KR20160034856A - Epicatalytic Thermal Diode - Google Patents

Abstract

The epitaxial thermal diode (ETD) includes one or more ETD cells. Each cell comprising a first and a second surface having a cavity therebetween, the cavity containing an epitaxially active gas for the pair of surfaces. The surface chemically reacts with the gas and decomposes near the first surface faster than the gas decomposes near the second surface. Thus, a steady-state temperature difference between the first surface and the second surface is created and maintained. In various applications, several ETD cells are connected in series and / or in parallel.

Description

The present invention relates to an epicatalytic thermal diode,

The present invention relates generally to maintaining heat flow, and more particularly to an apparatus for generating and maintaining steady-state temperature differences.

Heat usually flows from high to low temperatures, reducing the temperature gradient so that the independent system ultimately reaches a thermodynamic equilibrium characterized by a single uniform temperature. Now, in order for the device to generate and maintain temperature gradients, things must be applied. Maintaining temperature gradients has utility across a variety of technical fields such as heating, refrigeration, environmental control, power generation, and machine operation.

Existing equipment that keeps the temperature slope by adding work also generates waste heat. Some systems attempt to use this waste heat (for example, the waste heat generated by an automobile engine can be delivered to the interior of the car to provide heat during the winter), but these systems are typically inefficient and require fossil fuels , Gasoline, coal, oil, etc.), thereby failing to address the initial requirement to provide work.

These and other problems are addressed by epitaxial thermal diodes (ETDs) and corresponding methods. The ETD spontaneously produces i) a temperature difference between two separate surfaces of the ETD; And ii) the direction of the temperature gradient (i. E., Above) to mediate efficient steady-state heat flux across the ETD. In one embodiment, the structure of the ETD optimizes both the generation and maintenance of temperature gradients and heat flow thermodynamically and chemically.

In various embodiments, the ETD device includes one or more ETD cells connected in series and / or in parallel. In certain embodiments, adjacent ETD cells share one or more components for increased operating efficiency and / or reduced production costs.

In one embodiment, the ETD cell includes a first and a second surface and has a cavity configured to hold a gas therebetween. When the gas is present in the cavity, the surface chemically reacts with the gas such that the gas decomposes near the first surface at a rate that is faster than the rate at which it is decomposed near the second surface. Thus, a greater amount of heat is absorbed or discharged near the first surface (depending on whether the decomposition reaction is an endothermic reaction or an exothermic reaction, respectively) than near the second surface. As a result, a steady-state temperature difference between the first surface and the second surface is created and maintained.

In another embodiment, the ETD cell further comprises first and second heat transfer surfaces connected to the first and second surfaces, respectively, and substantially parallel. The heat transfer surface is connected to the side of the corresponding surface opposite to the cavity. The heat transfer surface is configured to conduct heat to and / or from a corresponding surface.

Are included in the scope of the present invention.

FIG. 1A is a diagram illustrating an epitaxial reaction that results in a temperature difference between two surfaces, according to one embodiment. FIG.
1B is a side view of a single ETD cell in which the reaction of FIG. 1A can occur, according to one embodiment.
2 is a diagram of another property of a system configuration including several ETD cells in parallel, in accordance with one embodiment.
3 is a side view of a system configuration incorporating three layers of ETD cells in series, in accordance with one embodiment.
4 is a diagram illustrating an apparatus for testing a combination of material and gas to determine compliance for use in an ETD cell, in accordance with one embodiment.
5 is a flow chart illustrating an exemplary method of measuring the stability of a particular gas-surface combination for use in an ETD cell, in accordance with one embodiment.
6 is a flow diagram illustrating another method of measuring the stability of a particular gas-surface combination for use in an ETD cell, in accordance with one embodiment.

The drawings and the following description illustrate specific embodiments as examples only. Those skilled in the art will readily appreciate from the following description that other embodiments of the structures and methods illustrated in this invention can be used without departing from the principles described herein. Reference will now be made to several embodiments, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. It is noted that similar or like reference numbers that may be employed may be used in the drawings and may indicate similar or equivalent functions.

An Overview of the Method

Embodiments of the ETD use a method that requires (at least) two spatially separated surfaces that are chemically active for the trapped gas between (at least) two spatially separated surfaces, Figure AB illustrates one embodiment of this method using two parallel surfaces 120 & 140. The two (or more) surfaces 120 & 140 exhibit most of the behavior of conventional heterogeneous catalysts, but deviate from one standard principle of the catalyst. Unlike conventional catalysts that do not displace gas phase equilibrium, surfaces 120 & 140 change gas phase equilibrium due to the dominance of surface action relative to the volume characteristics of gas in cavity 130 between the surfaces. Thus, surfaces 120 & 140 are referred to in the present invention as "epicatalysts ", and methods based on these surfaces include epicatalysis and / or epicatalytic processes. "

The first surface 140 is prone to decomposition half-reaction (AB -> A + B meaning) compared to the second surface 120. Conversely, the second surface 120 tends to be in a relatively recombined half-reaction (A + B -> AB meaning) state as compared to the first surface 140. Thus, when the gas dimer is near the first surface 140, the interaction between the dimer and the first surface 140 results in a decomposition rate that is greater than the corresponding decomposition rate close to the second surface 120. The term close means that the gas and surface used in the present invention are within about 10 Angstroms of the surface, including the monomers and / or dimers of the gas on the surface.

Cavity 130 includes a gas, which is free to move within the cavity. Thus, there is a flow of gases A and B of greater gas across the cavity 130 from the first surface 140 toward the second surface 120 in the opposite direction. Conversely, there is a greater flow of AB species of gas across the cavity 130 from the second surface 120 toward the first surface 140. As a result, there is a chemical cycle in the cavity 130 and a final stream 135 of gas of species A and B in a different direction than the final stream 125 of gas of AB species in one direction. This gas flow between the two surfaces 120 & 140 carries the final heat and chemical energy, resulting in a steady-state temperature difference between the two surfaces.

In one embodiment, the decomposition reaction is an endothermic reaction and the recombination reaction is an exothermic reaction. As a result, the surface 140 that is preferred to dissolve is spontaneously cooled and maintains a lower temperature than the (relatively) preferred surface 120 to recombine. Because excessive heat must be provided to the cooler surface 140, the heat is thermally convected and chemically admitted to the other surface 120 through the space 130 to create a final heat flow between the surfaces, Increase the slope. The heat can then be recovered from the warmer surface 120 by a standard heat transfer mechanism (i.e., convection, conduction, radiation). The end result is to construct a heat diode that prefers heat transfer in one direction relative to the other, enabling full transfer of heat back to the temperature gradient. Although certain embodiments in which the decomposition reaction is an endothermic reaction are described below, it should be noted that in some embodiments, the decomposition reaction is an exothermic reaction. In this embodiment, the surface 140 that is preferred for degradation will be warmer than the surface that prefers recombination.

Structure of ETD cell

1B is an interior side view illustrating a general structure of an ETD cell 100, according to one embodiment. Several ETD cells 100 may be combined in various ways to achieve the desired effect, some of which are discussed in more detail below with reference to Figures 2 and 3. In the illustrated embodiment, the ETD cell 100 includes a first surface 140 and a second surface 120 that are each supported by a corresponding heat transfer surface 110 and aligned substantially parallel to each other. The separation between the surfaces 120 & 140 is maintained by a plurality of separator plates 160, two of which are shown. Thus, cavity 130 is formed between surfaces 120 & 140 and includes gas. In other embodiments, other geometric shapes such as nested cylinders, nested spheres, threads, etc. that maintain a substantially constant separation between two or more surfaces are used in the ETD cell 100. In some embodiments, one or both of the surfaces 120 & 140 also serve as the corresponding heat transfer surface 110. In another embodiment, the surfaces 120 & 140 are not arranged at substantially constant intervals, e.g., at an angle of 45 degrees with respect to each other, or one of the surfaces is substantially curved relative to the other.

The gases useful in the disclosed apparatus are dimers, AB, and also exist as individual monomers A and B. In addition, gases useful in the disclosed apparatus are selected based on their interaction with the specific surfaces 120 and 140. As noted above, the gas useful for specific surfaces 120 and 140 is susceptible to degradation at the first surface compared to the second surface and is likely to recombine at the second surface compared to the first surface. In one embodiment, the gas is selected based on the stability of the individual monomers A and B, the bond strength between the components at dimer AB, and the vapor pressure of the gas at the operating temperature of the ETD device (e.g., room temperature or near room temperature).

In some embodiments, the gas is selected such that when the gas is at the ETD operating temperature, the vapor pressure of the gas is sufficient to operate the chemical cycle. In other words, there must be sufficient vapor over the vapor across the cavity 130 for the decomposition / recombination cycle, thus the temperature difference will be maintained. Thus, gases with relatively low molecular weights (e.g., less than about 200 amu) may be used in some embodiments for room temperature operation. These gases have ultimate intramolecular forces and energies comparable to ambient heat energy, so that significant degradation occurs at ambient conditions. In general, a higher molecular weight gas causes a substantial fraction of the molecules to liquefy or coagulate at room temperature, resulting in cavities 130 that do not contain significant amounts of gas on the vapor phase to maintain the reaction cycle.

In some embodiments, the stability of the individual monomers relative to the selected gas and the bond strength of the dimer is such that the surface action by the surface 120 & 140 dominates the gas phase equilibrium behavior when the ETD device is at operating temperature. In this embodiment dimer AB is bonded by a relatively weak bond such that the dimer can thermally decompose at room temperature or near room temperature so that a significant amount (e.g., 10%) of the dimer present in the degraded species at any given time, Of the gas. In various embodiments, a gas dimer with a hydrogen bond (HyB), a halogen bond (HaB) and a van der Waals bond (vdWB) is used. Homodimers (monomers A and B are the same gas) and heterodimers (monomers A and B are different gases) are used in various embodiments.

A hydrogen-bonded dimer is a molecule comprising two monomers linked by one or more hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonded dimers (and thus may be used in the epicatechlical process) in which the decomposition and recombination rates change near the surface include, but are not limited to, low molecular weight carboxylic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, ethers, esters , Acyl halides, amides and amines. In general, noncovalent pair electrons available from F, O, N and sometimes S, which work with hydrogen atoms attached to electrophysiological elements, will result in dimers that exhibit epi-catalytic behavior when close to the appropriate surface. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that, in various applications, on the basis of the above considerations, embodiments may be practiced with a gas comprising: formic acid, acetic acid, methanol, ethanol, formaldehyde, ammonia, dimethyl ketone, methylamine, dimethylamine, , Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and the like, such as acetamide, methyl thiol, cyanogen, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, cyanomethine, formamide, aminomethaneimine, hydrogen chloride, It will be appreciated that not only nitric oxide but also heterodimer combinations of monomers of such molecules can be used.

A halogen-bonded dimer is a molecule comprising two monomers linked by one or more halogen bonds. Generally, low molecular weight halogen-bonded molecules, including fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine, exhibit epicatalytic behavior. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that, in various applications, based on the above considerations, embodiments can include as gas: mono-halogen methanes, di-halogen methanes, tri-halogen methanes, tetra-halogen methanes, halogenated ethanes, Lt; RTI ID = 0.0 > dimer < / RTI > of monomers of such molecules.

A van der Waals bond dimer is a molecule comprising two monomers linked by at least one van der Waals bond. Unlike the HyB and HaB dimers described above, various forms of van der Waals bond dimers exhibit significant degradation at significantly below room temperature. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that, based on the above considerations, embodiments can use inert gas dimers (e.g., argon, xenon), methane, ethane, propane and nitrogen as the gas .

In various embodiments, gases other than those described above are used depending on the specific environment, application, and choice of surface material. For example, some covalently bonded gases, such as di-borane and tetra-n-hexane, have weak bonds sufficiently at room temperature or near room temperature because a significant portion of the gas is in a decomposed state. Although gases are described herein as dimers for convenience in the present invention, in some embodiments the gas is a trimmer or higher class molecule comprising multiple monomers joined by one or more of the abovementioned conjugated forms.

In some embodiments, additional factors are considered when selecting the gas for cavity 130, including gas chemistry, gas availability / cost, gas toxicity, and the like.

The heat transfer surface 110 provides mechanical stability and support to the surfaces 120 and 140. The heat transfer surface 110 is also impermeable to gas and constitutes a portion of a sealed container that holds the gas. In some embodiments, one or both of the surfaces 120 & 140 also serve as the corresponding heat transfer surface 110. In a typical application, the ETD system includes a plurality of ETD cells 100, each cell sharing a gas across a plurality of connected cavities 130. One such system is described in more detail below with reference to FIG.

The outer surface of the heat transfer surface 110, in various embodiments, includes surface features (e.g., fin, roughness, etc.) to increase heat transfer through conduction and advection. In addition, the outer surface is colored (e.g., blackened) to maximize heat transfer through radiation, in some embodiments. For example, the outer surface may include one or more of polarized aluminum, carbon black, carbon nanotube forrest, etc. to provide efficient radiant heat transfer in and out of the cell 100.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer surface 110 is thermally conductive (e.g., has a high thermal conductivity and is physically thin) and is mechanically strong. Examples of materials having such properties include Myra, Kevlar, aramid, metal foil and the like. Being thermally conductive allows heat to easily enter the ETD cell 100 through the first heat transfer surface 110A and is recovered from the ETD cell at the second heat transfer surface 110B. Having a mechanical strength ensures that the heat transfer surface 110 provides excellent mechanical support of the surfaces 120 & 140, so that the functional geometry of the ETD cell 100 is substantially maintained under stress. The heat transfer surface 110 may be made of the same or different materials with the desired properties, according to certain embodiments. For example, the material used for each heat transfer surface 110 may be selected to ensure effective bonding with the corresponding surface material.

In one embodiment, the heat transfer surface 110 is not only macroscopically flexible, but also mechanically strong compared to a shorter length scale. As a result, sheets of ETD cells can be manipulated to form cylinders, threads, packaging materials and other such structures, as desired for a particular application.

In another embodiment, the heat transfer surface has a low emissivity for the internal round surface (e.g., reflected), thereby reducing the reverse radiant heating of the cooler surface 140 by the warmer surface 120. In another embodiment, the relationship between the emissivity (and absorption rate) of the heat transfer surface 110 and the surface 120 & 140 is optimized to further reduce the amount of reverse radiation heating achieved by the sole reflection.

The choice of material for surfaces 120 & 140 is based, at least in part, on the specific gas in cavity 130, and in particular how the decomposition / recombination reaction rate of a particular gas is close to that selected for the surface As shown in FIG. As noted above, with reference to FIG. 1A, a material is preferred for the first surface 140 that favor gas decomposition. Conversely, a material that (relatively) prefers gas recombination is selected for the second surface 120. In some embodiments, the geometry of one or both surfaces 120 and 140 is made to increase the number of interactions between the gas and the surface and increase the corresponding decomposition or recombination rate. For example, surface 120 or 140 may be wrinkled, grooved, roughened, bifurcated, or otherwise configured to increase the surface area available for gas-surface interaction (e.g., , Carbon nano-tube forest). In one such embodiment, the geometry of the pair of surfaces 120 or 140 is made such that the ratio of incident dimers that decompose at the degradation surface is approximately equal to the ratio of monomer pairs that recombine at the recombination surface.

In embodiments where HyB and / or HaB gases are used, the material used for the degradation surface 140 compete with the monomers of the gas to attract, reducing the number of monomers that bind near the degradation surface, Thereby increasing the overall decomposition rate. However, if the degradation surface 140 interacts too strongly with the monomer, the monomer may be attached to the surface. If this occurs, the monomer can not be used to participate in the chemical cycle, which can prevent the setting of the steady-state temperature difference. Thus, the material used for the degradation surface 140 should have a significant degradation / desorption activity for the particular dimer used, because a significant amount of dimer incident on the surface is decomposed and a significant amount of the final dimer leaves the area near the surface Means that. Ideally, all dimers incident on degradation surface 140 will undergo decomposition and desorption. However, actual systems typically have a fractional desorption ratio of less than 100% (the percentage of incident dimers where decomposition occurs and the final monomer leaves an area near the degradation surface 140). In one embodiment, the decomposition / desorption ratio is from 0.01% to 90%. In another embodiment, the decomposition / desorption ratio is from 0.1% to 90%. In another embodiment, the decomposition / desorption ratio is from 0.1% to 50%. In another embodiment, the decomposition / desorption ratio is from 0.1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the other decomposition / desorption ratio is dependent on the ETD operating temperature and pressure, as well as the specific gas and material used.

Exemplary material classes that exhibit this property include, but are not limited to, metals, ceramics, metal oxides, nitrides, and halides, as well as functional organic polymers and other high molecular weight lump molecules that exhibit a functionalized surface. Based on the above considerations, those skilled in the art will appreciate that, in various applications, embodiments may employ rare metals (e.g., Au, Ag), transition metals (e.g., Fe, Ni, Cu) It is possible to use a metal such as W, Re, Mo, Al2O3, MgO, TiO2, silica, nitrocellulose, aramid, nylon, rayon or polymethylmethacrylate It will be appreciated.

In embodiments where vdWB gas is used, the degradation surface 140 also interacts with the gas such that the gas decomposes more quickly near the decomposition surface than it decomposes near the recombination surface 120. Those skilled in the art will recognize that, based on the above considerations, in various applications, embodiments can use surface-chlorinated polyethylene, surface-chlorinated polypropylene, or Teflon as the degradation surface 140.

The other type of material used as the degradation surface 140 in some embodiments using vdWB, HaB, or HyB gases is a doped semiconductor. By doping semiconductors with electronegative or electropositive species, strong interaction sites with the monomers constituting the dimers are formed, increasing the adsorption rate and increasing the rate of degradation. Examples of such doped semiconductors include silicon and germanium doped with one or more of chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, barium and cesium.

In various embodiments, materials other than those described above are used in the degradation surface 140, depending upon the specific environment, application, and choice of gas.

The recombination surface 120 promotes recombination of the monomer back to the dimer and the material selected for the recombination surface can interact with the monomer in a preferred manner by, for example, influencing the dispersion of the charge of the monomer do. In some embodiments, the recombination surface 120 is weakly bound to the monomer by, for example, weak HyB, HaB or VdWB. As a result, the interaction between the gaseous monomer and the recombination surface 120 does not dominate the formation of bonds between the monomers, thus forming a dimer. Similar to the degradation surface 140, in an ideal system, 100% of the monomer entering the recombination surface 120 combine to create a dimer that leaves an area close to the recombination surface. However, the actual system has a recombination desorption ratio of less than 100% (the percentage of incoming monomer leaving recombination and leaving the final dimer near the recombination surface 120). In one embodiment, the recombination desorption ratio is from 0.01% to 90%. In another embodiment, the recombination desorption ratio is from 0.1% to 90%. In another embodiment, the recombination desorption ratio is from 0.1% to 50%. In another embodiment, the recombination desorption ratio is from 0.1% to 10%. Other recombination desorption ratios depend on the ETD operating temperature and pressure, as well as the specific gases and materials used.

Typical classes of materials that exhibit this property include, but are not limited to, non-polar, organic surfaces such as high molecular weight hydrocarbons, organosilanes, chloro-polymers and unfunctionalized polymers. Those skilled in the art will recognize that, based on the above considerations, in various applications, embodiments can use polyethylene, polypropylene, paraffin, natural rubber or polyether as the recombination surface 120.

It is also possible to use a polymer prepared from ethylene, propylene, vinyl fluoride, vinylidene fluoride, tetrafluoroethylene, hexafluoropropylene, perfluoropropyl vinyl ether, perfluoromethyl vinyl ether and chlorotrifluoroethylene Several fluoropolymers, including homo-polymers and co-polymers, exhibit suitable properties for use as the recombination surface 120. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that, based on the above considerations, in various applications, embodiments may include, as the recombination surface 120, polyvinyl fluoride, polyvinylidene fluoride, polytetrafluoroethylene, perfluoroalkoxy polymer, Polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene, biton, perfluoropolyether, or perfluorosulfonic acid. In addition, graphene and its isomers (e. G., Graphite, carbon nanotubes) also exhibit this property and can be used in recombination surface 120 in combination with a suitable gas.

Another class of materials used as the recombination surface 120 in some embodiments using vdWB, HaB, or HyB gases is a doped semiconductor. By doping the semiconductor with electronegative or electropositive species, a site is formed that interacts with the monomer in a manner that promotes recombination. Examples of such doped semiconductors include silicon and germanium doped with one or more of chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, barium and cesium.

In various embodiments, materials other than those described above are used for bonding surface 120, depending on the specific environment, application, and choice of gas.

In one embodiment, the separation between surfaces 120 & 140 is below (or is about the mean free path) the average free path for a collision or reaction to a gas-phase decomposition-recombination reaction AB & For example, for gas pressures of from about 0.01 to 10 atmospheres, a corresponding separation in the range of about 10 to 0.01 microns may be used. In another embodiment, a gas pressure as low as about 0.001 and as high as about 40 atmospheres is used, corresponding to a separation in the range of about 100 - 0.0025 microns.

In addition, surfaces 120 & 140 have high thermal conductivity and are physically thin (e.g., 1-10 nm) to assist heat transfer in and out of ETD cell 100. In some embodiments, surfaces 120 & 140 have a large surface area (e.g., rough or woody) to maximize chemical reactivity per area and are optically thin (e.g., below the IR wavelength) The optical properties of the ETD cell 100 dominate the radiation energy transfer inside the ETD cell 100.

A plurality of separators 160 maintain a desired separation between the active surfaces 120 & 140. The material and structure of the separator 160 are selected to maintain the amount of thermal conduction across the cavity 130 as low as possible through the separator. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1B, this is done using a separator 160, which is a thin column with a rounded tip to minimize the contact area with the heat transfer surface 110. In another embodiment, another form of separator 160, such as spherical micro-particles, is used. Although the separator 160 rests on the heat transfer surface 110, in other embodiments the separator supports the surfaces 120 & 140 (as shown in FIG. 3, for example) And / or surfaces 120 & 140.

The separator 160 is mechanically strong enough and appropriately spaced to maintain separation between the surfaces 120 and 140 near the desired value when the ETF cell 100 is stressed. The isolation tray 160 also has a low thermal conductivity to minimize thermal re-conduction from the cooler surface 120 to the warmer surface 140. In addition, the separator 160 has a low emissivity (e.g., mirror-like) so as not to absorb internal radiant energy.

In one exemplary embodiment, the gas in cavity 130 is acetic acid, degradation surface 140 is polymethyl methacrylate, and recombination surface 120 is polyethylene. In another exemplary embodiment, the gas is formamide, the degradation surface 140 is a partial surface-chlorinated polyethylene, and the recombination surface 120 is polypropylene. In another exemplary embodiment, the gas is ammonia, the degradation surface 140 is alumina ceramic, and the recombination surface 120 is polystyrene. In another exemplary embodiment, the gas is formic acid, the degradation surface 140 is polymethylmethacrylate, and the recombination surface 120 is polyethylene.

Gas-surface bonding determination

FIG. 4 illustrates an apparatus 400 for testing a combination of material and gas to determine compliance for use in an ETD cell, according to one embodiment. The apparatus 400 includes a blackbody cylinder 420 within a vacuum vessel 410. In one embodiment, the body of the vacuum vessel 410 is a stainless steel cylinder having a diameter of approximately 30 centimeters (cm) and a length of approximately 40 cm and the blackbody cylinder 420 is a tungsten or rhenium foil (having a diameter of approximately 26 microns ) With a diameter of approximately 0.64 cm and a length of approximately 10 cm. The vacuum vessel is a pumped diffusion at a base pressure of approximately 10 ^-6 Torr. The interior 425 of the blackbody cylinder 420 (e.g., a 2.5 centimeter centimeter portion) is sealed with a pair of alumina disks 422.

In the embodiment illustrated in Figure 4, a cylinder electrode 442 (e.g., a tantalum electrode) is attached to the inner surface of each end of the blackbody cylinder 420. The electrode 442 is attached to the variable power supply 440 through a pair of wires 445. [ By supplying current to the blackbody cylinder 420 using the variable power supply 440, the blackbody cylinder and its contents can be resistively heated. Thus, the equilibrium temperature of the blackbody cylinder 420 and its contents (without any epicatalytic action) can be controlled by varying the power supplied by the variable power supply 440. In another embodiment, some or all of the variable power supply 440, the wire 445 and the electrode 442 are omitted when the device 400 is designed to be used to find a room temperature epitaxialitic combination. In another embodiment, a mechanism for refrigeration of the blackbody cylinder 420 is provided to enable testing of the material for low temperature epidermal activity.

A pair of thermocouples 430 are positioned within the blackbody cylinder 420 and fed through holes in the alumina disk 422 so that the center of each thermocouple 430 is located within the interior 425. The first thermocouple 430A is coated with a material that is a candidate group that is likely to become disassociated half-reaction state for a particular gas and the second thermocouple 430B is recombined (compared to the first material) It is coated with an easy candidate material. Each thermocouple is connected to a corresponding thermocouple gage 450 via wire 435. Thus, the thermocouple gage 450A coupled to the first thermocouple monitors the temperature of the first thermocouple and the second thermocouple gauge 450B monitors the temperature of the second thermocouple. For example, thermocouple gage 450 may be a pair of channels on a data-logger to monitor and record the temperature of the thermocouple once per second.

Within the blackbody cavity 420, the thermocouple 430 includes four heat transfer channels: 1) thermal conduction along the wire 435, 2) blackbody radiation, 3) thermal convection by gas present in the cavity, and 4) Is affected by the decomposition / recombination reaction (i.e., epi- catalytic action). Thus, in order to determine whether the observed temperature difference between thermocouples is (at least partially) due to epitaxialis, the system should be tested for any differences by the other three channels.

5 illustrates an exemplary method for determining the stability of a particular gas-surface combination for use in an ETD cell, according to one embodiment. In the following paragraphs, the method 500 is described in terms of how it is implemented using the device 400 shown in FIG. However, in other embodiments, other testing devices are used. In various embodiments, some of the steps of method 500 are performed in different orders and / or in parallel. Some embodiments of the method 500 include additional and / or other steps.

At 510, a pair of thermocouples 430 are positioned within the blackbody cylinder 420. As described above with reference to FIG. 4, the first thermocouple 430A is coated with the first candidate material and the second thermocouple 430B is coated with the second candidate material.

At 520, the vacuum vessel 410 is evacuated (e.g., at a pressure of 10 ^-6 Torr) and the temperature of the pair of thermocouples 430 is monitored until equilibrium is reached. For example, the temperature can be monitored until a change over a threshold value (e.g., 0.1%) is not observed for a set period of time (e.g., 1 minute). When the material-gas combination is tested against the target temperature of the operation other than room temperature, power is provided to the variable power supply 440 to resistively heat the system. As the thermocouple 430 is placed in the blackbody cavity under vacuum, it is evident that any change in temperature is due to thermal conduction along the wire 435 or blackbody radiation, or both. The theory and experiment confirm that no temperature difference is observed between pairs of thermocouples 430 under these conditions.

At 530, an epitaxial inert gas (meaning a gas that does not undergo a significant number of decomposition and recombination reactions when equilibrated at the target temperature) is inserted into the vacuum vessel 410. The inert gas is preferably a gas having characteristics similar to the candidate epicatechinic gas to be tested to minimize the possibility that the non-epi-cathytic effect is due to any observed temperature difference. For example, if the candidate to be tested is a hydrogen gas, helium may be used during this step of method 500. Any change in the temperature of the thermocouple 430 observed relative to step 520, assuming that the inert gas does not exhibit epicatalytic behavior in the presence of the candidate material, (And any other small amount of gas). The theory and experiment confirm that no temperature difference is observed between pairs of thermocouples 430 under these conditions.

At 540, the inert gas in the vacuum vessel 410 is replaced by a candidate epi-cathytic gas. If the candidate epitaxial gas is decomposed at a location closer to the first thermocouple 430A, as opposed to the second thermocouple 430B (or vice versa), the steady-state temperature difference will result as described above. Therefore, a temperature difference will be observed between thermocouples 430 that are not already present (at steps 520 and 530). Theories and experiments have demonstrated this behavior. For example, when a tungsten and rhenium thermocouple is exposed to hydrogen gas at high and low pressures (e.g., a temperature of 1900 Kelvin (K) and a pressure of 1 Torr), the tungsten thermocouple 430A is coupled to the rhenium thermocouple 430B And the observed temperature difference is thermodynamically stable.

At 550, the likelihood of using candidate epitaxial gas and candidate materials to fabricate an ETD cell is determined based on the observed temperature. Any combination representing a large temperature difference in step 540 that was not present in steps 520 and 530 may be used to fabricate an operating ETD cell. In general, combinations with larger temperature differences will result in more efficient ETD cells with larger power densities, within other constraints imposed by the particular properties of the material. For example, if the candidate material has a particularly low tensile strength, this may limit the size and possible geometric shape of the ETD cell. As another example, if a particular combination requires heating to a high temperature to operate, this will reduce the ultimate efficiency of the ETD cell because power is consumed to heat the system. As a result, combinations that exhibit lower temperature differences can result in an overall more efficient or convenient ETD cell.

Using method 500, the material and gas combinations can be easily tested for epicatechallic behavior. In some embodiments, more than one candidate material may be simultaneously tested with a given gas by including an additional thermocouple 430 within the blackbody cylinder 420. The candidate material may also be compared to materials known to be epi-catallitically inert to a given gas by including one or more thermocouples 430 coated with such an inert material.

6 illustrates another method 600 for measuring the stability of a given combination of gas for use in an ETD cell, degraded surface material, and recombined surface material, according to one embodiment. In various embodiments, some of the steps of method 600 are performed in different orders and / or in parallel. Some embodiments of method 600 include additional and / or other steps.

At 610, the flow of the candidate gas is directed onto the first candidate material. In one embodiment, this is carried out in a super-high vacuum chamber, wherein a pure sample of the first candidate material is influenced by the air stream of the candidate gas, and the air stream comprises the dimer and monomer species of the candidate gas. As used herein, a pure sample is a sample that has been washed as much as possible. In another embodiment, a non-pure sample is used.

The gas stream contacts the sample of the first candidate material, adsorbs on the sample, chemically and / or physically reacts with the sample and leaves (desorbs). At 620, the monomer / dimer ratio of the desorbed stream leaving the first candidate material is measured. In one embodiment, the desorbed flow is analyzed by a mass spectrometer. In another embodiment, other diagnostic tools suitable for quantitatively identifying desorbed species are used.

At 630, the flow of the candidate gas contacts the second candidate material. In one embodiment, this is carried out in an ultra-high vacuum chamber, a pure sample of the second candidate material is influenced by the air stream of the candidate gas, and the air stream comprises the dimer and monomer species of the candidate gas. As used herein, a pure sample is a sample that has been washed as much as possible. In another embodiment, a non-pure sample is used.

The gas stream contacts the sample of the second candidate material, adsorbs on the sample, chemically and / or physically reacts with the sample and leaves (desorbs). At 640, the monomer / dimer ratio of the desorbed stream leaving the second candidate material is measured. In one embodiment, the desorbed flow is analyzed by a mass spectrometer. In another embodiment, other diagnostic tools suitable for quantitatively identifying desorbed species are used.

At 650, the measured monomer / dimer ratio is compared to determine if a particular combination of gas and material is suitable for use in the manufacture of the ETD cell 100. The desorbed flow, which represents the monomer fraction in excess of the gas phase equilibrium value, produces a good degradation surface 140 for the particular gas. Conversely, desorbed flow, which represents a monomer fraction less than or equal to the gas phase equilibrium value, creates a good recombination surface 120 for a particular gas. In various embodiments, a combination of specific gas and candidate material pairs is considered suitable for use in the manufacture of ETD cell 100 when the difference between the measured monomer ratios for each surface is greater than the threshold amount. The threshold used is selected based on the desired minimum temperature difference between the surfaces for the embodiment, and the larger temperature difference requires a larger difference, and thus a larger threshold. In some such embodiments, the upper threshold is used to set an upper limit on the difference in monomer ratios to select a combination that produces a temperature difference large enough to cause thermal damage to the ETD cell 100 and / or surrounding objects .

The method 600 may be repeated for a plurality of combinations of gas and material pairs to measure the combination that may be used to fabricate the ETD cell 100 (other considerations such as structural and economic feasibility) .

Example test data

Using the apparatus of FIG. 4, experiments performed using the method 500 shown in FIG. 5 can be performed with a normal-state temperature difference set between a pair of surfaces in the presence of an epitaxially active gas . The hydrogen dimer (H ₂ ) was tested simultaneously with gas pressures of up to about 10 Torr for tungsten (W) and rhenium (Re) coated thermocouples at temperatures ranging from 300K to 1950K. For temperatures above 1700 K, a pronounced steady-state temperature difference was generated between the W and Re coated thermocouples, proving the ETD effect. The measured maximum steady state ETD temperature difference was 126K, which was observed at an average pressure of 1950K and a pressure of 1 Torr.

Based on the energy scaling controversy, it is deduced that the steady-state temperature difference can be set and maintained at room temperature. The chemical equilibrium constant (Keq), which is based on all standard chemistry, depends on the temperature and the reaction Gibbs free energy (Keq = exp [-G / RT]), which is dominantly influenced, is mainly the binding energy for the reaction. In this case, the characteristic energy scale ( φ ) for chemical equilibrium is given by the ratio of the bond energy to the thermal energy, ie, φ = ㅿ G / RT. Thus, weaker bonds require equally lower temperatures to achieve a similar level of degradation and desorption.

Hydrogen bonds (~0.5 eV) are typically ten times weaker than covalent bonds (~5 eV), and van der Waals bonds are typically still (~0.05 eV) ten times weaker. Therefore, the epi-catalytic decomposition of hydrogen-bonded and van der Waals-bonded dimers should occur at room temperature or below, since the shared epi-catalytic activity of H ₂ works well at ~2000 K. For example, since the ratio ? (4.5eV / 2000K), which is the approximate bond strength of hydrogen dimer at 4.5eV, is approximately equal to the ratio ? (0.5eV / 220K) at which 220K is much lower than room temperature, It can be deduced that it is easy to show the epitaxial behavior at room temperature in the presence of the surface.

Further experimental and theoretical details on the steady-state temperature difference between a pair of epitaxial surfaces can be found in the following publications, which are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

Sheehan, D.P., D.J. Mallin, J.T. Garamella, and W.F. Sheehan, Experimental test of a thermodynamic paradox, Found. Phys. 44 235 (2014).

● Sheehan, D.P., Nonequilibrium heterogeneous catalysis in the long mean-free-path regime, Phys. Rev. E 88 032125 (2013).

Sheehan, D.P., J.T. Garamella, D.J. Mallin and W.F. Sheehan, Steady-state nonequilibrium temperature gradients in hydrogen gas-metal systems; Challenging the second law of thermodynamics, Phys. Scr. T151 014030 (2012).

It is noted that a similar phenomenon is found to occur in certain types of plasma, known as surface ionization plasmas. Such a plasma can set the steady-state pressure gradient under blackbody conditions. Surface ionizing plasmas are formed by surfaces that ionize the gas through strong gas-surface interactions, as the name suggests. Many surface ionization plasmas strongly indicate non-linear features such as non-Maxwell beam-like ion velocity, which can lead to steady-state pressure and temperature differences. Thus, an ETD cell can also be fabricated wherein the energy is transported across the cavity between the ionizing surface and the less active surface for plasma ionization.

Additional experimental and theoretical details on steady-state temperature differences in surface ionizing plasma can be found in the following publications, which are incorporated by reference in their entirety:

● Sheehan, D.P. and T. Seideman, Intrinsically biased electrocapacitive catalysis; J. Chem. Physics 122 204713 (2005).

● Sheehan, D.P. and J.D. Means, Minimum requirement for second law violation: A paradox revisited; Phys. Plasmas 5 2469 (1998).

● Sheehan, D. P., Another paradox involving the second law of thermodynamics; Phys. Plasmas 3 104 (1996).

● Sheehan, D. P., A paradox involving the second law of thermodynamics; Phys. Plasmas 2 1893 (1995).

An exemplary system using multiple ETD cells

2 is a diagram of another property of a system configuration 200 that includes multiple ETD cells 100 in parallel, in accordance with one embodiment. 2 shows, for illustrative purposes only, a cross section of an ETD sheet that is three ETD cell 100 widths and two ETD cell 100 depths. Indeed, the ETD sheet will include more ETD cells 100 (e.g., one hundred, one thousand, or even one million). When the ETD cell 100 is connected in parallel, the heat flow across the system 200 is increased, but the temperature difference between the two sides of the cell remains unchanged. This is similar to arranging the cells in a parallel electrical circuit, with the current added but the voltage unchanged.

In the illustrated embodiment, the heat transfer surface 100 as well as the surfaces 120 & 140 extend across the various ETD cells 100. This is advantageous for production since ETD sheets can be made layer-to-layer using methods known in the art. In addition, adjacent cells share a separator 160 (thus, each separator is a logically part of four ETD cells 100). 1B, a single cavity 130 is shared by all (or at least a portion of) the ETD cell 100 in the seat. The heat transfer surface 110 is joined at the edge of the sheet with the end wall 280 using a gas-tight seal. Thus, the combination of heat transfer surface 110 and end wall 280 creates a sealed container that prevents gas from escaping from cavity 130. In one embodiment, a valve (not shown) is provided between the cavity 130 and the exterior of the ETD device to enable insertion and / or replacement of gas.

The separator 160 maintains a substantially constant separation 230 between the surfaces 120 & 140 over the entire sheet. In various embodiments, depending on the environment and specific application, separation 230 is selected from the range of about 0.01 micron to about 100 microns. In the illustrated embodiment, the separator 160 is equally spaced by a distance 260. Reducing the number of separators 160 increases the available surface area of the surfaces 120 & 140 by utilizing less regularity in the surface separation 260. As a result, the distance 260 is selected based on the requirements of the specific application and the rigidity of the materials used for the surfaces 120 & 140 and the heat transfer surface 110. In various embodiments, the distance 260 is selected from the range of about 0.1 microns to about 1,000 microns. In other embodiments, the distance 260 may be different in one direction from that of other and / or non-linear shapes (e.g., hexagonal cells). In another embodiment, micro-particles (e.g., spherical nano-beads) are used as separator 160 and they are dispersed randomly or semi-randomly in cavity 130. This has the advantage of requiring less fine control during the manufacturing process.

FIG. 3 is a side view of a system configuration 300 incorporating three layers of a serial ETD cell 100, in accordance with one embodiment. Although each layer appears to be one ETD cell 100, in practice, each layer may have many (e.g., one hundred, even or even one million) ETDs arranged in parallel, as described with reference to FIG. 2 Cell < / RTI > The decision to show three floors is for illustration only. The principles described in this invention can be used to laminate any number of layers. The individual layers are in excellent thermal contact with adjacent layers. When the ETD cells 100 are connected in series, the temperature difference of the cells increases, but the heat flow across the system 200 remains unchanged. This is similar to arranging the cells in a series electrical circuit where the voltage is added but the current is unchanged.

In one embodiment shown, adjacent layers share a heat transfer surface 110 such that the upper heat transfer surface of one layer also acts as the lower heat transfer surface of the layer thereon and vice versa. In the illustrated embodiment, the bottom layer 301 includes a cavity 355 comprising two surfaces 350 & 360 and a first gas. Thus, the bottom layer 301 results in a first temperature difference (T ₁ ) across it. The first gas as well as the materials used for the surfaces 350 and 360 are selected to optimize the operation of the system when the input heat transfer surface 110A is at the expected operating temperature.

The intermediate layer 302 also includes a cavity 335 comprising two surfaces 330 & 340 and a second gas. Thus, the intermediate layer 302 causes a second temperature difference (T ₂ ) across it. In one embodiment, the materials and gases used for the intermediate layer 302 are the same as those used for the bottom layer 301. [ In other embodiments, as well as the material used for the surface (330 & 340), the second gas is input on the basis of the estimated operating temperature and DELTA T ₁ of a heat transfer surface (110A), a first internal heat transfer surface (110B ) Is selected to optimize the operation of the system when it is at the expected operating temperature.

The top layer 303 also includes a cavity 315 comprising two surfaces 310 & 320 and a third gas. Accordingly, top layer 303 will result in a third temperature difference (DELTA T ₃₎ across it. In one embodiment, the materials and gases used for the top layer 303 are the same as those used for the bottom layer 301 and / or the intermediate layer 302. In other embodiments, as well as the material used for the surface (310 & 320), the third gas is, on the basis of the estimated operating temperature and DELTA T ₁ and DELTA T ₂ of the input heat transfer surface (110A), the second internal heat Is selected to optimize the operation of the system when the transfer surface 110C is at the expected operating temperature.

As a result, as a whole, the system configuration 300 provides a temperature difference between the input heat transfer surface 110A and the output heat transfer surface 110D of T ₁ + T ₂ + T ₃ , -303). ≪ / RTI >

Additional considerations

Includes, "" comprises, "" includes, "" including, "" has, "" having ", or any other variation thereof, means to handle non-exclusive inclusion . For example, a process, method, article of manufacture, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements is not necessarily limited to such elements, but may include other elements that are expressly listed or otherwise unique to such process, method, article of manufacture, or apparatus have. Also, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, the word "or" means inclusive or exclusive and inclusive. For example, condition A or B is satisfied by any one of the following: A is true (or exists) B is false (or not present), A is false (or does not exist) B (Or present), A and B are both true (or present).

In addition, the use of "a" or "an" is used to describe elements and components of embodiments of the present invention. This is done for convenience only and to provide a general impression of the present invention. Such description includes one or at least one and the singular should also be understood to include the plural unless it is clear that it is meant otherwise.

By reading the present invention, those skilled in the art will appreciate additional other structural and functional designs for ETD to form steady-state temperature differences. Accordingly, while specific embodiments and applications have been illustrated and described, it should be understood that the described subject matter is not limited to the precise structure and components described herein, and that various changes, changes, and variations, which will be apparent to those skilled in the art, And in the details of the method and apparatus.

Claims (27)

A first surface chemically reacting with the gas such that the gas decomposes at a first rate near the first surface;
And a second surface that chemically reacts with the gas such that the gas decomposes at a second rate that is less than the first rate near the second surface,
Wherein the first and second surfaces form a cavity configured to contain gas and wherein the difference between the first velocity and the second velocity is greater than the difference between the first surface and the second surface, Catholic thermal diode cell. The method according to claim 1,
The first surface may be at least one of magnesium, aluminum, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, tin, lanthanum, A metal such as praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, hafnium, doped silicon, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lead, alumina, magnesia, titania, silica, nitrocellulose, aramid, And polymethylmethacrylate. ≪ RTI ID = 0.0 > 11. < / RTI > An epitaxial thermal diode cell produced from at least one material selected from the group consisting of polymethylmethacrylate and polymethylmethacrylate. The method according to claim 1,
The second surface may be selected from the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, paraffin, natural rubber, doped silicone, polyether, polyvinyl fluoride, polyvinylidene fluoride, polytetrafluoroethylene, perfluoroalkoxy polymer, polyethylene chlorotrifluoro An epitaxial thermal diode cell fabricated from at least one material selected from the group consisting of ethylene, biton, perfluoropolyether and perfluorosulfonic acid, graphene, graphite and carbon nanotubes. The method according to claim 1,
The gas may be selected from the group consisting of formic acid, acetic acid, methanol, ethanol, formaldehyde, ammonia, dimethyl ketone, methylamine, dimethylamine, dimethylether, hydronium hydroxide (water), acetamide, methylthiol, Hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, cyanomethine, formamide, aminomethaneimine, hydrogen chloride, cyanoethane, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, mono- At least one selected from the group consisting of di-halogen methane, tri-halogen methane, tetra-halogen methane, halogenated ethane, hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon, methane, An epitaxial thermal diode cell comprising a gas. The method according to claim 1,
Wherein the first surface is substantially parallel to the second surface. 6. The method of claim 5,
Further comprising a plurality of isolation plates located between the first surface and the second surface, wherein the plurality of isolation plates maintains a separation between the first surface and the second surface at a substantially constant distance. The method according to claim 6,
An epitaxial thermal diode cell having a constant distance in the range of 0.01 to 100 microns. The method according to claim 1,
Further comprising a first heat transfer surface coupled to and substantially parallel to the first surface on a face of the first surface opposite to the cavity, the first heat transfer surface extending from the exterior of the epitaxial thermal diode cell to the first surface An epitaxial thermal diode cell configured to conduct heat. 9. The method of claim 8,
Further comprising a second heat transfer surface coupled to and substantially parallel to the second surface on a surface of the second surface opposite to the cavity and wherein the second heat transfer surface extends from the second surface to the exterior of the epitaxial thermal diode cell An epitaxial thermal diode cell configured to conduct heat. Wherein the cavities of the plurality of epitaxial thermal diode cells are connected to each other and adjacent epitaxial thermal diode cells share at least one separator plate, The device comprising: Wherein the adjacent epitaxial thermal diode cells are separated by a shared heat transfer surface and the shared heat transfer surface is adjacent to the adjacent epitaxial thermal diode cell, An epitaxial thermal diode device configured to transfer heat between diode cells. The method according to claim 1,
An epitaxial thermal diode cell in which gas is decomposed at a first rate on a first surface and gas is decomposed on a second surface at a second rate. The method according to claim 1,
The first and second surfaces are cleaned. The method according to claim 1,
Wherein the gas further comprises an amount of gas selected to be at a pressure in the range of 0.01 to 10 atmospheres. 15. The method of claim 14,
The epitaxial thermal diode cell in which the gas is purified. Chemically reacting with the gas to provide a first surface at which the gas decomposes at a first rate near the first surface;
Providing a second surface that chemically reacts with the gas such that the gas decomposes at a second rate lower than the first rate near the second surface; And
Providing an amount of gas to the cavity;
Wherein the first and second surfaces form a cavity and wherein the difference between the first velocity and the second velocity creates and maintains a temperature difference across the cavity between the first surface and the second surface resulting in a steady- How to. 17. The method of claim 16,
The first surface may be at least one of ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, scandium, cadmium, titanium, hafnium, doped silicon, vanadium, tantalum, chromium, tungsten, magnesium, rhenium, iron, osmium, cobalt, iridium From a group consisting of nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, alumina, magnesia, titania, silica, nitrocellulose, aramid, nylon, rayon and polymethylmethacrylate RTI ID = 0.0 > 1, < / RTI > 17. The method of claim 16,
The second surface may be selected from the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, paraffin, natural rubber, doped silicone, polyether, polyvinyl fluoride, polyvinylidene fluoride, polytetrafluoroethylene, perfluoroalkoxy polymer, polyethylene chlorotrifluoro At least one material selected from the group consisting of ethylene, vinyltoluene, perfluoropolyether and perfluorosulfonic acid, graphene, graphite and carbon nano-tubes. 17. The method of claim 16,
The gas may be selected from the group consisting of formic acid, acetic acid, methanol, ethanol, formaldehyde, ammonia, dimethyl ketone, methylamine, dimethylamine, dimethylether, hydronium hydroxide (water), acetamide, methylthiol, Hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, cyanomethine, formamide, aminomethaneimine, hydrogen chloride, cyanoethane, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, mono- At least one selected from the group consisting of di-halogen methane, tri-halogen methane, tetra-halogen methane, halogenated ethane, hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon, methane, ≪ / RTI > 17. The method of claim 16,
Wherein the first surface is substantially parallel to the second surface. 21. The method of claim 20,
Providing a plurality of separators located between the first surface and the second surface, wherein the plurality of separators maintains a separation between the first surface and the second surface at a substantially constant distance. 17. The method of claim 16,
Further comprising providing a first heat transfer surface coupled to and substantially parallel to the first surface on a surface of the first surface opposite to the cavity, wherein the first heat transfer surface extends from the exterior of the epitaxial thermal diode cell And configured to conduct heat to the first surface. 23. The method of claim 22,
Further comprising providing a second heat transfer surface coupled to and substantially parallel to the second surface on a surface of the second surface opposite to the cavity, wherein the second heat transfer surface comprises an epitaxial thermal diode And configured to conduct heat to the outside of the cell. 17. The method of claim 16,
Wherein the gas is decomposed at a first rate on the first surface and the gas is decomposed on the second surface at a second rate. 17. The method of claim 16,
Further comprising the step of cleaning the first and second surfaces prior to the step of providing gas. 17. The method of claim 16,
Wherein the amount of gas located in the cavity results in a pressure in the range of 0.01 to 10 atmospheres. 17. The method of claim 16,
Further comprising the step of purifying the gas prior to the step of providing the gas.

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