WO2013052539A2

WO2013052539A2 - Cationic displacer molecules for hydrophobic displacement chromatography

Info

Publication number: WO2013052539A2
Application number: PCT/US2012/058546
Authority: WO
Inventors: Barry L. Haymore
Original assignee: Sachem, Inc.
Priority date: 2011-10-03
Filing date: 2012-10-03
Publication date: 2013-04-11
Also published as: WO2013052539A3; CN103958018B; IL231887A0; HK1195886A1; US20140284278A1; CA2850789A1; KR20140084127A; CN103958018A; JP2014528585A; EP2763773A2

Abstract

A process for separating organic compounds from a mixture by reverse- phase displacement chromatography, including providing a hydrophobic stationary phase; applying to the hydrophobic stationary phase a mixture comprising organic compounds to be separated; displacing the organic compounds from the hydrophobic stationary phase by applying thereto an aqueous composition comprising a non-surface active hydrophobic cationic displacer molecule and about 10 wt% or less of an organic solvent; and collecting a plurality of fractions eluted from the hydrophobic stationary phase containing the separated organic compounds; in which the non-surface active hydrophobic cationic displacer molecule comprises a hydrophobic cation and a counterion, CI, having the general formula A or B, as defined in the disclosure:

Description

Cationic Displacer Molecules for Hydrophobic

Displacement Chromatography

BACKGROUND

Displacement chromatography (DC) in one of the three well-defined forms of column chromatography - elution, displacement, frontal. DC is principally a preparative method, but there are also analytical applications using

"micropreparative" DC with packed "narrow-bore" or capillary columns.

Displacement chromatography may be carried out using any one of four general chromatographic methods when suitable, high-purity displacer molecules are available. DC is used in (a) ion-exchange chromatography (cation-exchange, anion-exchange), (b) hydrophobic chromatography (reversed-phase, hydrophobic- interaction, hydrophobic charge-induction, thiophilic), (c) normal-phase

chromatography including hydrophilic-interaction chromatography (HILIC) and (d) immobilized metal-ion affinity chromatography (IMAC).

With optimized DC, one may obtain, simultaneously, high purity (high resolution), high recovery (high yield) and high column loading (high capacity) - the latter much higher than overloaded preparative elution chromatography. In most cases, these advantages more than compensate for the disadvantages of DC (slower flow-rates, longer run-times, need for high-purity displacers).

Displacement chromatography is carried out by choosing (a) an applicable chromatographic method, (b) a suitable chromatography column with proper dimensions, (c) proper mobile phase conditions, (d) a suitable displacer molecule and (e) suitable operation protocols with properly configured LC equipment.

Initially, a suitable "weakly displacing mobile phase" (carrier) is chosen, and the column is equilibrated at a suitable flow-rate. The carrier may contain a pH- buffering compound adjusted to a useful pH value. Optimal displacement flow-rates tend to be low, typically in the range of 35-105 cm/hr, though sometimes higher. A suitable amount of the sample solution is loaded onto the column at the sample- loading flow-rate. The sample solution contains the material to be purified in the carrier along with the proper level of an ion-pairing agent if the sample or displacer molecules are charged. Typical sample loadings are 50-80% of the operative breakth rough capacity. Next, a displacer mobile phase (displacer buffer), prepared from a suitable displacer compound at the proper concentration in the carrier solution, is pumped onto the column at the displacement flow-rate until the displacer breakthrough is observed. The purified sample comes off the column before the displacer breakthrough front. Fractions from the column are collected and separately analyzed for content and purity. Finally, the displacer is removed from column using a "displacer removal solution", and then the column is cleaned and regenerated to its original state for storage or for subsequent use.

Though different from elution chromatography, in some respects,

displacement chromatography is easy to understand and easy to carry out. In DC, a sample is "displaced" from the column by the displacer, rather than "eluted" from the column by the mobile phase. When the output of the column is monitored online (e.g., via UV absorption, pH, or conductivity), a "displacement train" is obtained rather than an "elution chromatogram". The displacement train is composed of side-by-side "displacement bands" rather than solvent-separated

"elution peaks" in a chromatogram. When a displacement band is large enough to saturate the stationary phase, a trapezoidal "saturating band" is formed. When a displacement band is not large enough to saturate the stationary phase, a small, triangular "non-saturating band" is formed. The height of a saturating band is determined by the binding-isotherm at the point of operation; the area of a trapezoid-band or a triangle-band is proportional to the amount of the component.

Hydrophobic chromatography depends almost exclusively on the unique solvation properties of water that result from the highly structured, self-associated, hydrogen-bonded liquid. For conventional reversed-phase chromatography stationary phases (uncharged Ci₈ column), binding is usually driven by entropy (+TAS), which often must overcome unfavorable enthalpy (+ΔΗ). Thus, over the temperature ranges often used by chromatographers (10-70°C), analyte-binding and displacer-binding often become stronger with increasing temperature. Another useful feature of hydrophobic chromatography is the use of additives that modify both the structure and strength of the self-hydrogen-bonding of the aqueous-based solvent. These additives include: salts (NaCI, K₂HPO , (NH₄)₂SO ), organic solvents (MeCN, MeOH, EtOH) and polar organic molecules (urea, oligo- ethyleneglycol) in chromatography buffers.

Hydrophobic displacement chromatography can be carried out using chiral analytes, chiral displacers and chiral chromatography matrices. Under these conditions, an achiral displacer may be used, but a racemic mixture of a chiral displacer cannot be used. Racemic chiral analytes can also be purified using an achiral chromatography column and an achiral displacer. In this case, impurities, including diastereomers, are removed from the racemic compound of interest, but there is no chiral resolution of the enantiomers. With the proper choice of chiral chromatography matrix, mobile phase and achiral displacer, enantiomers are routinely preparatively resolved (separated). Depending on the specific circumstances, a good, enantiomerically pure, chiral displacer can have performance advantages over a good achiral displacer when carrying out a displacement separation of enantiomers on a chiral stationary phase.

Development of useful, preparative hydrophobic displacement

chromatography has been hampered by the unavailability of suitable, high-purity displacer molecules. We describe here new displacer molecules and methods to use them that have utility in various forms of hydrophobic

displacement chromatography.

Hydrophobic displacer molecules should possess a unique combination of chemical and physical properties in order for them to function efficiently. Some soluble, hydrophobic molecules can function as displacers, but only a limited few function well. Many of the molecules described in this document fulfill the necessary requirements for well-functioning displacers.

Development of useful, reversed phase, preparative displacement chromatography has been hampered by the unavailability of suitable, high-purity displacer molecules. For example, U.S. Patent No. 6,239,262 describes various reversed phase liquid chromatographic systems using low molecular weight surface-active compounds as displacers. U.S. Patent No. 6,239,262 discloses an extremely wide range of possible charged moieties that may be coupled with hydrophobic moieties to form the disclosed surface active compounds used as displacers, but discloses that it is necessary to include a large proportion of organic solvent to mitigate the surface active properties of the disclosed displacers. The presence of such large proportions of organic solvents significantly alters the process, derogating from the benefits of reverse-phase hydrophobic displacement chromatography. In addition, the surface-active displacer compounds disclosed by U.S. Patent No. 6,239,262 do not function well, resulting in relatively poor quality displacement trains in which a significant level of impurities may be present in the "purified" products. SUMMARY

The development of useful, preparative hydrophobic displacement chromatography has been hampered by the unavailability of suitable, high-purity displacer molecules that function well and can be easily detected. We describe here a new class of cationic displacer molecules and methods to use them that have utility in various forms of hydrophobic displacement chromatography.

Many commercial, small cationic molecules simply don't bind to hydrophobic stationary phases well enough, while many large cationic molecules that do bind well enough either lack sufficient solubility or are plagued with detergency problems that lead to lower resolution, lower column capacity for the analyte and unwanted foaming. We find that many intermediate-sized cationic molecules, when properly designed, possess the unique combination of chemical and physical properties, including proper UV absorption, in order for them to function efficiently as

hydrophobic displacers. It is true enough that there are some soluble, cationic hydrophobic molecules that can function as displacers, but only a limited few function well. Many of the molecules described in this document fulfill the necessary requirements for well-functioning displacers when used according to established displacement protocols.

We have discovered and developed classes of charged hydrophobic organic compounds, either salts or zwitterions, that uniquely posses that combination of chemical and physical properties necessary for good displacer behavior in hydrophobic displacement chromatography. Accordingly, the present invention, in one embodiment, relates to a process for separating organic compounds from a mixture by reverse-phase displacement chromatography, comprising:

providing a hydrophobic stationary phase;

applying to the hydrophobic stationary phase a mixture comprising organic compounds to be separated;

displacing the organic compounds from the hydrophobic stationary phase by applying thereto an aqueous composition comprising a non-surface active hydrophobic cationic displacer molecule and about 10 wt% or less of an organic solvent; and

collecting a plurality of fractions eluted from the hydrophobic stationary phase containing the separated organic compounds;

wherein the non-surface active hydrophobic cationic displacer molecule comprises a hydrophobic cation and a counterion, CI, having the general formula A or B:

[CM] [Cl]d [CM-R*-CM'l [Cl]d

A B

wherein in the general formulae A and B, each CM or CM' is an independent hydrophobic chemical moiety with a formal charge selected from: quaternary ammonium (I), quaternary phosphonium (II), sulfonium (III), sulfoxonium (IV), imidazolinium (amidinium) (V), guanidinium (VI), imidazolium (VII), 1 ,2,3,4- tetrahydroisoquinolinium (VIII), 1 ,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoliniunn (IX), isoindolinium (X), indolinium (XI), benzimidazolium (XII), pyridinium (XI I la, XI lib, XI lie, XI I Id), quinolinium (XIV), isoquinolinium (XV), carboxylate (XVI), N-acyl-cc-amino acid (XVII), sulfonate (XVIII), sulfate monoester (XIX), phosphate monoester (XX), phosphate diester (XXI), phosphonate monoester (XXII), phosphonate (XXIII), tetraaryl borate (XXIV), boronate (XXV), boronate ester (XXVI); wherein the chemical moieties (l)-(XXVI) have the following chemical structures:

wherein in general formula B, CM and CM' are independent charged chemical moieties having the same or opposite formal charge and are chemically attached to each other by a doubly connected chemical moiety, R*, which replaces one R¹ , R² (if present), R³ (if present) or R⁴ (if present) chemical moiety on CM and replaces one R¹, R² (if present), R³ (if present) or R⁴ (if present) chemical moiety on CM';

wherein each of R¹, R², R³ and R⁴ is a linear or branched chemical moiety independently defined by the formula,

-C_xX2x-2r-AR¹ -C_uX2u-2s-AR², R* is a direct chemical bond or is a doubly connected, linear or branched chemical moiety defined by the formula,

-C_xX2x-2r-AR¹-C_uX2u-2s-, and R⁵ is a linear or branched chemical moiety defined by the formula, -C_xX2x-2r-AR²; wherein each AR¹ independently is a doubly connected methylene moiety (- CX¹X²-, from methane), a doubly connected phenylene moiety (-C6G₄-, from benzene), a doubly connected naphthylene moiety (-C10G6-, from naphthalene) or a doubly connected biphenylene moiety (-Ci₂G₈-, from biphenyl);

wherein AR² independently is hydrogen (-H), fluorine (-F), a phenyl group (- C6G5), a naphthyl group (-C10G7) or a biphenyl group (-C12G9);

wherein each X, X¹ and X² is individually and independently -H, -F,-CI or -

OH;

wherein any methylene moiety (-CX¹X²-) within any -C_xX_2x-2r or within any - C_uX2u-2s- or within any -(CX¹X²)_P- may be individually and independently replaced with an independent ether-oxygen atom, -O-, an independent thioether-sulfur atom, -S-, or an independent ketone-carbonyl group, -C(O)-, in such a manner that each ether-oxygen atom, each thioether-sulfur atom or each ketone-carbonyl group is bonded on each side to an aliphatic carbon atom or an aromatic carbon atom;

wherein not more than two ether-oxygen atoms, not more than two thioether- sulfur atoms and not more than two ketone-carbonyl groups may be replaced into any -C_xX2x_-2r- or into any -C_uX_2u-2s- ;

wherein m_x is the total number of methylene groups in each -C_xX2_X-2r that are replaced with ether-oxygen atoms, thioether-sulfur atoms and ketone-carbonyl groups, and m_u is the total number of methylene groups in each -C_uX_2u-2s- that are replaced with ether-oxygen atoms, thioether-sulfur atoms and ketone-carbonyl groups; wherein G is individually and independently any combination of -H, -F, -CI, - CH₃, -OH, -OCH3, -N(CH₃)₂, -CF_3> -CO₂Me, -CO₂NH₂; -CO₂NHMe, -CO₂NMe₂;

wherein G* is individually and independently any combination of -F, -CI, -R², - OH, -OR², -NR²R³, -CF₃, -CO₂Me, -CO₂NH₂; -CO₂NHMe, -CO₂NMe₂;

wherein a pair of R², R³, and R⁴ may comprise a single chemical moiety such that R²/R³, R²/R⁴, R³/R⁴, R²7R^3', R²7R^4' or R^3'/R^4' is individually and independently - (CX¹X²)p- with p = 3, 4, 5 or 6;

wherein the integer values of each of x, r, u, s, m_x, m_u are independently selected for each R¹ , R², R³, R⁴, R⁵ and R*, integer values r and s are the total number of contained, isolated cis/trans olefinic (alkene) groups plus the total number of contained simple monocyclic structures and fall in the ranges 0 < r < 2 and 0 < s < 2, the numeric quantity x+u-m_x-m_u falls in the range 0 < x+u-m_x-m_u≤ 11 ;

wherein at least one aromatic chemical moiety, heterocyclic aromatic chemical moiety, imidazoline chemical moiety, amidine chemical moiety or guanidine chemical moiety is contained within CM or CM' of A or B;

wherein a group-hydrophobic-index for each R-chemical-moiety (n) is numerically equal to the sum of the number of aliphatic carbon atoms plus the number of olefinic carbon atoms plus the number of thioether-sulfur atoms plus the number of chlorine atoms plus one-fifth the number of fluorine atoms plus one-half the number of ether-oxygen atoms plus one-half the number of ketone-carbon atoms plus one-half the number of aromatic carbon atoms beyond the number six minus the number of hydroxyl-oxygen atoms beyond the number one;

wherein an overall-hydrophobic-index (N) for each [CM] or [CM-R*-CM'] is numerically equal to the sum of the number of aliphatic carbon atoms plus the number of olefinic carbon atoms plus the number of thioether-sulfur atoms plus the number of chlorine atoms plus one-fifth the number of fluorine atoms plus one-half the number of ether-oxygen atoms plus one-half the number of ketone-carbon atoms plus one-half the number of aromatic carbon atoms beyond the number six minus the number of hydroxyl-oxygen atoms beyond the number one; wherein the group-hydrophobic-indices (¹n and ^{1 '}n) for R¹ and R^{1 '} fall in the range 4.0 < ¹n,^1'n < 12.0, the group-hydrophobic-indices (²n, ² n, ³n, ³ n, ⁵n, ⁵ n and *n) for R², R^2', R³, R^3', R⁵, R^5', R*, when present, fall in the range 0.0 < ²n,^2'n, ³n,^3'n ⁵n,^5'n,*n < 12.0 and the group-hydrophobic-indices (⁴n and ⁴ n) for R⁴ and R⁴ , when present, fall in the range 0.0 < ⁴n,⁴ n < 5.0;

wherein the overall-hydrophobic-index (N) divided by the value of g falls in the range 10.0 < N/g < 24.0;

wherein in A, when the charged moiety, CM, has a formal positive charge or a formal negative charge, g=1 , and in B, when CM and CM' have formal positive charges or when CM and CM' have formal negative charges, g=2, and in B when CM has a formal positive charge and CM' has a formal negative charge, g=1 ;

wherein the numeric value of the group-hydrophobic-index calculated for a cyclic chemical moiety is divided equally between the two respective R-chemical- moieties;

wherein R¹ is identified as that R-chemical-moiety when only one such chemical moiety is attached to CM or CM'; wherein R¹ is identified as that R- chemical-moiety having the largest value of the group-hydrophobic-index when there are more than one such chemical moieties attached to CM or CM'; wherein R⁴ is identified as that R-chemical-moiety having the smallest value of the group- hydrophobic-index when there are more than three such chemical moieties attached to CM or CM'; and

wherein CI is a non-interfering, oppositely-charged counter-ion or mixture of such counter-ions, and the value of d is zero, a positive whole number or a positive fraction such that electroneutrality of the overall hydrophobic compound is maintained.

In one embodiment, the aqueous composition comprising a non-surface active hydrophobic displacer molecule is free of added salt other than a pH buffer.

In one embodiment, CM has a eneral formula I or II:

wherein in the general formula I or II, R¹ is a Cs-C-n hydrocarbyl moiety, R² and R³ are independently a C1-C4 hydrocarbyl moiety or benzyl, and R⁴ is selected from benzyl, halo-substituted benzyl, 4-alkylbenzyl, 4-trifluoromethyl benzyl, 4- phenylbenzyl, 4-alkoxybenzyl, 4-acetamidobenzyl, H₂NC(O)CH₂-, PhHNC(O)CH₂-, dialkyl-NC(O)CH2-, wherein alkyl is C1-C4, provided that no more than one benzyl group is present in the CM.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula I or II:

wherein in the general formula I or II, R¹ and R² are independently C4-C8 alkyl or cyclohexyl, R³ is C1-C4 alkyl, and R⁴ is phenyl, 2-, 3- or 4-halophenyl, benzyl, 2-, 3- or 4-halobenzyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- or 3,5-dihalobenzyl, 2,4,6- or 3,4,5- trihalobenzyl, C6H5CH2CH2- or 2-, 3- or 4-trifluoromethylbenzyl.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula VIII, IX, X or XI, R¹ is C₅-Cn alkyl and R² is Ci-C₈ alkyl.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula I or II:

wherein in the general formula I or II, R¹ is C6-C11 alkyl, R² and R³ independently are C C₄ alkyl, and R⁴ is PhC(O)CH₂-, 4- FC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- , 4-CH₃C6H₄C(O)CH₂- 4-CF₃C6H₄C(O)CH2- , 4-CIC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- , 4- BrC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- ,

df- PhC(O)CH(Ph)- , Ph(CH₂)₂- , Ph(CH₂)₃- , Ph(CH₂)₄- , di- PhCH₂CH(OH)CH₂- , t- PhCH=CHCH₂- , 1 -(CH₂)naphthylene, 9-(CH₂)anthracene, 2- , 3- or

4- FC₆H₄CH₂- or benzyl.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula I or II:

wherein in the general fornnula I or II, R¹ is C6-C-H alkyl, R² and R³ together are -(CH₂)₄-, and R⁴ is PhC(O)CH₂-, 4-FC₆H₄C(O)CH₂-, 4-CH₃C6H₄C(O)CH2-, 4-CF₃C6H₄C(O)CH2- , 4-CIC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- , 4-BrC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- ,

df-PhC(O)CH(Ph)- , Ph(CH₂)₂-, Ph(CH₂)₃-, Ph(CH₂)₄-, di-PhCH₂CH(OH)CH₂-, t-PhCH=CHCH₂-, 2-, 3- or 4-FC₆H₄CH₂-, benzyl, 3-CIC₆H₄CH₂-,

2,6-F₂C₆H₃CH₂-, 3,5-F₂C₆H₃CH₂-, 4-CH₃C₆H₄CH₂-, 4-CH₃CH₂C₆H₄CH₂-, 4-CH₃OC₆H₄CH₂-, (CH₃)₂NC(O)CH₂- or (CH₃CH₂)₂NC(O)CH₂-.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula I or II:

wherein in the general formula I or II, R¹ is C₄-C6 alkyl, benzyl or 2-, 3- or

4-FC₆H₄CH₂-, R² and R³ independently are C C₈ alkyl, CH₃(OCH₂CH₂)₂-, CH₃CH₂OCH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂- or CH₃CH₂OCH₂CH₂-, and R⁴ is Ph(CH₂)₄-, 4-PhC₆H₄CH₂-, 4-FC₆H₄CH₂-, 4-CF₃C₆H₄CH₂-, PhC(O)CH₂-,

4-FC₆H₄C(O)CH₂-, 4-PhC₆H₄C(O)CH₂-, 4-PhC₆H₄CH₂-, naphthylene-1 -CH₂-, anthracene-9-CH₂- or Ph(CH₂)_n-, where n = 5-8.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula [(R¹R²R³NCH₂)₂C₆H₃G]²⁺, wherein R¹ is C₄-C-n alkyl, R² and R³ independently are C-|-C6 alkyl or R² and R³ taken together are -(CH₂) -, and G is H or F.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula [R¹R²R³NCH₂C6H₄- C₆H₄CH₂NR¹R²R³]²⁺ , wherein R¹ is C₄-Cn alkyl, R² and R³ independently are C C6 alkyl or R² and R³ taken together are -(CH₂) -. ln one embodiment, CM has a general formula III or IV:

wherein in the general formula III or IV, R is Cs-C-n alkyi or 4,4'-CH3(CH₂)4C6H4-

C₆H₄CH₂- , R² is d-C₆ alkyi or 4- FC₆H₄CH₂- , and R³ is C C₆ alkyi.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula XIV or XV:

wherein in the general formula XIV or XV, R¹ is Cs-C-n alkyi, and each G and R⁵ are as defined above.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula Xllla, Xlllb, Xlllc, Xllld or

Xllle:

wherein in the general formula Xllla, Xlllb, Xlllc, Xllld or Xllle, R is Cs-C-n alkyi or Cs-Cn 4-phenyl, R² is H, C1-C6 alkyi or alkoxy, 2-pyridyl, C1-C6 alkyi substituted 2- pyridyl, or pyrrolidinyl, and each G is as defined above.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula VII:

wherein in the general formula

n alkyi, R² and R⁵ are independently

H or C1-C6 alkyi or phenyl. ln one embodiment, CM has a general formula XII:

wherein in the general

-C11 alkyl, R² and R⁵ are independently H or C1 -C6 alkyl or phenyl, and G is as defined above.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula XXIV or XXV:

XXIV xxv wherein in the general formula XXIV, R¹ is phenyl, 4-EtC₆H₄-, 4-ⁿPrC₆H₄-, 4- ⁿBuC₆H₄-, 4-MeOC₆H₄-, 4-FC₆H₄-, 4-MeC₆H₄-, 4-MeOC₆H₄-, 4-EtC₆H₄-, 4-CIC₆H₄-, or C6F5-; and each of R2, R3 and R4 independently are phenyl, 4-FC6H₄-, 4-

MeC₆H₄-, 4-MeOC₆H₄-, 4-EtC₆H₄-, 4-CIC₆H₄- or C₆F₅-; and

wherein in the general formula XXV, R1 is 4-(4-ⁿBuC₆H₄)C₆H₄- or 4-(4-ⁿBuC₆H₄)-3-

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula selected from 4-R¹C₆H₄SO₃H, 5- R¹-2- HO-C₆H₃SO₃H, 4- R¹-C₆H₄-C₆H₃X-4'-SO3H, and

4- R¹-C6H₄-C₆H₃X-3'-SO3H, wherein R1 is CH₃(CH₂)_n , wherein n = 4-10 and X is H or OH.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula XVIII or XXIII:

wherein in the general formula XVIII and in the general formula XXIII, R¹ is C6H₅(CH₂)_n- , wherein n = 5-1 1 .

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula selected from 5-R¹-2-HO- C₆H₃CO₂H and R¹C(O)NHCH(C₆H₅)CO₂H, wherein R¹ is CH₃(CH₂)_n- , wherein n = 4-10.

In one embodiment, CM has a general formula 4- R¹C6H PO3H₂ wherein R¹ is CH₃(CH₂)_n- , wherein n = 4-10.

In one embodiment, CI is a non-interfering anion or mixture of non-interfering anions selected from: CI^", Br^", I^", OH^", F^", OCH₃ ^", d,f-HOCH₂CH(OH)CO₂ ^",

HOCH₂CO₂ ^", HCO₂ ^", CH₃CO₂ ^", CHF₂CO₂ ^", CHCI₂CO₂ ^", CHBr₂CO₂ ^", C₂H₅CO₂ ^",

C₂F₅CO₂ ^", ⁿC₃H₇CO₂ ^", ⁿC₃F₇CO₂ ^", CF₃CO₂ ^", CCI₃CO₂ ^", CBr₃CO₂ ^", NO₃ ^", CIO₄ ^", BF₄ ^", PF₆ ^", HSO₄ ^", HCO₃ ^", H₂PO₄ ^", CH₃OCO₂ ^", CH₃OSO₃ ^", CH₃SO₃ ^", C₂H₅SO₃ ^", NCS^", CF₃SO₃ ^", H₂PO₃ ^", CH₃PO₃H^", HPO₃ ^2", CH₃PO₃ ^2", CO₃ ^2", SO₄ ^2", HPO₄ ^2", PO₄ ^3".

In one embodiment, CI is a non-interfering inorganic cation or mixture of such non-interfering cations selected from the groups: alkali metal ions (Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺, Cs⁺), alkaline earth metal ions (Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Sr²*, Ba²⁺), divalent transition metal ions (Mn²⁺, Zn²⁺) and NH₄ ⁺; wherein CI is a non-interfering organic cation or mixture of such non-interfering cations selected from the groups: protonated primary amines (1 +), protonated secondary amines (1 +), protonated tertiary amines (1 +),

protonated diamines (2+), quaternary ammonium ions (1 +), sulfonium ions (1 +), sulfoxonium ions (1 +), phosphonium ions (1 +), bis-quaternary ammonium ions (2+) that may contain C1-C6 alkyl groups and/or C₂-C₄ hydroxyalky groups.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Figures 1 b, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6b(a)B and 7 are fraction analyses of the displacement data plotting fraction number (x-axis) against concentration (mg/mL) of each component in each fraction for the displacement chromatography process in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention.

Figure 6b(a)A is a displacement trace for the purification of a crude synthetic peptide plotting time (x-axis) against relative absorbance units (y-axis) for the displacement chromatography process in accordance with an exemplary

embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As used herein, "non-surface-active", with respect to a cationic non-surface- active displacer compound employed in accordance with the present invention, means that the compound so described has a critical micelle concentration ("CMC") greater than the concentration of the compound employed in a displacement chromatography process in accordance with the present invention. In one embodiment, the concentration of the non -surface-active displacer compound is less than about 80% of the CMC for that compound in water in the absence of organic solvent, salt or other agent that would affect the CMC. In one embodiment, the concentration of the non -surface-active displacer compound is less than about 60% of the CMC for that compound in water in the absence of organic solvent, salt or other agent that would affect the CMC. In one embodiment, the concentration of the non -surface-active displacer compound is less than about 50% of the CMC for that compound in water in the absence of organic solvent, salt or other agent that would affect the CMC.

In one embodiment, the aqueous composition comprising a non-surface- active cationic hydrophobic displacer molecule employed in accordance with the present invention does not exhibit adverse surface-active characteristics due to one or a combination of two or more of (1 ) the cationic non-surface active displacer compound is present at a concentration lower than its CMC; (2) the overall- hydrophobic-index (N) for each [CM] or [CM-R*-CM'] divided by the value of g falls in the range 10 < N/g < 24; (3) the group-hydrophobic-index (¹n) for each R¹ falls in the range 4 < ¹n < 12, the group-hydrophobic-index (²n, ³n, ⁵n and *n) for each R², R³, R⁵ and R*, when present, falls in the range 0 < ²n, ³n, ⁵n,*n < 12, and the group- hydrophobic-index (⁴n) for each R⁴, when present, falls in the range 0 < ⁴n < 5; (4) the composition contains greater than about 5 volume% or more of an organic solvent. As used herein, "low organic solvent content" generally refers to an organic solvent content in, e.g., an aqueous "carrier" composition comprising a cationic non- surface-active displacer compound in accordance with the present invention, of less than about 25% by volume. In one embodiment, the organic solvent content of the aqueous "carrier" composition contains less than about 20% by volume of any organic solvent. In one embodiment, the organic solvent content of the aqueous "carrier" composition contains less than about 15% by volume of any organic solvent. In one embodiment, the organic solvent content of the aqueous "carrier" composition contains less than about 10% by volume of any organic solvent. In one embodiment, the organic solvent content of the aqueous "carrier" composition contains less than about 5% by volume of any organic solvent. In one embodiment, the aqueous "carrier" composition contains contains no organic solvent.

In one embodiment, the organic solvent is one or a mixture of two or more of methanol (CH₃OH or MeOH), ethanol (C₂H₅OH or EtOH) or acetonitrile (CH₃CN or MeCN). In one embodiment, the aqueous "carrier" composition contains a mixture of suitable organic solvents. In one embodiment, the aqueous "carrier" composition contains no organic solvent.

Hydrophobic displacement chromatography can be carried out using chiral analytes, chiral displacers and chiral chromatography matrices. Under these conditions, an achiral displacer may be used, but a racemic mixture of a chiral displacer cannot be used. Racemic chiral analytes can also be purified using an achiral chromatography column and an achiral displacer. In this case, impurities, including diastereomers, are removed from the racemic compound of interest, but there is no chiral resolution of the enantiomers.

Some of the cationic displacers described here have a quaternary nitrogen with four different groups attached and hence are inherently chiral; see for example racemic displacer compounds 43-45, 50-53, 58-59, 64-66 in Tables V-IX below. Furthermore, some of the cationic displacers contain a single chiral group attached to an achiral nitrogen atom; see for example racemic displacer compounds 203 and 206 as well as the enantiomerically pure displacer compound 67 that is derived from t-phenylalanine. With the proper choice of chiral chromatography matrix, mobile phase and achiral displacer, enantiomers are routinely preparatively resolved (separated). Depending on the specific circumstances, a good, enantiomerically pure, chiral displacer can have performance advantages over a good achiral displacer when carrying out a displacement separation of enantiomers on a chiral stationary phase.

Useful pH Ranges - Various classes of cationic hydrophobic displacers having the general formula A or B, have different useful pH ranges depending on the chemical nature of the charged moieties. Cationic hydrophobic displacers that contain deprotonatable cationic groups should be operated at a pH of 1 -2 units or more below the actual pKa values. Cationic hydrophobic displacers that contain protonatable anionic groups should be operated at a pH of 1 -2 units or more above the actual pKa values.

• Onium Groups - Generally, quaternary ammonium, quaternary phosphonium, tertiary sulfonium, tertiary sulfoxonium and related cationic groups such as pyridinium, imidazolium, guanidinium have a wide useful pH range, 1 -1 1 or greater, because they don't have deprotonatable N-H, S-H or P-H moieties under normal conditions.

• Amine and Guanidine Groups - Tertiary aliphatic amines (pKa~9.5) and

related substituted quanidines (pKa~13.5) with deprotonatable N-H moieties are useful cationic groups when operated at a pH of 1 -2 units or more below the actual pKa values.

Displacer Binding-Strength - The displacer should bind to the column more strongly than all of the components of the sample or at least more strongly than all of the major components of interest. A good rule-of-thumb is that no more than 1 -

4% of the sample mass should bind more strongly than the displacer.

An optimal displacer should not bind too strongly nor too weakly to the stationary phase. The proper binding strength depends on the analyte of interest and the associated binding-isotherms. Usually, a range of displacers with a range of binding strengths is needed for a variety of different columns and analytes to be purified. If a displacer binds too strongly, poor performance is obtained such as lower resolution, lower analyte binding capacity, difficulty in displacer removal and longer cycle-times. If a displacer binds too weakly, a poor displacement train may result with too much "tailing" of the displaced analytes underneath the displacer, or there may be only partial displacement or no displacement at all.

A convenient, rule-of-thumb method that helps in choosing displacers with the proper binding strength is to carry out simple gradient elution chromatography of potential displacers and analytes using similar columns and mobile phases that are to be used in the displacement experiment. As a first screen, the displacer should elute 5-15 minutes later than the analytes of interest in a 60 minute gradient. Ideally one would measure the isotherms of the single analytes and mixtures of analytes but this is time-consuming and often impractical. Because it operates early on the binding-isotherm, this rule-of-thumb method is not perfect, but provides a

convenient starting point for further DC optimization.

Displacer Binding-Strength - The displacer should bind to the column more strongly than all of the components of the sample or at least more strongly than all of the major components of interest. A good rule-of-thumb is that no more than 1 - 4% of the sample mass should bind more strongly than the displacer.

convenient starting point for further DC optimization.

Usable Binding-Isotherms - Apart from proper binding strength, useful

hydrophobic displacers need to have binding-isotherms with certain other useful characteristics.

(1 ) Monomodal, convex upward isotherms (Langmuir-type isotherm behavior) for displacer and analyte molecules facilitate the orderly formation of isotactic displacement trains and simplify the method optimization process. This is a useful property of many cationic displacer molecules in contrast to binding-isotherms of many other uncharged hydrophobic displacer molecules (non-zwitterions) such as aromatic alcohols (e.g., substituted phenols, naphthols, hydroxybiphenyls), fatty alcohols (e.g., 1 -dodecanol, 1 ,2-dodecanediol) and uncharged fatty carboxylic acids (e.g., myristic acid) behave normally at lower concentrations and then become bimodal and rise again at higher concentrations (BET-type isotherm behavior). This binding behavior often arises from deposition of multiple layers of the hydrophobic displacer, each layer having different binding characteristics. This binding behavior greatly complicates the displacement process and its useful implementation.

(2) Chromatographic results in DC are also complicated when displacer molecules undergo self-association in solution. As concentrations increase, problems with displacer self-association become worse. Again, the charged groups in cationic hydrophobic displacers inhibit self-association problems in aqueous solution.

(3) Further complications also arise when product and/or impurity isotherms cross the displacer isotherm in the higher, non-linear binding region. This behavior leads to reversal of displacement order, broadening of overlap regions between displacement bands and problems with co-displacement. In this case, minor variations in displacer concentration can lead to large changes in the displacement train thereby making method optimization very difficult.

We have found that properly designed cationic displacer molecules supplemented with the proper counter-ions and small amounts of useful organic solvents provide a family of effective hydrophobic displacers with Langmuir-type binding behavior and useful ranges of binding strengths.

Ion-Pairing Anions for Cationic Displacers - With all of their many advantages, cationic hydrophobic displacer molecules have one extra requirement: choosing a good ion-pairing anion, CI. The ion-pairing anion significantly affects the binding- isotherm of the displacer and the functioning and utility of the displacer. The concentration of the ion-pairing agent is independently adjusted by adding appropriate amounts of K⁺, NH₄ ⁺, protonated amine salts of an ion-pairing anion or CI^" / HCO₂ ^" salts of an ion-pairing cation. The properties of an ion-pairing anion for a cationic hydrophobic displacer strongly affects its displacement properties. A few anions may be involved in ion-pairing in solution, and nearly all anions are involved in ion-pairing in the adsorbed state on the hydrophobic chromatography matrix. The same ion-pairing agent(s) for displacer and analyte should be used for good chromatographic resolution. Useful ion-pairing counter-ions are usually singly charged. Owing to their higher solvation energies, divalent ions (SO₄ ^2") and trivalent ions (PO ^3") are generally less useful but may be used in some specialized cases. Exceptions to this general rule are multiple, singly-charged moieties spaced apart in a single organic ion such as -O3S(CH₂)₄SO3^~ .

Anions with greater hydrophobic character tend to increase binding-strength and also decrease solubility. Furthermore, when using hydrophobic displacer salts, resolution of DC may decrease if the anion itself is either too hydrophobic or too hydrophilic. Typically, intermediate hydrophobic/hydrophilic character of the anion gives best results, but this varies depending on the molecule being purified. The optimal counter-ion for each purification should be determined experimentally. For example, a hydrophobic quaternary ammonium displacer with CH₃CO₂ ^_ counter-ion gives good solubility and mediocre resolution, with CF₃CO2^_ gives mediocre, but acceptable, solubility and good resolution, and with CCI₃CO₂ ^_ gives poor solubility and mediocre resolution. Volatile ion-pairing agents are conveniently removed under reduced pressure, while nonvolatile ones are readily removed by other means such as diafiltration, precipitation or crystallization. Table I gives a partial list of useful monovalent ion-pairing anions. When using anionic ion-pairing agents, the operating pH should be 1 -2 pH units or more above the pKa of the respective acid. A notable exception to this guideline is trifluoroacetic acid that acts as both ion- pairing agent and pH buffer at the same time. Table I. Monovalent Anions in Approximate Order of Ion-pairing Strength

Weak Fluoride < Hydroxide < Gluconate < Glycerate < Glycolate < Lactate

Moderate Formate < Acetate < Bicarbonate < Propionate < Butyrate <

Methanesulfonate < Ethanesulfonate < Difluoroacetate < Chloride

Medium Strong Bromide < Trifluoroacetate < Dichloroacetate < Nitrate

Strong Triflate < Iodide < Dibromoacetate < Thiocyanate < Trichloroacetate

<Perchlorate < Hexafluoroisobutrate < Pentafluoropropionate

<Tetrafluoroborate < Hexafluorophosphate < Tribromoacetate

Mixed anions often lead to loss of chromatographic resolution and are generally to be avoided. However, there is one set of conditions when mixed anions may be used; that is, when both (a) the anion of interest has significantly stronger ion-pairing properties than the other anions that are present and (b) the anion of interest is present in stoichiometric excess in the sample loading mixture and in the displacer buffer.

The most commonly used ion-pairing anions are formate, acetate, chloride, bromide and trifluoroacetate. Owing to lower ion-pairing strength, formate and acetate require careful optimization in order to obtain good resolution. Bromide and trifluoroacetate seem to give the best results for peptides and small proteins.

Generally, good chromatographic results can be obtained with chloride and bromide as ion-pairing anions, but two special precautions should be exercised. (1 ) Under acidic conditions, the chromatography solutions cannot be degassed by helium purging or by vacuum degassing owing to loss of gaseous HCI or HBr thereby changing the pH and changing the concentration of the anion. This problem is overcome by using degassed distilled water for preparing chromatography solutions and storing the solutions in closed containers to prevent reabsorption of air. (2) Chloride and bromide are potentially corrosive to stainless steel HPLC equipmen, but equipment made from PEEK, Teflon, ceramic, glass and titanium is safe. The main problem is halide-catalyzed corrosion of stainless steel caused by air (oxygen) at low pH. If HPLC solutions are properly deoxygenated, halide-promoted corrosion of stainless steel is greatly reduced.

Solubility - In "hydrophobic chromatography" or, more properly, "solvophobic chromatography", where the principal solvent component is water, potential hydrophobic displacer molecules often have limited solubility. Hydrophobic molecules usually do not dissolve in water to any appreciable extent unless there are "hydrophillic groups" attached to the hydrophobic molecule, such as charged ionic-groups, hydrophillic counter-ions, polar groups or groups that function as hydrogen-bond donors or acceptors. Aromatic molecules intereact with water in a unique fashion owing to the unique manner in which the pi-electrons act as weak hydrogen-bond acceptors. Furthermore, aromatic molecules can engage in face-to- face pi-stacking in aqueous solution. These small but important effects are reflected in the higher solubility in water of benzene (9 mM) and naphthalene (200 μΜ) compared with cyclohexane (-10 μΜ) and trans-decalin (<1 μΜ) and in the higher solubility of phenol (960 mM) and β-naphthol (7 mM) compared with the unhydroxylated arenes. The molecular structure of a useful displacer molecule should facilitate a reasonable solubility (10-50 mM) in water or in water with low organic content yet at the same time be sufficiently hydrophobic that it binds strongly to the stationary phase. Generally, charged displacer molecules have better solubility properties than neutral ones owing to the increased solvation energies of charged species, especially counter-ions. It requires a unique balance of physical and chemical properties for neutral zwitterionic molecules to behave as good displacers. Cationic hydrophobic displacers display unique solubility properties.

It is important to note, generally speaking, that increasing the levels of the organic solvent in order to compensate for poor displacer solubility rarely leads to useful results. Best chromatographic results are obtained with 0-25% organic solvent, or more preferably, 2-15% organic solvent. Higher organic content (25- 75%) of the mobile phase may be used in some cases but usually capacity and resolution often suffer badly. Reduced Product-Displacer Association - One potential problem with

hydrophobic displacement chromatography is the possible association of a hydrophobic displacer with a hydrophobic analyte in solution. This can lead to significant loss of resolution and contamination. Displacer-analyte association in the adsorbed state on the stationary phase also can occur but is less problematic with proper amounts of suitable ion-pairing agents present. A good method to deal with this problem is to use charged analytes and charged hydrophobic displacers with the same charge.

Displacer Self-Association and Micelle Formation - In some cases when the chemical structure and physical properties are conducive, cationic hydrophobic molecules can self-associate, forming micelles and micelle-like, self-associated structures in solution. This situation can lead to loss of resolution in DC as well as unwanted foaming of displacer solutions. The displacer in solution finds itself in various forms that are interrelated by various chemical equilibria. Furthermore, micelles can act as carriers for hydrophobic analyte molecules causing them to exist in solution in various forms. This unwanted phenomenon is concentration

dependent and is effectively inhibited by the addition of small amounts of a suitable organic solvent such as methanol, ethanol or acetonitrile. Properly designed, cationic displacer molecules disenhance micelle formation and give better displacement results. Thus, keeping the group-hydrophobic-indices below 12.0 for R-groups, R¹-R³, reduces the problem of unwanted detergency. High Purity - Impurities in Displacers - A displacer should have adequate purity. The object of preparative chromatography is to remove the impurities from a component of interest. Contamination of the desired compound by the displacer itself is rarely a problem, but contamination by "early displacing" impurities in the displacer solution may be problematic in some cases depending on the amounts of the impurities and their binding properties. Thus, a good displacer should contain little or no early displacing impurities. Suitable UV Absorbance - In order to track the location and amounts of displacer throughout the DC experiment, to watch displacer breakthrough curves and to follow displacer removal during column regeneration procedures, it is useful to have a displacer with moderate ultraviolet absorption. High absorption is not needed nor is it preferred owing to the high concentrations of displacer and analyte. Generally, colorless displacers are preferred with a UV spectrum that has strategically located windows of low absorbance so that the analytes can be followed at some

frequencies and the displacer monitored at other frequencies.

Ease of Manufacturing and Cost - Convenient and cost-effective methods of chemical synthesis, production and manufacturing are important in order to produce useful displacers and reasonable costs. Furthermore, practical methods of purification, especially non-chromatographic purification, are needed in order to achieve the purity requirements in a cost-effective manner. Chemical Stability, Low Toxicity and Long Shelf-Life - Among all its other desired chemical and physical properties, a useful displacer molecule should be chemically stable. It should be inert toward analyte molecules and chemically stable (non-reactive) toward water, common organic solvents, mild bases, mild acids and oxygen (air). It should be photo-stable and thermally stable under typical use and storage conditions and have a reasonable shelf-life. It greatly preferred that displacer molecules be visually colorless, yet have the requisite levels of UV absorbance. Useful displacer molecules also need to have low toxicity, not only to protect workers but to protect biological and drug samples that may come into contact with the displacer. Suitable Chromatographic Columns: While the most common type of reversed- phase column is octadecyl coated silica, many hydrophobic stationary phases find utility in DC (see Table III). Ultimately, the best choice of stationary phase is experimentally determined for each system under study. Table II. Materials for Hydrophobic Stationary Phases

• Coated Porous Silica (covanently bonded silanes)

^■ Octadecyl (C-is) ^■ Docecyl (C12)

^■ Octyl (C₈) ^■ Hexyl (C₆)

■ Butyl (C₄) ^■ Pentafluorophenylpropyl (C6F5-C3)

^■ Phenylpropyl (Ph-C₃) ^■ Phenylhexyl (Ph-C₆)

^■ p-Biphenyl (Ph-Ph) ^■ β-Naphthylethyl (Nap-C₂)

• Uncoated Porous Polystyrene/Divinylbenzene

• Porous Fluorocarbon Polymer

· Porous Polyoctadecylmethacrylate Polymer

• Carbon-like Phases:

• Porous Graphitized Carbon

• Cleaned Charcoal

• Carbon over Porous Zircon ia

· C-is Bonded to Carbon over Porous Zircona

• Organic Polymer Coatings over Inorganic Oxides

• Mixed -Mode Hydrophobic Phases

• C-is with negative surface charge

• C-is with positive surface charge

· C-is with buried negative charge

• C-is with buried positive charge

Better results in displacement chromatography are obtained with longer, well- packed columns that give better recovery and yield. Table IV provides a guide for initial choices of column dimension and initial flow-rates.

Table III. Chromatography Column Dimensions

Particle Column Column Column Initial Sample

Size Length Dia. Volume Flow Injection (urn) (mm) (mm) (ml_) Rate^b Method

2 100 2.1 0.3464 43.3 L/min 3 mL loop

3 150 2.1 0.5195 43.3 L/min 5 mL loop

3 150 3.0 1 .060 88.4 μ Urn in 10 mL loop

3 150 4.6 2.493 208 pL/min 20 mL loop/Inject

Pump

5 250 4.6 4.155 208 pL/min 40 mL loop/Inject

Pump

5 250 10.0 19.63 982 pL/min Inject. Pump

5 250 20.0 78.54 3.93 mL/min Inject. Pump

10 500^a 10.0 39.27 982 pL/min Inject. Pump

10 500^a 20.0 157.1 3.93 mL/min Inject. Pump

10 500^a 30.0 353.4 8.84 mL/min Inject. Pump

10 500^a 50.0 981 .7 24.5 mL/min Inject. Pump a) 500 mm or 2 x 250 mm b) Initial flow-rate=75 cm/hr (12.5 mm/min); needs to be optimized

Proper column length is important for good results. It should be long enough to fully sharpen the displacement train and give good resolution. Yet columns that are too long needlessly increase separation time and often lead to poorly packed beds and reduced resolution. In many cases, two well-packed columns can be attached end-to-end with good chromatographic results. Considerable

experimentation with small molecules (MW <3KDa) indicates that optimal column length falls in the range 15-45 cm for 5 μιτι particles and 20-60 cm for 10 μιτι particles. Porous particles with pore sizes of 80-100 A are suitable for traditional drugs and small peptides, 120-150 A are suitable for medium and large

oligopeptides and oligonucleotides and 300-500 A are suitable for most proteins and DNA. Non-porous particles can be used, but loading capacity will significantly decrease.

In cylindrical columns, it is important that a planar flow-front be established so that it is perpendicular to the axis of flow. Scaling up to purify larger amounts of sample is simple and straightforward in displacement chromatography once an optimized protocol has been developed on a smaller column. After the shortest acceptable column-length is found, scale-up is simply accomplished by increasing column diameter while maintaining a constant linear flow-rate. With proper modifications, displacement chromatography can be used with radial-flow columns and with axial-flow monolith columns. The principles of displacement

chromatography can be applied in analytical and preparative thin-layer

chromatography. Running Successful Displacement Chromatograpy Experiments

Though displacement chromatography of organic compounds, traditional drugs and peptides has been carried out for many years, mediocre-to-poor results are often obtained. Good displacers, good columns and good operational protocols lead to excellent reproduciblity and remarkably good chromatographic performance.

Displacer and Concentration - Initial evaluation is carried out using a good general purpose cationic displacer with proper binding strength. Cationic displacers can be used to purify cationic, neutral non-ionic and neutral zwitterionic analytes. The displacer should bind to the column more strongly than the material to be purified, but the displacer should not bind too strongly. Typical displacer

concentrations are in the range 10-50 mM. Initially, displacer concentration is set at 10-15 mM. As needed, pH buffer and ion-pairing anion are added to the displacer solution. The displacer solution and carrier solution should have identical compositions (including pH), except for the presence of displacer and the level of the ion-pairing anion. Displacers 14, 198 and 318 (below) are examples of good general-purpose cationic displacers. During method optimization, it may be helpful to increase displacer concentration up to 20-30 mM or higher.

Choosing an Ion-Pairing Agent - Not using an ion-pairing agent, using an ineffective ion-pairing agent, using mixed ion-pairing agents and using insufficient levels of a good ion-pairing agent are some of the major causes of poor

chromatographic performance in displacement chromatography experiments. This is not generally appreciated or understood by those who carry out hydrophobic displacement chromatography. This is amply demonstrated in Example 8 below. Table I contains lists of useful, monovalent, ion-pairing anions that are useful for hydrophobic chromatography. They are needed when the analyte or displacer is charged. For charged analytes and displacers, binding-isotherms strongly depend on the chemical properties of the counter-ion and its concentration. Those ion- pairing agents with moderate to moderately strong binding properties are usually the best to use. When starting experimentation with ion-pairing agents, try bromide or trifluoroacetate (free acid or NH₄ ⁺ salt) as ion-pairing anions. When the analyte requires an ion-pairing anion, it usually dictates the choice of ion-pairing anion for the cationic displacer in the DC experiment. The ion-pairiing anion for the analyte and the displacer should be the same. Concentration of Ion-Pairing Agent - As noted earlier, using insufficient levels of a good ion-pairing agent is one of the major causes of poor chromatographic performance in displacement chromatography experiments. The formula for calculating the suitable concentration of the ion-pairing agent in the sample solution (Cips, mM)) is given by,

where E_S is the excess factor for the sample, C_s is the concentration of the sample (mM) and G_s is the absolute value of the net charge of the sample at the operative pH. The optimal value of E_S is a parameter that needs to be determined

experimentally. The formula for calculating the suitable concentration of the ion- pairing agent in the displacer solution (CIPD, mM) is given by,

CiPD = E_D x C_d(mM) x G_d

where E_D is the excess factor for the displacer, C_d is the concentration of the displacer (mM) and G_d is the absolute value of the net charge of the displacer at the operative pH. The optimal value of E_D is a parameter that needs to be determined experimentally. It is essential that at least a stoichiometric amount of the ion-pairing agent be present in the solutions (E_S > 1 .0 and E_D≥ 1 .0). In practice, it is our experience that E_S should be in the range 1 .1 -1 0.0, more preferably in the range 1 .2-6.0, more preferably yet in the range 1 .5-4.5. Furthermore, it is our experience that E_D should be in the range 1 .1 -1 0.0, more preferably in the range 1 .2-4.0.

Serious deterioration in chromatographic performance results when the ion-pairing concentrations are unoptimized or too low, that is E_S < 1 .0 and/or E_D < 1 .0. Choosing a Good RP Column - For initial reversed-phase work, several good quality octadecyl on silica or phenylhexyl on silica columns should be evaluated (5μηη spherical particles with dimensions 4.6 x 250 mm). Scaleup to larger preparative columns can come later and is relatively straightforward. A critical issue is to choose a suitable pore size. Matrices with pores that are too large or too small often lead to reduced capacity and sometimes reduced resolution. See Tables II and III above. Flow-rates - Because displacement chromatography is a "quasi-equilibrium technique", relatively slow flow-rates are often needed. The optimal flow-rate is the fastest flow-rate possible without losing resolution. Sample loading flow-rate and displacement flow-rate should be about the same, both in the range of 35-105 cm/hr. Start at 75 cm/hr for traditional drugs, oligopeptides and oligonucleotides or 40 cm/hr for proteins and DNA. Regeneration flow-rates should be 2-8 times the displacement flow-rate. When purifying drugs, peptides or oligonucleotides at elevated temperatures on reversed-phase columns, faster flow-rates might be used.

Temperature - Because reversed-phase chromatography and other forms of hydrophobic chromatography are largely driven by +TAS with +ΔΗ, higher temperature often leads to stronger binding, faster binding kinetics and distinctly different resolution. As a consequence, the temperature of the column and, to some extent, displacement buffers should be carefully regulated (+/- 0.5 °C) in order to prevent band broadening. Initial work is often carried out at 25°C, and then elevated temperatures (45, 65°C) are tried if the sample will tolerate it, and the boiling point of the organic solvent is suitable.

Choosing an Organic Solvent - Although most water-miscible organic solvents will function, acetonitrile, methanol and ethanol are most commonly used. Some DC purifications are carried out with little or no organic solvent at all. This allows practical RPC and HIC purification of undenatured proteins with low salt and low organic solvent. Operating without organic solvent may also be helpful when there are safety issues associated with volatile, flammable solvents. When

experimenting, first try acetonitrile for peptides, low molecular-weight organic drugs and small proteins or methanol for large proteins oligonucleotides and DNA. If solubility of the sample in water is acceptable, start with 3% v/v MeCN, 4% v/v

EtOH or 5% v/v MeOH in the carrier buffer, the displacer buffer and sample loading solution; the organic content of these three solutions should be the same. Organic solvent content is an important parameter that needs to be optimized for each sample, column and displacer. For general purpose operation, organic solvent should be less than about 15 volume%, more preferably less than about 10 volume%, more preferably yet about 5 volume%. When Octadecyl columns are used, 2-3% acetonitrile, 3-4% ethanol or 4-5% methanol is usually needed for optimal functioning of the matrix. Phenylhexyl and Octyl columns can usually tolerate the absence of organic solvent.

Choice of pH and pH Buffer - pH buffers are needed when there are ionizable protons in

the sample, displacer, ion-pairing agent or on the stationary phase. Some samples are only stable within certain pH ranges. For some samples, chromatographic resolution is strongly pH-dependent. Generally, cationic samples are purified using cationic displacers and cationic buffers. The anions associated with the cationic buffers should be the same as the ion-pairing anion. In some cases, a different anion can be used as long as it has significantly weaker ion-pairing properties.

Likewise, an anionic pH-buffer may be used if it has much weaker ion-pairing properties than the principle ion-pairing anion; thus, formic_acid and acetic acid can be used as pH buffers when trifluoroacetate is the ion-pairing anion. For obvious reasons, neutral and cationic amines with low pK_a values are useful pH-buffers: Ν,Ν,Ν',Ν'-tetramethylethylene-diamine (5.9, TMEDA), N-ethylpiperazine (5.0, NEP), N,N-dimethypiperazine (4.2, DMP), diazobicyclooctane (3.0, DABCO).

Table IV. Buffering Systems for 10 mM [D⁺] [0₂CF₃] Displacer PH Buffer IP Aqent³ Adjust DH

2.0 12 mM CF3CO2H CF3CO2^" NH₄OH

2.0 18 mM H₃PO₄ + CF3CO2^" NH₄OH

3.0 20 mM DABCO + CF3CO2^" HCO₂H

3.5 20 mM HCO₂H + CF3CO2^" NH₄OH

4.2 CF3CO2^" HCO₂H

4.6 20 mM CH3CO2H + CF3CO2^" NH₄OH

5.9 20 mM TMEDA + CF3CO2^" HCO₂H

Co-Displacement - When working with samples that contain hunderds

components and impurities, co-displacement is an almost unavoidable phenomenon because there are likely to be several minor components that co-displace with the major component of interest no matter where on the binding isotherms the DC experiments take place. Fortunately, co-displacement in displacement

chromatography is a far less serious problem than co-elution in preparative elution chromatography. Co-displacement occurs under two, conditions: (1 ) when binding- isotherms are so similar that there is poor resolution and (2) when there is crossing of binding-isotherms near the operating region of the binding-isotherm. Fortunately, there are simple ways to deal with this issue: carry out a second DC experiment under different conditions by operating at a different point on the binding-isotherms by,

a. changing the concentration of the displacer,

b. changing to a different displacer with different binding properties. Alternatively, the isotherms themselves can be changed by,

c. changing the chromatography matrix (stationary phase), d. changing the concentration of the organic solvent,

e. changing to a different organic solvent,

f. changing to a different ion-pairing agent, g. changing the temperature.

A second "orthogonal" IP-RP DC step typically gives excellent purity (-99.5%) with excellent yield (90-95%).

Method of Sample Loading - A sample is loaded onto the column through a sample injection valve using one of two methods. The sample should be loaded under frontal chromatography conditions at the same point on the binding-isotherm at which the DC experiment takes place. The carrier is not passed through the column after the sample is loaded. Method 1 : A sample loading pump is used; Method 2: An injection loop is used. Usually, only partial loop injection is used. The sample in the loop should be driven out of the loop onto the column first by the carrier and then the displacer solution. Not more that 85-95% of the loop volume should be loaded onto the column so that sample diluted by carrier is not loaded.

Column Loading - DC experiments are carried out at relatively high loading, typically in the range 60-80% of maximum loading capacity. The operative column loading capacity is not a fixed number; rather, it depends upon where on the binding-isotherm the DC experiment operates.

Not all of the column capacity is available for use (see "Exception" below). In practice, only 90-98% of the column capacity can is usable. Once the sample has been loaded onto the column, the displacer buffer is then pumped onto the column. There are three fronts that develop each traveling at different velocities down the column: (1 ) the liquid front (T-i , displacer buffer minus displacer), (2) the sample front (T₂) and (3) the displacer saturation front itself (T₃). The first front travels faster than the second and third fronts and limits the useable column capacity because the first front should exit the column before the displacement train (T₂) begins to exit. The actual velocities of the fronts depend directly on the

displacement flow-rate. The ratio, a, of the front velocities, Vel-|/Vel₂, is given by the formula:

a=K_m / (R x C_d) where K_m is the displacer binding capacity of the matrix (mg displacer per mL packed matrix) at displacer concentration of C_d, where C_d is the displacer concentration in the displacer buffer (mg displacer per mL displacer buffer), R is the ratio of the volume of the liquid in the column to the total volume of the column (mL liquid per mL_m bed volume). The maximum % usable column capacity is given by,

(100 χ (α-1 )) / α.

In examples 1 b and 6b(a) below, the respective a-values are 22.24 and 21 .49, and the respective maximum column capacities are 95.5% and 95.3%. Note that as C_d increases, K_m will also increase, but not as much if operating high on the nonlinear part of the isotherm. Thus, a will decrease and maximum % usable column capacity will decrease.

Exception - If significant levels of unwanted, early-displacing impurities are present in the sample, one can increase the usable capacity of the column, even beyond 100% by overloading the column and spilling out these impurities during sample loading before the displacer flow is started. Thus, the column loading could be 105% of maximum based on the whole sample, but the column loading would be only 80% based on the amound of main product plus late-displacing impurities.

Concentration and Volume of Sample Solution - The concentration of the load sample is an important operating parameter. The optimal sample loading concentration (mg/mL) is the same as the output concentration of the purified product from the displacement experiment - the plateau region of the displacement train. Binding-isotherms, the column binding capacities and the output

concentrations are initially unknown. Simply carry out the first displacement experiment with the sample solution loaded onto the column using initial estimates as shown below:

(1 ) Pick an initial column loading percentage at which the one wishes to work, say 75%.

Sample loading time = displacer breakthrough time (T3-T1 ) x 0.75

= (586 min-270 min) x 0.75 = 237 min (for Example 6b(a)) (2) Pick an initial concentration for the sample by one of two methods: (a) Initial sample cone. (mg/mL) = 0.25 x disp. cone. (mM) x formula wt.

(mg μmole)

= 0.12 x 10 mM x 1 .7466 mg^mole = 2.10 mg/mL (for Example 6b(a))

(b) Pick an estimated column binding capacity for the sample, say 50 mg sample/mL matrix. Assume displacement flow-rate and sample loading flow-rate are the same:

Initial sample cone. (mg/mL) =

(col. binding capacity (mg/mL_m) x col. volume (mL_m) / ((T₂-Ti) x sample flow-rate (mL/min))

= (50 mg/mL_m x 4.155 mL_m) / ((586 min-270 min) x 0.208 mL/min) = 3.16 mg/mL (for Example 6b(a))

If the first DC experiment with loaded sample leads to overloaded conditions (>100% loading), rerun the experiment at one-half the sample concentration. From the results of the first successful DC experiment while using a sample, actual loading concentration and actual column loading capacity are readily calculated, and those values are then used in adjusting sample concentration and loading for the second DC experiment.

Sample Preparation - The loading sample solution is prepared at the

concentration and amount described above. Enough excess solution is needed for overfilling the loop or filling the dead volume of a sample loading pump and delivery lines. The pH, amount of pH buffer and amount of organic solvent are the same as the carrier and displacer buffer. Dissolving the sample in the carrier changes its pH, so the pH of the sample solution will have to be re-adjusted after dissolution.

However, the amount of ion-pairing agent may be different. The ion-pairing agent used in the sample solution must be the same one used in the displacer buffer. In this regard, the ion-pairing requirements of the sample dictate which ion-pairing agent is used in the sample solution and in the displacer solution. Based on the formal chemical charge at the operating pH and the concentration of the main analyte, the concentration of the concentration is the ion-pairing agent or ion-pairing salt is calculated. See "Concentration of Ion-Pairing Agent" above.

The composition and history of the sample should be known. If the sample contains an anion, its chemical nature and amount (concentration) should also be known, (a) Obviously, if no anion is present, then no adjustment is made in sample preparation, (b) If the anion in the sample is the same as the ion-pairing anion used in the DC, then the amount of added ion-pairing anion to the sample solution is reduced accordingly, (c) If the anion in the sample has significantly weaker ion- pairing properties than the ion-pairing anion used in the DC, then its presence is ignored, (d) If the anion in the sample has stronger ion-pairing properties than the ion-pairing agent used in the DC, then the anion should be exchanged or removed before proceeding.

Collecting Fractions - Displacement chromatography gives excellent

chromatographic resolution, especially with optimized protocols using a good Cie- reversed-phase column. However, the resolution is difficult to see because all of the bands come off the column together as back-to-back bands in the displacement train. Many of the small impurity triangle-bands are less than 30 seconds wide (<100 μΙ_). Thus, an experiment with a displacer breakthrough time of 250 minutes and 80% sample loading, the displacement train would be about 200 minutes wide, and more that 400 fractions would have to be taken so that chromatographic resolution is not lost during the fraction-collection process. Analyzing 400 fractions is truly enlightening and interesting but also a daunting task. This is when online real-time fraction analysis would be useful. In practice, we throw away resolution and collect only 100-130 larger fractions. Even this number of fractions represents a lot of work.

In the circumstance in which a preparative DC experiment is conducted and only the purified main component is of interest, the fraction collecting process is greatly simplified. Based on the shape of the displacement train observed at various frequencies (UV), the beginning and ending of main band of interest is judged and then about 10 fractions are analyzed in both regions in order to determine which fractions to pool. Analyzing 20 fractions instead of 100-130 fractions is an easier task.

Displacer Removal and Column Regeneration - The displacer is removed using 5-10 column volumes of 95/5 (v/v) ethanol-water or 80/10/10 (v/v/v) acetonitrile- ⁿpropanol-water without any pH buffer or ion-pairing agent. The object is to efficiently remove >99.9% or more of the displacer from the column in the shortest amount of time. The flow-rate is increased (100-400 cm/hr) in order to speed up the column regeneration process if the matrix will tolerate the increased back-pressure. Observing the displacer removal near the absorption maximum of the displacer (see displacer instructions) allows the regeneration process to be carefully monitored and optimized by UV detection.

Effects of Added Salt - Salts in aqueous solvents lead to solvents that are less hospitable to dissolved hydrophobic analytes and hydrophobic displacers resulting in stronger binding to hydrophobic chromatographic matrices. This is the principle behind hydrophobic-interaction chromatography (HIC). So long as solubility of the analyte is sufficient in the salt solution, the addition of salt is a good way to modulate analyte binding and selectivity to a hydrophobic matrix.

In some cases, analyte binding to a hydrophobic matrix is so weak that added salt is needed in order to obtain sufficient analyte binding. Commonly used salt solutions are 0.5-2.5M (NH₄)₂SO₄, K₂SO₄, Na₂SO₄, NaCI, KCI. With the help of many different salts at various concentrations, HIC in displacement mode offers many options for useful chromatographic separations of proteins.

Instrument Protocols - See example protocol for Example 1 (dual pump operation). Because residual displacer from previous experiments is a potential problem, the protocol has line purging operations, a quick column regeneration and equilibration operations in order to make sure that the HPLC system and column are completely clean and properly equilibrated just before sample loading. These steps are simply precautionary and not always necessary. The protocol includes the (a) a pre-equilibration sequence, (b) an equilibration sequence, (c) a sample loading sequence (d) a displacement sequence and (e) a regeneration sequence in a single protocol. In order to overcome problems with dead-volume in the system, all loading buffers, displacer buffers and sample solutions are purged through the system to waste just prior to pumping onto the column. This way, the column sees a sharp front of undiluted solutions immediately upon valve switching. The sample solutions should be degassed so that gas bubbles do not form in them. When injection loops are used, they need to be overfilled by about 10%. The overfill can be collected for further use. Full loop injections should not be used, only partial loop injections. Experience dictates that only 85-95% of the loop volume can be used depending on the inner diameter of the loop tubing because the sample solution mixes with the driver solution and dilutes it. The sample in the loop is driven onto the column by the loading buffer, but toward the end of the sample loading process, the driving solution is changed to the displacer buffer. This allows the displacer buffer to be purged through the system just prior to the displacer buffer itself being pumped directly onto the column. During the initial part of the regeneration process, slower flow-rates are used Thus, problems with high backpressure rarely occur. Once most of the displacer has been removed, higher flow-rates can be used.

Once most of the displacer has been removed, higher flow-rates can be used.

Method Optimization - As with all forms of preparative chromatography, optimization of the chromatographic methods and procedures is important, but it requires some effort. The benefits of displacement chromatography come with a price - time. The time-consuming factors are minimized during method

optimization.

• Determine near optimal conditions for the displacement purification without regard for the time of the separation.

• Increase the displacer concentration and the concentration of the sample loading solution until resolution decreases.

· Increase the displacement flow-rate and the sample loading flow-rate until resolution decreases. • Shorten the pre-equilibration sequence and the displacer removal / column regeneration sequences.

Existing protocols provide a useful starting point for method optimization, but they will need modification for the specific sample under study. A sample protocol (Example 1 ) is shown below that has been optimized for purity without regard to time. It is important to carry out method optimization adapted for the specific physical properties and chromatographic properties of the sample of interest. Upon optimization, longer methods (600-800 min) often can be reduced to 200-300 minutes and in some cases reduced to 100-150 minutes.

Hydrophobic chromatography used in displacement mode has (a) high matrix productivity (gram of product per liter matrix over the lifetime of the matrix), (b) high volume productivity (gram of product per liter of column volume), (c) high solvent productivity (gram of product per liter of solvent used) yet (d) may have mediocre time productivity (gram of product per liter of unit time). Proper method optimization mitigates the time factor.

Properly Configured Instrumentation: A typical instrumental configuration for a small preparative HPLC system is given below.

• Main Pump: stainless steel, titanium, ceramic, PEEK; accurate 0.01 -10

mL/min

flow-rate; 3000-4500 psi pressure.

• Optional Column Bypass Valve: two-position, six-port switching valve

(stainless

steel, PEEK); column inline or bypass column. This is a convenience option. · Required Sample Injection Valve: two-position, six-port injection valve

(stainless

steel, PEEK) for injection loop or sample injection pump.

• Injection Loop: 20-40 ml_ injection loop (stainless steel, PEEK). Loop should be

overloaded (-10%). Only partial loop injection is used, typically no more than 85-95% of loop volume. Use one, either an injection loop or a sample pump. Sample Pump: this is similar to main pump for sample injection. Sample should

be compatible with flow path of pump head. Use one, either an injection loop or a sample pump. With a two-pump operation, the flow-rates of the two pumps should be calibrated so that their flows can be matched.

No Gradient Mixer: bypass or remove the gradient mixer in displacement chromatography.

UV Detector: Multiple wavelength or photo-diode-array detector, 200-400 nm frequency range, with short-path, low-volume quartz flow-cell (0.2-2.0 mm flowpath, <10 μΙ_ flow-volume).

Optional Conductivity Detector: conductivity detector with flow cell, 0.1 -200 mS, <100 μΙ_ flow-volume after UV detector; bypass conductivity flow-cell when collecting fractions for analysis at displacement flow-rate <500 L/min. Fraction Collector: 10 μί to 10 mL per fraction by time or by number of drops.

Column Cooler/Heater: 0-100 °C +/-0.5 °C. If the column is operated at a temperature substantially diferrent from ambient temperature, arrangements for heating or cooling the buffer solutions need to be made.

Example 1a: Example Protocol. Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude Synthetic Angiotensin I

Equipment Configuration: Single Main Pump with 4 solvent lines, Sample Injection Valve with 40 mL Loop, Column Bypass Valve

Sample Injection Valve: 6-port valve controlled by single-channel toggle logic (S3=0, bypasss loop, S3=1 loop inline) Column Bypass Valve: 6-port valve controlled by single-channel toggle logic (S6=0, column inline, S6=1 bypass column)

UV photodiode array detector after column (flow-cell: 0.5 mm pathlength, 10 μί volume) followed by conductivity detector (flow-cell: 170 μί volume). Conductivity cell bypassed when collecting fraction for analysis.

Loading Buffer=A-Buffer (S1 =1 , flow on, S1 =0 flow off); Displacer Buffer=B-Buffer (S2=1 , flow on, S2=0 flow off); Displacer Removal Buffer=C-Buffer (S4=1 , flow on, S4=0 flow off); Column Storage Buffer=D-Buffer (S5=1 , flow on, S5=0 flow off)

Before sequence begins, cleaned column briefly purged with A-buffer to remove column storage buffer.

About 44 mL of degassed sample solution in a syringe is loaded into the sample injection loop; air is prevented from entering loop.

See Example 7b for description of column, details about initial sample and contents of Loading Buffer / Displacer Buffer / Sample Solution.

Displacer Removal Buffer (C-Buffer)=10% (v/v) 1 -propanol, 10% (v/v) Dl water in acetonitrile.

Column Storage Buffer (D-Buffer)=50/50 (v/v) acetonitrile/water with formic acid (15 mM) and ammonium formate (15 mM).

Pumpl Flow- Switch

Time Rate (S1 -S6)

(min.) mL/min 123456 Operations - Functions Comments Volumes

0.00 0.208 100000 start Buffer A Stabilize/Purge svstem (2 min.)

1 .98 0.208 100000 continue

2.00 1 .039 100001 set column-bypass; flow-rate=1 .039 purge A-line (0.25 CV Buffer

D)

3.00 1 .039 00001 1 start storage Buffer D purge D-line (0.25 CV Buffer

A)

4.00 1 .039 000101 start regeneration Buffer C purge C-line (0.25 CV Buffer

C)

5.00 1 .039 000100 set column-inline; C-buffer Start pre-equilibration (2.0 CV Buffer

C)

13.00 1 .039 100000 start load buffer A equilibrate Buffer A (3.0 CV Buffer A)

24.98 1 .039 100000 continue Buffer A

25.00 0.208 100000 flow-rate=0.208 equilibrate Buffer A (1 .0 CV Buffer A)

45.00^* 0.208 101000 set loop-inline; pump Buffer A into loop Start Sample load-Loop (27.04 mL

Buffer A into loop)

175.00 0.208 01 1000 purge Buffer B into back of loop 35.38/40 mL load (88.5%) (8.34 mL Buffer

B into loop)

215.10^* 0.208 010000 set loop-bypass; Buffer B thru column Start Displacement (18.1 CV buffer

B)

593.00^* 0.208 010000 continue

593.02 0.780 100000 start Buffer A Start regeneration (0.5 CV Buffer A)

595.72 0.780 000010 start storage Buffer D (0.5 CV Buffer D)

598.40 0.780 000100 start regeneration Buffer C (1 .8 CV Buffer C)

608.00 0.780 000100 continue

608.02 1 .039 000100 set flow-rate= 1 .039 (7.5 CV Buffer

C)

638.00 1 .039 000010 start storage Buffer D (8.5 CV Buffer

D)

671 .96 1 .039 000010 continue storage Buffer D

671 .98 0.000 000010 stop flow

672.00 0.000 000000 close all valves Stop

Example 1 b: Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude Angiotensin I Using

Displacer 14 - Higher Loading at Lower Concentration (see Figure 1 b - analysis)

Operating Conditions:

Starting Peptide: Desalted crude synthetic Angiotensin I, 82.7% purity, FW ~ 1 .296 mg/ nnole,

charge = +4

Column: Waters Xbridge BEH130, 5 μηη, 135 A, 4.6 x 250 mm SS, -C ₈ on silica Flow-Rates: Loading = 208 pL/imin; Displacement =208 pL/imin

Ion-Pairing Agent: Trifluoroacetate (CF₃CO₂ ^~)

Temperature: 23°C

pH: 2.0

Displacer Buffer: 10.0 mM Displacer 14 + 12 mM CF₃CO₂H in Dl water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0

w/ NH₄OH

Loading Buffer: 12 mM TFA in water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Sample Solution: 4.38 mg/nnL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 27 mM

Load Amount: 155.0 mg, 35.4 mL from 40 mL loop;

Loading Time: 170.1 min. (2.84 hr)

Fraction Size: 416 μί

Results:

Fraction Analysis: Fractions diluted (20 μί sample + 40 μί loading buffer) and analyzed (25 μί

injection) by analytical elution HPLC at 215 nm; calculations based on area %.

Total Run Time: 8.4 hr

Output Concentration: 3.29 mg/nnL

Column Loading: 71 .2% of maximum capacity

Column Capacity: -52.4 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 3.29 mg peptide/mL solution

-167 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution Purity %: 99.1 % 99.0% 98.8% 98.6%

Yield %: 80% 85% 90% 95% Comments: Sample Cone/Output Cone. =1 .3

Amount CF3CO2^" in sample = 2.0 times stoichiometric.

Excellent results are obtained. Good loading (37.3 g/L), good purity and good yield (>99% purity @ 80% yield; >98.5 % purity @ 95% yield) are all obtained at the same time in this example where a small "analytical-type" column is used. This illustrates the power of optimized reversed-phase displacement chromatography.

Example 2: Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude Angiotensin I Using Displacer 14 - Lower Loading at Higher Concentration (see Figure 2 - analysis) Operating Conditions:

Starting Peptide: Desalted crude synthetic Angiotensin I, 82.7% purity, FW ~ 1 .296 mg/ mole,

charge = +4

Column: Waters Xbridge BEH130, 5 μηη, 135 A, 4.6 x 250 mm SS, -(_½ on silica Flow-Rates: Loading = 208 L/min; Displacement =208 L/min

Ion-Pairing Agent: Trifluoroacetate (CF3CO2^")

Temperature: 23°C

pH: 2.0

w/ NH₄OH

Loading Buffer: 12 mM TFA in water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Sample Solution: 24.0 mg/mL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 140 mM

Load Amount: 109.3 mg, 4.56 mL from 5 mL loop

Loading Time: 21 .9 min. (0.37 hr)

Fraction Size: 458 μί Results:

Fraction Analysis: Fractions diluted (20 μί sample + 40 μί loading buffer) and analyzed (25 _ML

injection) by analytical elution HPLC at 215 nm; calculations based on area %.

Total Run Time: 5.9 hr

Output Concentration: 3.30 mg/mL

Column Loading: 50.1 % of maximum capacity

Column Capacity: -52.5 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 3.30 mg peptide/mL solution

-167 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution Purity %: 99.1 % 99.0% 98.9% 98.8%

Yield %: 80% 85% 90% 95%

Comments: Sample Cone/Output Cone. =7.3

Amount CF3CO2^" in sample = 1 .9 times stoichiometric. Good results are obtained with moderate loading (26.3 g/L), good purity and good yield (>99% purity @ 85% yield; >98.5 % purity @ 95% yield) using a small "analytical-type" column. Total run-time is shortened (5.9 hr) because sample loading time is shortened (2.84 hr to 0.37 hr). Similar results at -70% sample loading give inferior purities (data not shown) so loading percentage is reduced to about 50% at which point purity levels are improved. These data show that lower percent column loading can effectively compensate for reduced resolution caused by loading the sample at concentrations that are too high (7.3 X). Thus, there is a tradeoff if high purity and high yield are to be maintained: (a) higher sample loading and longer time or lower sample loading and shorter time. For some samples that contain easy to remove impurities, high sample loading and shorter time can still lead to high purity and high yield.

Example 3: Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude Angiotensin I Using Displacer 413 - Different Displacer with "Lower Binding-Isotherm" (see Figure 3 - analysis)

Operating Conditions:

Starting Peptide: Desalted crude synthetic Angiotensin I, 82.7% purity, FW ~ 1 .296 mg/ mole, charge = +4

Column: Waters Xbridge BEH130, 5 μηη, 135 A, 4.6 x 250 mm SS, -C ₈ on silica Flow-Rates: Loading = 208 L/min; Displacement =208 L/min

Ion-Pairing Agent: Trifluoroacetate (CF₃CO₂ ^~)

Temperature: 23°C

pH: 2.0

Displacer Buffer: 10.0 mM Displacer 413 + 12 mM CF₃CO₂H in Dl water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0

w/ NH₄OH

Loading Buffer: 12 mM TFA in water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Sample Solution: 7.27 mg/mL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 43 mM

Load Amount: 160.7 mg, 22.1 mL from 30 mL loop

Loading Time: 106.3 min. (1 .77 hr)

Fraction Size: 312 μί

Results:

Fraction Analysis: Fractions diluted (10 μί sample + 40 μί loading buffer) and analyzed (25 μί injection) by analytical elution HPLC at 215 nm; calculations based on area %. Total Run Time: 5.6 hr

Output Concentration: 5.38 mg/mL

Column Loading: 66.7% of maximum capacity Column Capacity: -58.0 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 5.38 mg peptide/mL solution

~1 15 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution Purity %: 99.1 % 99.0% 98.9% 98.8%

Yield %: 80% 85% 90% 95%

Comments: Sample Cone/Output Conc.=1 .3

Amount CF3CO2^" in sample = 1 .9 times stoichiometric.

Excellent results results are obtained with good loading (38.7 g/L), excellent purity and excellent yield (>99% purity @ 85% yield; >98.5 % purity @ 95% yield) using a small "analytical-type" column. Run-time is shortened (5.6 hr) because both sample loading time and displacement time are shortened owing to the higher sample loading and higher operating concentrations which are, in turn, caused by the "lower binding- isotherm" of Displacer 413. In this example, the same column and same peptide is used, but the displacer is changed (compare Example 1 b). These results show that equally good purities and yields are obtained when working higher on the binding- isotherms of the product and impurities. Because less Displacer 413 is needed to saturate the column at 10 mM (1 15 vs 167 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix), the peptide comes off the column at higher concentration (5.38 vs 3.19 mg/mL), and the experiment operates higher on the peptide binding-isotherm (58.0 vs 52.5 mg peptide/mL matrix).

Example 4: Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude Angiotensin I Using Displacer 14 - Different Reversed-Phase Column (see Figure 4 - analysis)

Operating Conditions:

Column: Varian/Polymer Labs PLRP-S, 5 μηη, 100 A, 4.6 x 250 mm SS, uncoated porous

polystyrene/divinylbenzene

Flow-Rates: Loading = 208 L/min; Displacement =208 L/min

Ion-Pairing Agent: Trifluoroacetate (CF₃CO₂ ^~)

Temperature: 23°C

pH: 2.0

Displacer Buffer: 10.0 mM Displacer 14 + 12 mM CF₃CO₂H in Dl water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Loading Buffer: 12 mM TFA in water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Sample Solution: 3.50 mg/mL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 22 mM

CF3CO2^"; pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Load Amount: 1 16.0 mg, 33.2 mL from 40 mL loop Loading Time: 159.4 min. (2.66 hr)

Fraction Size: 458 μΙ_

Results:

Fraction Analysis: Fractions diluted (30 μΙ_ sample + 20 μΙ_ loading buffer) and analyzed (25 μΙ_ injection) by analytical elution HPLC at 215 nm; calculations based on area %.

Total Run Time: 9.7 hr

Output Concentration: 1 .86 mg/mL

Column Loading: 73.2% of maximum capacity

Column Capacity: -38.1 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 1 .86 mg peptide/mL solution

-212 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution Purity %: 98.2% 98.0% 97.8% 97.5%

Yield %: 60% 75% 80% 90%

Comments: Sample Cone/Output Cone. =2.0

Amount CF3CO2^" in sample = 2.0 times stoichiometric.

Good results are obtained with low-to-moderate loading (27.9 g/L), moderate purity and reasonable yield (>97.5% purity @ 90% yield) using a small "analytical-type" column. This example is designed to show a side-by-side comparison of two columns using the same peptide and same displacer (compare Example 1 b). Generally speaking, the results for the polystyrene column are good, but not as good as those for the C-i₈-on- silica column. Total run time is somewhat longer, column binding capacity is lower and final purity is somewhat lower (97.5% vs 98.5-99.0%). By adjusting the type of displacer, its concentration and the ion-pairing agent (data not shown), total run-times are shortened, and binding capacities are increased approaching those for the C-i₈-on- silica columns. However, product purities largely remain about the same as this run on the polystyrene column. These results generally correspond to data from preparative elution chromatography that suggest that polystyrene columns give reduced

chromatographic resolution compared to Ci₈-on-silica columns.

Example 5: Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude a-Melanotropin Using Displacer 318 - Different Peptide and Different Displacer (see Figure 5 - analysis)

Operating Conditions:

Starting Peptide: Desalted crude synthetic a-Melanotropin, 80.8% purity, FW - 1 .665 mg^mole, charge = +3 Column: Waters Xbridge BEH130, 5 μηη, 135 A, 4.6 x 250 mm SS, -(_½ on silica Flow-Rates: Loading = 208 L/min; Displacement =208 L/min

Ion-Pairing Agent: Trifluoroacetate (CF3CO2^")

Temperature: 23°C

pH: 2.0

Displacer Buffer: 10.0 mM Displacer 318 + 12 mM CF₃CO₂H in Dl water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Loading Buffer: 12 mM TFA in water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Sample Solution: 9.04 mg/mL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 33 mM

CF3CO2^"; pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Load Amount: 216.2 mg, 23.9 mL from 30 mL loop

Loading Time: 1 15.0 min.

Fraction Size: 312 μί Results:

Fraction Analysis: Fractions diluted (10 μί sample + 50 μί loading buffer) and analyzed (25 μί injection) by analytical elution HPLC at 215 nm; calculations based on area %.

Total Run Time: 6.2 hr

Output Concentration: 6.52 mg/mL

Column Loading: 66.7% of maximum capacity

Column Capacity: -79.3 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 6.52 mg peptide/mL solution

-129 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution Purity %: 99.1 % 99.0% 98.9% 98.8%

Yield %: 80% 85% 90% 95%

Comments: Sample Cone/Output Conc.=1 .4

Amount CF₃CO₂ ^" in sample = 2.0 times stoichiometric amount.

Excellent results are obtained with good loading (52.0 g/L), good purity and good yield (>99% purity @ 85% yield; >98.5 % purity @ 95% yield) using small "analytical- type" column. This example is designed to show a side-by-side comparison (see Example 1 b) on the same column (C-i₈-on-silica) using a different peptide and a different displacer. a-Melanotropin has a higher intrinsic binding capacity, and less Displacer 318 is needed to saturate the column (129 vs 167 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL). Both of these factors together lead to a higher binding capacity for the peptide (79.3 vs 52.4 g peptide/L matrix), yet the displacement train sharpens nicely giving both high purity and high yield. Example 6a: Example Protocol and Displacement Train. Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude Synthetic a-Endorphin

Equipment Configuration: Main Pump(1 ) with 4 solvent lines, Sample Loading Pump(2) with 2 solvent lines, Pump Selector Valve

Pump Selector Valve: 6-port valve controlled by single-channel toggle logic (S3=0, Pumpl to column-Pump2 to waste, S3=1 Pumpl to waste-Pump2 to column)

UV photodiode array detector after column (flow-cell: 0.5 mm pathlength, 9 DL volume) followed by conductivity detector (flow-cell: 170 DL volume).

Loading Buffer=A-Line on Pumpl (S1 =1 , flow on, S1 =0 flow off); Displacer Buffer=B- Line on Pump 1 (S2=1 , flow on, S2=0 flow off); Displacer Removal Buffer=

C- Line on Pumpl (S4=1 , flow on, S4=0 flow off); Column Storage Buffer=D-Line on Pumpl (S5=1 , flow on, S5=0 flow off); Loading Buffer=A-Line on Pump2

(S6=1 , flow on, S6=0, flow off); Sample Solution=B-Line on Pump2 (S7=1 , flow on, S7=0 flow off).

See Example 12b for description of column, details about initial sample and contents of Loading Buffer / Displacer Buffer / Sample Solution.

Flow- Control Flow-

Time Rate- 1 Switches Rate-2 Pump 1 Pump 2

(mm.) (mL/min) 1234567 (mL/min) Operations - Functions Operations - Functions Comments Volumes

0.00 4.909 1010010 1.061 purge Buffer A to waste Buffer A to column Purqe Svstem (A-line) 1 ,.5 min.

5 1.50 4.909 0010110 1.061 purge Buffer D to waste purge D-line (0.37 CV Buffer D to waste)

3.00 4.909 001 1010 1.016 purge Buffer C to waste purge C-line (0.50 CV Buffer A to wasste)

5.00 4.909 0001010 1.016 Buffer C to column ourae Buffer A to waste Start ore-equilibration (2.0 CV Buffer C to column)

10 5.50 4.909 0001010 1.016 continue

5.52 4.909 0001010 0.000 flow-rate=0.000

13.00 4.909 1000010 0.000 Buffer A to column equilibrate Buffer A (3.0 CV Buffer A)

24.98 4.909 1000010 0.000 continue

25.00 0.961 1000010 0.000 flow-rate=0.961 equilibrate Buffer A (1.03 CV Buffer A)

15 42.98 0.961 1000010 0.000 continue

43.00 0.961 1000001 1.016 purge Sample to waste purge Sample to waste

46.00 0.961 1010001 1.016 purge Buffer A to waste load Sample to column Start Sample load-Pump2

46.10 0.010 1010001 1.016 set flow-rate to 0.010 slow purge Pumpl

243.98 0.010 1010001 1.016

20 246.80 0.961 0110001 1.016 purge Buffer B to waste purge B-line (4.0 mL Buffer B)

251.00 0.961 0100001 1.016 B-buffer to column ourae Sample to waste Start Displacement-Pumpl (17.96 CV Buffer B)

251.50 0.961 0100010 1.016 purge Buffer A to waste wash Pump2 6.1 mL Buffer A to waste)

257.00 0.961 0100010 1.016 continue

257.02 0.961 0100010 0.000 stop flow-Pump2

25 257.04 0.961 0100000 0.000 close valves-Pump2 stop Pump2

618.00 0.961 0100000 0.000 continue

618.02 3.682 1000000 0.000 Buffer A to column Start Reqeneration-Pumpl (0.5 CV Buffer A slow flow)

620.72 3.681 0000100 0.000 Buffer D to column (0.5 CV Buffer D slow flow)

623.40 3.682 0001000 0.000 Buffer C to column (1.8 CV Buffer C slow flow)

30 633.00 3.682 0001000 0.000 continue

633.02 4.909 0001000 0.000 flow-rate=4.909 (7.5 CV Buffer C fast flow)

663.00 4.909 0000100 0.000 start storage buffer D (8.5 CV Buffer D fast flow)

696.96 4.909 0000100 0.000 continue storage D-buffer

696.98 0.000 0000100 0.000 stop flow

35 697.00 0.000 0000000 0.000 close all valves Stop Pumpl

Example 6b: Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude Synthetic a- Endorphin Using Displacer 198 - Larger Particles, Larger Columns and Lower Initial Purity (See Figure 6b(a)A - displacement trace; Figure 6b(a)B - analysis) Operating Conditions:

Starting Peptide: Desalted crude synthetic a-Endorphin, 64.3% purity, FW ~ 1 .746 mg/pnnole, charge = +2 all on -Ci₈ on silica

Column: 6b(a): Waters Xbridge BEH130, 5 μπτι, 135 A, 10.0 x 250 mm SS, -(_½ on silica

6b(b): Waters Xbridge BEH130, 10 pm, 135 A, 10.0 x 250 mm SS, -Ci₈ on silica

6b(c): Waters Xbridge BEH130, 10 μπτι, 135 A, 10.0 x 500 (2 x 250) mm SS, - C-I8 on silica

Flow-Rates: Loading = 1016 L/min; Displacement =961 L/min for all three experiments.

Ion-Pairing Agent: Trifluoroacetate (CF₃CO₂ ^~)

Temperature: 23°C

pH: 2.0

Displacer Buffer: 10.0 mM Displacer 198 + 12 mM CF₃CO₂H in Dl water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0

Loading Buffer: 12 mM TFA in water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Sample Solution:

(a) 5.59 mg/mL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 26 mM CF₃CO₂ ^"; pH=2.0

(b) 5.59 mg/mL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 26 mM CF₃CO₂ ^"; pH=2.0

(c) 1 1 .18 mg/mL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 52 mM CF₃CO₂ ^"; pH=2.0

Load Amount:

(a) 1 164 mg, 208.3 mL from loading pump; Loading Time = 205.0 min.

(b) 1 164 mg, 208.3 mL from loading pump; Loading Time = 205.0 min. (3.42 hr)

(c) 2329 mg, 208.3 mL from loading pump; Loading Time = 205.0 min. (3.42 hr)

Fraction Sizes: (a) 1 .49 mL (b) 1 .49 mL (c) 2.98 mL Results-6b(a) (see Figures 6b(a)A and 6b(a)B)

Fraction Analysis: Fractions diluted (10 μί sample + 40 μί loading buffer) and analyzed (25 μί injection) by analytical elution HPLC at 215 nm; calculations based on area %.

Total Run Time: 8.9 hr

Output Concentration: 5.47 mg/mL Column Loading: 70.5% of maximum capacity

Column Capacity: -84.1 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 5.47 mg peptide/mL solution

-161 μιτιοΐθ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution Purity %: 98.8% 98.7% 98.5% 98.2%

Yield %: 80% 85% 90% 95%

Results-6b(b) (no Figure):

Total Run Time: 9.1 hr

Output Concentration: 5.27 mg/mL

Column Loading: 71 .3% of maximum capacity

Column Capacity: -83.2 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 5.27 mg peptide/mL solution

-165 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution

Purity %: 98.2% 98.1 % 97.9% 97.5%

Yield %: 80% 85% 90% 95%

Results-6b(c) (no Figure):

Fraction Analysis: Fractions diluted (10 μί sample + 40 μί loading buffer) and analyzed (25 μί injection) by analytical elution HPLC at 215 nm; calculations based on area %

Total Run Time: 14.5 hr

Output Concentration: 5.41 mg/mL

Column Loading: 70.7% of maximum capacity

Column Capacity: -83.7 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 5.41 mg peptide/mL solution

-162 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution Purity %: 98.8% 98.7% 98.5% 98.2%

Yield %: 80% 85% 90% 95%

Comments: Sample Cone/Output Cone: 1 .0 (6b(a)); 1 .1 (6b(b)); 2.1 (6b(c)). Amount CF₃CO₂ ^" in sample = 4.0 times stoichiometric amount (6b(a), 6b(c) & 6b(c)).

Excellent results are obtained from all three runs with good loading (59.2- 59.3 g/L), high purities and good yields (>98.5% purity @ 90% yield) using

"semiprep-type" columns with both 5 μηη and 10 μιτι particle sizes. Percent loadings (70.5-71 .3%) and output concentrations (5.27-5.47 mg/mL) are uniform and reproducible. These examples illustrate power and utility of optimized preparative displacement chromatography. (1 ) There is little difference in preparative resolution between 4.6 mm and 10.0 mm ID columns of the same length packed with the same reversed-phase matrix. (2) At 25 cm column length, both 5 μιτι and 10 μιτι matrices give good results with the 10 μιτι material giving slightly inferior resolution as demonstrated by slightly reduced purity (-0.6%). (3) At 50 cm column length, the 10 μιτι matrix regains full resolution; simple calculations suggest that a 30-40 cm bed length is sufficiently long. (4) Two well-packed columns properly attached end- to-end function effectively in displacement chromatography experiments. (5) The best pooled purity (98.8%) for a peptide (a-Endorphin) with 60+% initial purity is not much worse than the best pooled purity (99.1 %) for a peptide (Angiotensin I, a- Melanotropin) with 80+% initial purity. (6) In many cases, 1 .5-2.0 times the stoichiometric amount of ion-pairing agent is used in the sample loading solution with good results; however, with a-Endorphin, significantly better resolution is obtained with 3.5-4.0 times the stoichiometric amount of CF3CO2^".

Example 7: Displacement Chromatography Purification of Prepurified a- Endorphin Using Displacer 198 - Different Binding-Isotherms Lead to

Improved Purity (see Figure 7 - analysis)

Operating Conditions:

Starting Peptide: Prepurified a-Endorphin, 98.4% purity, FW ~ 1 .746 mg^mole, charge = +2

Column: Waters Xbridge BEH130, 5 μπτι, 135 A, 4.6 x 250 mm SS, -C₆Ph on silica Flow-Rates: Loading = 208 μί/ηηίη; Displacement =208 L/nriin

Ion-Pairing Agent: Trifluoroacetate (CF₃CO₂ ^~); Temperature: 23°C

pH: 2.0

Displacer Buffer: 10.0 mM Displacer 198 + 12 mM CF₃CO₂H in Dl water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Loading Buffer: 12 mM TFA in water w/ 3% (v/v) MeCN, pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Sample Solution: 5.26 mg/mL peptide in water with 3% (v/v) MeCN and 21 mM CF3CO2^"; pH=2.0 w/ NH₄OH

Load Amount: 158.9 mg, 30.2 mL from 40 mL loop

Loading Time: 145.2.0 min.

Fraction Size: 437 μί

Results:

Fraction Analysis: Fractions diluted (15 μί sample + 35 μί loading buffer) and analyzed (25 μί injection) by analytical elution HPLC at 215 nm; calculations based on area %.

Total Run Time: 7.3 hr

Output Concentration: 3.85 mg/mL

Column Loading: 71 .1 % of maximum capacity

Column Capacity: -53.8 mg peptide/mL matrix @ 3.85 mg peptide/mL solution

-147 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL matrix @ 10.0 μιτιοΐβ displacer/mL solution

Purity %: 99.6% 99.6% 99.6% 99.5%

Yield %: 80% 85% 90% 95%

Comments: Sample Cone/Output Conc.=1 .3

Amount CF₃CO₂ ^" in sample = 3.6 times stoichiometric amount.

Excellent results are obtained with good loading (38.3 g/L), excellent purity and excellent yield (>99.5% purity @ 95% yield) using a small "analytical-type" column. This example is designed to show how purifying a prepurified sample under suitable conditions can efficiently lead to high purity peptides. (1 ) The sum of the impurities drops significantly from 1 .6% to 0.4-0.5% with minimal loss (5-10%) in product. (2) The reduction in impurities is primarily caused by changes in binding- isotherms of product and impurities, not by improved resolution of the column. In the starting material, the 1 .6% impurity is composed of 12 minor impurities 8 of which are effectively removed during this purification. The levels of the remaining 4 co-displacing components are somewhat reduced during the purification. (3) Because co-displacement of the 4 remaining impurity is the principal factor limiting final purity, the purity profile is nearly invariant from 60% recovery to 95% recovery. (4) The success of this purification results from the choice of a phenylhexyl column with different binding-isotherms. An attempt to carry out a similar displacement chromatography purification of the same sample on an octaadecyl (Ci₈) column failed to yield significant improvement (data not shown). This is likely the case because the octadecyl column is used to purify the sample from crude material in the first step. (5) These results show that two back-to-back displacement

purifications can routinely lead to high-yield production of high-purity peptides.

Example 8: Displacement Chromatography Purification of Crude Angiotensin I Using Displacer 14 - Using different ion-pairing anions, concentrations and mixtures

All operating conditions for the seven experiments in Example 7 are the same except that the counter-ion for the displacer and the added amounts of ion- pairing anion (acid). In all cases, the operating pH is the same (pH=2.0). In order to reduce the amount of analytical work, comparative purity data is given for a pool of the center 15 fractions. Because the level of co-displacement is nearly invariant across the major displacement band for a given displacement experiment, analytical data from this method of pooling gives representative and comparable results.

Results:

Center-cut

Displacer Buffer Load Buffer Sample Soln. Purity

A^a 10 mM [D][CF₃CO₂]

+ 12 mM CF3CO2H 12 mM CF3CO2H 27 mM CF₃CO₂H

B 10 mM [D][Br]

+ 12 mM HBr 12 mM HBr 27 mM HBr 99.0% C 10 mM [D][CI]

+ 12 mM HCI 12 mM HCI 27 mM HCI 98.6%

D 10 mM [D][Br]

+ 12 mM CF3CO2H 12 mM CF3CO2H 27 mM CF₃CO₂H

E 10 mM [D][CI]

+ 12 mM CF3CO2H 12 mM CF3CO2H 27 mM CF₃CO₂H

F 10 mM [D][CI]

+ 24 mM CF3CO2H 24 mM CF3CO2H 27 mM CF₃CO₂H

G 10 mM [D][CI]

+ 6 mM CF3CO2H 6 mM CF3CO2H 27 mM CF₃CO₂H

Note: a) Example 1

Comments:

Generally good results are obtained under most conditions except experiment "G". There are clear results from this study regarding types, mixtures and levels of ion-pairing anions.

1 . Trifluoroacetate-only (A) and bromide-only (B) experiments yield similar results (0.9-1 .0% impurity) while those for the chloride-only (C) experiment gives higher impurity levels (1 .4% inpurity). Thus, trifluoroacetate and bromide are better ion-pairing agents than chloride.

2. Mixed trifluoroacetate-chloride (E, F) experiments give about the same

impurity levels as trifluoroacetate-only experiments as long as enough trifluoroacetate is present (0.9-1 .0% impurity). In contrast, the mixed trifluoroacetate-bromide (D) experiment gives worse results; the impurity level increases from 0.9% to 1 .9%. While trifluoroacetate-only (A) and bromide-only (B) experiments give good results, the mixture of anions does not. Apparently, a mixture of two ion-pairing anions of similar (but no the same) ion-pairing strength interfere with each other resulting in band broadening and higher impurity levels. The presence two ion-pairing anions of significantly different ion-pairing strength results in the stronger one dominating (as long there is enough of it present) and lower impurity levels result. 3. The worst results (G) are obtained when two ion-pairing agents are present (CI^", CF₃CO₂ ^") and the stronger one is present in substiochiometric amounts. This results in "double-banding" where the displacer and many components of the mixture come off the column as two bands, the first one as the chloride salt and the second as the trifluoroacetate salt. This leads to significant band broadening and overlap of each double-banded component thereby increasing the overall impurity level from 0.9% to 3.3%. Adding insufficient amounts of trifluoroacetate (stronger ion-pairing anion) gives worse results than having no trifluoroacetate at all (3.3% impurity vs 1 .4% impurity).

Adding higher levels of trifluoroacetate in excess of the stoichiometric amount causes the impurity levels to decrease again (3.3% to 0.9%).

4. Note that the above results apply only to the levels of trifluoroacetate (ion- pairing anion) in the displacer buffer. There was sufficient trifluoroacetate in the sample loading solution. When there is a deficiency of trifluoroacetate in the sample solution, impurity levels become even higher (data not shown).

Example 9: HPLC Analyses -

Methods 9a, 9b - Reversed-Phase for Cations: Analyses were carried out using Waters Corp. (Milford, MA) gradient HPLC equipped with a Waters 996 PDA detector in tandem with a Dionex ESA Biosciences (Chelmsford, MA) Corona Plus

CAD detector and a Waters Xbridge BEH130, 5 μπτι, 135 A, 4.6 x 250 mm SS, -C ₈ on silica, reversed-phase chromatography column (Chelmsford, MA).

Sample Injection: 25 μί of ~1 mM sample solution in A buffer

UV detection: 208-220 nm depending on compounds to be analyzed

Flow-Rate: 1 .0 mL/min.

A buffer: 5% CH₃CN (v/v) in HPLC-grade dist. water with 0.1 % (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid.

B buffer: 5% H₂O (v/v) in HPLC-grade CH₃CN with 0.1 % (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid. Survey Gradient Method: 100%A 0-2 min

100%A to 100%B 2-62 min

100%B 62-70 min Analytical Gradient Method 0-2 min

10%B to 50%B 2-57 min

50%B to 100%B 57-62 min

100%B 62-67 min

Method 9c - Reversed-Phase for Long-Chain Alkyl Halides:

Sample Injection: 25 μΙ_ of -1 mM sample solution in A buffer

UV detection: 200-220 nm depending on compounds to be analyzed

Flow-Rate: 1 .0 mL/min.

A buffer: 5% CH₃CN (v/v) in HPLC-grade distilled water with 0.1 % (v/v)

trifluoroacetic acid.

B buffer: 5% H₂O (v/v) in HPLC-grade CH₃CN with 0.1 % (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid. Gradient Method: 50%A/50%B 0-2 min

50% A/50% B to 100%B 2-62 min

100%B 62-70 min

Example 10: Preparation of N-Decylpyrrolidine (fw=21 1 .39).

426.7 g Freshly distilled pyrrolidine (6.0 mole, fw=71 .12, -500 mL) is added to 500 mL stirring acetonitrile in a 2 L 4-neck round-bottom flask that is equipped with a heating mantle, mechanical stirrer, 500 mL addition funnel, reflux condensor and teflon-coated thermocouple. The reaction is carried out under a nitrogen atmosphere with a slow N₂ purge. 442.4 g Freshly distilled 1 -bromodecane (2.0 mole, fw=221 .19, -415 mL) is added to the stirring mixture in a dropwise fashion at such a rate that the reaction exotherm maintains the reaction temperature in the range 45-55°C. Under these conditions, the bromodecane addition requires about 2 hours. After the entire bromodecane is added and the reaction temperature drops below 45°C, the stirring reaction mixture is heated to 80°C for 1 hr and then allowed cool. The reaction mixture is periodically monitored by HPLC (Method 10g) in order to ensure that the bromodecane is entirely consumed. During the reaction, a less dense upper layer of the product begins to form that increases in volume as the reaction mixture cools to ambient temperature. Upon cooling as the reaction temperature reaches about 50°C, 100 mL distilled water is added portionwise to the stirring mixture in order to facilitate phase separation and prevent crystallization of pyrrolidine hydrobromide. When the reaction temperature is below 30°C, it is transferred to a 2 L separatory funnel and allowed to stand for about 3 hours in order to allow for full phase separation. The upper phase is retained in the funnel, 1 .0 L 10% w/w NaOH in distilled water is added, the mixture is thoroughly mixed and then allowed to settle overnight. The phases are separated, the upper product phase is retained, 1 .0 L 1 % w/w NaOH in distilled water is added, the mixture is through mixed and then allowed again to settle overnight. The phases are separated, and the upper product phase is placed in a beaker along with 80 g anhydrous magnesium sulfate powder. The viscous mixture is manually mixed for about 15 minutes and then filtered through fine-porosity sintered-glass filter. Once, the product is filtered, the magnesium sulfate is washed with a small amount of n- pentane and then filtered. The pentane solution is combined with the filtered product and placed on a rotary evaporator. Most of the volatile components

(pentane, residual acetonitrile, pyrrolidine, water) are removed under reduced pressure. Using the rotary evaporator, the viscous product is stirred and heated (70°C, glycol-water bath) under vacuum (~10 torr) overnight (18 hr) while the volatiles are trapped at liquid N₂ temperature. Finally, the mixture is again stirred and heated overnight on a vacuum-line (0.5 torr, 100°C) to remove the last traces of volatiles. This procedure yields 399 g (94%) of a pale yellow viscous liquid with a purity of 99.0-99.6% (GC, HPLC). This material is sufficiently pure for most applications. If needed, this material is distilled (1 18-122°C, 3 torr) giving a 90% distillation yield of a colorless liquid (99.8% purity).

This is a clean reaction that produces pure product if the starting secondary amine and primary alkyl halide are themselves pure . Primary alkyl chlorides function quite well in this reaction, and the reaction time needs to be slightly extended for complete reaction. This reaction is also successfully carried out using various secondary amines: 50% aqueous dimethylamine, N-methylethylamine, diethylamine, di-n-propylamine, di-n-butylamine, pyrrolidine, piperidine, N- methylbenzylamine, N-ethylbenzylamine, N-methylaniline while using various ⁿCs- ⁿCi₂ alkyl halides. For the above reaction, a ratio of 1 :3 is chosen to minimize the production of the didecyl pyrrolidinium bromide byproduct. The excess secondary amine can be regenerated and recycled by addition of inorganic base (NaOH pellets, 50% aqueous NaOH, LiOH, anhydrous Na₂CO3, Na3PO₄) to the spent reaction mixture in order to regenerate the free amine followed by distillation to recover the amine or amine/solvent mixture.

Example 11 : Preparation of N-(4-Fluorobenzyl)-N-decylpyrrolidinium Chloride

(fw=355.97)

380.5 g Purified N-decylpyrrolidine (1 .8 mole, fw=21 1 .39) is added to 720 ml_ stirring acetonitrile in a 2 L, 4-neck round-bottom flask that is equipped with a heating mantle, mechanical stirrer, 500 ml_ addition funnel, reflux condensor and teflon-coated thermocouple. The reaction is carried out under a nitrogen

atmosphere with a slow N₂ purge. The stirring mixture is heated to 50°C, and 289.1 g freshly distilled 4-fluorobenzyl chloride (2.0 mole, fw=144.58) is added in a dropwise fashion over a period of about 60 minutes. The reaction mixture is then heated to about 80°C for 8-12 hours and periodically monitored by HPLC (Method 10a) in order to ensure that the starting amine is entirely consumed. The reaction mixture is cooled to room temperature, filtered through sintered-glass and placed on a rotary evaporator to remove the solvent (acetonitrile). 1 .0 L Methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE) is added portionwise with mechanical stirring to the sticky orange-yellow reaction residue. Once this mixture is fully suspended in the solvent, it is

transferred to a clean 4 L Erienmeyer flask, and an additional amount of MTBE (1 .9 L) is slowly added with stirring. The mixture is allowed to stand at ambient temperature overnight, filtered through a large sintered-glass filter, twice washed with MTBE and then dried by passing dry N₂ through the product. Note: this crystalline substance is very hygroscopic and rapidly absorbs moisture from the air turning white crystals into a puddle of colorless liquid within a few minutes. Thus, ordinary filtrations are difficult and should be carried out in a dry-box or under a blanket of dry N₂ or dry air. The product is finally dried in a vacuum oven (55°C, 20 torr, 3 hr; 95°C, 20 torr, 15 hr), cooled and stored in a sealed container in a desiccator over P2O5. This procedure yields about 576 g (90%) of a white crystalline product (platelets) with >99% purity. A sharp melting point in a glass capillary is measured at 137-138 °C when measured between 90-140 °C at the heating rate of 1 .0 °C/minute. This compound appears to exist in multiple

polymorphic crystalline forms with different melting points. This crystallized material from acetonitrile/MTBE forms crystals that will melt at or below 120°C, recrystallize and remelt at about 137°C. Slow heating seems to promote thermal interconversion of polymorphs. If allowed to age long enough at 90°C (several days), the material is converted to the higher melting form. Note that the apparent melting points are significantly lowered by the presence of small amounts of moisture.

Recrystallization is accomplished using hot DME/MTBE. 100 g of the above product is dissolved in 450 g hot (~75°C) peroxide-free 1 ,2-dimethoxyethane (DME) and quickly filtered through a sintered glass filter into a clean 1 L filter-flask. 55 g hot DME is used to wash the filter. The arm of the filter flask is plugged, and the mixture in the flask is heated to about 75°C and then allowed to cool to about 50°C. About 270 g MTBE is then added to the stirring mixture, and the mixture is briefly heated again to 50°C. The flask is then covered, and the warm solution is allowed to cool to room temperature undisturbed. Within three hours at ambient

temperature copious amounts of large, white platelets crystallize from solution. Finally, the mixture is allowed to stand at 4°C overnight (15-18 hr) in order to complete the crystallization. Taking proper precautions to protect from atmospheric moisture (see above), the cold mixture is filtered through a sintered-glass filter, twice washed with MTBE (ambient temperature) and dried on the filter as above. The product is again dried in a vacuum oven overnight, cooled and stored in a sealed container in a desiccator over P2O5. This procedure yields about 76 g (76%) of the white, crystalline salt (99.7-99.9% purity by HPLC). The filtrate solution contains substantial amounts of pure product. The solvent is completely removed, and the white residue is recrystallized again using the same method or combined with the next batch of product for recrystallization. Overall yield of recrystallization is 87-95%. Example 12: Preparation of N-(4-Fluorobenzyl)-N-decylpyrrolidinium

Hydroxide (fw=337.53)

178 g Recrystallized N-(4-fluorobenzyl)-N-decylpyrrolidinium chloride (500 mmole, fw=355.97) is dissolved in 445 mL degassed, deionized water under a CO2- free, N₂ atmosphere in a polypropylene flask. 61 .4 g Silver (I) oxide (265 mmole, fw=231 .74) is added to the solution, and it is vigorously stirred with a mechanical polypropylene propeller at room temperature for 48 hours. The mixture is filtered through a polypropylene filter/felt in a polypropylene Buechner filter into a

polypropylene receiving flask under a blanket of nitrogen gas. The water-clear solution is placed on a rotary evaporator, and the water is partially removed under vacuum over a period of 36-48 hours while the product (viscous liquid) is

maintained at about 50°C using an external heating bath. Acid-Base titration (hydroxide) and HPLC analysis (cation) show the final solution to contain about 41 % of the quat hydroxide; atomic absorption shows residual CI^" to be less than 2 ppm. The solution is stored at ambient temperature in a sealed, clean, polypropylene container. Yield is nearly quantitative.

Modifications: This method is generally applicable to most quaternary ammonium chloride/bromide salts described here. Compounds that have base-sensitive groups (alcohols, amides, esters etc), of course, are often unstable as hydroxide salts. Stable quaternary ammonium salts are also converted to hydroxide salts using other methods such as ion-exchange, electrolysis or electrodialysis.

Example 13: Preparation of N-(4-Fluorobenzyl)-N-decylpyrrolidinium

Trifluoroacetate (fw=433.53)

Method A. 35.6 g Purified and recrystallized N-(4-fluorobenzyl)-N- decyl pyrrol id inium chloride (100 mmole, fw=355.97) is placed in a 100 mL separatory funnel followed by 35.6 g degassed, deionized water. The flask is shaken until a clear, viscous solution is formed (~1 .5 M solution). 17.1 g

Trifluoroacetic acid (150 mmole, fw=1 14.02) is added to the mixture which is vigorously mixed. Immediately two phases form which fully separate after 60 minutes. The quat trifluoroacetate is contained in the lower layer, and the water, HCI and excess CF₃CO₂H is in the upper layer. The layers are separated, the product in the lower layer is placed on a rotary evaporator in order to remove the residual water, HCI and CF3CO2H under vacuum (bath temperature = 50°C, vacuum=20 torr). This procedure yields 40.8g (94%) of a pure, clear, viscous oil (ionic liquid). This material is suitable for use a displacer. HPLC purity of the quat cation is essentially identical to the starting material. Residual chloride content is about 1 mole% (chloride titration) and excess trifluoroacetate as free thfluoroacetic acid is 2-5 mole% (acid titration). A second extraction with equal weight of 30% (w/w) trifluoroacetic in water following the same procedure yields the same product with the same amount of residual trifluoroacetic acid but with chloride content reduced to <0.1 mole%. While the solubility of the trifluoroacetate (TFA) salt (-120 mM) in pure water is lower than the solubility of the chloride salt (2.0 M), the TFA salt is nonetheless adequately soluble for displacer use (10-50 mM).

Method B. This is a modification of Method A based on the partitioning behavior in a two-phase diethyl ether-water extraction . The quat chloride salt strongly partitions into the water layer while the quat trifluoroacetate salt strongly partitions into the ether layer. 53.4 g Purified and recrystallized N-(4-fluorobenzyl)- N-decylpyrrolidinium chloride (150 mmole, fw=355.97) is placed in a 250 mL separatory funnel followed by 53.4 g degassed, deionized water. The flask is shaken until a clear, viscous solution is formed (~1 .5 M solution). 25.6 g

Trifluoroacetic (225 mmole, fw=1 14.02) is added to the mixture which is vigorously mixed. Immediately two phases form with the product in the lower layer. 1 10 mL peroxide-free diether ether is added to the separatory funnel and the mixture is vigorously mixed again. After 2 hours, the phases fully separate with the product in the upper ether phase. The lower phase is discarded and the upper is retained. 55 mL 1 % trifluoroacetic acid in distilled water is added, the mixture is vigorously mixed and phases are again allowed to separate. Again, the upper phase is retained, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and placed on a rotary evaporator in order to remove the ether along with residual HCI, trifluoroacetic acid and water. This procedure yields 59.2g (91 %) of a pure, clear, viscous oil (ionic liquid). This material is suitable for use as a displacer. HPLC purity of the quat cation is essentially identical to the starting material. Residual chloride content is <0.1 mole% (chloride titration) and excess trifluoroacetate as free trifluoroacetic acid is 1 - 3 mole% (acid titration).

Method C. 35.6 g Purified and recrystallized N-(4-fluorobenzyl)-N- decyl pyrrol id inium chloride (100 mmole, fw=355.97) is dissolved in 75 mL distilled water in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask. 23.1 g Silver (I) trifluoroacetate (105 mmole, fw=220.88) and 100 mL peroxide-free diethyl ether are added to the solution, and it is vigorously stirred magnetically for 48 hours at room temperatue. The mixture is filtered in order to remove silver salts, the two liquid phases are separated, the upper product phase is dried and then filtered again. The ether solution is placed on a rotary evaporator in order to remove the ether along with residual water. This procedure yields 41 .2g (95%) of a pure, clear, viscous oil (ionic liquid). This material is suitable for use a displacer. HPLC purity of the quat cation is essential identically to that of the starting material. Residual chloride content is <0.01 mole%.

Method D. 84.6 g N-(4-Fluorobenzyl)-N-decylpyrrolidinium hydroxide solution (100 mmole, 39.9%, fw=337.53) is placed in a calibrated 1000 mL volumetric flask and about 800 mL CO₂-free distilled water is added and mixed. Without delay, trifluoroacetic acid (~1 1 .4 g, fw=1 14.2) is carefully added dropwise with stirring and pH-monitoring. When 95% of the acid has been added, small droplets of the acid are added one-at-a-time until the unbuffered endpoint (pH=5-8) is attained. Additional CO₂-free distilled water is added until the volume is exactly 1000 mL). This 100 mM stock solution is suitable for use a displacer.

A wide range of salts are readily prepared using this method including, formate, acetate, bromide, nitrate, iodide, methanesulfonate,

trifluoromethanesulfonate (triflate), trichloroacetate and perchlorate.

Method E. 84.6 g N-(4-Fluorobenzyl)-N-decylpyrrolidinium hydroxide solution (100 mmole, 39.9%, fw=337.53) and 100 mL peroxide-free diethyl ether are placed in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Without delay, the mixture is vigorously stirred magnetically, and trifluoroacetic acid (~1 1 .4 g, fw=1 14.2) is carefully added dropwise at an addition rate so that there is a minimal temperatue rise. The room- temperature mixture is separated into two liquid phases, the upper product phase is dried and filtered, the ether solution is placed on a rotary evaporator in order to remove the ether along with residual trifluoroacetic acid and water. This procedure yields 42.0 g (97%) of a pure, clear, viscous oil (ionic liquid). This material is suitable for use a displacer. HPLC purity of the quat cation is essential identical to the starting material. Residual chloride content is <0.01 mole%.

Method F. 38.1 g Purified N-decylpyrrolidine (0.18 mole, fw=21 1 .39) is added to 75 mL stirring acetonitrile in a 250 mL 4-neck round-bottom flask that is equipped with a heating mantle, magnetic stirrer, 50 mL addition funnel and reflux condensor. The reaction is carried out under a nitrogen atmosphere. The stirring mixture is warmed to about 50°C, and 44.4 g freshly distilled 4-fluorobenzyl trifluoroacetate⁴ (0.20 mole, fw=222.14) is added in a dropwise fashion over a period of about 60 minutes. The reaction mixture is then heated under refluxing conditions for about 24 hours hours and periodically monitored by HPLC in order to ensure that the starting amine is entirely consumed. The reaction mixture is cooled to room temperature, filtered through sintered-glass and placed on a rotary evaporator to remove the solvent (acetonitrile). 100 mL n-pentane is added portionwise with mechanical stirring to the yellow reaction residue. Once this mixture is fully mixed with the slovent, the upper layer is completely removed and discarded. To the oily product layer is added an equal volume of peroxide-free diethyl ether and throughly mixed. 100 mL n-Pentane is added, the mixture is thoroughly mixed and allowed to settle and the upper layer is separated and discarded. This trituration process with diethyl ether and pentane is repeated two more times in order to remove as much color and organic impurities as possible. Finally, the mixture is heated over night on a vacuum-line (0.5 torr, 80°C) to remove the last traces of volatiles. This procedure yields about 55 g (71 %) of a pale yellow, oily product with purity of 98.5-99.0% (HPLC). This oily product is easily purified using chromatography, but difficult to purify by other methods; for this reason, this method of preparation is less preferred.

Example 14: Preparation of N,N-Diheptyl-1 ,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolinium Bromide (fw=410.49) 48.0 g Freshly distilled 1 ,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (360 mmole, fw=133.19) and 49.1 g diisopropylethylamine (380 mmole, fw=129.25) are added to 120 ml_ acetonitrile in a 500 ml_, 3-neck, round-bottom flask that is equipped with a magnetic stirring bar, heating mantle, 250 ml_ addition funnel, reflux condenser and teflon-coated thermocouple. The reaction is carried out under a nitrogen

atmosphere with a slow N₂ purge. The stirring mixture is heated to 50°C, and 143.3 g freshly distilled 1 -bromoheptane (0.80 mole, fw=179.1 1 ) is added in a dropwise fashion over a period of about 60 minutes. The reaction mixture is then heated to about 80°C for 10-12 hours and periodically monitored by HPLC in order to ensure that the starting amine is entirely consumed. The reaction mixture is cooled to room temperature, and 50% aqueous sodium hydroxide is added dropwise with strong agitation. The pH of the aqueous layer is monitored with pH paper. When the mixture becomes sufficiently basic (-29 g NaOH), the lower aqueous phase is removed, and the organic solution is filtered and placed in a rotary evaporator in order to partially remove the volatile components (acetonitrile, water,

diisopropylethylamine) under vacuum. When the product begins to crystallize from solution, about 300 ml_ diethyl ether is added portionwise with stirring. The mixture is allowed to stand at 4°C overnight. The cold mixture is filtered through sintered glass, the solid is washed with diethyl ether and dried on the filter by passing dry nitrogen through it. It is finally dried in a vacuum oven (50°C, 20 torr) overnight. This crude product is recrystallized by dissolving it in a minimum amount of hot (70°C) acetonitrile, quickly filtering the hot solution through sintered-glass and the allowing it to cool. Crystallization occurs on standing at room temperature and is completed by the addition of diethyl ether with cooling. The product is worked up as before. This procedure yields about 102 g (69%) of a white, crystalline product with >99% purity (HPLC).

Example 15: Preparation of 3,5-Bis(N,N-dimethyldecylammoniummethyl)-1 - fluorobenzene Dibromide (fw=652.68)

77.9 g Freshly distilled N,N-dimethyldecylamine (420 mmole, fw=185.36) is added to 1 L stirring acetonitrile in a 2 L, 4-neck round-bottom flask that is equipped with a heating mantle, mechanical stirrer, 500 mL addition funnel, reflux condenser and teflon-coated thermocouple. The reaction is carried out under a nitrogen atmosphere with a slow N₂ purge. The stirring mixture is heated to 50°C, and 56.4 g freshly recrystallized 3,5-bis(bromomethyl)-1 -fluorobenzene⁵ (200 mmole, fw=281 .96) in 200 mL acetonitrile is added in a dropwise fashion over a period of about 60 minutes; the reaction is mildly exothermic. The reaction mixture is then heated to about 80°C for 3-5 hours and then rapidly filtered while hot through a sintered-glass filter into a 2 L clean filter-flask. On cooling to room temperature, copious amounts of white crystals form in solution. The product is allowed to crystallize from solution by standing at room temperature for about 3 hours, and then the mixture is allowed to stand at 4°C overnight. The cold mixture is filtered through a sintered-glass filter, washed with cold acetonitrile, then n-pentane and finally dried by passing dry N₂ through the product. The product is finally dried in a vacuum oven (50°C, 20 torr) overnight, cooled and stored in a sealed container. This procedure yields about 125 g (96%) of a white, crystalline product. It is recrystallized from hot acetonitrile (9-10 g solvent per gram of product) yielding 120 g of the purified product (99.5-99.8% pure, HPLC).

497 Quinolinium "Undecyl CF3CO2^" — ... ... ... C22H30NO2F3 397.483 43.0

498 Quinolinium "Decyl [15001 -43-1 ] Br^" quinoline 91-22-5 R¹X 1 12-29-8 C₁₉H₂8NBr 350.342 39.8

499 Quinolinium "Decyl New CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C21 H28NO2F3 383.454 39.8

500 Quinolinium "Nonyl New Br^" quinoline 91-22-5 R¹X 693-58-3 C₁₈H₂6NBr 336.315 36.5

501 Quinolinium "Nonyl New CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C20H26NO2F3 369.427 36.5

502 Quinolinium "Octyl Br^" quinoline 91-22-5 R¹X 1 11-83-1 Ci₇H₂4NBr 322.290 33.1

503 Quinolinium "Octyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C₁₉H24N0₂F3 355.402 33.1

504 Isoquinolinium "Undecyl Br^" isoquinoline 1 19-65-3 R¹X 693-67-4 C₂oH₃oNBr 364.371 43.0

505 Isoquinolinium "Undecyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C22H30NO2F3 397.483 43.0

506 Isoquinolinium "Decyl [51808-86-7] Br^" isoquinoline 1 19-65-3 R¹X 1 12-29-8 C₁₉H₂8NBr 350.342 39.9

507 Isoquinolinium "Decyl New CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C21 H28NO2F3 383.454 39.9

508 Isoquinolinium "Nonyl New Br^" isoquinoline 1 19-65-3 R¹X 693-58-3 C₁₈H₂6NBr 336.315 36.7

509 Isoquinolinium "Nonyl New CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C20H26NO2F3 369.427 36.7

510 Isoquinolinium "Octyl Br^" isoquinoline 1 19-65-3 R¹X 1 11-83-1 Ci₇H₂4NBr 322.290 33.4

511 Isoquinolinium "Octyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C₁₉H24N0₂F3 355.402 33.4

512 1 ,2-Me2imidazolium "Undecyl Br^" DMIm^c 1739-84-0 R¹X 693-67-4 C₁₆H₃i N₂Br 331 .340 40.9

513 1 ,2-Me2imidazolium "Undecyl CF3CO2^" — ... ... ... Cl₈H3l N202F3 364.452 40.9

514 1 ,2-Me2imidazolium "Decyl Br^" DMIm^c 1739-84-0 R¹X 1 12-29-8 C₁₅H₂₉N₂Br 317.313 37.6

515 1 ,2-Me2imidazolium "Decyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... Cl7H2₉N202F3 350.425 37.6

516 1 ,2-Me2imidazolium "Nonyl Br^" DMIm^c 1739-84-0 R¹X 693-58-3 Ci₄H₂7N₂Br 303.286 34.2

517 1 ,2-Me2imidazolium "Nonyl CF3CO2^" — ... ... ... C16H27N2O2F3 336.398 34.2

518 1 ,2-Me2-benzimidazolium "Undecyl Br^" DMBIm⁰ 2876-08-6 R¹X 693-67-4 C2oH33N2Br 381 .402 44.7

519 1 ,2-Me2-benzimidazolium "Undecyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C22H33N2O2F3 414.514 44.7

520 1 ,2-Me2-benzimidazolium "Decyl Br^" DMBIm⁰ 2876-08-6 R¹X 1 12-29-8 Ci₉H3i N2Br 367.375 41 .6

521 1 ,2-Me2-benzimidazolium "Decyl CF3CO2^" — ... ... ... C21 H31 N2O2F3 400.487 41 .6

522 1 ,2-Me2-benzimidazolium "Nonyl Br^" DMBIm⁰ 2876-08-6 R¹X 693-58-3 Ci₈H2₉N2Br 353.348 38.5

523 1 ,2-Me2-benzimidazolium "Nonyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C2oH2₉N202F3 386.460 38.5

524 1 ,2-Me2-benzimidazolium "Octyl Br^" DMBIm⁰ 2876-08-6 R¹X 1 11-83-1 Ci₇H₂7N₂Br 339.321 35.3

525 1 ,2-Me2-benzimidazolium "Octyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... Cl₉H27N202F3 372.433 35.3

526 1 -R '-2-Me-imidazolium "Octyl Br^" Mlm° 693-98-1 2xR¹X+base 1 11-83-1 C2oH3₉N2Br 387.447 47.1

527 1 -R '-2-Me-imidazolium "Octyl CF3CO2^" ... ... - ... C22H3₉N202F3 420.559 47.1

528 1 -R '-2-Me-imidazolium "Heptyl Br^" Mlm° 693-98-1 2xR¹X+base 629-04-9 C₁₈H₃₅N₂Br 359.393 42.0

529 1 -R '-2-Me-imidazolium "Heptyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C20H35N2O2F3 392.505 42.0

5301-R'-2-Me-imidazolium "Hexyl Br^" Mlm^c 693-98-1 2xR³X+base 111-25-1 C₁₆H₃iN₂Br 331.340 36.5

531 1-R'-2-Me-imidazolium "Hexyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C18H31N2O2F3 364.452 36.5

532 1-R'-2-Ph-imidazolium "Octyl Br^" Plm^c 670-96-2 2xR¹X+base 111-83-1 C₂5H4iN₂Br 449.518 51.9

533 1-R'-2-Ph-imidazolium "Heptyl Br^" Plm^c 670-96-2 2xR¹X+base 629-04-9 C23H37N2Br 421.464 47.3

534 1-R'-2-Ph-imidazolium "Hexyl Br^" Plm^c 670-96-2 2xR¹X+base 111-25-1 C2iH33N2Br 393.411 42.9

535 1-R'-2-Ph-imidazolium "Pentyl Br^" Plm^c 670-96-2 2xR¹X+base 110-53-2 CigH29N2Br 365.357 37.5

536 1-R '-2-Me-benzimidazolium "Octyl Br^" MBIm^c 615-15-6 2xR¹X+base 111-83-1 C24H41 N2Br 437.509 50.7

537 1-R '-2-Me-benzimidazolium "Heptyl Br^" MBIm^c 615-15-6 2xR¹X+base 629-04-9 C22H37N2Br 409.456 45.9

537b 1-R '-2-Me-benzimidazolium Ph(CH₂)₃- Br^" MBIm^c 615-15-6 2xR¹X+base 637-59-2 ΟΣΘΗΣΘΝΣΒΓ 449.426 41.0

537c 1-R '-2-Me-benzimidazolium Ph(CH₂)₃- CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C28H29N2O2F3 482.537 41.0

538 1-R '-2-Me-benzimidazolium "Hexyl Br^" MBIm^c 615-15-6 2xR¹X+base 111-25-1 C2oH33N2Br 381.402 40.6

539 1-R '-2-Me-benzimidazolium "Pentyl Br^" MBIm^c 615-15-6 2xR¹X+base 110-53-2 CieH29N2Br 353.348 36.1

540 1-R'-2-Me-imidazolinium "Octyl Br^" MlmN^c 534-26-9 2xR¹X+base 111-83-1 C20H41 N2Br 389.457 47.8

541 1-R'-2-Me-imidazolinium "Octyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C22H41N2O2F3 422.568 47.8

542 1-R'-2-Me-imidazolinium "Heptyl Br^" MlmN^c 534-26-9 2xR¹X+base 629-04-9 C₁₈H₃7N₂Br 361.404 42.7

543 1-R'-2-Me-imidazolinium "Heptyl CF3CO2^" ... ... 2xR¹X+base ... C20H37N2O2F3 394.515 42.7

544 1-R'-2-Me-imidazolinium "Hexyl Br^" MlmN^c 534-26-9 2xR¹X+base 111-25-1 Ci6H33N2Br 333.351 37.2

545 1-R'-2-Me-imidazolinium "Hexyl CF3CO2^" ... ... ... ... C18H33N2O2F3 366.462 37.2

546 1-R'-2-Ph-imidazolinium "Octyl Br^" PlmN^c 936-49-2 2xR¹X+base 111-83-1 C₂5H43N₂Br 451.526 52.8

547 1-R'-2-Ph-imidazolinium "Heptyl Br^" PlmN^c 936-49-2 2xR¹X+base 629-04-9 C23H39N2Br 423.473 48.1

548 1-R'-2-Ph-imidazolinium "Hexyl Br^" PlmN^c 936-49-2 2xR¹X+base 111-25-1 C2iH₃5N₂Br 395.420 43.2

549 1-R'-2-Ph-imidazolinium "Pentyl Br^" PlmN^c 936-49-2 2xR¹X+base 110-53-2 CigH3iN2Br 367.367 38.1

550 856796-70-8 693-67-4

551 3,3'-bipy dinium "Undecyl Br^" 3,3'-bipy^c 581-46-4 2xR¹X 693-67-4 C32H54N2Br2 626.593 43.8

552 4-Me2N-pyridinium^a "Nonyl Br^" DMAP^C 1122-58-3 R¹X 693-58-3 Ci6H29N2Br 329.325 37.2

553 4-Me2N-pyridinium^a "Undecyl Br^" DMAP^C 1122-58-3 R¹X 693-67-4 CieH33N2Br 357.379 43.5

554 4-(1-Pyrrolidino)pyridinium^cl "Nonyl Br^" PyP^c 2456-81-7 R¹X 693-58-3 CieH3iN2Br 355.363 39.9

555 4-(1-Pyrrolidino)pyridinium^a "Undecyl Br^" PyP^c 2456-81-7 R¹X 693-67-4 C2oH35N2Br 383.417 46.2

556 4-(4-"Heptylphenyl)py dinium Methyl New Br^" HePP^c 153855-56-2 R¹X 74-83-9 C₁₉H₂6NBr 348.328 37.3 c) Mlm=2-methylimidazole, DMIm=1,2-dimethylimidazole, Plm=2-phenylimidazole, MlmN=2-methylimidazoline, PlmN=2-phenylimidazoline, MBIm=1-methylbenzimidazole, DMBIm=1,2-Dimethylbenzimidazole, DMAP=4-(dimethylamino)pyridine, PyP=4-(1-pyrrolidino)pyridine, HePP=4-(4-"heptylphenyl)pyridine, bipy= bipyridine, d) alkylation at pyridine nitrogen.

b) cation-free crown ether

Claims

C LAI MS

1 . A process for separating organic compounds from a mixture by reverse- phase displacement chromatography, comprising:

providing a hydrophobic stationary phase;

[CM] [Cl]_d [CM-FT-CM'] [Cl]d

A B wherein in the general formulae A and B, each CM or CM' is an independent hydrophobic chemical moiety with a formal charge selected from: quaternary ammonium (I), quaternary phosphonium (II), sulfonium (III), sulfoxonium (IV), imidazolinium (amidinium) (V), guanidinium (VI), imidazolium (VII), 1 ,2,3,4- tetrahydroisoquinolinium (VIII), 1 ,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoliniunn (IX), isoindolinium (X), indolinium (XI), benzimidazolium (XII), pyridinium (XI I la, XI lib, XI lie, XI I Id), quinolinium (XIV), isoquinolinium (XV), carboxylate (XVI), N-acyl-cc-amino acid (XVII), sulfonate (XVIII), sulfate monoester (XIX), phosphate monoester (XX), phosphate diester (XXI), phosphonate monoester (XXII), phosphonate (XXIII), tetraaryl borate (XXIV), boronate (XXV), boronate ester (XXVI); wherein the chemical moieties (l)-(XXVI) have the following chemical structures:

wherein in general formula B, CM and CM' are independent charged chemical moieties having the same or opposite formal charge and are chemically attached to each other by a doubly connected chemical moiety, R*, which replaces one R¹, R² (if present), R³ (if present) or R⁴ (if present) chemical moiety on CM and replaces one R¹, R² (if present), R³ (if present) or R⁴ (if present) chemical moiety on CM';

wherein each X, X¹ and X² is individually and independently -H, -F,-CI or -

OH;

wherein G* is individually and independently any combination of -F, -CI, -R², - OH, -OR², -NR²R³, -CF₃, -CO₂Me, -CO₂NH₂; -CO₂NHMe, -CO₂NMe₂; wherein a pair of R², R³, and R⁴ may comprise a single chemical moiety such that R²/R³, R²/R⁴, R³/R⁴, R²7R^3', R²7R^4' or R^3'/R^4' is individually and independently - (CX¹X²)p- with p = 3, 4, 5 or 6;

wherein the integer values of each of x, r, u, s, m_x, m_u are independently selected for each R¹ , R², R³, R⁴, R⁵ and R*, integer values r and s are the total number of contained, isolated cis/trans olefinic (alkene) groups plus the total number of contained simple monocyclic structures and fall in the ranges 0 < r < 2 and 0 < s < 2, the numeric quantity x+u-m_x-m_u falls in the range 0 < x+u-m_x-m_u < 11 ;

wherein an overall-hydrophobic-index (N) for each [CM] or [CM-R*-CM'] is numerically equal to the sum of the number of aliphatic carbon atoms plus the number of olefinic carbon atoms plus the number of thioether-sulfur atoms plus the number of chlorine atoms plus one-fifth the number of fluorine atoms plus one-half the number of ether-oxygen atoms plus one-half the number of ketone-carbon atoms plus one-half the number of aromatic carbon atoms beyond the number six minus the number of hydroxyl-oxygen atoms beyond the number one; wherein the group-hydrophobic-indices (¹n and ^{1 '}n) for R¹ and R^{1 '} fall in the range 4.0 < ¹n,^1'n < 12.0, the group-hydrophobic-indices (²n, ² n, ³n, ³ n, ⁵n, ⁵ n and *n) for R², R^2', R³, R^3', R⁵, R^5', R*, when present, fall in the range 0.0 < ²n, ^2'n, ³n, ³ n, ⁵n, ⁵ n, *n < 12.0 and the group-hydrophobic-indices (⁴n and ⁴ n) for R⁴ and R⁴ , when present, fall in the range 0.0 < ⁴n, ⁴ n < 5.0;

2. The process of claim 1 wherein the aqueous composition comprising a non-surface active hydrophobic displacer molecule is free of added salt other than a pH buffer.

3. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula I or II:

4. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula I or II:

wherein in the general formula I or II, R¹ and R² are independently C4-C8 alkyl or cyclohexyl, R³ is C1 -C4 alkyl, and R⁴ is phenyl, 2-, 3- or 4-halophenyl, benzyl, 2-, 3- or 4-halobenzyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- or 3,5-dihalobenzyl, 2,4,6- or 3,4,5- trihalobenzyl, C6H5CH2CH2- or 2-, 3- or 4-trifluoromethylbenzyl.

5. The process of either of claim 1 or claim 2 wherein CM has a general formula VIII, IX, X or XI, R¹ is C₅-Cn alkyl and R² is C C₈ alkyl.

6. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula I or II:

wherein in the general formula I or II, R¹ is C6-Cn alkyl, R² and R³ independently are C C₄ alkyl, and R⁴ is PhC(O)CH₂-, 4-FC₆H₄C(O)CH₂-, 4-CH₃C₆H₄C(O)CH₂- 4-CF₃C6H₄C(O)CH2- , 4-CIC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- , 4-BrC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- ,

df-PhC(O)CH(Ph)- , Ph(CH₂)₂-, Ph(CH₂)₃-, Ph(CH₂)₄-, di-PhCH₂CH(OH)CH₂-, t-PhCH=CHCH₂-, 1-(CH₂)naphthylene, 9-(CH₂)anthracene, 2-, 3- or

4-FC₆H₄CH₂- or benzyl.

7. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula I or II:

wherein in the general formula I or II, R¹ is C6-Cn alkyl, R² and R³ together are -(CH₂)₄-, and R⁴ is PhC(O)CH₂-, 4-FC₆H₄C(O)CH₂-, 4-CH₃C₆H₄C(O)CH₂-, 4-CF₃C₆H₄C(O)CH₂- , 4-CIC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- , 4-BrC₆H₄C(O)CH₂- ,

2,6- F₂C6H₃CH₂- , 3,5- F₂C6H₃CH₂- , 4-CH₃C6H₄CH₂-, 4-CH₃CH₂C6H₄CH₂-, 4-CH₃OC₆H₄CH₂-, (CH₃)₂NC(O)CH₂- or (CH₃CH₂)₂NC(O)CH₂-.

8. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula I or II:

4-FC₆H₄CH₂-, R² and R³ independently are Ci-C₈ alkyl, CH₃(OCH₂CH₂)₂- CH3CH2OCH2CH2OCH2CH2- orCH₃CH2OCH₂CH2-, and R⁴ is Ph(CH₂) -, 4-PhC₆H₄CH₂-, 4-FC₆H₄CH₂-, 4-CF₃C6H₄CH₂-, PhC(O)CH₂-,

4-FC₆H₄C(O)CH₂-, 4-PhC₆H₄C(O)CH₂-, 4-PhC₆H₄CH₂-, naphthylene-1 -CH₂-, anthracene-9-CH2- or Ph(CH2)_n-, where n = 5-8.

9. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula [(R¹R²R³NCH₂)2C6H₃G]²⁺, wherein R¹ is C₄-Cn alkyl, R² and R³ independently are C1-C6 alkyl or R² and R³ taken together are -(CH2)₄-, and G is H orF.

10. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula [R¹R²R³NCH₂C6H₄-C6H₄CH₂NR¹R²R³]²⁺ , wherein R¹ is C₄-Cn alkyl, R² and R³ independently are C1-C6 alkyl or R² and R³ taken together are -(CH2)₄-.

11. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula III or IV:

wherein in the general formula III or IV, R is Cs-C-n alkyl or 4,4'-CH3(CH₂)₄C6H C₆H₄CH₂-, R² is Ci-C₆ alkyl or 4-FC₆H₄CH₂-, and R³ is Ci-C₆ alkyl.

12. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula XIV or XV:

13. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula Xllla, Xlllb, Xlllc, Xllld or Xllle:

wherein in the general formula Xllla, Xlllb, Xlllc, Xllld or Xllle, R ' is Cs-C-n alkyi or Cs-C-n 4-phenyl, R² is H, C C6 alkyi or alkoxy, 2-pyridyl, C-| -C6 alkyi substituted 2- pyridyl, or pyrrolidinyl, and each G is as defined above.

14. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula VII:

/ vii

R¹

wherein in the general formula VII, R¹ is C₅-C-n alkyi, R² and R⁵ are independently H or C-I -C6 alkyi or phenyl.

15. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula XII:

wherein in the general formula XII, R¹ is C5-C11 alkyl, R² and R⁵ are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl or phenyl, and G is as defined above.

16. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula XXIV or XXV:

wherein in the general formula XXIV, R¹ is phenyl, 4-EtC6H₄-, 4-ⁿPrC6H₄-, 4- ⁿBuC₆H₄-, 4-MeOC₆H₄-, 4-FC₆H₄-, 4-MeC₆H₄-, 4-MeOC₆H₄-, 4-EtC₆H₄-, 4-CIC₆H₄-, or C₆F₅-; and each of R2, R3 and R4 independently are phenyl, 4-FC₆H₄-, 4-

MeC₆H₄-, 4-MeOC₆H₄-, 4-EtC₆H₄-, 4-CIC₆H₄- or C₆F₅-; and

17. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula selected from 4-R¹C₆H₄SO₃H, 5- R¹-2- HO-C₆H₃SO₃H,

4- R¹-C₆H₄-C₆H₃X-4'-SO3H, and 4- R¹-C₆H₄-C₆H₃X-3'-SO3H, wherein R1 is CH₃(CH₂)_n , wherein n = 4-10 and X is H or OH.

18. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula XVIII or XXIII:

19. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula selected from 5-R¹-2-HO-C₆H₃CO₂H and R¹C(O)NHCH(C₆H₅)CO₂H, wherein R¹ is CH3(CH₂)_n- , wherein n = 4-10.

20. The process of either of claim 1 or 2 wherein CM has a general formula 4- R¹C₆H₄PO₃H₂ wherein R¹ is CH₃(CH₂)_n- , wherein n = 4-10.

21 . The process according to any one of claims 1 -15 wherein CI is a non- interfering anion or mixture of non-interfering anions selected from: CI^", Br^", I^", OH^", F^", OCHs^", d,f-HOCH₂CH(OH)CO₂ ^", HOCH₂CO₂ ^", HCO₂ ^", CH₃CO₂ ^", CHF₂CO₂ ^", CHCI₂CO₂ ^", CHBr₂CO₂ ^", C₂H₅CO₂ ^", C₂F₅CO₂ ^", ⁿC₃H₇CO₂ ^", ⁿC₃F₇CO₂ ^", CF₃CO₂ ^", CCI₃CO₂ ^", CBr₃CO₂ ^", NO₃ ^", CIO₄ ^", BF₄ ^", PF₆ ^", HSO₄ ^", HCO₃ ^", H₂PO₄ ^", CH₃OCO₂ ^", CH₃OSO₃ ^", CH₃SO₃ ^", C₂H₅SO₃ ^", NCS^", CF₃SO₃ ^", H₂PO₃ ^", CH₃PO₃H^", HPO₃ ^2", CH₃PO₃ ^2", CO₃ ^2", SO₄ ^2", HPO₄ ^2", PO₄ ^3".

22. The process according to any one of claims 16-20 wherein CI is a non-interfering inorganic cation or mixture of such non-interfering cations selected from the groups: alkali metal ions (Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺, Cs⁺), alkaline earth metal ions (Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ba²⁺), divalent transition metal ions (Mn²⁺, Zn²⁺) and NH₄ ⁺;

wherein CI is a non-interfering organic cation or mixture of such non-interfering cations selected from the groups: protonated primary amines (1 +), protonated secondary amines (1 +), protonated tertiary amines (1 +), protonated diamines (2+), quaternary ammonium ions (1 +), sulfonium ions (1 +), sulfoxonium ions (1 +), phosphonium ions (1 +), bis-quaternary ammonium ions (2+) that may contain C1-C6 alkyl groups and/or C₂-C₄ hydroxyalky groups.