WO2013036149A1 - Extruded biomaterials with brans and plant fibers as dispersed phase fillers - Google Patents

Abstract

This present invention relates to the use of dispersed phase fillers in the form of brans and plant fibers in extruded textured food grade biomaterials. The dispersed phase fillers are used to modify the physical characteristics of the extruded materials to allow greater variety in food applications of the extrudates with brans and plant fibers for food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods.

Description

SPECIFICATION

EXTRUDED BIOMATERIALS WITH BRANS AND PLANT FIBERS AS DISPERSED PHASE FILLERS FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This patent relates to high and intermediate protein textured extruded products from food-grade biomaterials with brans and plant fibers as dispersed phase fillers for application as food substitutes in food service-prepared, processed or manufactured foods in the forms of extenders, fillers, and analogs. The physical characteristics of the extrudates with brans and plant fibers as dispersed phase fillers define the various food applications of the extruded products in cooked or processed meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products. The changes in physical structures of the extrudates with the addition of brans and plant fibers influence variations in length, diameter, radial expansion, porosity parameters, bulk density, hydration yield, and fiber characteristics of the extruded food-grade biomaterials. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

An extrudate is the resulting processed product of extrusion processing that is essentially based on the conversion of carbohydrates and protein biomaterials to well-defined structured textured materials. The extruder hardware can convey, compress, melt, and plasticize biomaterials (van Zuilichem, 1992;

oscicki, 2011) and force it under controlled pressure through small die holes at the end of an extruder barrel to produce a textured product of defined expansion and density. The structure forming components of an extrudate are carbohydrates and proteins. These two ingredients represent the major bulk of components in an extrudate recipe.

Extrusion is reported to disassemble its protein ingredients and reconnect them into fibers (Burgess and Stanley, 1976; Ha, 1995) as a result of machine efficiency. Proteins unfold by high shear, high temperature and, directional shear of screw of extruder barrel which forces material alignment of high molecular protein components leading to fiber formation (Berk, 1992). Protein undergoes melting in which the proteinaceous biomaterial denatures, dissociates, unravels, and aligns (Verbeek and van den Berg, 2010). While protein is melted into elastic mass, hydrated carbohydrates concomitantly develop in a continuous flowing matrix wherein protein-protein interaction is enhanced (Sheard et al., 1984;

Noguchi, 1989). The common protein ingredients for extrusion may include soy, wheat, and other high- protein legume-based proteins.

Examples of the carbohydrates used in extrusion processing are starches and flours from cereals, tubers, and roots. Elevated temperatures and shear with limited water melt starches during extrusion (Wang, 1993; Qu and Wang, 1994; Hoover, 2001) while further increase in moisture content may effect gelatinization of starch during extrusion (Lawton et al., 1972; Chiang and Johnson, 1977; Mercier, 1980; Guy and Home, 1988; Wang et al., 1991; Mitchell and Areas, 1992; Parker and Ring, 2001). Carbohydrate conversion is also affected by the presence of other components, such as proteins. Formations of starch- protein complexes help define the textural quality of the resulting extrudates that would be developed in any viscoelastic melt (Madeka and Kokini, 1992; Mitchell and Areas, 1992; Li and Lee, 1996;). In textured expanded extrudate containing high protein ingredients, the carbohydrate matrix may form a discontinuous phase interacting with the more continuous fibrous phase of the proteins (Tolstoguzov, 1993; Tolstoguzov et al., 1985). With differential rates of the structure-forming ingredient reactions, extrusion processing allows the development of biphasic matrices in the melt. The carbohydrate matrix may consist of mixture of gelatinized starch and mostly melted starch components that may have been mechanically and thermally degraded in the extruder (Donovan, 1979; Wang et al., 1991).

As flowing elastic me|t exits the restricted orifice of the die, extrudate swell variably (Padmanabhan and Bhattacharya, 1989; Chang, 1992; Housiadas and Tsamopoulos, 2000). The die swell phenomenon has been reported to manifest the following: superheated water is released from exiting melt (Harper, 1981), loss of moisture increases the viscosity of the melt (Chang, 1992; Delia Valle et al., 1997), and there is the instantaneous expansion of melt as it exits the die followed by setting into a glassy state during of the cooling direct expanded products (Park, 1976; Guy, 2001). Expanded extrudate can be considered a form of cellular solid forming honeycombed structures (Moscicki, 2011). These structural formations have a plurality of openings and passages of desired sizes or shapes (Bagley, 1974) with cell walls defining the boundaries of each pore.

Honeycombed structures of extrudates comprise of interconnected pores. Porosity, which is a significant criterion for hydration capacity (Zhang and Hoseney, 1998) and textural characteristics of extrudates, indicates the volume fraction of void spaces or air spaces inside a cellular solid material like the expanded extrudate (Lukkassen and Meidell, 2008). Void cell structures of an expanded extrudate seem to be directly related to the number of bubbles nucleated in a melt (Lue et al., 1990). The bubble nucleation phenomenon in plant polymer extrusion includes the formation of small, thermodynamically unstable gaseous embryos within the viscoelastic melt. This gaseous embryo reaches critical size and grows spontaneously into a stable and permanent bubble called nucleus (Cisneros, 1999). Nucleation sites in expanding viscoelastic melt may be seeded by insoluble materials that do not transform during extrusion (Hooseney et al., 1992; Cisneros and Kokini, 2002a,b; Kokini and Moraru, 2003) like the dispersed phase fillers.

The various types of extruded textured food biomaterials are traditionally derived from plant-based sources of carbohydrates and proteins. The traditional use of extrudate as an ingredient in processed meat is 3-tiered: extender, filler, and analog. High protein-based extruded materials can either function as a meat extender or a meat analog since it would have the fibrosity, appearance, and mouthfeel of meat products. When used to extend expensive meat materials, it is added in combination with the meat ingredients to lower down the cost of a prepared and processed meat formulation (Harper, 1981; Heinz and Hautzinger, 2007). When extrudates are used as an analog, all meat materials are substituted with plant-based extrudates. When used as extender or analog, extrudates should closely resemble real meat in physical form and mouth feel (Sheard, et al., 1984; Rareunrom et al., 2008). When extrudates are less protein-rich and consist more of carbohydrates, these extrudates can be used as fillers (Heinz and Hautzinger, 2007). The function of extrudates as fillers does not necessitate the presence of meat-like characteristics since the extrudates are eventually used in highly homogenized food systems like meat emulsions or doughs. As bulking agents, extrudates can be at the same rank as starches and flours in food systems to provide volume (Heinz and Hautzinger, 2007). However, textured fillers have the additional benefit of providing more stable rheology than the bulking powders.

Advances in extrusion technology may now provide additional applications for extrudates aside from processed meat applications. It is still not traditionally common to see extrudates as functional ingredients in processed fish and fishery systems, show vegetables in biscuits and bread or as show vegetable for instant noodles, or as candied fruits in fruit cakes. The texturization that high shear extruder, like the twin-screw extruders, provide to the food grade biomaterials to the set structures of extrudates generate wide range of products with greater food applications. Normally, diversification in food applications of produced extrudates may be determined by the ingredients for extrusion, machine setting of extruder, and other machine specifications (Rosse and Miller, 1973; Bruin et al., 1978; Mercier et al., 1989; van Zuilichem, 1992; Ha, 1995). The presence of peripheral machineries like mills, shredders, and grinders may provide further plurality in forms, cuts, shapes, and granulations of the extruded food grade biomaterials.

An ingredient of the extrusion formulation that is often considered as minor ingredient is the dispersed phase filler. These are materials which relatively hard to solubilize in water. Dispersed fillers may constitute aggregates of proteins that are denatured and deformed or some fibrous material added to extrusion formulae such as cellulose or bran (Guy, 2001). These fillers are cited to be firm, and stable ingredients that are not necessarily reduced in its size during extrusion (Lawton et al., 1985). Filler ingredients can affect the expansion of extrudate by influencing the die swell. The die swell and the elastic recoil of the elastic melt as it exits the orifice of the die is attributed to the innate elasticity of the major biomaterials of the melt (Moraru and Kokini, 2003). The elastic energy of the melt is released as it leaves the die and causes the expansion towards the direction of flow of the melt (Guy, 2001). However, the presence of dispersed phase fillers may help deform the elasticity of melt. Also, the physical presence of dispersed phase fillers in the viscoelastic melt were reported to reduce the potential for expansion of extrudates by inducing fractures in the cell walls that are to be developed (Breen et al., 1977; Anderson et al., 1981; Lawton et al., 1985; Guy and Home, 1988; Hsieh et al., 1991; Jin et al., 1994; Lue et al, 1991).

This invention details the contribution of dispersed phase fillers including brans and plant fibers that are used in formulations intended for extrusion. The extrudate specific physical criteria in this invention used for the evaluation of dispersed phase filler contribution in extruded products are length, diameter, radial expansion, bulk density, hydration yield, porosity, and fiber characteristics. These parameters will be used to explain the significant function of dispersed phase materials in texturized extruded food grade biomaterials.

Earlier patents already cited the role of brans and plant fibers as functional and nutritional ingredients in extruded products. These patents are as follows:

US 4350714 (Duvall, 1982) presented the production of an extruded, expanded ready-to-eat cereal snack product comprising significant amounts of corn bran to provide additional fiber and to improve the flavor, texture, and bowl life characteristics of the snack product.

US 4756921 (Calandro et al., 1988) disclosed the production of extruded brans with added syrup that is subject to drying and toasting to form cereal bran products.

US 5437885 (Lusas et al., 1995) presented a process describing the extrusion of oilseed protein meal to produce meat-like fiber and further coating the extruded fiber with oil or fat prior to another extrusion procedure. Real meat, fruits, and/or other vegetables were added in the extrusion formula to hydrate the extrusion mixtures.

A prior art aimed to improve sensory properties of extrudates, WO 2005/096834 A2 (Brown et al., 2005), disclosed the process of manufacturing vegetable protein extrudates containing high concentrations of protein, and low concentrations of carbohydrates. A minimum of 70% protein and filler ingredients, such as soluble and insoluble carbohydrates, were utilized to produce low density snack food and low density, low moisture content proteinaceous extrudate.

Another patent that used fibers in extrudates was US 2006/0019009 Al (Keller et al., 2006), which presented a method for creating a low carbohydrate high protein puffed snack food product using soy isolate, soy concentrate, corn meal, water, and fiber, that were then extruded through a die orifice at high specific mechanical energy. Fibers were used to reduce the amount of net carbohydrates in the extruded snack product.

US 7235276B2 (Allen et al., 2007) provided improvements to high protein, and high fiber puffed ready- to-eat cereal products by including adequate amounts of fiber in the formulation in order to decrease the glassy textural attributes and to produce a softer product.

WO 2009/076136 (Yakubu et al., 2009) related to extruded products containing high levels of soy protein and whole grains, processes for manufacturing such extrudates, and the use of such extrudates as food ingredients.

A prior art UM 2-2010-000154 (Chu et al., 2010) described the incorporation of stabilized rice bran as dispersed phase filler to enhance the porosity and water hydration capacity of protein-based extruded meat analog and extender products used by food manufacturers and food service companies as high- protein meat substitutes. This present invention is the improvement of UM 2-2010-000154 (Chu et al., 2010) with increased use of brans and plant fibers to redefine physical characteristics of high protein and intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to the use of dispersed phase fillers in the form of brans and plant fibers in extruded textured food grade biomaterials mainly consisting of plant protein and carbohydrate sources. The dispersed phase fillers are used to modify the physical characteristics of extruded materials in terms of length, diameter, radial expansion, porosity, bulk density, hydration yield, and fiber characteristics. The changes in physical characteristics of extrudates allow diversification of food applications of dispersed phase filler-containing extrudates.

Blended formulations of the structure-forming ingredients, proteins and carbohydrates, in various combinations are mixed with brans and plant fibers up to 3% incorporation (wt/wt) of composite dry ingredients. The plant protein sources may include, but not limited to, cottonseed flour, green pea powder, peanut flour, pea protein isolate, soy flour, soy concentrate, pea protein isolate, and wheat gluten. Used in combination with protein ingredients are plant carbohydrate sources, which include, but not limited to, cassava starch, cornstarch, millet flour, potato starch, quinoa flour, rice flour, rye flour, semolina flour, sorghum flour, tapioca starch, and wheat flour. Brans include, but not limited to, oat bran, rice bran, wheat bran, white corn bran, and yellow corn bran. Plant fibers include, but not limited to, coconut meat fiber, oat fiber, potato fiber, and soya fiber.

High protein textured extrudate from food grade biomaterials with greater than 60% calculated theoretical protein content (db) of the dry extrusion base mixes (DEBM) and intermediate protein textured extrudate from food grade biomaterials with 50 to 60% calculated theoretical protein content are illustrated in this invention that may be varied in physical characteristics of the resultant direct expanded products by incorporation of 0.5 to 3.0% dispersed phase fillers. The extruded products can still be further subcategorized into cut, granulation, shape, and color series per FoodFlow, Inc. (FFI), Philippines major extrudate categories.

The high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% are significantly larger in diameter and more expanded radially than those without bran at 5% level of significance. These extrudates also have significantly less number of bigger pores, greater bulk density, and thinner and smoother individual fibers than those without bran at 5% level of significance. The length, porosity content, apparent cell wall content, and hydration yield of high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% are similar to those without bran. The intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 1.0% are significantly longer, smaller in diameter and less expanded radially than those without bran at 5% level of significance. These extrudates also have significantly more number of smaller pores with less area occupied by pores and consequently, larger area occupied by apparent cell walls, and greater bulk density than those without bran at 5% level of significance. The hydration yield and fiber characteristics of high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 1.0% are similar to those without bran.

The high protein and intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated plant fibers up to 3.0% are considered to have the same changes in physical characteristics including length, diameter, radial expansion, porosity, bulk density, hydration yield, and fiber characteristics as what have been recorded with bran incorporation up to 3.0% compared to those without bran.

High protein and intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans and plant fibers up to 3.0% can be subcategorized into colors, forms, cuts, shapes, and granulations, and can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This patent details the effects of incorporating dispersed phase materials in the form of brans and plant fibers for the production of high protein and intermediate protein extrudates that consist mainly of structure-forming plant-based ingredients. The structure-forming ingredients refer to the protein and carbohydrate sources of the extrusion formulation. Blended formulations of the structure-forming ingredients in various combinations are mixed with brans and plant fibers up to 3% incorporation (wt/wt) of DEBM. A twin-screw extruder hydrates, melts, cooks, compresses, and cuts the ingredients to form the dry expanded extrudates with almost 20% moisture dry basis (db). The extrudates with brans and plant fibers are dried to maximum of 10% moisture (db).

Physical characteristics of extruded plant biopolymers with brans and plant fibers are assessed using length, diameter, radial expansion, bulk density, hydration yield, porosity parameters, and fiber characteristics. The diameter is the measurement of the line segment passing through the center of circular set structure of the solidified extruded product. The length is the measurement from one end to another end of the solidified extrudate. The radial expansion ratio is the average ration of cross sectional area of set extrudate to cross sectional area of the die (Choudhury and Gautam, 2003). The bulk density refers to the weight per unit volume that may be expressed as g/ml (Lawton et al., 1985). Hydration yield is the hydrated weight to dried weight of extruded material. The hydrated weight is the measured weight of extrudate after soaking in water at ambient temperature (28 ± 2°C) for 30 minutes and draining the material for 5 minutes (Yao et al., 2006). Hydration ratio is the expression that quantifies the maximum hydration liquid that a dry extrudate can absorb or retain. Relative to the hydration yield, a part of the dry extrudate is subtracted from the computed yield that corresponds to the hydration liquid. Porosity parameters, namely the pore density (number of pores per unit area of the examined cross section), porosity content (percent of the cross section occupied by pores), apparent cell wall content (percent of cross section occupied by the material that surrounds the pores and calculated as 100 minus porosity content, %), and mean pore size (average area, mm², occupied by single pore) are evaluated through Pixcavator Image Analysis 6.0 (Intelligent Perception, 2010; Ardhekani and Raiszadeh, 2011). Fiber characteristics such as transparency, crimpling, and thickness are qualitatively described by four panelists based on images taken using Leica EZ4D stereomicroscope (200x magnification).

The ratio of plant protein source to carbohydrate source in DEB s do not have a direct relationship to the calculated theoretical protein due to variability in protein contents of various plant sources (i.e., isolate soy protein has 90% protein and wheat gluten has 75% protein). Based on the calculated theoretical protein content as working criterion for groupings of FFI, Philippines extrudates, DEBM to produce FFI major extruded products are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Classification of FoodFlow, Inc. (FFI) major extrudates with corresponding dry extrusion base mixes (DEBMs) based on calculated theoretical protein content

FFI Major DEBM Coding Theoretical Protein Ratio of Plant Protein Source to

Products Content (%)^x Carbohydrate Source in DEBM™

FFkL DEBM-1 68 80:20

FFI-2 DEBM-2 67 85:15

FFI-3 DEBM-3 60 85:15

FFI-4 DEBM-3 51 60:40

" Theoretical protein (%), is the summation of supplier declared percent protein of the ingredients in a formulation

x Ratio of plant protein source to carbohydrates source in DEBM, refers to the preceding cited plant protein and carbohydrate ingredients for extrusion dry formulae

The FFI, Philippines DEBMs are categorized based on theoretical proteins of its plant protein ingredients. These ingredients are those that showed to have at least 15% (db) declared protein by the ingredient suppliers. The working theoretical protein contents of DEBMs are the summations of the concentrations of protein sources. The referred plant protein sources may include the following ingredients in Table 2, but not limited to it, as the major protein source or its various combinations. Table 2. Plant protein sources and their theoretical protein contents

Plant protein source Protein content"

Green pea powder 23%

Cottonseed flour 43%

Peanut flour 50%

Soy flour 50%

Soy concentrate 70%

Wheat gluten 75%

Pea protein isolate 80%

Soy protein isolate 90%

x Protein content, declared protein content by official ingredient suppliers of FoodFlow, Inc. (FFI), Philippines

Used in combination with protein ingredients are carbohydrate ingredients as secondary structure- forming ingredients of the DEBMs. Plant carbohydrate sources include, but not limited to, cassava starch, cornstarch, millet flour, quinoa flour, rice flour, rye flour, semolina flour, sorghum flour, tapioca starch, potato starch, and wheat flour. Table 3 shows the general categories of FFI, Philippines DEBMs using calculated theoretical protein contents as working criteria. The extruded products can still be further subcategorized into cut, granulation, shape, and color series per FFI, Philippines major extrudate categories.

Table 3. General categories of FoodFlow, Inc. (FFI) extrudates according to theoretical protein content

Theoretical protein Product Category Existing FFI Code Resulting FFI Extrudate (% db)

< 50 Low protein product - -

50 - 60 Intermediate product DEBM-3, DEBM-3 FFI-3, FFI-4

> 60 High protein product DEBM-1, DEBM-2 FFI-1, FFI-2 The dispersed phase filler ingredients of this invention are used to help create new extruded textured products with the brans and plant fibers contributing variably to length, diameter, radial expansion, porosity, bulk density, hydration yield, and fiber characteristics of the FFI, Philippines major extrudate categories. Brans include, but not limited to, oat bran, rice bran, wheat bran, white corn bran, and yellow corn bran. Plant fibers include, but not limited to, coconut meat fiber, oat fiber, potato fiber, and soya fiber.

All extruded formulations are carried out in a twin screw extruder. The extruder has 5 temperature controls and processing temperatures are fixed at 30°C at Zone 1 and at 90°C for Zones 2 to 5. Screw speed is maintained at 1520 rpm and cutter speed at 315 rpm. Water input and feed rate are 55-75 kg/h and 115-145 kg/h, respectively.

EXAMPLES

The succeeding non-limiting examples are presented to further detail the invention of FFI extrudates with brans and plant fibers. Table 4 presents the sample characteristics of bran from various plant sources that are incorporated in the examples of FFI extrudates with bran at 0.5% to 3.0% level of addition. Table 4. Characteristics of brans from different plant sources

Characteristics Rice Oat Corn

Total carbohydrate, % 49.00 68.60 89.10

Dietary Fiber, % 25.00 16.11 80.03

Insoluble Fiber, % 21.00 11.36 79.81

Soluble Fiber, % 4.00 4.75 0.22

Sugars, % 8.00 1.59 1.27

Particle size distribution, %

250 micron 70 2 100

500 micron 90 72 10

Product Name Stabilized Rice Bran - Canadian Harvest · Canadian Harvest ^®

Extra Fine Stabilized Oat Bran Stabilized Yellow Corn Bran

Supplier Nutracea SunOpta Ingredients Group SunOpta Ingredients Group

(Arizona, USA) (Ontario, Canada) (Ontario, Canada)

The following FFI, Philippines extrudates with brans and plant fibers of the invention are all referenced to the original basal formulations for DEBMs of FFI, Philippines without the prior incorporations of brans and plant fibers as dispersed phase fillers. The FFI-1 and FFI-2 without brans and plant fibers as dispersed phase fillers are high protein extrudates with more than 60% calculated theoretical protein (db) while FFI-3 and FFI-4 are intermediate products with theoretical protein 50 to 60% (db) of DEBM. With same process controls, the physical characteristics of the four major FFI, Philippines extruded products cited in this invention shown in Tables 5-6.

Table 5. Physical characteristics and porosity parameters of FoodFlow, Inc. (FFI), Philippines extruded products" without brans

a ^c Mean values ± standard deviations in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (p<0.05) * FFI Philippines extruded products, direct expanded extrudates before drying (moisture content≥ 20% db)

The evaluated products of FFI-1 to FFI-4 are currently material which are commercially marketed as extruded nuggets with 40 to 60mm length and 45 to 50mm diameter. High protein extrudates, FFI-1 and FF-2 are significantly (p<0.05) less expanded radially, have less percent area occupied by pores based in the cross section evaluation, and therefore, have greater percent apparent cell wall area than intermediate protein extruded products, FFI-3 and FFI-4. Generally, the high protein extrudates also have smaller pores than intermediate protein extrudates. It is also noticeable that FFI-2 is longest and least expanded radially among the FFI extruded products. The protein fibers of FFI-2 were noted to be softer and more elastic than the other high protein extrudate FFI-1. The difference in the type of protein sources in the various FFI, Philippines products determine the quality of protein fibers developed.

Table 6. Bulk density and hydration yield of dried FFI, Philippines extruded products (moisture content ≤ 10% db)

a ^c Mean values ± standard deviations in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (p<0.05)

* Nugget hydration ratio, rounded off values of hydration yield declared as hydration ratio of dry nugget extrudates in product specification sheets

Bulk density and hydration yield values were obtained using dried extrudates with moisture < 10% (db). High protein extrudates, FFI-1 and FFI-2, have significantly (p<0.05) lower bulk densities than intermediate protein extrudates, FFI-3 and FFI-4. Rounded off hydration ratios of the products declared in each food specifications of FFI-1, FFI-2, FFI-3, and FFI-4 are 1:3, 1:2, 1:3, and 1:5 extrudate to hydration liquid, respectively. The declaration of these hydration ratios are used to provide the users of FFI extrudates a guideline regarding the proportion of dry extrudates to hydration liquid to be used. Hydration ratio is the expression that quantifies the maximum hydration liquid that a dry extrudate can absorb or retain. Relative to the hydration yield, a part of the dry extrudate is subtracted from the computed yield that corresponds to the hydration liquid. Hydration yield was significantly (p<0.05) highest in FFI-4, which is classified to contain least protein and highest carbohydrates based on DEBM declaration of percent sources of ingredients. Although FFI-1, FFI-2, FFI-3, and FFI-4 are four major base categories for FFI extrudates, range characteristics are nonetheless, still not too varied between FFI-1 and FFI-2 versus FFI-3 and FFI-4. The object of adding brans and plant fibers in this invention to the basal DEBM recipes of FFI, Philippines is to create more variations in physical characteristics of the extrudates, thereby, diversifying food applications.

Example 1: Bran-containing high protein FFI-1 extruded product

FFI-1 without bran is a high protein extrudate with > 60% calculated theoretical protein that exhibits a high fibrosity characteristic. The texturized product forms a plurality of fibers when hydrated and mechanical force is applied during shredding. Details regarding the effect of various bran incorporations in FFI-1 formulation in terms of length, diameter, radial expansion, porosity parameters, bulk density, hydration yield, and fiber characteristics are shown in Tables 7 to 9.

Table 7. Physical characteristics and porosity of FoodFlow, Inc. Formulation 1 (FFI-1) extrudates with various bran applications

a ^c Mean values ± standard deviations in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (p<0.05) * Concentration (%), of brans in total dry ingredients is subtracted from carbohydrate sources of FFI-1 formulation intended for extrusion.

There is no significant change in the length of FFI-1 high protein extrudates with varying incorporation of brans but the diameter and radial expansion significantly (p<0.05) increase with the addition of brans. The inclusion of 0.5% to 3.0% brans in DEBM-1 of high protein category FFI-1 resulted to extrudates that are significantly (p<0.05) more expanded radially than the control. The pore densities and pore areas of FFI-1 extrudates with brans are very likely to show decreasing trend in 1% or less amount of inclusion. Number of pores is significantly (p<0.05) less in 3.0% bran incorporation in high protein extrudates than those without and lower concentrations of brans. This indicates that the incorporated brans may be within the structure of the cell wall of high protein extrudates with bran. Expansion may be attributed to cell wall thickening with≤ 1.0% bran incorporation. The addition of bran in FFI-1 is associated to the decrease in the number of pores and increase in pore sizes at lower bran concentrations. This is true at low levels of incorporation of 0.5 - 1.0% but not to 3.0% where radial expansion was significantly affected pore area and pore density. More porous product with thin cell walls is produced with 3.0% incorporation of bran wherein the pore size is significantly (p<0.05) larger than the pore sizes of high protein extrudates without bran. It is shown that the highest radial expansion is best achieved by 0.5% rice bran incorporation than its oat and corn counterpart.

Table 8. Bulk density and hydration yield of dried FoodFlow, Inc. Formulation 1 (FFI-1) extrudates (moisture content≤ 10% db)

a ⁰ Mean values and standard deviations in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (p<0.05) x Concentration (%), of brans in total dry ingredients in subtracted from carbohydrate sources of FFI-1 formulation intended for extrusion.

m Nugget hydration ratio, rounded off values of hydration yield declared as hydration ratio of dry nugget extrudates in product specification sheets

The bulk densities of dried FFI-1 high protein extrudates with various bran applications are generally higher but not significantly different from the control. Although there is concomitant expansion at > 1.0% bran incorporation, bulk density is not affected due to weight of bran embedded in starch-protein matrix. There is significant decrease (p<0.05) in the hydration yield when 0.5% oat bran and 0.5% rice bran are incorporated in FFI-1 extrudates in comparison with the control. In the microscopic evaluation (200x magnification) of individual fibers teased off from hydrated extruded nuggets with bran, the fiber characteristics including: transparency; crimpling; and thickness, are described using a 100mm line scale with increasing change in fibers from 0 to 100%. The physical property of allowing transmission of light through the individual fiber is identified by four panelists as transparent (0%), translucent (50%), and opaque (100%) material. Crimpling, defined as presence of small irregular folds or ridges, of individual fiber is recognized as smooth (0%), separated waves (50%), and very wavy (100%). The dimension between the two surfaces of the individual fiber is rated as thin (0%), medium thickness (50%), and thick (100%) if height of material is < 0.15 mm, 0.20 - 0.35 mm, and > 0.40 mm, respectively.

Table 9. Fiber characteristics of FoodFlow, Inc. Formulation 1 (FFI-1) extruded product with various bran incorporations based on qualitative analysis using stereomicroscope at 200x magnification (n=4)

" Concentration (%), of brans in total dry ingredients is subtracted from carbohydrate sources of FFI-1 formulation intended for extrusion.

Concentration of brans variably affects the type of fiber developed. Thinner and smoother fibers are produced at higher bran incorporation (1.0% to 3.0%). Oat bran even at 0.5% level of addition results to increased opacity and thinning of individual fibers. Generally, addition of bran elongates the individual fibers probably due to the stretching of the melt as it encounters insoluble materials like bran. FFI-1 extruded products can still be further subcategorized into cut, granulation, shape, and color series as discussed below.

FFI-1 uncolored flakes with bran. The high protein FFI-1 extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% can be specifically classified as uncolored in color and flakes in form. These bran-containing extrudates can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods. High protein extrudate FFI-1 uncolored flakes are extruded using FFI-1 formulation with various bran incorporations that are subtracted from the percentage of carbohydrate sources in DEBM-1. The color of the finished product ranges from light beige (Pantone 468U) to beige (Pantone 7501U).

FFI-1 uncolored extrudate can be mechanically cut by mill into dry food-like pieces of extrudates generally with a defined shape (round or square) and can be produced in varying thickness using grinder speed as controlling factor. These extrudates are dried to moisture content < 10% (db) using single-belt hot air dryer. The resultant flaked product of uncolored dry extruded material have hydration ratio of 1:4 extrudate to hydration liquid as compared to only 1:3 extrudate to hydration liquid when in nugget form. Milling would expose more surface area per unit weight of extrudate and therefore, more area available for water absorption.

Tuna flakes in oil with 0.5% corn bran-containing FFI-1 uncolored dry flakes. One test application of high protein extrudate FFI-1 with 0.5% corn bran as extender in processed or manufactured food is in tuna flakes in oil. In brief, the formulation for tuna flakes in oil with FFI-1 with 0.5% corn bran, uncolored dry flakes as shown in Table 10. Table 10. Tuna Flakes in Oil Recipe

Ingredients Weight, %

Tuna flakes 40.00

FFI-1 with 0.5% corn bran, uncolored dry flakes 5.00 Fish broth for Turatex uncolored shreds hydration 20.00 Salt and pepper 5.00 Corn oil 30.00

Fish broth is prepared by boiling tuna bones and head to water at a ratio 1:2. The FFI-1 uncolored dry flakes are hydrated with previously prepared fish broth in a 1:4 extrudate to broth ratio. Tuna flakes and hydrated FFI-1 uncolored flakes are then lightly combined. Corn oil, salt and pepper are added. This mixture is canned as tuna flakes in oil using adequate heat treatment process for sterilization. FFI-1 uncolored dry shreds with bran. The high protein FFI-1 extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% can be specifically classified as uncolored in color and shreds in form. These bran-containing extrudates can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods. High protein extrudate FFI-1 uncolored shreds are extruded using FFI-1 formulation with various bran incorporations that are subtracted from the percentage of carbohydrate sources in DEBM-1. High protein FFI-1 extrudate with bran can also be mechanically cut by a mill into long meat-like dry strands which consist of multi-fibers or bundles of threadlike materials. These extrudates are dried to moisture content < 10% db using single-belt hot air dryer. The resultant product of uncolored dry shredded extruded material have hydration ratio of 1:4 extrudate to hydration liquid from 1:3 extrudate:hydration liquid when in nugget form. Increase surface area of cut materials also explains the increase in hydration yield.

Chicken nuggets with 0.5% rice bran-containing FFI-1 uncolored dry shreds. A test application of high protein extrudate FFI-1 with 0.5% rice bran dry shreds as extender in processed or manufactured food is in chicken nugget recipe. In brief, the formulation for chicken nuggets with FFI-1 uncolored dry shreds is shown in Table 11. Table 11. Chicken Nuggets Recipe

Ingredients Weight, %

Ground lean chicken meat 40.00

Ground chicken fat 25.00

FFI-1 with 0.5% rice bran, uncolored dry shreds 5.00

Chicken broth" for FFI-1 uncolored dry shreds 20.00 a-carrageenan 0.50

Starches 5.00

Tripolyphosphate 0.30

Salt 0.30

Prepared like fish broth

Frozen chicken meat and fat were partially thawed and chopped together in a bowl cutter. All other ingredients are chopped until cold emulsion is formed. The FFI-1 uncolored dry shreds were hydrated with chicken broth in a ratio of 1:4 extrudate to chicken broth. The tacky meat emulsion is then placed in a greased rectangular pan and stored in the freezer until firm for cutting. The frozen block of chicken emulsion with 0.5% rice bran-containing FFI-1 uncolored shreds was cut into desired sizes and shapes. Adequate amounts of flour, oil, eggs, and spices are used for pre-dusting, batter, and coating. The portioned meat pieces were pre-dusted with flour, battered in semi-liquid mixture of oil, eggs, and spices, and then coated with bread crumbs. The breaded pieces were fried in deep fat until golden brown or fully cooked with internal temperature of 70°C. The chicken nuggets can be stored at frozen conditions before complete frying prior to consumption.

Example 2: Bran-containing FFI-3 intermediate protein extruded product FFI-3 without bran is an intermediate protein extruded product with 50 to 60% calculated theoretical protein (db). FFI-3 extrudates are expanded and porous, and are intended to be used generally to mimic minced pieces of meat once cut, milled, shredded or flaked. Details regarding the effect of various bran applications in FFI-1 formulation in terms of length, diameter, radial expansion, porosity parameters, bulk density, hydration yield, and fiber characteristics are shown in Tables 12 to 14. Table 12. Physical characteristics and porosity of FoodFlow, Inc. Formulation 3 (FFI-3) extrudates with 1.0% incorporation of various brans

Mean values and standard deviations in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (p<0.05) * Concentrations of brans in total dry ingredients are subtracted from carbohydrate sources of FFI-3 formulation intended for extrusion.

The inclusion of 1.0% plant brans in DEBM-3 of intermediate category FFI-3 resulted to extrudates that are significantly (p<0.05) longer extrudates. FFI-3 extrudates with oat and corn bran are significantly less expanded radially, obtained from smaller diameter, than the control. Oat and corn bran-containing extrudates have more pores counted from its cross section as compared with the control and the extrudate with rice bran. The FFI-3 extrudates with various brans have significantly (p<0.05) less area for pores and consequently, greater area for cell walls. The pore sizes also significantly (p<0.05) decreased upon incorporation of 1.0% bran.

Table 13. Bulk density and hydration yield of dried FoodFlow, Inc. Formulation 3 (FFI-3) extruded products (moisture content≤ 10% db)

a Mean values ± standard deviations in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (p<0.05) x Concentration (%), of brans in total dry ingredients is subtracted from carbohydrate sources of FFI-3 formulation intended for extrusion.

x Nugget hydration ratio, rounded off values of hydration yield declared as hydration ratio of dry nugget extrudates in product specification sheets

FFI-3 intermediate protein extrudates with 1.0% oat or corn bran significantly (p<0.05) increased in bulk density that may be attributed to its decreased expansion. The inclusion of various brans to FFI-3 extrudates does not significantly change the hydration yield of dry extruded products.

In the microscopic evaluation (200x magnification) of individual fibers teased off from hydrated extruded nuggets with bran, the fiber characteristics including: transparency; crimpling; and thickness, are described using a 100mm line scale with increasing change in fibers from 0 to 100%. The physical property of allowing transmission of light through the individual fiber is identified by four panelists as transparent (0%), translucent (50%), and opaque (100%) material. Crimpling defined as presence of small irregular folds or ridges, of individual fiber is recognized as smooth (0%), separated waves (50%), and very wavy (100%). The dimension between the two surfaces of the individual fiber is rated as thin (0%), medium thickness (50%), and thick (100%) if height of material is < 0.15 mm, 0.20 - 0.35 mm, and > 0.40 mm, respectively. Table 14. Fiber characteristics of FoodFlow, Inc. Formulation 3 (FFI-3) extruded product with various bran incorporations based on qualitative analysis using stereomicroscope at 200x magnification (n=4)

x Concentrations of brans in total dry ingredients are subtracted from carbohydrate sources of FFI-3 formulation intended for extrusion.

The inclusion of 1.0% various brans does not greatly affect the fiber characteristics of the individual strands of FFI-3 intermediate protein extrudates. Relatively, fibers of intermediate protein extrudates with or without bran are smoother than fibers of high protein extrudates with and without bran.

FFI-3 uncolored flakes with bran. The intermediate protein FFI-1 extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% can be specifically classified as uncolored in color and flakes in form. These bran-containing extrudates can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods.

Intermediate protein extrudate FFI-3 uncolored flakes are extruded using FFI-3 formulation with various bran incorporations that are subtracted from the percentage of carbohydrate sources in DEBM-3. The color of the flaked product ranges from light beige (Pantone 468U) to beige (Pantone 7501U).

FFI-3 intermediate protein extrudate with bran can be mechanically flaked using a grinder with faster cutting speed to produce thinner and smaller flakes. These flaked extrudates are dried to moisture content < 10% (db) using single-belt hot air dryer. The resultant product of uncolored dry flakes extruded material have hydration ratio of 1:4 extrudate to hydration liquid from 1:3 extrudate:hydration liquid when prepared in nugget form. Flaking the extrudates provides greater surface area on final product and increases water absorption during hydration. Hotdog with 1.0% corn bran-containing FFI-3 uncolored dry flakes. A test application of intermediate protein extrudate FFI-3 with 1.0% corn bran dry flakes as filler in processed or manufactured food is in hotdog recipe. In brief, the formulation for hotdog with FFI-3 uncolored dry flakes is shown in Table 15. Table 15. Hotdog Recipe

Chicken meat 15.00 Beef trimmings 15.00 Isolated soy protein 3.00

FFI-3 with 1.0% corn bran, uncolored dry flakes 2.00

Water for FFI-3 uncolored dry flakes 8.00

Starch 5.00

Phosphate 0.30

Curing salt 0.02

Flavors 4.08

Salt, refined 1.20

Crushed ice 26.40

The FFI-3 uncolored dry flakes with 1.0% com bran are hydrated with 4 parts water and are set aside. Beef and chicken meat are chopped at low speed using a bowl cutter. Then phosphate, salt, and a third ^' of crushed ice are added with the meat mixture. The ingredients are chopped at low speed until tacky. Curing salt is added during chopping at low speed. Beef trimmings, protein, flavors, and another third of crushed ice are included in the blend followed by chopping at high speed. The previously hydrated FFI-3 uncolored grits are incorporated and chopped followed by the inclusion of starch and remaining crushed ice. The emulsion is chopped for about 2 minutes maintaining at≤ 12°C. The final emulsion is filled into 22 to 24 mm red cellulose casing and cooked until internal temperature of 75 to 80°C using a smokehouse (Bastra, Germany).

FFI-3 colored granules with bran. The intermediate protein FFI-1 extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% can be specifically classified as colored and granules in form. These bran-containing extrudates can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods. Intermediate protein extrudate FFI-3 colored are extruded using FFI-3 formulation with various bran incorporations and maximum of 5% incorporation of various combinations of food grade colorants such as FD &C dyes, pigments, and natural food colors utilized at their allowable limits. The amount of brans and colorants are subtracted from the percentage of carbohydrate sources in DEBM-3. The color of the finished product varies depending on the preferred shade of red, orange, and yellow. The example substitutions of extrudates for candied fruits are cherry pieces, pineapple, and orange peels. FFI-3 extrudate with bran can be granulated into small rectangular pieces using a die design customized for production of fruit and vegetable analog. These extrudates are dried to moisture content < 10% (db) using single-belt hot air dryer. The resultant product of colored extruded granules have hydration ratio of 1:2 extrudate to hydration liquid from 1:3 extrudate:hydration liquid when prepared in nugget form. The granules are smaller in size but have greater surface area covered by extrudate skin, thus, reducing the water absorption capacity of the extrudates.

Fruit pudding with 1.0% oat bran-containing FFI-3 colored dry granules. A test application of intermediate protein extrudate FFI-3 with 1.0% oat bran dry pieces as analog in food-service prepared is in steamed fruit pudding. In brief, the formulation for steamed pudding with FFI-3 colored dry pieces as candied fruits is shown in Table 16.

Table 16. Steamed Fruit Pudding Recipe

Ingredients Weight, %

Self-rising flour 20.00 Butter 20.00 Refined sugar 15.00 FFI-3 with 1.0% oat bran, colored dry pieces soaked in fruit syrups^' 12.00 (as cherry, pineapple, and orange peel pieces)

Whole fresh beaten egg 14.00 Buttermilk 5.00 Orange marmalade 7.00 Pineapple jam . 7.00

Fruit syrups of pineapple, cherry, and orange with 22 °Bx are prepared as steeping solutions for the colored extruded granules to be used as substitutes for fruits in the pudding recipe at 100% level of replacement. The flour and butter are placed in a mixing bowl and are rubbed together until mixed. The sugar, prepared extruded pieces soaked in fruit syrup, egg, and milk were added and mixed until thoroughly blended. The pudding basin is greased, the combination of orange marmalade and pineapple jam is placed in the bottom of the basin, and the mixed batter is added. The top of the basin is loosely covered with foil and steamed for 1 hour and 30 minutes. The pudding can be served with the remaining fruit sauce used for soaking the extrudates.

Intermediate protein extrudate FFI-3 extrudate with 1.0% rice bran and about 5% blend of food grade colorants to obtain different shades of green are granulated into small rectangular granules using a die design to produce pieces of vegetable analogs such as leeks, cabbage, lettuce, asparagus, and coriander. The cutter speed is varied according to the desired profile of vegetable analog. In addition, FFI-3 extrudate with bran and about 5% blend of food grade colorants to obtain bright shade of orange can also be granulated into small square pieces to be applied as analog for diced carrots. Also, blend of food grade colorants to obtain brown shade may be done to produce analog for ground beef. The total amount of various combinations of colorants is subtracted from the percent of carbohydrate sources in DEB -3 of FFI-3 formulation. These extrudates are dried to moisture content < 10% (db) using single- belt hot air dryer. The resultant product of colored extrudate granules have hydration ratio of 1:2 extrudate to hydration liquid from 1:3 extrudate:hydration liquid when prepared in nugget form.

Decrease in hydration ratio is due to the larger surface area of extrudate skin, which limits the migration of water into the extrudate. Rice bran-containing FFI-3 with variations as described above can be applied as analog for leeks, carrots, and ground beef in instant noodle formulation. In brief, the formulation for commercially packed noodles with FFI-3 colored dry pieces as vegetable and meat toppings are shown below.

Dried vegetable pieces and ground meat for instant noodles using 1.0% rice bran-containing FFI-3 colored dry granules. A test application of intermediate protein extrudate FFI-3 with 1.0% rice bran colored dry granules as analog in processed or manufactured food is in instant noodles. In brief, the formulation for instant with FFI-3 colored dry granules is shown in Table 17. Table 17. Instant Noodles Recipe

Ingredients [ Weight, %

Dried ready-to-eat noodles for hydration with hot water 92.00 FFI-3 with 1.0% rice bran, dry orange granule as carrot analog 1.0 FFI-3 with 1.0% rice bran, dry brown granule as ground beef analog 1.0 FFI-3 with 1.0% rice bran, dry green granule as leek analog 1.0 Spice mix (hot fried seasoning) 5

Spice mix was packed separately in a sachet. FFI-3 with 1.0% rice bran, dry colored (orange, brown, and green) extruded granules were packed together in a sachet as toppings. The sachet for spice mix and toppings were packed together with dried instant noodles in its primary packaging material. FFI-3 extrudate with 1.0% corn bran is incorporated with about 5% blend of food grade colorants to match cooked pork-like color. The amount of bran and colorants are subtracted from the percent of carbohydrate sources in DEBM-3 of FFI-3 formulation. These extrudates are dried to moisture content < 10% (db) using single-belt hot air dryer. The resultant product of colored pieces of extruded material have hydration ratio of 1:2 extrudate to hydration liquid from 1:3 extrudate:hydration liquid when prepared in nugget form. The granules are smaller in size but have greater surface area covered by skin, thus, reducing the water absorption capacity of the extrudates.

Spring roll with 1.0% corn bran-containing FFI-3 brown granules. A test application of intermediate protein extrudate FFI-3 with 1.0% corn bran colored dry granules as analog in food service prepared food is in spring roll. In brief, the formulation for spring roll with FFI-3 colored dry granules is shown in Table 18. Table 18. Spring Roll Recipe

Ingredients Weight, %

Meat Portions 20.00 Cooked ground pork meat 5.00 FFI-3 brown dry granules with 1.0% corn bran 5.00 Pork broth for FFI-3* 10.00

Vegetable Portions 70.00 Lettuce leaves torn into strips 20.00 Cucumber sliced into thin strips 15.00 Bean sprouts 10.00 Grated carrots 15.00 Bean thread noodles 10.00

Other Ingredients 10.00 Chopped green o 5.00 Cayenne pepper 0.50 Soy sauce 1.00

. Sugar 0.50

FFI-3 brown dry granules with 1.0% corn bran are hydrated using 1:2 extrudate:pork broth. Ground meat and hydrated FFI-3 brown dry granules are stir fried in oil and added with onions, pepper, soy sauce, and sugar. Vegetable portions, except bean sprouts, are also stir fried until the vegetables softened. Mixed meat and vegetable portions are removed from heat. Bean sprouts are then tossed in the mixture. Ample amounts of stir-fried mixture are wrapped in thawed spring roll wrappers. Wrapped spring rolls are deep fat fried and served with sweet chili sauce.

Example 3: FFI extrudates with plant fibers

FFI extrudates can be manufactured utilizing plant fibers in replacement for brans. FFI extrudates with plant fiber incorporation at 0.5 to 3.0% to produce products that are quite dense and not too expanded. The different plant fibers that can be substituted to bran, but not limited to it, are: bamboo fiber, coconut meat fiber, oat fiber, potato fiber, and soya fiber.

It is expected that for FFI-1 and FFI-2 at 0.5 to 3.0% incorporation, these high protein, low carbohydrate extrudates are significantly longer and less expanded than the respective control. Stronger cell walls are anticipated to develop around the pores at lower incorporations of 0.5 to 1.0% plant fiber. Thinning and smoothening of individual fibers at 1.0 to 3.0% incorporation of plant fibers are also expected.

For intermediate protein extrudates, FFI-3 and FFI-4, incorporation of plant fibers is expected to possess the following characteristics as compared with its corresponding control: longer extrudates, less expansion, more number of pores, smaller pore sizes, and increase in apparent cell wall area. Even if the protein is already considered intermediate, the incorporation of fibers improves the texture of extrudate by increasing its density and providing stronger cell wall to surround its pores.

The high protein and intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated plant fibers up to 3.0% can be subcategorized into colors, forms, cuts, shapes, and granulations, and can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods.

CITATIONS

Patent Literature

Allen, P.E., Flickinger, G., Kirihara, T.T., and Robie, S.C. (2007). High protein puffed food product and method of preparation. US Patent 7,235,276 B2. 26 June 2007.

Bagley, R.D. (1974). Extrusion method for forming thin-walled honeycomb-structures. US Patent 3,790,654. 05 February 1974.

Brown, D.W., Yakabu, P. I., Paulsen, P.V., Baumer, C.R., and Solorio, S. (2005). High soy protein nuggets and application in food product. WO 2005/096834 A2. 20 October 2005.

Calandro, T., Straka, R., and Verrico, M. (1988). Bran extrusion process. US Patent 4,756,921. 12 July 1988.

Chu, B.U., Azanza, M.P.V., Alday, J.C., and Hoogenkamp, H. (2010). Extruded meat extenders and analogs comprising stabilized cereal brans. PH UMR 2-2010-000154. 20 September 2010.

Duvall, L.F. (1982). Com bran expanded cereal. US Patent 4,350,714. 21 September 1982.

Keller, L.C., Lai, R., Niermann, J.T., Rao, V.N.M., and Stalder, J.W. (2006). Low carbohydrate direct expanded snack and method for making. 26 January 2006.

Lusas, E.W., Guzman, G.J., and Doty, S.C. (1995). Method of making a non-porous vegetable protein fiber product. US Patent 5,437,885. 01 August 1995.

Yakubu, P.I. and Klein, A.J. (2009). Protein extrudates comprising whole grains. 18 June 2009.

Non Patent Literature

Anderson, Y., Hedlund, B., Jonsson, L, and Svensson, S. (1981). Extrusion cooking of a high-fiber cereal product with crispbread character. Cereal Chem., 58(5), 370-374. ISSN: 0009-0352

Ardhekani, A. and Raiszadeh, R. (2011). Removal of double oxide film defects by ceramic foam filtersJ. Mat. Eng. and Performance, 1-11. Retrieved from SpringerLink. Retrieved from

http://www.springerlink.com

Berk, Z. (1992). Technology of production of edible flours and protein products from soy beans. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Breen, M.D., Seyam, A.A., and Banasik, O.J. (1977). The effect of mill by-products and soy protein on the physical characteristics of expanded snack foods. Cereal Chem., 54(4), 728-736. Retrieved from AACC International. Retrieved from http://www.aaccnet.org Bruin, S._; van Zuilichem, D.J., and Stolp, W. (1978). A review of fundamental and engineering aspects of extrusion of biopolymers in a single screw extruder. J. Food Process Eng., 2(1), 1-37. doi: 10.1111/j.l745- 4530.1978.tb00193.x

Burgess, L.D. and Stanley, D.W. (1976). A possible mechanism for thermal texturization of soybean proteins. J Ints Can Sci Technol Aliment, 9(4), 228-229.

Chang, C.N. (1992). Study of the mechanism of starchy polymer extrudate expansion. Ph.D. Thesis. Rutgers Univeristy, New Jersey.

Chiang, B.Y. and Johnson, J.A. (1977). Gelatinization of starch in extruded products. Cereal Chem., 54(3), 436-443. Retrieved from AACC International. Retrieved from http://www.aaccnet.org

Choudhury, G.S. and A. Gautam. (2003). Hydrolyzed fish muscle as a modifier of rice flour extrudate characteristics. J. Food Sci., 68(5), 1713-1721. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tbl2318.x

Cisneros, F.H. (1999). Air bubble nucleation during starch extrusion. Ph.D. Thesis. Rutgers University, New Jersey.

Cisneros, F.H. and Kokini, J.L. (2002a). A generalized theory linking barrel fill length and air bubble entrapment during extrusion of starch. J. Food Eng., 51(2), 139-149. doi: 10.1016/S0260-8774(01)00050- 4

Cisneros, F.H. and Kokini, J.L. (2002b). Effect of extrusion operating parameters on air bubble entrapment. J. Food Eng., 25(4), 251-284. doi: 10.1111/j.l745-4530.2002.tb00566.x

Delia Valle, G., Vergnes, B., Colonna, P., and Patria, A. (1997). Relations between rheological properties of molten starches and their expansion behavior in extrusion. J. Food Eng., 31(3), 277-295. doi:

10.1016/S0260-8774(96)00080-5

Donovan, J.W. (1979). Phase transitions in the starch-water system. Biopolymers, 18(2), 263-275. doi: 10.1002/bip.l979.360180204

Guy, R. (Ed.). (2001). Extrusion cooking: Technologies and applications. England: Woodhead publishing Limited

Guy, R.C.E. and Home, A.W. (1988). Extrusion and co-extrusion cereals, 341-349 in: Food Structures-Its Creation and Evalaution. Blanshard, M.V. and Mitchell, J.R. (Eds.) London: Butterworths.

Ha, T.T. (1995). Texturization of low-fat extruded/expelled soy flour by twin-screw extruder. M.S. Thesis. University of Illinois, Urbana, USA. Harper, J.M. (1981) Extrusion of foods II. Florida: CRC Press.

Heinz, G. and Hautzinger, P. (2007). Meat processing technology for small- to medium-scale producers. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Hooseney, R.C., Mason, W.R., Lai, C.S., and Guetzlaff, J. 1992. Factors affecting the viscosity and structure of extrusion-cooked wheat starch. In: Kokini, J.L., Ho C.T., and Karwe, M.V. (Eds). Food extrusion science and technology. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Hoover, R. (2001). Composition, molecular structure, and physicochemical properties of tuber and root starches: a review. Carbohydrate Polymers, 45(3), 253-267. doi: 10.1016/S0144-8617(00)00260-5

Housiadas, K. and Tsamopoulos, J. (2000). Cooling of a viscoelastic film during unsteady extrusion from an annular die. Rheologica Acta, 39(), 44-61. Retrieved from SpringerLink. Retrieved from

http://www.springerlink.com

Hsieh, F., Huff, H.E., Lue, S., and Stringer, I. (1991). Twin-screw extrusion of sugar beet fiber and corn meal. Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 24(6), 495-500. INIST : 14996, 35400002773407.0050

Hsieh, F., Mulvaney, S.J., Huff, H.E., Lue, S., and Brent J. Jr. (1989). Effects of dietary fiber and screw speed on some extrusion processing and product variables. Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 22, 204

Jin, Z., Hsieh, F., and Huff H.E. (1994). Extrusion cooking of corn meal with soy fiber, salt, and sugar. Cereal Chem., 71(3), 227-234. Retrieved from AACC International. Retrieved from

http://www.aaccnet.org

Lawton, B.T., Henderson, G.A., and Derlatka, E.J. (1972). The effects of extruder variables on gelatinization of corn starch. Can. J. Chem. Eng., 50(2), 168-172. doi: 10.1002/cjce.5450500205

Lawton, J.W., Davis, A.B., and Behnke, K.C. (1985). High-temperature, short-time extrusion of wheat gluten and a bran-like fraction. Cereal Chem.62(4), 267-271. Retrieved from AACC International.

Retrieved from http://www.aaccnet.org

Li, M. and Lee, T.C. (1996). Effect of cysteine on the functional properties and microstructures of wheat flour extrudates. J. Agric. Food Chem., 44(7), 1871-1880. doi: 10.1021/jf9505741

Lue, H.E., Hsieh, F., and Huff, H.E. (1991). Extrusion cooking of corn meal and sugar beet fiber: Effects on expansion properties, starch gelatinization, and dietary fiber content. Cereal Chem., 68(3), 227-234. Retrieved from AACC International. Retrieved from http://www.aaccnet.org

Lue, S., Hsieh, F., Peng, I.e., and Huff, H.E. (1990). Expansion of corn extrudates containing dietary fiber: A microstructure study. Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 23(2), 165-173. ISSN: 0023-6438

Lukkassen, D. and Meidell, A. (2008). Advanced materials and structures and their fabrication processes. Book manuscript, Narvik University C ollege, Norway.

Intelligent Perception. (2010). Pixcavator Image Analysis 4.3. Retrieved from http://www.inperc.com

Madeka, H. and Kokini, J.L. (1992). Effect of addition of zein and gliadin on the rheological properties of amylopectin starch with low-to-intermediate moisture. Cereal Chem., 69(5), 489-494. Retrieved from AACC International. Retrieved from http://www.aaccnet.org

Mercier, C, Linko, P., and Harper, J.M. (1989). Extrusion Cooking. Minnesota: American Association of Cereal Chemists.

Mitchell J.R. and Areas, J.A.G. (1992). Structural changes in biopolymers during extrusion. In: Food extrusion science and technology. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Moraru, C.I. and Kokini, J.L. (2003). Nucleation and expansion during extrusion and microwave heating of cereal foods. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. F., 2(4), 147-165. doi: 10.1111/j.l541-4337.2003.tb00020.x

Moscicki, L. and van Zuilichem, D.J. (2011). Extrusion-cooking and related technique, 1-24 in: Extrusion- Cooking Techniques: Theory and Sustainability. Moscicki, L. (Ed) Weinhem: Wiley.

Noguchi, A. (1989). Extrusion cooking of high-moisture protein foods. In: Mercier, C, Linko, P., and Harper, J.M. (Eds.). Extrusion cooking. Minnesota: American Association of Cereal Chemists.

Padmanabhan, M., and Bhattacharya, M. (1989). Extrudate expansion during extrusion cooking of foods. Cereal Foods World, 34(11), 945-949. ISSN: 0146-6283

Park, K.H. 1976. Elucidation of the extrusion puffing process. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Illinois, Illinois. Parker, R. and Ring, S.G. (2001). Aspects of the physical chemistry of starch. J. Cereal Sci., 34(1):1-17. doi: 10.1006/jcrs.2000.0402

Qu, D. and Wang, S.S. (1994). Kinetics of the formations of gelatinized and melted starch at extrusion cooking conditions. Starch, 46(6), 225-229. doi: 10.1002/star.19940460605

Rareunrom , K., Tongta, S., and Yongsawatdigul, J. (2008). Effects of soy protein isolate on chemical and physical characteristics of meat analog. Asian Journal of Food and Agro-Industry, 1(2), 97-104. Retrieved from Asian Journal of Food and Agro-Industry. Retrieved from http://www.ajofai.info

Rosse, J.L. and Miller, R.C. (1973). Food Extrusion. Food Technol., 27(8), 46-53.

Sheard, P.R., Leward, D.A., and Mitchell, J.R. (1984). Role of carbohydrates in soya extrusion. Journal of Food Technology, 19(4), 475-483. doi: 10.1111/j.l365-2621.1984.tb00371.x Stanley, D.W. (1989) Protein reactions during extrusion processing. In: Mercier, C, Linko, P., and Harper, J.M. (Eds.). Extrusion cooking. Minnesota: American Association of Cereal Chemists.

Tolstoguzov, V.B. ( 1993). Thermoplastic extrusion - the mechanism of the formation of extrudate structure and properties. J.American Oil Chem.Soc, 70(4), 417-424, doi:10.1007/BF02552717

Tolstoguzov, V.B., Gringerg, V.Y., and Gurov, A.N. (1985) Some physicochemical approaches to the problem of protein texturization. J. Agric. Food Chem., 33(2), 151-159, doi:10.1021/jf00062a001

Van Zuilichem, D.J. (1992). Extrusion cooking. Craft or Science? Ph.D. Thesis. Wageningen University, Netherlands.

Verbeek, C.J.R. and van den Berg, L.E. (2010). Extrusion processing and properties of protein-based thermoplastics. Macro. Mol. Mater. Eng., 295(1), 10-21. doi: 10.1002/mame.200900167

Wang S.S., Chiang, W.C., Zhao B., and Kim, I.H. (1991). Experimental analysis and computer simulation of starch-water interactions during phase transition. J. Food Sci., 56(1), 121-124. doi: 10.1111/j.l365- 2621.1991.tb07990.x

Wang, S.S. (1993). Gelatinization and melting of starch and tribochemistry in extrusion. Starch, 45(11), 388-390. doi: 10.1002/star.l9930451104 Yao, N Jannink, J.L., Alavi, S., and White, P.J. (2006). Physical and sensory characteristics of extruded products made from two oat lines and different beta-glucan concentrations. Cereal Chem., 83(6), 692- 699. Retrieved from AACC International. Retrieved from http://www.aaccnet.org

Zhang, W. and Hooseney, R.C. (1998). Factors affecting expansion of corn meals with poor and good expansion properties. Cereal Chem., 75(5), 639-643. Retrieved from AACC International. Retrieved from http://www.aaccnet.org

Claims

1. A high protein textured extrudate from food grade biomaterials with greater than 60% calculated theoretical protein content (% db) of the dry extrusion base mixes (DEBM) with incorporated bran and plant fibers up to 3.0% as dispersed phase fillers to create variability in physical characteristics of the resultant direct expanded products.

2. An intermediate protein textured extrudate from food grade biomaterials with 50 to 60%

calculated theoretical protein content (% db) of the DEBM with incorporated bran and plant fibers up to 3.0% as dispersed phase fillers to create variability in physical characteristics of the resultant direct expanded products.

3. The DEBMs of claims 1 or 2 of the textured extrudate from plant biomaterials incorporated with brans and fibers essentially comprise of structure-forming ingredients from plant protein sources (60 to 85%) and plant carbohydrate sources (15 to 40%).

4. The plant protein sources as structure forming materials of DEBM of claim 3 consist of, but not limited to, green pea powder, cottonseed flour, peanut flour, soy flour, soy concentrate, wheat gluten, pea protein isolate, and soy protein isolate.

5. The plant carbohydrate sources as structure forming materials of DEBM of claim 3 consist of, but not limited to, cassava starch, cornstarch, millet flour, quinoa flour, rice flour, rye flour, semolina flour, sorghum flour, tapioca starch, potato starch, and wheat flour.

6. The calculated theoretical protein of claims 1 or 2 is the summation of the concentrations of protein declared as percent protein of ingredients in a formulation.

7. The dispersed phase fillers of DEBM in claims 1 or 2 constitute insoluble materials or ingredients relatively hard to solubilize in water such as brans and plant fibers.

8. The brans in claim 7 of the DEBM include, but not limited to, oat bran, rice bran, wheat bran, white corn bran, and yellow corn bran.

9. The plant fibers in claim 7 of the DEBM include, but not limited to, bamboo fiber, coconut meat fiber, oat fiber, potato fiber, and soya fiber.

10. The high protein extrudates and intermediate protein extrudates with dispersed phase fillers, comprising brans in claim 8 and plant fibers in claim 9, are characterized by extrudate physical characteristics, namely: diameter, length, radial expansion, porosity parameters, bulk density, hydration yield, and fiber characteristics.

11. The high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% are significantly larger in diameter and more expanded radially than those without bran at 5% level of significance.

12. The high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% have significantly less number of developed pores but with pores tended to become bigger than in extrudates without bran at 5% level of significance.

13. The high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% have significantly greater bulk density than those without bran at 5% level of significance.

14. The high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans from 1.0% to 3.0% have significantly thinner and smoother individual fibers than those without bran at 5% level of significance.

15. The length, porosity content, apparent cell wall content, and hydration yield of high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% are similar to those without bran.

16. The high protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 3.0% can be subcategorized into colors, forms, cuts, shapes, and granulations, and can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods.

17. The intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 1.0% are significantly longer than those without bran at 5% level of significance.

18. The intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 1.0% are significantly smaller in diameter and less expanded radially than those without bran at 5% level of significance.

19. The intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 1.0% have significantly more number of smaller pores with less area occupied by pores and consequently, larger area occupied by apparent cell walls than those without bran at 5% level of significance.

20. The intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 1.0% have significantly greater bulk density than those without bran at 5% level of significance.

21. The hydration yield and fiber characteristics of high protein extrudates from food grade

biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 1.0% are similar to those without bran.

22. The intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with incorporated brans up to 1.0% can be subcategorized into colors, forms, cuts, shapes, and granulations, and can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods.

23. The high protein and intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with

incorporated plant fibers up to 3.0% are considered to have the same changes in extrudate physical characteristics including: length; diameter; radial expansion; porosity parameters; bulk density; hydration yield; and fiber characteristics as what have been established with bran incorporation up to 3.0% compared to those without bran.

24. The high protein and intermediate protein extrudates from food grade biomaterials with

incorporated plant fibers up to 3.0% can be subcategorized into colors, forms, cuts, shapes, and granulations, and can be applied as extender, filler, and analog of meat, vegetable, fruit, fish and fishery recipes and products in food service-prepared, processed, or manufactured foods.