES.

7. The inducible CR ISPR-Cas system of claim 3, wherein the arrangement of the second CRI SPR enzyme fusion construct is C terminal Cas9 part-F BP-NLS .

8. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of claim 7, wherein the arrangement of the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is NLS-C terminal Cas9 part-FKBP-NLS,

9. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any of claims 5, 6, 7 or 8, wherem a linker separates the Cas9 part from the half of the inducible dimer.

10. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any preceding claim, wherein the inducer energy source is rapamycin.

1 1 . The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of claim 1, wherein the inducible dimer is an inducible homodimer.

12. The inducible CR ISPR-Cas system of any preceding claim, wherein the CR ISPR. enzyme is Cas9.

13. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any preceding claim, wherem the CRISPR enzyme is Sp Cas9.

14. The mducible CRISPR-Cas system of any preceding claim, wherein the Cas9 is split into two parts at any one of the fol lowing split points, according to Sp Cas9: a split position between 202A/203S; a split position between 255F/256D; a split position between 310E/31 II; a split position between 534R/535K; a split position between 572E/573C; a split position between 713S/714G; a split position between 1003L/104E; a split position between 1054G/1055E; a split position between 1114N/1115S; a split position between 1152K/1153S; a split position between 1245K/1246G; or a split between 1098 and 1099.

15. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any preceding claim, wherein one or more functional domains are associated with one or both parts of the Cas9 enzyme, the functional domains optionally including a transcriptional activator, a transcriptional or a nuclease such as a Fokl nuclease.

16. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any preceding claim, wherein the functional CRISPR-Cas system binds to the target sequence and the enzyme is a deadCas9, optionally having a diminished nuclease activity of at least 97%, or 100% as compared with the CRISPR enzyme not having the at least one mutation.

17. The inducible CRISPR-Cas system of claim 16, wherein the deadCas9 (CRISPR enzyme) comprises two or more mutations wherein two or more of D10, E762, H840, N854, N863, or D986 according to SpCas9 protein or any corresponding ortholog or N580 according to SaCas9 protein are mutated, or the CRISPR enzyme comprises at least one mutation wherein at least H840 is mutated.

18. A polynucleotide encoding the inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any preceding claim.

19. A vector for delivery of the first CRIS PR enzyme fusion construct, attached to a first half of an inducible dimer and operably linked to one or more nuclear localization signals, according to any preceding claim.

20. A vector for delivery of the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, attached to a second half of an inducible dimer and operably linked to one or more nuclear export signals, according to any of claims 1-18.

21. A vector for delivery of both:

the first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, attached to a first half of an inducible dimer and operably linked to one or more nuclear localization signals, according to any of claims 1-18; and the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct, attached to a second half of an inducible dimer and operably linked to one or more nuclear export signals, accordmg to any of claims 1-18.

22. The vector of claim 21, which is single plasrnid or expression cassette,

23. A eukaryotic host cell or cel l line transformed with any of the vectors of claims 19-22 or expressing the inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any of claims 1 -17.

24. A transgenic organism transfonned with any of the vectors of claims 19-22 or expressing the inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any of claims 1-17, or the progeny thereof.

25. A model organism which constitutive iy expresses the inducible CRISPR-Cas system of any of claims 1 -17,

26. A non-naturally occurring or engineered inducible CRISPR-Cas system, comprising: a first CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a first half of an inducible heterodimer and

a second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct attached to a second half of the inducible heterodimer,

wherein the second CRISPR enzyme fusion construct is operably linked to a nuclear export signal,

wherein bringing the first and second halves of the inducible heterodimer together allows the first and second CRISPR. enzyme fusion constructs to constitute a functional CRISPR-Cas system,

wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a guide RNA (sgRNA) comprising a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a target sequence in a genomic locus of interest in a cell, and wherein the functional CRISPR-Cas system edits the genomic locus to alter gene expression.

27. A method of treating a subject in need thereof, comprising inducing gene editing by transforming the subject with the polynucleotide of claim 18 or any of the vectors of claims 19- 22 and administering an inducer energy source to the subject.

28. The method of claim 27, wherein a repair template is also provided, for example delivered by a vector comprising said repair template.

29. A method of treating a subject in need thereof, comprising inducing transcriptional activation or repression by transforming the subject with the polynucleotide of claim 18 or any of the vectors of claims 19-22, wherein said polynucleotide or vector encodes or comprises the cataiytically inactive CRISPR enzyme and one or more associated functional domains of claim 15; the method further comprising administering an inducer energy source to the subject.