US5731579A - Electro-optical voltage sensor head - Google Patents
Electro-optical voltage sensor head Download PDFInfo
- Publication number
- US5731579A US5731579A US08/570,152 US57015295A US5731579A US 5731579 A US5731579 A US 5731579A US 57015295 A US57015295 A US 57015295A US 5731579 A US5731579 A US 5731579A
- Authority
- US
- United States
- Prior art keywords
- sensor head
- transducing
- field
- voltage
- reflecting
- Prior art date
- Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
- Expired - Lifetime
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Classifications
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01R—MEASURING ELECTRIC VARIABLES; MEASURING MAGNETIC VARIABLES
- G01R1/00—Details of instruments or arrangements of the types included in groups G01R5/00 - G01R13/00 and G01R31/00
- G01R1/02—General constructional details
- G01R1/06—Measuring leads; Measuring probes
- G01R1/067—Measuring probes
- G01R1/07—Non contact-making probes
- G01R1/071—Non contact-making probes containing electro-optic elements
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01R—MEASURING ELECTRIC VARIABLES; MEASURING MAGNETIC VARIABLES
- G01R15/00—Details of measuring arrangements of the types provided for in groups G01R17/00 - G01R29/00, G01R33/00 - G01R33/26 or G01R35/00
- G01R15/14—Adaptations providing voltage or current isolation, e.g. for high-voltage or high-current networks
- G01R15/24—Adaptations providing voltage or current isolation, e.g. for high-voltage or high-current networks using light-modulating devices
- G01R15/241—Adaptations providing voltage or current isolation, e.g. for high-voltage or high-current networks using light-modulating devices using electro-optical modulators, e.g. electro-absorption
- G01R15/242—Adaptations providing voltage or current isolation, e.g. for high-voltage or high-current networks using light-modulating devices using electro-optical modulators, e.g. electro-absorption based on the Pockels effect, i.e. linear electro-optic effect
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G02—OPTICS
- G02F—OPTICAL DEVICES OR ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE CONTROL OF LIGHT BY MODIFICATION OF THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MEDIA OF THE ELEMENTS INVOLVED THEREIN; NON-LINEAR OPTICS; FREQUENCY-CHANGING OF LIGHT; OPTICAL LOGIC ELEMENTS; OPTICAL ANALOGUE/DIGITAL CONVERTERS
- G02F1/00—Devices or arrangements for the control of the intensity, colour, phase, polarisation or direction of light arriving from an independent light source, e.g. switching, gating or modulating; Non-linear optics
- G02F1/01—Devices or arrangements for the control of the intensity, colour, phase, polarisation or direction of light arriving from an independent light source, e.g. switching, gating or modulating; Non-linear optics for the control of the intensity, phase, polarisation or colour
- G02F1/03—Devices or arrangements for the control of the intensity, colour, phase, polarisation or direction of light arriving from an independent light source, e.g. switching, gating or modulating; Non-linear optics for the control of the intensity, phase, polarisation or colour based on ceramics or electro-optical crystals, e.g. exhibiting Pockels effect or Kerr effect
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G02—OPTICS
- G02F—OPTICAL DEVICES OR ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE CONTROL OF LIGHT BY MODIFICATION OF THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MEDIA OF THE ELEMENTS INVOLVED THEREIN; NON-LINEAR OPTICS; FREQUENCY-CHANGING OF LIGHT; OPTICAL LOGIC ELEMENTS; OPTICAL ANALOGUE/DIGITAL CONVERTERS
- G02F1/00—Devices or arrangements for the control of the intensity, colour, phase, polarisation or direction of light arriving from an independent light source, e.g. switching, gating or modulating; Non-linear optics
- G02F1/01—Devices or arrangements for the control of the intensity, colour, phase, polarisation or direction of light arriving from an independent light source, e.g. switching, gating or modulating; Non-linear optics for the control of the intensity, phase, polarisation or colour
- G02F1/03—Devices or arrangements for the control of the intensity, colour, phase, polarisation or direction of light arriving from an independent light source, e.g. switching, gating or modulating; Non-linear optics for the control of the intensity, phase, polarisation or colour based on ceramics or electro-optical crystals, e.g. exhibiting Pockels effect or Kerr effect
- G02F1/0305—Constructional arrangements
Definitions
- the present invention pertains generally to the field of voltage sensors and more particularly to a voltage sensor head which utilizes the Pockels electro-optic effect to measure voltage.
- a variety of optic sensors for measuring voltage have been developed in attempts to offer the power industry a superior alternative to the require that direct electrical contact be made with the energized conductor. This contact is made necessary by the use of a voltage divider which is utilized to connect the sensing element with the energized conductor on which a measurement is to be made. Direct electrical contact with the conductor may alter or interrupt the operation of the power system by presenting a burden or load.
- prior art voltage sensor systems are typically bulky, particularly in extremely high voltage applications. This is true because the size of the voltage divider required is proportional to the voltage being measured. The size of such systems can make them difficult and expensive to install and house in substations.
- interferometric modulation is extremely temperature sensitive. This temperature sensitivity requires controlled conditions in order to obtain accurate voltage measurements. The requirement of controlled conditions limits the usefulness of such systems and makes them unsuited for outdoor or uncontrolled applications.
- interferometric modulation requires a highly coherent light source which is relatively expensive.
- Open-air E-field based sensors have also been developed, but lack accuracy when used for measuring voltage because the open- air E-field used varies with many noisy parameters including ambient dielectric constant, adjacent conductor voltages, moving conductive structures such as passing automobiles, and other electromagnetic noise contributions.
- the sensor head includes a transducer comprised of a transducing material wherein the linear Pockels electro-optic effect is observed.
- a transducer comprised of a transducing material wherein the linear Pockels electro-optic effect is observed.
- at least one beam of polarized electromagnetic radiation is routed into the transducing material.
- the electromagnetic radiation used in the present invention may comprise any wavelength (in or out of the visible spectrum), the term "light” will be used hereinafter to signify electromagnetic radiation for the purpose of brevity.
- the polarized beam the light has at least two components which propagate along at least two orthogonal planes, respectively, to form at least two orthogonal planes of the beam.
- the beam undergoes an electro-optic effect in the sensor head when the transducing material is subjected to an E-field.
- the electro-optic effect is observed as a phase shift between the orthogonal beam components. Because the two orthogonal components are shifted in opposing directions, this shift is referred to herein as a "differential phase shift,” or “differential phase modulation.”
- the beam is routed through the transducer along an initial axis and then reflected by a retro-reflector backwardly along a second axis that is substantially parallel to the initial axis.
- the beam passes through the transducer and then is reflected back into the transducer, thus passing through the transducer twice.
- the preferred embodiment of the sensor head also includes at least one beam splitter for splitting the beam's polarization state into two signals which are independent amplitude-modulated signals.
- FIG. 1 is a schematic semi-three dimensional view of the sensor head made in accordance with the principles of the present invention.
- FIG. 2 shows a partially sectioned side view of the collimator of FIG. 1.
- FIG. 3 is a diagram of the light polarizing beam splitter of FIG. 1.
- FIG. 4 is a schematic top-down view of an alternative embodiment of the sensor head made in accordance with the principles of the present invention.
- FIG. 5 is a schematic top-down view of an alternative embodiment of the sensor head made in accordance with the principles of the present invention.
- FIG. 6 is a schematic top-down view of an alternative embodiment of the sensor head made in accordance with the principles of the present invention.
- FIG. 1 is a schematic semi-three dimensional view of the electro-optic voltage sensor head depicted generally at 4, which senses an electric field.
- the sensor head 4 of the present invention may be used for sensing the presence and magnitude of an electric field and for measuring voltage.
- a voltage measurement is a measure of the voltage difference (or electrical potential difference) between objects or positions.
- Voltage is proportional to the electric field (hereinafter "electric field” shall be indicated “E-field”) depending upon the geometries, compositions and distances of the conductive and insulating matter. Where, as in the present invention, the effects of an E-field can be observed or sensed, a voltage measurement can be achieved.
- a collimator 20 comprises a lens 30 and a transparent end 34 which can pass an electromagnetic radiation beam 12 into or out of the core 32 of an optic fiber 40.
- a beam 12 is routed into the sensor head 4 along a first movement path 100 by at least one translucent element, which is shown as a polarization maintaining fiber (hereafter "PM fiber") 8.
- the PM fiber 8 directs the beam 12 into the sensor head 4, after which the beam 12 is passed sequentially through elements 22, 24 and 26, then backwardly through elements 26 and 24 and into elements 46 and 47.
- the beam 12 is then routed from the sensor head elements 46 and 47 by a pair of single-mode or multi-mode optical fibers 42 and 45.
- the optical fibers 8, 42 and 45 electrically isolate the sensor head 4.
- PM fiber 8 is used in the preferred embodiment to deliver light to the transducer 26, other means can be used as well, including low-birefringence fiber, single-mode fiber, and multi-mode fiber, as well as a steered collimated beam.
- the sensor head 4 has a cross sectional area of only approximately fifty millimeters squared (50 mm 2 ) or less, and a length of approximately twenty five centimeters (25 cm) or less.
- the sensor head 4, when placed in an E-field (not shown) causes a differential phase modulation of the components in the orthogonal planes of a light beam 12.
- FIG. 1 shows the preferred embodiment of the sensor head 4.
- the sensor head 4 comprises a polarizing means which is shown as a polarizer 22, a translucent means shown as a translucent medium 24, a transducing means shown as a transducer 26, a reflecting means shown as a retro-reflector 27, a polarizing beam splitting means shown as a polarizing beam splitter 46, and beam reflector 47.
- the polarizer 22 re-polarizes the beam 12 emerging from the PM fiber 8 through the collimator 14. Since light from PM fiber is already polarized, the polarizer 22 is an optional device that can be used to ensure proper and stable polarization alignment with the electro-optic axes of transducer 26.
- the polarizer 22 linear-polarizes the beam 12 such that the beam comprises at least two beam components which are propagating in orthogonal planes.
- the polarizer 22 may be eliminated or placed anywhere between the transducer 26 and the source (not shown) of the beam 12, including anywhere along the PM fiber 8.
- the beam 12 passes from the polarizer 22 through the translucent medium 24 and into the transducer 26.
- the translucent medium 24 is a translucent means which comprises a non-conductive, non-birefringent material, such as fused quartz, fused silica, or a similar substance.
- the sensor head is designed to be installed in several varieties of high voltage transmission and distribution apparatus in which an E-field is naturally produced. This apparatus is typically co-axial, producing an intense, tightly-controlled radial electric flux between inner and outer conductors. Additionally, the electric flux in such apparatus is proportional to the voltage thereof. In accordance with fundamental principles of electromagnetics, an E-field accompanies this electric flux as well.
- an E-field proportional to voltage is established within the transducer, which in turn undergoes the electro-optic effect.
- a translucent medium 24 can be used to provide a pathway for the beam 12 from the polarizer 22, which can in such cases be located outside of the intense E-field, to the transducer 26, which is positioned directly in the intense E-field where the Electro-optic effect takes place. Due to the tightly controlled nature of this E-field, voltage measurement based upon E-field magnitude as described herein is highly accurate and impervious to external influences.
- the transducer 26 when in an E-field (not shown), induces a differential phase shift between the orthogonal planes of the beam 12 through the Pockels electro-optic effect.
- the differential phase shift varies in magnitude responsive to the presence of an E-field, meaning that the differential phase shift which is induced in the absence of an E-field differs in magnitude from the differential phase shift which is induced in the presence of an E-field.
- the Pockels linear electro-optic effect commonly called the electro-optic effect for short, is observed in Pockels transducing crystals and similar media.
- the Pockels electro-optic effect is observed as a shift between the relative phases of the beam components. This shift is induced in the beam 12 by the transducer 26, also called the transducing medium.
- the magnitude of the effect corresponds, usually proportionally to the magnitude of the E-field.
- the transducer 26, or transducing medium comprises a material which exhibits the Pockels electro-optic effect.
- the transducer 26 is preferably Magnesium Oxide-doped Lithium Niobate (MgO-LiNbO 3 ), although other materials, such as Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate (NH 4 H 2 PO 4 ), Ammonium Dideuterium Phosphate (NH 4 D 2 PO 4 ), Potassium Dideuterium Phosphate (KD 2 PO 4 ), Lithium Niobate (LiNbO 3 ), Lithium Tantalate (LiTaO 3 ), electro-optic polymers, organic materials, and others can be used.
- the detector (not shown) employs two photo detectors and a two-channel signal processor to determine voltage.
- the differential phase shift between orthogonal components of the beam 12 produces a corresponding alteration of the polarization of the beam 12, thus allowing determination of the original E-field intensity from the Pockels effect by analyzing magnitude of the polarization change.
- the magnitude of the shift is proportional to the magnitude of the E-field, and thus the magnitude of the voltage.
- the polarization state of the beam 12 is directly representative of E-field magnitude and voltage.
- the beam 12 passes from the transducer 26 and enters into the retro-reflector 27.
- the retro-reflector 27 comprises a reflector material 29.
- the reflector material in the preferred embodiment has two functions; one is to reflect the beam 12 and the other is to cause a quarter-wave shift between the components in orthogonal planes of the beam 12.
- the reflector material 29 has an index of refraction and incident angle that together facilitate total-internal reflection of beam 12.
- An alternative embodiment would include a reflective coating (shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 at 28) disposed on the surfaces of the reflector material 29 for causing the beam 12 to reflect at the boundaries of the reflector material 29.
- the quarter-wave retardation property of the retro-reflector 27 induces a differential 1/4 wavelength shift between the orthogonal planes of the beam 12 through either using a reflector material 29 possessing intrinsic birefringence, or by inducing a phase shift upon reflection of the beam 12.
- the 1/4 wavelength shift may be either a single order or a multiple order shift. Therefore, the phrase "at least single order shift" is understood by those skilled in the art to include both single and multiple order wavelength shifts.
- the reflector material 29 thus in the preferred embodiment includes phase shifting means for shifting the phase of at least one of the beam components to thereby achieve a differential phase shift between said beam components of 1/4 of a wave length. This could be accomplished by shifting the phase of only one of the beam components by 1/4 of a wave length, or by shifting the phase of both components such that the collective result is a differential phase shift of 1/4 of a wave length.
- the birefringence is not dependant upon the E-field.
- the reflector material 29 induces a 1/8 wavelength differential phase shift upon the beam at each reflection, producing a collective 1/4 wavelength ( ⁇ /2 radians) shift following the two reflections within the retro-reflector 27.
- reflective coating may further serve to induce, or partially induce, the 1/4 wave length shift of the beam 12, as phase shifts are known to occur in electromagnetic radiation upon reflection from a suitable surface.
- One skilled in the art could further induce a 1/4 wave length shift in beam 12 by combining reflection and intrinsic birefringence.
- the polarization of the beam 12 entering the retro-reflector 27 depends upon the E-field magnitude present when the beam 12 makes a first pass through the transducer 26. If there is an E-field present then there will be some differential phase shift already present in the beam 12. The ⁇ /2 retardation within the retro-reflector 27 biases the sensor's overall resultant polarization such that zero E-field (and hence zero voltage) corresponds to circular-polarized light, as no differential phase shift is present in the beam 12 from either pass through the transducer 26.
- the retro-reflector 27 will not convert light from linear to circular-polarization. Rather, it will induce elliptical-polarization upon the beam 12. The ellipticity of this polarization will modulate between -1 and 30 1 in proportion to the voltage. While a laser is used in the preferred embodiment, other sources of electromagnetic radiation could also be used in the practice of the invention.
- the reflection of the beam 12 in the retro-reflector 27 is in accordance with the principle of the angle of incidence being the same as the angle of reflection.
- the retro-reflector 27 is configured to cause a 180° change in the direction of the beam 12, thereby sending the beam backwardly into the transducer 26 along a second movement path 101.
- the second movement path 101 is preferably, but not necessarily, parallel to the first movement path 100.
- the beam 12 When the beam 12 reenters the transducer 26 from the retro-reflector 27, it undergoes further differential phase shift from the Pockels electro-optic effect. The beam 12 then passes through the transparent medium 24 and enters into the polarizing beam splitter 46.
- the beam 12 is separated in accordance with the respective axes of its polarization ellipse into AM signals 48 and 52.
- the said polarization ellipse will exhibit an ellipticity ranging between -1 and +1, in proportion to voltage at any given time.
- the major and minor axes of the polarization ellipse of beam 12 can be represented by two orthogonal components, indicated generally at 83.
- the polarizing beam splitter 46 then separates the beam 12 into two components 84 and 85 corresponding to the optic intensities of the beam 12 along the axes of the polarization ellipse.
- the intensity of beam components 84 and 85 will modulate conversely to one another in response to modulations (in other words, these are independent converse amplitude-modulated signals) in the ellipticity of the beam's polarization state.
- the beam components 84 and 85 are two AM signals shown as 48 and 52, respectively, which contain the information needed to determine voltage.
- the AM signals 48 and 52 then pass through the collimators 16 and 18, shown in FIG. 1, (also shown in FIGS. 4, 5, and 6) and are routed through at single-mode or multi-mode optic fibers 42 and 45.
- a beam reflector 47 may be used to aid in routing one of the AM signal 48 or 52.
- FIGS. 4 and 5 show alternative embodiments of the present invention.
- the beam 12 is reflected by a retro-reflector 27; however, the beam only passes through the transducer 26 once.
- the beam 12 may pass through the transducer 26 before being reflected by the retro-reflector 27, or as in FIG. 5 the beam 12 may pass through the transducer 26 after being reflected by the retro-reflector 27.
- FIG. 6 depicts an alternative embodiment in which no translucent medium 24 is used.
- the reflection of the beam 12 at a desired angle shown as 180° enables the fibers 8, 42 and 45 to be aligned as desired, which in the preferred embodiment is parallel to one another.
- the retro-reflector 27 is essentially a reflecting means for receiving the beam 12 from the transducer 26 and reflecting the beam into the polarizing beam splitter 46.
- This element shall refer broadly to redirection of the beam 12 from the transducer 26 into the beam splitter 46, regardless of whether any intermediate elements reside along the beam movement path between the transducer and the beam splitter, such as the translucent medium 24.
- the retro-reflector 27 may comprise a reflecting means for receiving the beam 12 from the polarizer 22 and reflecting the beam into the transducer 26.
- This element shall refer broadly to redirecting the beam 12 from the polarizer 22 into the transducer 26, regardless of whether any intermediate elements resides in the movement path of the beam between the polarizer 22 and the retro-reflector 27, such as the translucent material 24 as shown in FIG. 5.
Abstract
Description
Claims (22)
Priority Applications (8)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
US08/570,152 US5731579A (en) | 1995-12-11 | 1995-12-11 | Electro-optical voltage sensor head |
AU13291/97A AU1329197A (en) | 1995-12-08 | 1996-12-05 | Electro-optic voltage sensor |
PCT/US1996/019346 WO1997022012A1 (en) | 1995-12-08 | 1996-12-05 | Electro-optic voltage sensor |
JP52210397A JP2001526770A (en) | 1995-12-08 | 1996-12-05 | Electro-optic voltage sensor |
CA002239722A CA2239722C (en) | 1995-12-08 | 1996-12-05 | Electro-optic voltage sensor |
EP96944754A EP0866975A4 (en) | 1995-12-08 | 1996-12-05 | Electro-optic voltage sensor |
MYPI9605149 MY125659A (en) | 1995-12-08 | 1996-12-07 | Electro-optic voltage sensor for sensing voltage in a e-field |
US08/988,247 US5939711A (en) | 1995-12-11 | 1997-12-10 | Electro-optic voltage sensor head |
Applications Claiming Priority (1)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
US08/570,152 US5731579A (en) | 1995-12-11 | 1995-12-11 | Electro-optical voltage sensor head |
Related Child Applications (1)
Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
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US08/988,247 Continuation-In-Part US5939711A (en) | 1995-12-11 | 1997-12-10 | Electro-optic voltage sensor head |
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US5731579A true US5731579A (en) | 1998-03-24 |
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US08/570,152 Expired - Lifetime US5731579A (en) | 1995-12-08 | 1995-12-11 | Electro-optical voltage sensor head |
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Cited By (21)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
US5939711A (en) * | 1995-12-11 | 1999-08-17 | Lockheed Martin Idaho Technologies Company | Electro-optic voltage sensor head |
WO2000013033A1 (en) * | 1998-09-01 | 2000-03-09 | Lockheed Martin Idaho Technologies Company | Electro-optic voltage sensor |
GB2342161A (en) * | 1998-09-30 | 2000-04-05 | Ando Electric | Electro optic probe |
US6122415A (en) * | 1998-09-30 | 2000-09-19 | Blake; James N. | In-line electro-optic voltage sensor |
US6211982B1 (en) | 1998-07-29 | 2001-04-03 | Litton Systems, Inc. | Remote sensor with waveguide optics telemetry |
US6252388B1 (en) | 1998-12-04 | 2001-06-26 | Nxtphase Corporation | Method and apparatus for measuring voltage using electric field sensors |
US6307666B1 (en) * | 2000-01-13 | 2001-10-23 | Bechtel Bwxt Idaho, Llc | Voltage sensing systems and methods for passive compensation of temperature related intrinsic phase shift |
US6380725B1 (en) | 2000-02-15 | 2002-04-30 | Nxtphase Corporation | Voltage sensor |
US6388434B1 (en) * | 2000-01-17 | 2002-05-14 | Bechtel Bwxt Idaho, Llc | Electro-optic high voltage sensor |
US20050062460A1 (en) * | 2003-09-05 | 2005-03-24 | Blake Jame N. | Time division multiplexed optical measuring system |
US20090279903A1 (en) * | 2008-03-27 | 2009-11-12 | Cubic Corporation | Modulating Retro-Reflector Optical Communication Using Polarization Differential Signaling |
US20110095749A1 (en) * | 2009-10-28 | 2011-04-28 | Joseph Yossi Harlev | Optical sensor assembly for installation on a current carrying cable |
US20110095750A1 (en) * | 2009-10-28 | 2011-04-28 | Joseph Yossi Harlev | Method for measuring current in an electric power distribution system |
US20110234202A1 (en) * | 2008-05-28 | 2011-09-29 | Masao Takahashi | Optical voltage sensor |
WO2012163923A1 (en) * | 2011-05-27 | 2012-12-06 | Abb Research Ltd | Fiber-optic voltage sensor |
US9134344B2 (en) | 2009-10-28 | 2015-09-15 | Gridview Optical Solutions, Llc. | Optical sensor assembly for installation on a current carrying cable |
US9146358B2 (en) | 2013-07-16 | 2015-09-29 | Gridview Optical Solutions, Llc | Collimator holder for electro-optical sensor |
US20160169942A1 (en) * | 2013-08-22 | 2016-06-16 | Leoni Kabel Holding Gmbh | Sensor unit |
KR20160102023A (en) * | 2013-12-20 | 2016-08-26 | 에이비비 테크놀로지 아게 | Optical sensor |
US9535097B2 (en) | 2012-07-19 | 2017-01-03 | Gridview Optical Solutions, Llc. | Electro-optic current sensor with high dynamic range and accuracy |
WO2018035313A1 (en) | 2016-08-17 | 2018-02-22 | Micatu Inc. | An optical pockels voltage sensor assembly device and methods of use thereof |
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Cited By (33)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
US5939711A (en) * | 1995-12-11 | 1999-08-17 | Lockheed Martin Idaho Technologies Company | Electro-optic voltage sensor head |
US6211982B1 (en) | 1998-07-29 | 2001-04-03 | Litton Systems, Inc. | Remote sensor with waveguide optics telemetry |
WO2000013033A1 (en) * | 1998-09-01 | 2000-03-09 | Lockheed Martin Idaho Technologies Company | Electro-optic voltage sensor |
GB2342161A (en) * | 1998-09-30 | 2000-04-05 | Ando Electric | Electro optic probe |
US6122415A (en) * | 1998-09-30 | 2000-09-19 | Blake; James N. | In-line electro-optic voltage sensor |
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US6252388B1 (en) | 1998-12-04 | 2001-06-26 | Nxtphase Corporation | Method and apparatus for measuring voltage using electric field sensors |
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