WO2012142162A2

WO2012142162A2 - Fluorination of organic compounds

Info

Publication number: WO2012142162A2
Application number: PCT/US2012/033125
Authority: WO
Inventors: Tobias Ritter; Pingping Tang
Original assignee: President And Fellows Of Harvard College
Priority date: 2011-04-12
Filing date: 2012-04-11
Publication date: 2012-10-18
Also published as: EP2697204A4; US9150516B2; EP2697204A2; EP2697204B1; WO2012142162A3; CN103596931A; US20120316341A1; CN103596931B

Abstract

Methods for fluorinating organic compounds are described herein.

Description

FLUORIDATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 1 19(e) to U.S. provisional applications: USSN 61/474,535, filed April 12, 201 1 which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to compounds, composition and methods of fluorinating an organic compound using a fluorinating agent.

BACKGROUND OF INVENTION

Functionalized aryl fluorides are used as pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals, in part due to their favorable pharmacological properties such as increased metabolic stability (see, for example, Miiller et ai , Science 2007, 317, 1881-1886; Kirk et ai , Org. Process Res. Dev. 2001, 41, 443-470; and Jeschke, P. ChemBioChem 2004, 5, 570-589). Aryl fluorides also find applications as tracers in positron emission tomography using the [^l8F] isotope (Lasne, et ai In Contrast Agents. II, 2002; Vol. 222, pp 201 -258). Fluorine has the highest

electronegativity, the highest oxidation potential, and the smallest anionic radius of all elements, each of which complicates carbon-fluorine bond formation when compared to other carbon-heteroatom bond formations (see, for example, Chambers, R.D., Fluorine in organic chemistry. Oxford: New York, 2004; and Furuya et ai Curr. Opin. Drug Discov. Devel. 2008, 11 , 803-819). SUMMARY OF INVENTION

Described herein are novel compounds, compositions and methods for fluorinating organic compounds.

In one aspect, the present invention is directed to a compound of formula (I):

X

R^LN_VN-R²

F F

(I).

wherein R¹ and R² are each independently selected from Ci-6 alkyl, C6- 12 aryl, C6- I 2 aralkyl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl, 6- 12 membered heteroaralkyl, 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclylalkyl, each of which is substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵;

X is an optionally substituted C2-C5 alkenylene moiety; and

each R⁵ is independently selected from halo, C|.₈ alkyl, C|.₈ haloalkyl, Ci_₈ alkoxy, C6- 12 aryl and 6- 12 membered heteroaryl.

In some embodiments, R¹ and R² are each independently selected from C6- 12 aryl, C - 12 aralkyl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl, 6- 12 membered heteroaralkyl, 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclylalkyl, each of which is substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵. In some embodiments, R¹ and R are each independently selected from C<s- !2 aryl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl. In some embodiments, R¹ and R² are each independently selected from C6-12 membered aryl or 6- 12 membered heteroaryl. In some embodiments, R¹ and R² are C6- 12 membered aryl (e.g., phenyl) substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵. In some embodiments, R¹ and R² are C6.12 membered aryl (e.g., phenyl) substituted with 2 occurrences of R⁵. In some embodiments, R and R² are phenyl substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵. In some embodiments, R¹ and R² are phenyl substituted with 2 occurrences of R⁵.

In some embodiments, X is a optionally substituted C2 alkenylene. In some embodiments, the alkeneylene moiety has a single double bond

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) is a compound of formula (la):

(R³)n

-h

R'^{' N} _X ^{N '}R²

F^F da),

wherein R¹ and R² are as described herein;

each R³ is independently selected from Ci_₈ alkyl, nitro, cyano, halo, Ci.₈ haloalkyl, C|.₈ alkoxy, C6-12 aryl. C6-12 aralkyl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl, 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclylalkyl; and

n is 0, 1 or 2.

In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1. In some embodiments, n is 2. In some embodiments, each R³ is independently selected from halo, C| .8 alky], C|.₈ haloalkyl or C|.₈ alkoxy. In some embodiments, each R³ is C|.₈ haloalkyl (e.g.,

trifluoromethyl). In some embodiments, each R³ is halo (e.g., fluoro or chloro).

In some embodiments, is a compound of formula (lb):

lb),

wherein each R⁵ is as described herein. In some embodiments, each R⁵ is independently selected from alkyl, Ci-₈ haloalkyl and Ci.₈ alkoxy. In some embodiments, each R⁵ is 8 alkyl (e.g., isopropyl).

compound of formula (Ic)

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of fluorinating a hydroxy organic compound or a tautomer thereof, the method comprising mixing a compound of formula (I) and the organic compound under conditions sufficient to fluorinate the substrate, thereby providing a fluorinated organic compound.

In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound comprises ^l8F or ^l9F.

In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound comprises an aryl group (e.g., phenol). In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound comprises a hydroxy heteroaryl group. In some embodiment, the hydroxy organic compound comprises a vinyl alcohol. In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound comprises an aryl group (e.g., phenol) and the fluorinated organic compound is a fluorinated phenyl group.

In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound comprises a tautomer. In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound comprises a tautomer of a hydroxy heterocyclyl group (e.g., a pyridone).

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a reagent. In some embodiments, the reagent is a zinc reagent (e.g., diphenyl zinc).

In some embodiments, the reagent is present in a catalytic amount (e.g., 5 mol%, 10 mol%, 20 mol , 30 mol%, 50 mol or 75 mol%). In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof is a precursor or a pharmaceutically acceptable compound.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises an additional fluorine source. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is F or a precursor thereof. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a salt. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a cesium salt (e.g!, CsF). In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a potassium salt (e.g., F).

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a solvent. In some

embodiments, the solvent is a nonpolar solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent is toluene. In some embodiments, the solvent is dioxane. In some embodiments, the solvent is benzene.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises an inert atmosphere.

In some embodiments, the reaction is performed under anhydrous conditions.

In some embodiments, the reaction proceeds at ambient temperature.

In some embodiments, the reaction comprises cooling.

In some embodiments, the reaction comprises a source of energy.

In some embodiments, the reaction comprises heat.

In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound comprises an aryl group. In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound is a pharmaceutically acceptable compound or a prodrug thereof.

In some embodiments, a compound employed in the method (e.g., a compound of formula (Γ) or a hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof) is immobilized on a solid support.

In some embodiments, the fluorination takes place at a late stage in the synthesis of the fluorinated organic compound. In some embodiments, the fluorination is the last step in the synthesis of the fluorinated organic compound. In some embodiments, the organic compound is made using a multi step synthesis.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises purification of the fluorinated organic compound from the reaction mixture.

In some embodiments, the yield of the fluorinated organic compound from the organic compound is at least about 20% (e.g., at least about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 98%).

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of producing a compound of formula (I), the method comprising reacting a compound of formula (II):

wherein R^] , R², R³, R⁴, R⁵ and X are as described herein; wherein

LG is a leaving group; and

Q is an anion;

with a fluorine source to produce the compound of formula (I).

In some embodiments, LG is a halogen (e.g., chloro or bromo). In some

embodiments, LG is a triflate group.

In some embodiments, Q is a halogen anion (e.g., CI^"). In some embodiments, Q is a triflate anion.

In some embodiments, R¹ and R² are each independently selected from C - 12 aryl, C6-

12 aralkyl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl, 6- 12 membered heteroaralkyl, 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclylalkyl, each of which is substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵. In some embodiments, R¹ and R² are each independently selected from C6- 12 aryl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl. In some

embodiments, R ¹ and R² are each independently selected from Ce- i 2 membered aryl or 6- 12 membered heteroaryl. In some embodiments, R¹ and R² are C6- 12 membered aryl (e.g.,

5 I 2 phenyl) substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R^J. In some embodiments, R and R are C6- 12 membered aryl (e.g., phenyl) substituted with 2 occurrences of R⁵. In some embodiments, R ¹ and R² are phenyl substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵. In some embodiments, R ¹ and R² are phenyl substituted with 2 occurrences of R⁵.

In some embodiments, X is an optionally substituted C2 alkenylene. In some embodiments, the alkeneylene moiety has a single double bond

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (Π) is a compound of formula (Ila):

wherein R¹ and R² are as described herein;

each R is independently selected fromCi.₈ alkyl, nitro, cyano, halo, Ci_₈ haloalkyl, C |.₈ alkoxy, C6-12 aryl, C6-12 aralkyl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl, 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclylalkyl; and n is 0, 1 or 2.

In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1. In some embodiments, n is 2.

In some embodiments, each R³ is independently selected from halo, C|.₈ alkyl, C|.₈ haloalkyl or C|.₈ alkoxy. In some embodiments, each R³ is Ci_₈ haloalkyl (e.g.,

In some embodiments ) is a compound of formula (lib):

cr (rib),

wherein each R⁵ is as described herein. In some embodiments, each R⁵ is independently selected from d.₈ alkyl, Cj.₈ haloalkyl and C].g alkoxy. In some embodiments, each R⁵ is C\. ₈ alkyl (e.g., isopropyl).

In some embodiments d of formula (lie),

(iic).

In some embodiments, the method further comprises reacting the compound of formula (I) with a hydroxy organic compound or a tautomer thereof under conditions sufficient to fluorinate the organic compound, thereby providing a fluorinated organic compound.

In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound comprises ^l F or ^l9F.

In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound comprises a tautomer. In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound comprises a tautomer of a hydroxy

heterocyclyl group (e.g., a pyridone). In some embodiments, the hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof is a precursor to a pharmaceutically acceptable compound.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a reagent. In some

embodiments, the reagent is a zinc reagent (e.g., diphenyl zinc).

In some embodiments, the reagent is present in a catalytic amount (e.g., 5 mol%, 10 mol%, 20 mol%, 30 mol%, 50 mol% or 75 mol ).

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a fluorine source. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is F or a precursor thereof. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a salt. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a cesium salt (e.g., CsF). In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a potassium salt (e.g., KF).

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a solvent. In some

In some embodiments, the method further comprises an inert atmosphere.

In some embodiments, the reaction is performed under anhydrous conditions.

In some embodiments, the reaction proceeds at ambient temperature.

In some embodiments, the reaction comprises cooling.

In some embodiments, the reaction comprises a source of energy.

In some embodiments, the reaction comprises heat.

In some embodiments, a compound employed in the method (e.g., a compound of formula (I) or a hydroxy organic compound or tautomer) is immobilized on a solid support.

In some embodiments, the yield of the fluorinated organic compound from the organic compound is at least about 20% (e.g., at least about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 98%). In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a reaction mixture comprising a compound of formula (ΓΓ) and a fluorine source.

In some embodiments, the reaction mixture further comprises a reagent. In some embodiments, the reagent is a zinc reagent (e.g., diphenyl zinc).

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a composition comprising a compound of formula (Π) and a fluorine source.

In some embodiments, the composition further comprises a reagent. In some embodiments, the reagent is a zinc reagent (e.g., diphenyl zinc).

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a reaction mixture comprising a compound of formula (I) or (II), a hydroxy organic compound or a tautomer thereof and a fluorine source.

In some embodiments, the organic compound comprises an aryl group (e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, the organic compound comprises a phenol group.

In some embodiments, the reaction mixture further comprises a fluorine source. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is F or a precursor thereof. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a salt. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a cesium salt (e.g., CsF). In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a potassium salt (e.g., F).

In some embodiments, the reaction mixture further comprises a solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent is a non-polar solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent is toluene. In some embodiments, the solvent is dioxane. In some embodiments, the solvent is benzene.

In some embodiments, the solvent is a nonpolar solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent is toluene.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a composition comprising a compound of formula (I) and an additional component. In some embodiments, the component is a substrate. In some embodiments, the substrate is an organic compound comprising an aryl group.

In some embodiments, the component is a reagent. In some embodiments, the reagent is a fluoride source (e.g., cesium fluoride or potassium fluoride). In some embodiments, the composition comprises a plurality of reagents.

In some embodiments, the component is a solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent is a non-polar solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent is toluene. In some embodiments, the solvent is dioxane. In some embodiments, the solvent is benzene.

In another aspect, the presen directed to a compound of formula (II):

wherein

R ' and R² are each independently selected from Ci^ alkyl, C -12 aryl, C$.12 aralkyl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl, 6- 12 membered heteroaralkyl, 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclylalkyl, each of which is substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵;

X is an optionally substituted C2-C5 alkenylene moiety;

each R⁵ is independently selected from halo, C|._g alkyl, Ci-8 haloalkyl, C|.₈ alkoxy, C6- 12 aryl and 6- 12 membered heteroaryl,

LG is a leaving group; and

Q is an anion.

In some embodiments, Q is not a chloride anion. In some embodiments, LG is not a chloro group. In some embodiments, Q is not a chloride anion and LG is not a chloro group.

In some embodiments, Q is a triflate anion. In some embodiments, LG is a inflate group.

In some embodiments, Q is a triflate anion and LG is a triflate group.

In some embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (lid):

(R³)n

_R1-N _N^N . _R2

LG Q- (Dd),

wherein R³ and n are as described herein.

In some embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (He):

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a kit comprising a compound of formula (I) and a container.

In some embodiments, the container is a vial. In some embodiments, the container is a sealed ampule. In some embodiments, the container contains an inert gas.

In some embodiments, the kit further comprises instructions for use of the compound of formula (I)·

In some embodiments, the kit further comprises a reagent. In some embodiments, the kit further comprises a substrate. In some embodiments, the substrate is an organic compound comprising an aryl group.

Definitions

The term "halo" or "halogen" refers to any radical of fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine.

The term "alkyl" refers to a hydrocarbon chain that may be a straight chain or branched chain, containing the indicated number of carbon atoms. For example, C|-C| alkyl indicates that the group may have from 1 to 12 (inclusive) carbon atoms in it. The term "haloalkyl" refers to an alkyl in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by halo, and includes alkyl moieties in which all hydrogens have been replaced by halo (e.g.,

perfluoroalkyl). The terms "arylalkyl" or "aralkyl" refer to an alkyl moiety in which an alkyl hydrogen atom is replaced by an aryl group. Aralkyl includes groups in which more than one hydrogen atom has been replaced by an aryl group. Examples of "arylalkyl" or "aralkyl" include benzyl, 2-phenylethyl, 3-phenylpropyl, 9-fluorenyl, benzhydryl, and trityl groups. The term "alkylene" refers to a divalent alkyl, e.g., -CH₂-, -CH₂CH₂-, and -CH₂CH₂CH₂-.

The term "alkenyl" refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon chain containing 2- 12 carbon atoms and having one or more double bonds. Examples of alkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, ally 1, propenyl, 2-butenyl, 3-hexenyl and 3-octenyl groups. One of the double bond carbons may optionally be the point of attachment of the alkenyl substituent. The term "alkynyl" refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon chain containing 2- 12 carbon atoms and characterized in having one or more triple bonds. Examples of alkynyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethynyl, propargyl, and 3-hexynyl. One of the triple bond carbons may optionally be the point of attachment of the alkynyl substituent. The term "alkenylene" refers to a divalent alkenyl, e.g., -CH₂=CH₂-, and -CH₂=CH₂CH₂-. The terms "alkylamino" and "dialkylamino" refer to -NH(alkyl) and -NH(aIkyl)₂ radicals respectively. The term "aralkylamino" refers to a -NH(aralkyl) radical. The term alkylaminoalkyl refers to a (alkyl)NH-alkyl- radical; the term dialkylaminoalkyl refers to a (alkyl)2N-alkyl- radical The term "alkoxy" refers to an -O-alkyl radical. The term

"mercapto" refers to an SH radical. The term "thioalkoxy" refers to an -S-alkyl radical. The term thioaryloxy refers to an -S-aryl radical.

The term "aryl" refers to an aromatic monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic hydrocarbon ring system, wherein any ring atom capable of substitution can be substituted (e.g., by one or more substituents). Examples of aryl moieties include, but are not limited to, phenyl, naphthyl, and anthracenyl. An aryl moiety may also be a "heteroaryl" moiety. Heteroaryl refers to an aromatic monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic ring system having 1 -3 heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1 -6 heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1 -9 heteroatoms if tricyclic, said heteroatoms selected from O, N, or S (e.g., carbon atoms and 1 -3, 1 -6, or 1 -9 heteroatoms of N, O, or S if monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic, respectively). Any ring atom can be substituted (e.g., by one or more substituents).

The term "cycloalkyl" as employed herein includes saturated cyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic, or polycyclic hydrocarbon groups having 3 to 12 carbons. Any ring atom can be substituted (e.g., by one or more substituents). The cycloalkyl groups can contain fused rings. Fused rings are rings that share a common carbon atom. Examples of cycloalkyl moieties include, but are not limited to, cyclopropyl, cyclohexyl, methylcyclohexyl, adamantyl, and norbornyl.

The term "heterocyclyl" refers to a nonaromatic 3- 10 membered monocyclic, 8- 12 membered bicyclic, or 1 1- 14 membered tricyclic ring system having 1 -3 heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1 -6 heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1 -9 heteroatoms if tricyclic, said heteroatoms selected from O, N, or S (e.g., carbon atoms and 1-3, 1 -6, or 1-9 heteroatoms of N, O, or S if monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic, respectively). The heteroatom may optionally be the point of attachment of the heterocyclyl substituent. Any ring atom can be substituted (e.g., by one or more substituents). The heterocyclyl groups can contain fused rings. Fused rings are rings that share a common carbon atom. Examples of heterocyclyl include, but are not limited to, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydropyranyl, piperidinyl, morpholino, pyrrolinyl, pyrimidinyl, quinolinyl, and pyrrolidinyl.

The term "cycloalkenyl" refers to partially unsaturated, nonaromatic, cyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic, or polycyclic hydrocarbon groups having 5 to 12 carbons, preferably 5 to 8 carbons. The unsaturated carbon may optionally be the point of attachment of the cycloalkenyl substituent. Any ring atom can be substituted (e.g., by one or more substituents). The cycloalkenyl groups can contain fused rings. Fused rings are rings that share a common carbon atom. Examples of cycloalkenyl moieties include, but are not limited to, cyclohexenyl, cyclohexadienyl, or norbornenyl.

The term "heterocycloalkenyl" refers to a partially saturated, nonaromatic 5- 10 membered monocyclic, 8- 12 membered bicyclic, or 1 1 - 14 membered tricyclic ring system having 1-3 heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1 -6 heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1 -9 heteroatoms if tricyclic, said heteroatoms selected from O, N, or S (e.g., carbon atoms and 1 -3, 1 -6, or 1 -9 heteroatoms of N, O, or S if monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic, respectively). The unsaturated carbon or the heteroatom may optionally be the point of attachment of the heterocycloalkenyl substituent. Any ring atom can be substituted (e.g., by one or more substituents). The heterocycloalkenyl groups can contain fused rings. Fused rings are rings that share a common carbon atom. Examples of heterocycloalkenyl include but are not limited to tetrahydropyridyl and dihydropyranyl.

The term "aliphatic" or "aliphatic group", as used herein, denotes a hydrocarbon moiety that may be straight-chain (i.e., unbranched), branched, or cyclic (including fused, bridging, and spiro-fused polycyclic) and may be completely saturated or may contain one or more units of unsaturation, but which is not aromatic. Unless otherwise specified, aliphatic groups contain 1-10 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-8 carbon atoms, 1-7 carbon atoms, 1-6 carbon atoms, 1-5 carbon atoms, 1-4 carbon atoms, 1- 3 carbon atoms, or 1-2 carbon atoms. Suitable aliphatic groups include, but are not limited to, linear or branched, alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups, and hybrids thereof such as (cycloalkyl)alkyl, (cycloalkenyl)alkyl or (cycloalkyl)alkenyl.

The term "labeled", as used herein, means the replacement of a fluorine atom on an organic compound with a F¹⁸ or F¹⁹ fluorine isotope wherein the isotope is present on the organic compound in an amount greater than 1.5, 2, 5, 10, 50, 100 or 1000 times greater than that found in nature.

The term "unsaturated", as used herein, means that a moiety has one or more double or triple bonds.

The term "substituents" refers to a group "substituted" on an alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heterocyclyl, heterocycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl, aryl, or heteroaryl group at any atom of that group. Any atom can be substituted. Suitable substituents include, without limitation, alkyl (e.g., C I , C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, CI O, C I 1 , C 12 straight or branched chain alkyl), cycloalkyl, haloalkyl (e.g., perfluoroalkyl such as CF₃), aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, heterocyclyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkenyl,

heterocycloalkenyl, alkoxy, haloalkoxy (e.g., perfluoroalkoxy such as OCF3), halo, hydroxy, carboxy, carboxylate, cyano, nitro, amino, alkylamino, dialkylamino, SO₃H, sulfate, phosphate, methylenedioxy (-O-CH₂-O- wherein oxygens are attached to vicinal atoms), ethylenedioxy, oxo, thioxo (e.g., C=S), imino (alkyl, aryl, aralkyl), S(0)„alkyl (where n is 0- 2), S(0)_n aryl (where n is 0-2), S(0)„ heteroaryl (where n is 0-2), S(0)„ heterocyclyl (where n is 0-2), amine (mono-, di-, alkyl, cycloalkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and combinations thereof), ester (alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, aryl, heteroaryl), amide (mono-, di- , alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and combinations thereof), sulfonamide (mono-, di-, alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, and combinations thereof). In one aspect, the substituents on a group are independently any one single, or any subset of the aforementioned substituents. In another aspect, a substituent may itself be substituted with any one of the above substituents.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

All references cited herein, whether in print, electronic, computer readable storage media or other form, are expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety, including but not limited to, abstracts, articles, journals, publications, texts, treatises, internet web sites, databases, patents, patent applications and patent publications.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Described herein are methods of fluorinating reagents and methods of making fluorinated organic compounds. Upon making a fluorinating reagent (which may be isolated or used in situ) a reaction of a hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof and a fluorinating agent is described herein. This subsequent reaction provides a fluorinated organic compound in which the hydroxyl group (or tautomeric carbonyl) of the organic compound is replaced with a fluorine substituent (for example, see Scheme 1 ).

Scheme 1.

Scheme 2.

solvent, 110°C

While the above schemes depict hydroxy phenyl compounds, the reaction is not limited to phenyl and may contain a number of other chemical groups. In Scheme 1 , R is a substituent and n may be 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4 or 5. Exemplary substituents include, without limitation, alkyl (e.g., C I , C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, C I O, C I 1 , C 12 straight or branched chain alkyl), cycloalkyl, haloalkyl (e.g., perfluoroalkyl such as CF3), aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, heterocyclyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkenyl,

heterocycloalkenyl, alkoxy, haloalkoxy (e.g., perfluoroalkoxy such as OCF₃), halo, hydroxy, carboxy, carboxylate, cyano, nitro, amino, alkylamino, dialkylamino, SO3H, sulfate, phosphate, methylenedioxy (-0-CH₂-0- wherein oxygens are attached to vicinal atoms), ethylenedioxy, oxo, thioxo (e.g., C=S), imino (alkyl, aryl, aralkyl), S(0)_nalkyl (where n is 0- 2), S(0)_n aryl (where n is 0-2), S(0)_n heteroaryl (where n is 0-2), S(0)„ heterocyclyl (where n is 0-2), amine (mono-, di-, alkyl, cycloalkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and combinations thereof), ester (alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, aryl, heteroaryl), amide (mono-, di- , alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and combinations thereof), sulfonamide (mono-, di-, alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, and combinations thereof). The substituents are independently any one single, or any subset of the aforementioned substituents. A substituent may itself be substituted with any one of the above substituents. In some embodiments, two R groups may be taken together to form a ring, e.g., an aryl, heteroaryl, cyclyl or heterocyclyl ring, which may itself be further substituted with any one of the above substituents.

Organic compounds

Compounds (e.g., a compound of formula (Γ) or (II)) useful in a method of fluorinating a hydroxy organic compound of tautomer thereof are described herein. The organic compound may be a small organic molecule or a large organic molecule. A small organic molecule includes any molecule having a molecular weight of less than 1000 g mol, of less than 900 g/mol, of less than 800 g/mol, of less than 700 g/mol, of less than 600 g/mol, of less than 500 g/mol, of less than 400 g/mol, of less than 300 g/mol, of less than 200 g/mol or of less than 100 g/mol. A large organic molecule include any molecule of between 1000 g/mol to 5000 g/mol, of between 1000 g/mol to 4000 g/mol, of between 1000 g/mol to 3000 g/mol, of between 1000 g/mol to 2000 g/mol, or of between 1000 g/mol to 1500 g/mol. Organic compounds include aryl, heteroaryl and heterocyclyl containing compounds.

In some embodiments, the organic compound contains a chiral center. In some embodiments, the organic compound is further substituted with one or more functional groups (e.g., alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, alkenes, alkoxy groups, cyano groups, amines, amides and N-oxides). In some embodiments, the functional groups are unprotected. In some embodiments, the organic compound is a precursor of a pharmaceutically acceptable compound.

Fluorine Sources

The methods described herein generally include a fluorine source. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is a nucleophilic fluorine source. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is commercially available. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is also an inorganic fluorine source. Exemplary fluorine sources include cesium fluoride (CsF) and potassium fluoride (K ).

The fluorine source may be enriched with a particular isotope of fluorine. In some embodiments, the fluorine source is labeled with ^l9F (i.e. , provides a ¹⁹F fluorine to the reaction mixture). In some embodiments, reaction of the ¹⁹F-labeled fluorine source with a compound within the reaction mixture ultimately provides a fluorinated ¹⁹F-labeled organic compound.

In some embodiments, the fluorine source is labeled with ^l8F (i.e., provides a ^l8F

18

fluorine to the reaction mixture). In some embodiments, reaction of the F-labeled fluorine source with a compound in the reaction mixture provides a fluorinated ^l8F-labeled organic compound.

However, in some embodiments, the fluorine source is labeled with a mixture of ^{l 8}F and ^l F. In some embodiments, reaction of the mixture of ^l9F and ^l F fluorine source with a compound in the reaction mixture provides a mixture of fluorinated ^l F-labeled organic compound and fluorinated ^l F-labeled organic compound. Reaction Conditions

Described herein are methods of producing a fluorinating reagent and methods of fluorinating hydroxy organic compounds (e.g., a phenol) or tautomers thereof (e.g., pyridine) using a fluorinating agent (e.g., a compound of formula (I)). In some embodiments, the reaction further comprises a solvent. Exemplary solvents include non-polar solvents (e.g., toluene, dioxane or benzene). In some embodiments, the reaction is performed under ambient temperature, pressure and atmosphere. In some embodiments, the reaction is performed in an inert atmosphere (e.g., an atmosphere that is substantially free of dioxygen or water). In some embodiments, the reaction is performed under anhydrous conditions (e.g., in a solvent that is substantially free of water). In some embodiments, the reaction is heated. In some embodiments, the reaction is cooled. In some embodiments, the reaction is performed at room temperature (e.g., about 20-25 °C).

In some embodiments, the reaction proceeds in a single step. In a one-step procedure, an organic compound comprising a substrate and a fluorine source, and optionally an additional reagent such as a base (e.g., NaOH, KOH, BaO, MgO, NaHC0₃, HC0₃, Na₂C0₃, Ba(OH)₂ or 2,6-lutidine) or a salt (e.g., cesium fluoride), to yield a fluorinated organic compound. In some embodiments, the additional reagent is a zinc reagent (e.g., diphenyl zinc). In some embodiments, the reaction proceeds in two steps. In a two-step procedure, the organic compound comprising substrate may be first reacted with a compound described herein in the presence of an optional additional reagent, such as a base (e.g., NaOH, KOH, BaO, MgO, NaHC0₃, KHC0₃, Na₂C0₃, Ba(OH)₂ ^' or 2,6-lutidine). In some embodiments, an intermediate product is isolated from the first reaction. An intermediate product may be further reacted with a fluorinating agent in the second step. In some embodiments, each step further comprises a solvent, and the solvents may be the same or may be different. For example, the first step may take place in acetonitrile, while the second step may take place in acetone. In some embodiments, each step may be performed at a different temperature. For example, the first step may further comprise cooling (e.g., to 0 °C), while the second step may proceed at ambient temperature.

In some embodiments, a compound of the present invention or a compound of the methods described herein is immobilized on a solid support. The term "solid support" refers a material to which a compound is attached to facilitate identification, isolation, purification, or chemical reaction selectivity of the compound. Such materials are known in the art and include, for example, beads, pellets, disks, fibers, gels, or particles such as cellulose beads, pore-glass beads, silica gels, polystyrene beads optionally cross-linked with divinylbenzene and optionally grafted with polyethylene glycol, poly-acrylamide beads, latex beads, dimethylacrylamide beads optionally cross-linked with Ν,Ν'-bis-acryloyl ethylene diamine, glass particles coated with hydrophobic polymer, and material having a rigid or semi-rigid surface. The solid supports optionally have functional groups such as amino, hydroxy, carboxy, or halo groups, (see, Obrecht, D. and Villalgrodo, J.M., Solid-Supported

Combinatorial and Parallel Synthesis of Small-Molecular-Weight Compound Libraries, Pergamon-Elsevier Science Limited ( 1998)), and include those useful in techniques such as the "split and pool" or "parallel" synthesis techniques, solid-phase and solution-phase techniques, and encoding techniques (see, for example, Czarnik, A.W., Curr. Opin. Chem. AO. , ( 1997) 1 , 60).

In some embodiments, the fluorination takes place at a late stage in the synthesis of the fluorinated organic compound. In some embodiments, the fluorination is the last step in the synthesis of the fluorinated organic compound.

In some embodiments, subsequent to the reaction, one or more components of the reaction mixture (e.g., a fluorinated organic compound) are purified from the reaction mixture. In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound is purified by column chromatography on silica gel. In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound is purified by preparative thin-layer chromatography.

Reaction products

Described herein are methods of making fluorinated organic compounds. In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compounds are generated from their corresponding precursors in yields of at least about 60% (e.g., at least about 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90% or 95%).

The reaction conditions described herein are tolerant of many functional groups as well as chiral centers. In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound is further substituted by one or more functional groups, such as aldehydes, ketones, esters, alkenes, alkoxy groups, cyano groups, amines, amides and N-oxides. In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound contains a chiral center that is derived from the starting material. The stereochemistry at the chiral center may remain substantially unchanged (e.g., little to no racemization or epimerization of the chiral center occurs during the reaction). In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound comprises ^l9F. In some embodiments, the ^l9F-containing fluorinated organic compound is an imaging agent, such as an MRI imaging agents. In some embodiments, the ^l9F-containing fluorinated organic compound may be used as a probe, such as a biological N R probes for use in in vivo NMR spectroscopy.

In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound comprises ^l8F. In some embodiments, the ^{l 8}F-containing fluorinated organic compound is an imaging agent, such as a PET imaging agent.

In some embodiments, the fluorinated organic compound is a compound having pharmaceutical activity. Exemplary fluorinated organic compounds include ( 13S)-3-fluoro- 13-methyl-7,8,9, 1 1 , 12, 13, 15, 16-octahydro-6H-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren- 17( 14H)-one, (R)- (6-fluoroquinolin-4-yl)((2S,4S,8R)-8-vinylquinuclidin-2-yl)methyl acetate or fluoro-estrone. Kits

The compounds used in the methods described herein (e.g., a hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof and a fluorinating agent) may be provided in a kit. The kit includes (a) a compound used in a method described herein (e.g., a compound of formulas (I) and (Π)), and, optionally (b) informational material. The informational material can be descriptive, instructional, marketing or other material that relates to the methods described herein and/or the use of the compounds for the methods described herein.

The informational material of the kits is not limited in its form. In one embodiment, the informational material can include information about production of the compound, molecular weight of the compound, concentration, date of expiration, batch or production site information, and so forth. In one embodiment, the informational material relates to methods for using the compound.

The informational material of the kits is not limited in its form. In many cases, the informational material, e.g., instructions, is provided in printed matter, e.g., a printed text, drawing, and/or photograph, e.g., a label or printed sheet. However, the informational material can also be provided in other formats, such as Braille, computer readable material, video recording, or audio recording. In another embodiment, the informational material of the kit is contact information, e.g., a physical address, email address, website, or telephone number, where a user of the kit can obtain substantive information about a compound described herein and/or its use in the methods described herein. Of course, the informational material can also be provided in any combination of formats.

In some embodiments, the components of the kit are stored under inert conditions (e.g., under Nitrogen or another inert gas such as Argon). In some embodiments, the components of the kit are stored under anhydrous conditions (e.g., with a desiccant). In some embodiments, the components are stored in a light blocking container such as an amber vial.

A compound described herein can be provided in any form, e.g., liquid, dried or lyophilized form. It is preferred that a compound described herein be substantially pure and/or sterile. W en a compound described herein is provided as a dried form, reconstitution generally is by the addition of a suitable solvent.

The kit can include one or more containers for the composition containing a compound described herein. In some embodiments, the kit contains separate containers, dividers or compartments for the composition and informational material. For example, the composition can be contained in a bottle, vial, or ampule, and the informational material can be contained in a plastic sleeve or packet. In other embodiments, the separate elements of the kit are contained within a single, undivided container. For example, the composition is contained in a bottle, vial or ampule that has attached thereto the informational material in the form of a label. In some embodiments, the kit includes a plurality (e.g., a pack) of individual containers, each containing one or more unit dosage forms (e.g., a dosage form described herein) of a compound described herein. The containers of the kits can be air tight, waterproof (e.g., impermeable to changes in moisture or evaporation), and/or light-tight.

EXAMPLES

Materials and Methods

Solvents other than methanol were dried by passage through alumina. Except as indicated otherwise, reactions were magnetically stirred and monitored by thin layer chromatography (TLC) using EMD TLC plates pre-coated with 250 μπι thickness silica gel 60 F254 plates and visualized by fluorescence quenching under UV light. In addition, TLC plates were stained using eerie ammonium molybdate or potassium permanganate stain. Flash chromatography was performed on Dynamic Adsorbents Silica Gel 40-63 μπι particle size or Whatman Silica Gel 60 |im particle size using a forced flow of eluent at 0.3-0.5 bar pressure. Concentration under reduced pressure was performed by rotary evaporation at 25- 30 °C at appropriate pressure. Purified compounds were further dried under high vacuum (0.01-0.05 Torr). NMR spectra were recorded on a Varian Mercury 400 (400 MHz for Ή, 100 MHz for ^{l 3}C, 375 MHz for ^l9F, and 126 MHz for ^{3 I}P acquisitions), Unity/Inova 500 (500 MHz for Ή, 125 MHz for ¹³C acquisitions), or Unity/Inova 600 (600 MHz for Ή

acquisitions) spectrometer. ¹³C NMR spectra are recorded Ή decoupled. ^I9F NMR spectra are recorded Ή coupled. Chemical shifts are reported in ppm with the solvent resonance as the internal standard. Data is reported as follows: s = singlet, d = doublet, t = triplet, q = quartet, h = heptet, m = multiplet, br = broad; coupling constants in Hz; integration. High- resolution mass spectra were obtained on Jeol AX-505 or SX-102 spectrometers at the Harvard University Mass Spectrometry Facilities. Sodium hydroxide was purchased from Mallinckrodt chemicals, Molecular sieves 3λ were purchased from EMD chemicals and finely grinded and dried at 130 °C overnight prior to use. NMR spectroscopic data of known compounds correspond to the data given in the appropriate references. Pyridine and triethylamine were distilled over calcium hydride. NMR spectroscopic data of known compounds correspond to the data given in the appropriate references.

Example 1.

Preparation of Fluorinating Reagents

θ

CI A B

new lluorinating reagent

N, N'-l, 3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2,2-dicholoimidazolidene (A)

To N,N'-l ,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imidazol-2-ylidene (1 1.6 g, 30.0 mmol, 1.00 equiv) in 200 mL of THF at -40 °C was added 1 , 1 ,1 ,2,2,2-hexachloroethane (8.38 mg, 36.0 mmol, 1.20 equiv). The reaction mixture was warmed to 23 °C and was stirred for 24 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to -40 °C and filtered off and filter cake was washed with cold THF to afford 1 1.7 g of compound A as a colorless solid (85%).

NMR Spectroscopy: Ή NMR (500 MHz, CD₃CN, 23 °C, δ): 8.51 (s, 2H), 7.75 (t, J = 7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.56 (d, J = 7.8 Hz, 4H), 2.37 (m, 4 H), 1.31 (d, J = 6.8 Hz, 12H), 1.25 (d, J = 6.8 Hz, 12H). ¹³C NMR (500 MHz, CD₃CN, 23 °C, δ): 146.4, 133.8, 129.5, 127.8, 126.3, 1 18.3, 30.2, 24.3, 23.5.

(See e.g., Mendoza-Espinosa et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc, 132:7264-7265 (2010)).

N, N'-l, 3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2,2-difiuoroimidazolidene (B)

To N,N'- l ,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2,2-dicholoimidazolidene ( 1.20 g, 2.60 mmol, 1.00 equiv) in 20 mL of MeCN at 23 °C was added CsF (1.58 g, 10.4 mmol, 4.00 equiv). The reaction mixture was stirred for 24 h at 60 °C. The reaction mixture was cooled to 23 °C and concentrated under reduced pressure. To the residue was added toluene and the mixture was filtered through a pad of Celite eluting with toluene. The filtrate is concentrated under reduced pressure to afford 960 mg of compound B as a colorless solid (87%).

NMR Spectroscopy: Ή NMR (500 MHz, CD₃C1, 23 °C, δ): 7.39 (t, J = 7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.20 (d, J = 7.8 Hz, 4H), 5.88 (s, 2 H), 3.35 (m, 4 H), 1.25 (d, J = 6.8 Hz, 12H), 1.20 (d, J = 6.8 Hz, 12H). ^{I 3}C NMR (500 MHz, CD₃C1, 23 °C, δ): 150.8, 131.1 , 129.5, 125.8, 124.1 , 1 12.5, 28.6, 25.6, 23.9. ^I9F NMR (375 MHz, CDCI3, 23 °C, δ): -36.5 ppm.

Example 2.

X-ray structure of the intermediate in the fluorination reaction

To 4-methoxyphenol (5.07 mg, 0.0408 mmol, 1.00 equiv) in benzene (1.0 mL) at 23

°C was added N,N'-l ,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2,2-difluoroimidazolidene (B) (20.9 mg, 0.0490 mmol, 1.20 equiv). The reaction mixture was stirred at 23 °C for 10 min in a sealed vial. The benzene was evaporated. The residue was washed with ether and then redissolved in CH2CI2 (1.0 mL). The intermediate I was recrystallized from a layered mixture of CH2CI2 and ether to afford colorless crystals.

X-ray structure of Intermediate I

Example 3.

Evaluation of fluorination reaction with other fluorination reagents and general procedure for fluorination reaction.

To 4-methoxyphenol (2.5 mg, 0.020 mmol, 1.0 equiv) in toluene (0.20 mL) at 23 °C was added CsF (9.1 mg, 0.060 mmol, 3.0 equiv), and fluorination reagent (0.0240 mmol, 1.20 equiv). The reaction mixture was stirred at 1 10 °C for 20 h in a sealed vial, then cooled to 23 °C. To the reaction mixture was added 3-nitrofluorobenzene (2.00 μΐ-, 0.0188 mmol). The yield was determined by comparing the integration of the ¹⁹F N R (375 MHz, 23 °C) resonance of 3-nitrofluorobenzene (-1 12.0 ppm). Yields are reported in Table 1.

Table 1: Fluorinating Reagent Evaluation

Ruorination reagents: eCN dioxane toluene

ΓΛ

0% 0% 0%

\ © f Θ

N=S BF₄

0% 0% 0%

/—\@ ,^{F θ}

O N=S BFi 0% 0% 0%

Table 2: Fluorination of Compounds

96%^a >99%» 95%^a 95%^a 92%^a 88%^a (3h, 80 °C) 3 . 80 °C) (3h, 80 °C) (3h. 80 °C) (3h, 80 °C) (18h, 80 °C)

90% 88%^a 88%^{a 82%a} 81%° 55%" 18h, 80 °C) (18h, 80 ⁰C) (18h. 80 °C) (20h. 110 °C) (20h. 110 °C) (20h. 110 °C)

(20 . 110 °C) (20h. 110 °C) (20h. 110 °C) (20h, 110 °C) (20h. 110 °C) a) Yields were determined by ^{, 8}F NMR with 1-fIuoro-3-nitroben2ene as a standard, b) 1.4-dioxane was used.

Example 4.

General Procedure for fluorination reaction with new fluorination compound B:

To phenol (0.020 mmol, 1.0 equiv) in toluene (0.35 mL) at 23 °C was added CsF (6.1 mg, 0.040 mmol, 2.0 equiv), diphenylzinc (0.88 mg, 0.0080 mmol, 0.20 equiv) and N,N'- 1 ,3- bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2,2-difluoroimidazolidene (B) ( 10.5 mg, 0.0240 mmol, 1 .20 equiv). The reaction mixture was stirred at 80 °C for 20 h in a sealed vial, then cooled to 23 °C. To the reaction mixture was added 3-nitrofluorobenzene (2.00 μί, 0.0188 mmol). The yield was determined by comparing the integration of the ^l9F NMR (375 MHz, acetone-ifo 23 °C) resonance of 3-nitrofluorobenzene (-1 12.0 ppm). Yields are reported in Table 2. Table 3: Fluorination of Compounds

a) 110 °C was used, b) 1 ,4-dioxane was used.

Example 5.

Example

85%

To estrone ( 106 mg, 0.393 mmol, 1.00 equiv) in toluene (4.0 mL) at 23 °C was added CsF ( 180 mg, 1 .18 mmol, 3.00 equiv) and N,N'- l ,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-2,2- difluoroimidazolidene (B) (201 mg, 0.472 mmol, 1.20 equiv). The reaction mixture was stirred at 1 10 °C for 20 h in a sealed vial, then cooled to 23 °C. The reaction mixture was filtered through a pad of celite, eluting with CH2CI2 and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuo. The residue was purified by chromatography on silica gel, eluting with Hexane EtOAc 10: 1 (v/v), to afford 90.8 mg colorless solid (85% yield).

R_f = 0.33 (hexane/EtOAc 9: 1 (v/v)). NMR Spectroscopy: Ή N R (500 MHz,

CDCI3, 23 °C, δ): 7.23 (dd, J = 8.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1 H), 6.85-6.77 (m, 2H), 2.92-2.88 (m, 2H), 2.51 (dd, 7 = 19.0 Hz, 9.0 Hz, 1 H), 2.42-2.38 (m, 1H), 2.29-2.23 (m, 1 H), 2.18-1.94 (m, 4H), 1.67-1 .41 (m, 6H,), 0.91 (s, 3H). ^{I 3}C NMR ( 125 MHz, CDC1₃, 23 °C, δ): 220.7, 160.9 (d, 7 = 242 Hz), 138.7 (d, J = 7.3 Hz), 135.3, 126.8 (d, 7 = 7.3 Hz), 1 15. 1 (d, J = 20 Hz), 1 12.5 (d, J = 20 Hz), 50.4, 47.9, 43.9, 38.1 , 35.8, 31 .5, 29.5, 26.3, 25.9, 21.6, 13.8. ^I9F NMR (375 MHz, CDCI3, 23 °C, δ): -1 18.5.

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A compound of formula (I):

(I),

wherein

R¹ and R² are each independently selected from Cc- 12 aryl, Cc- 12 aralkyl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl, 6- 12 membered heteroaralkyl, 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclylalkyl, each of which is substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R\

X is an optionally substituted C C\ alkenylene moiety

R¹ and R⁴, taken together with the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached form a 5- 12 membered unsaturated heterocyclyl; and

each R is independently selected from halo, CY alkyl, s haloalkyl, CVs alkoxy, Cc- 12 aryl and 6- 12 membered heteroaryl. 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein R¹ and R² are each independently selected from Cc- 12 aryl, 6- 12 membered heteroaryl and 6- 12 membered heterocyclyl.

3. The compound of claim 2, wherein R¹ and R² are each independently selected from Cc- 12 membered aryl or 6- 12 membered heteroaryl.

4. The compound of claim 3, wherein R¹ and R² are Cc-1 membered aryl (e.g., phenyl) substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R\

5. The compound of claim 4, wherein R¹ and R² are Cc-12 membered aryl (e.g., phenyl) substituted with 2 occurrences of R\

6. The compound of claim 3, wherein R¹ and R² are phenyl substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R\

7. The compound of claim 6, wherein R¹ and R² are phenyl substituted with 2 occurrences of R⁵.

8. The compound of claim 1, wherein X is an optionally substituted C2 alkenylene.

9. The compound of claim 8, wherein the alkeneylene moiety has a single double bond

The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound of formula (I) is a compound of

wherein R¹ and R² are as described herein;

each R³ is independently selected fromCi-8 alkyl, nitro, cyano, halo, Ci_-8 haloalkyl, Ci_-8 alkoxy, C₆-i2 aryl, C₆-i2 aralkyl, 6-12 membered heteroaryl, 6-12 membered heterocyclyl and 6-12 membered heterocyclylalkyl; and

n is 0, 1 or 2.

11. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound of formula (I) is a compound of formula (lb):

wherein each R⁵ is as described herein.

12. The compound of claim 1, wherein each R⁵ is independently selected from Ci_-8 alkyl,

Ci-8 haloalkyl and Ci_-8 alkoxy.

13. The compound of claim 12, wherein each R⁵ is Ci_-8 alkyl (e.g., isopropyl).

14. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound of formula (I) is a compound of formula (Ic)

15. A method of fluorinating a hydroxy organic compound or a tautomer thereof, the method comprising mixing a compound of formula (I) and with the organic compound under conditions sufficient to fluorinate the substrate, thereby providing a fluorinated organic compound.

16. The compound of claim 15, wherein the fluorinated organic compound comprises ¹⁸F or ¹⁹F.

17. The compound of claim 15, wherein the hydroxy organic compound comprises an aryl group (e.g., phenol).

18. The compound of claim 15, wherein the hydroxy organic compound comprises hydroxy heteroaryl group.

19. The compound of claim 15, wherein the hydroxy organic compound comprises a tautomer.

20. The compound of claim 19, wherein the hydroxyl organic compound comprises tautomer of a hydroxyl heterocyclyl group (e.g., a pyridone).

21. The compound of claim 15, wherein the hydroxy organic compound comprises a vinyl alcohol.

22. The compound of claim 15, wherein the hydroxy organic compound comprises an aryl group (e.g., phenol) and the fluorinated organic compound is a fluorinated phenyl group.

23. The compound of claim 15, wherein the hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof is a precursor to a pharmaceutically acceptable compound.

24. The compound of claim 15, wherein the method further comprises a fluorine source.

25. The compound of claim 24, wherein the fluorine source is F^" or a precursor thereof.

26. The compound of claim 24, wherein the fluorine source is a salt.

27. The compound of claim 26, wherein the fluorine source is a cesium salt or a potassium salt (e.g., CsF or KF).

28. The compound of claim 15, wherein the method further comprises a solvent.

29. The compound of claim 28, wherein the solvent is a nonpolar solvent.

30. The compound of claim 29, wherein the solvent is toluene.

31. The compound of claim 29, wherein the solvent is benzene. 32. The compound of claim 15, wherein the method further comprises an inert atmosphere.

33. The compound of claim 15, wherein the reaction is performed under anhydrous conditions.

34. The compound of claim 15, wherein the reaction proceeds at ambient temperature.

35. The compound of claim 15, wherein the reaction comprises cooling. 36. The compound of claim 15, wherein the reaction comprises a source of energy.

37. The compound of claim 36, wherein the reaction comprises heat.

38. The compound of claim 15, wherein the fluorinated organic compound comprises an aryl group.

39. The compound of claim 15, wherein the fluorinated organic compound is a pharmaceutically acceptable compound or a prodrug thereof.

40. The compound of claim 15, wherein a compound employed in the method (e.g., a compound of formula (I) or a hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof) is immobilized on a solid support.

41. The compound of claim 15, wherein the fluorination takes place at a late stage in the synthesis of the fluorinated organic compound.

42. The compound of claim 41, wherein the fluorination is the last step in the synthesis of the fluorinated organic compound.

43. The compound of claim 15, wherein the organic compound is made using a multi step synthesis. 44. The compound of claim 15, wherein the method further comprises purification of the fluorinated organic compound from the reaction mixture.

45. The compound of claim 15, wherein the yield of the fluorinated organic compound from the organic compound is at least about 20% (e.g., at least about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 98%).

46. A method of producing a compound of formula (I), the method comprising reacting a compound of formula (II):

wherein R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵ and X are as described herein; wherein

LG is a leaving group; and Q is an anion;

with a fluorine source to produce the compound of formula (I).

47. The method of claim 46, wherein R¹ and R² are each independently selected from C₆- 12 aryl, 6-12 membered heteroaryl and 6-12 membered heterocyclyl.

48. The method of claim 47, wherein R¹ and R² are each independently selected from C₆- 12 membered aryl or 6-12 membered heteroaryl.

49. The method of claim 48, wherein R¹ and R² are C₆-i2 membered aryl (e.g., phenyl) substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵.

50. The method of claim 49, wherein R¹ and R² are C₆-i2 membered aryl (e.g., phenyl) substituted with 2 occurrences of R⁵.

51. The method of claim 48, wherein R¹ and R² are phenyl substituted with 0-3 occurrences of R⁵.

52. The method of claim 51, wherein R¹ and R² are phenyl substituted with 2 occurrences of R⁵

53. The method of claim 46, wherein X is an optionally substituted C2 alkenylene.

54. The method of claim 53, wherein the alkeneylene moiety has a single double bond.

55. The method of claim 46, wherein the compound of formula (II) is a compound of formula (Ila):

wherein R¹ and R² are as described herein; each R³ is independently selected fromCi-8 alkyl, nitro, cyano, halo, Ci_-8 haloalkyl, Ci_-8 alkoxy, C₆-i2 aryl, C₆-i2 aralkyl, 6-12 membered heteroaryl, 6-12 membered heterocyclyl and 6-12 membered heterocyclylalkyl; and

n is 0, 1 or 2.

56. The method of claim 46, wherein the compound of formula (II) is a compound of formula (lib):

^Cl~ (lib),

wherein each R⁵ is as described herein.

57. The method of claim 56, wherein each R⁵ is independently selected from Ci_-8 alkyl, Ci-8 haloalkyl and Ci_-8 alkoxy.

58. The method of claim 57, wherein each R⁵ is Ci_-8 alkyl (e.g., isopropyl).

59. The method of claim ound of formula (lie)

60. The method of claim 46, wherein the method further comprises reacting the compound of formula (I) with a hydroxy organic compound or a tautomer thereof under conditions sufficient to fluorinate the organic compound, thereby providing a fluorinated organic compound.

61. The method of claim 60, wherein the fluorinated organic compound comprises ¹⁸F or ¹⁹F.

62. The method of claim 60, wherein the hydroxy organic compound comprises an aryl group (e.g., phenol).

63. The method of claim 60, wherein the hydroxy organic compound comprises an aryl group (e.g., phenol) and the fluorinated organic compound is a fluorinated phenyl group.

64. The method of claim 60, wherein the hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof is a precursor to a pharmaceutically acceptable compound. 65. The method of claim 46 or 60, wherein the method further comprises a fluorine source.

66. The method of claim 65, wherein the fluorine source is F^" or a precursor thereof. 67. The method of claim 65, wherein the fluorine source is a salt.

68. The method of claim 67, wherein the fluorine source is a cesium or potassium salt(e.g., CsF or KF). 69. The method of claim 46 or 60, wherein the method further comprises a solvent.

70. The method of claim 69, wherein the solvent is a nonpolar solvent.

71. The method of claim 70, wherein the solvent is toluene.

72. The method of claim 70, wherein the solvent is benzene.

73. The method of claim 46 or 60, wherein the method further comprises an inert atmosphere.

74. The method of claim 46 or 60, wherein the reaction is performed under anhydrous conditions.

75. The method of claim 46 or 60, wherein the reaction proceeds at ambient temperature.

76. The method of claim 46 or 60, wherein the reaction comprises cooling.

77. The method of claim 46 or 60, wherein the reaction comprises a source of energy.

78. The method of claim 46 or 60, wherein the reaction comprises heat.

79. The method of claim 60, wherein the fluorinated organic compound comprises an aryl group.

80. The method of claim 60, wherein the fluorinated organic compound is a

pharmaceutically acceptable compound or a prodrug thereof.

81. The method of claim 60, wherein a compound employed in the method (e.g., a compound of formula (I) or a hydroxy organic compound or tautomer thereof) is immobilized on a solid support.

82. The method of claim 82, wherein the fluorination takes place at a late stage in the synthesis of the fluorinated organic compound.

83. The method of claim 60, wherein the fluorination is the last step in the synthesis of the fluorinated organic compound.

84. The method of claim 60, wherein the organic compound is made using a multi step synthesis.

85. The method of claim 60, wherein the method further comprises purification of the fluorinated organic compound from the reaction mixture.

86. The method of claim 60, wherein the yield of the fluorinated organic compound from the organic compound is at least about 20% (e.g., at least about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%. 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 98%).

87. A reaction mixture comprising a compound of formula (II) and a fluorine source.

88. A reaction mixture comprising a compound of formula (I), an organic compound and a fluorine source.

89. The reaction mixture of claim 88, wherein the organic compound comprises an aryl group (e.g., phenyl).

90. The reaction mixture of claim 89, wherein the organic compound comprises a phenol group.

91. The reaction mixture of claim 88, further comprising a fluorine source is F^" or a precursor thereof.

92. The reaction mixture of claim 91, wherein the fluorine source is a salt.

93. The reaction mixture of claim 92, wherein the fluorine source is a cesium or potassium salt (e.g., CsF).

95. The reaction mixture of claim 88, further comprising a solvent.

96. The reaction mixture of claim 94, wherein the solvent is a nonpolar solvent.

97. The reaction mixture of claim 95, wherein the solvent is toluene.

98. The reaction mixture of claim 95, wherein the solvent is benzene.

99. A composition comprising a compound of formula (II) and a fluorine source.

100. A composition comprising a compound of formula (I) and an additional component.

101. The composition of claim 99, wherein the component is a substrate.

102. The composition of claim 100, wherein the substrate is an organic compound comprising an aryl group. 103. The composition of claim 99, wherein the component is a reagent.

104. The composition of claim 102, wherein the reagent is a fluoride source (e.g., cesium fluoride). 105. The composition of claim 99, wherein the composition comprises a plurality of reagents.

106. The composition of claim 105, wherein the solvent is a nonpolar solvent. 107. The composition of claim 106, wherein the solvent is toluene.

108. The composition of claim 106, wherein the solvent is benzene.

109. A kit comprising a compound of formula (I) and a container.

110. The kit of claim 109, wherein the container is a vial.

111. The kit of claim 109, wherein the container is a sealed ampule. 112. The kit of claim 109, wherein the container contains an inert gas.

113. The kit of claim 109, further comprising instructions for use of the compound of formula (I). 114. The kit of claim 109, further comprising a reagent.

115. The kit of claim 109, further comprising a substrate.

116. The kit of claim 115, wherein the substrate is an organic compound comprising an aryl group.