GB2500297A - Refrigeration power supply system, particularly for use in transport refrigeration - Google Patents

Refrigeration power supply system, particularly for use in transport refrigeration Download PDF

Info

Publication number
GB2500297A
GB2500297A GB1300873.5A GB201300873A GB2500297A GB 2500297 A GB2500297 A GB 2500297A GB 201300873 A GB201300873 A GB 201300873A GB 2500297 A GB2500297 A GB 2500297A
Authority
GB
United Kingdom
Prior art keywords
refrigeration
power supply
supply system
alternator
motor
Prior art date
Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
Withdrawn
Application number
GB1300873.5A
Other versions
GB201300873D0 (en
Inventor
Bob Peak
Current Assignee (The listed assignees may be inaccurate. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation or warranty as to the accuracy of the list.)
GAH REFRIGERATION PRODUCTS Ltd
Original Assignee
GAH REFRIGERATION PRODUCTS Ltd
Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)
Filing date
Publication date
Application filed by GAH REFRIGERATION PRODUCTS Ltd filed Critical GAH REFRIGERATION PRODUCTS Ltd
Publication of GB201300873D0 publication Critical patent/GB201300873D0/en
Publication of GB2500297A publication Critical patent/GB2500297A/en
Withdrawn legal-status Critical Current

Links

Classifications

    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B60—VEHICLES IN GENERAL
    • B60H—ARRANGEMENTS OF HEATING, COOLING, VENTILATING OR OTHER AIR-TREATING DEVICES SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR PASSENGER OR GOODS SPACES OF VEHICLES
    • B60H1/00—Heating, cooling or ventilating [HVAC] devices
    • B60H1/00421—Driving arrangements for parts of a vehicle air-conditioning
    • B60H1/00428—Driving arrangements for parts of a vehicle air-conditioning electric
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B60—VEHICLES IN GENERAL
    • B60H—ARRANGEMENTS OF HEATING, COOLING, VENTILATING OR OTHER AIR-TREATING DEVICES SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR PASSENGER OR GOODS SPACES OF VEHICLES
    • B60H1/00—Heating, cooling or ventilating [HVAC] devices
    • B60H1/00007—Combined heating, ventilating, or cooling devices
    • B60H1/00014—Combined heating, ventilating, or cooling devices for load cargos on load transporting vehicles
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B60—VEHICLES IN GENERAL
    • B60H—ARRANGEMENTS OF HEATING, COOLING, VENTILATING OR OTHER AIR-TREATING DEVICES SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR PASSENGER OR GOODS SPACES OF VEHICLES
    • B60H1/00—Heating, cooling or ventilating [HVAC] devices
    • B60H1/32—Cooling devices
    • B60H1/3204—Cooling devices using compression
    • B60H1/3232—Cooling devices using compression particularly adapted for load transporting vehicles
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B60—VEHICLES IN GENERAL
    • B60P—VEHICLES ADAPTED FOR LOAD TRANSPORTATION OR TO TRANSPORT, TO CARRY, OR TO COMPRISE SPECIAL LOADS OR OBJECTS
    • B60P3/00—Vehicles adapted to transport, to carry or to comprise special loads or objects
    • B60P3/20—Refrigerated goods vehicles
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
    • H02J—CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS OR SYSTEMS FOR SUPPLYING OR DISTRIBUTING ELECTRIC POWER; SYSTEMS FOR STORING ELECTRIC ENERGY
    • H02J7/00—Circuit arrangements for charging or depolarising batteries or for supplying loads from batteries
    • H02J7/14—Circuit arrangements for charging or depolarising batteries or for supplying loads from batteries for charging batteries from dynamo-electric generators driven at varying speed, e.g. on vehicle
    • H02J7/1423—Circuit arrangements for charging or depolarising batteries or for supplying loads from batteries for charging batteries from dynamo-electric generators driven at varying speed, e.g. on vehicle with multiple batteries
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
    • H02J—CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS OR SYSTEMS FOR SUPPLYING OR DISTRIBUTING ELECTRIC POWER; SYSTEMS FOR STORING ELECTRIC ENERGY
    • H02J7/00—Circuit arrangements for charging or depolarising batteries or for supplying loads from batteries
    • H02J7/14—Circuit arrangements for charging or depolarising batteries or for supplying loads from batteries for charging batteries from dynamo-electric generators driven at varying speed, e.g. on vehicle
    • H02J7/143—Circuit arrangements for charging or depolarising batteries or for supplying loads from batteries for charging batteries from dynamo-electric generators driven at varying speed, e.g. on vehicle with multiple generators
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02T—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES RELATED TO TRANSPORTATION
    • Y02T10/00—Road transport of goods or passengers
    • Y02T10/80—Technologies aiming to reduce greenhouse gasses emissions common to all road transportation technologies
    • Y02T10/88—Optimized components or subsystems, e.g. lighting, actively controlled glasses

Abstract

A refrigeration power supply system 10 comprises a power source such as an engine 30 connected to a primary alternator 40 and a secondary alternator 50, preferably via a drive belt 20. The secondary alternator is connected to a refrigeration system, for example, a compressor 60 of the refrigeration system, and is configured to operate in parallel to the primary alternator. The output voltage of the secondary alternator may be substantially fixed at 48 volts DC through use of a power module 55 irrespective of the output of the engine thus ensuring good performance of the refrigeration system even at low engine speeds such as tick-over. A sensor and a controller may be used to monitor operation of the engine and control an operating frequency of a motor of the refrigeration system based upon the monitored parameter. The primary alternator preferably provides a lower output voltage than the secondary alternator. A vehicle, such as a refrigerated home delivery vehicle, is also claimed.

Description

Refrigeration Power Supply System and Refrigeration System Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to a refrigeration power supply system and 5 refrigeration system and is particularly applicable for use with vehicles.
Background to the Invention
A conventional transport refrigeration system utilises an engine driven compressor (commonly via a belt drive) to pump the refrigerant around the system. Being 10 directly coupled to the engine, the system can be quite efficient at high engine speeds. Conversely, at low engine speeds the efficiency and more importantly the actual performance can drop off significantly.
There are two common methods that have been employed to get around this 15 problem.
Some systems utilise a high voltage AC driven compressor (or motor drive) as found on conventional mains standby or commercial equipment linked to the vehicle electrical system via an Inverter. This system will take the 12v DC supply 20 from the vehicle battery and via the Inverter will supply 230v AC to the compressor. The advantage here is that the link is broken with engine speed so better performance can be achieved at low engine speeds although this is at the cost of significant extra electrical loading of the original vehicle electrical system.
25 A second option has been to directly drive a 12v DC compressor or motor and compressor combination directly from the original vehicle electrics. This once again has the advantage of breaking the link to engine speed but has the similar disadvantage of heavily loading the original vehicle equipment. This is overall a simpler system than the 230v AC system but is performance limited by the 30 availability of 12v DC motors / compressors.
1
Statement of Invention
According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a refrigeration power supply system comprising a secondary alternator connectable to a power source and arranged to be connected to a refrigeration system to supply power 5 thereto, the secondary alternator being configured to operate in parallel to a primary alternator connected to the power source.
The secondary alternator may be configured, when connected to the power source and during operation of the power source, to have a substantially constant output 10 voltage that is independent of the output of the power source.
The output voltage of the secondary alternator is preferably substantially fixed.
The secondary alternator may be configured, when connected to the power source 15 and during operation of the power source, to have a substantially constant output voltage that is independent of the output of the power source over at least a predetermined range of output of the power source.
The refrigeration power supply system may further comprise sensor and a 20 controller, wherein the sensor being configured to monitor operation of the power source and to cause the controller to adjust operation of the refrigeration system in dependence on the sensor detecting operation of the power source outside of the predetermined range.
25 The power source is preferably a motor, the sensor being arranged to monitor for operation of the motor below a predetermined output speed.
The controller may be arranged to control an operating frequency of a motor of the refrigeration system that is powered by the refrigeration power supply system.
30
2
The secondary alternator may be arranged to connect to an existing drive belt of the motor.
The secondary alternator may have an independent drive belt which is 5 connectable to a drive of the motor.
The secondary alternator is preferably connected to a power system circuit that is independent of the primary alternator.
10 The refrigeration power supply system is preferably arranged to provide an output voltage that is different to a voltage provided by a power supply circuit connected to the primary alternator.
The refrigeration power supply system may further comprise a retrofit mount for 15 mounting the secondary alternator to an existing motor driven entity and a coupler for coupling a mechanical input of the secondary alternator to a drive of a motor of the motor driven entity.
The refrigeration power supply system may further comprising a power module, 20 the power module being connected to receive the output voltage from the secondary alternator and produce a substantially steady DC output to be supplied to the refrigeration system.
The DC output may be approximately 48v DC.
25
The refrigeration power supply system may further comprise an inverter drive unit arranged to be connected between the DC output and the refrigeration system.
According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a 30 refrigeration system comprising a refrigeration power supply system as described
3
above and a refrigeration compressor, the refrigeration compressor being connected to be driven by the refrigeration power supply system.
According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a vehicle 5 including a motor and the refrigeration system as described above, the refrigeration power supply system being coupled to the motor and the refrigeration compressor and being arranged to provide power to the refrigeration compressor during operation of the motor, the power being supplied via a power supply circuit that is independent of a power supply circuit for operation of the vehicle.
10
Preferably, the power source is an engine, wherein the secondary alternator is configured to have an output voltage that is substantially constant across the operable RPM range of the engine.
15 In preferred embodiments, a secondary alternator is fitted to a vehicle and connected to the vehicle's engine. The secondary alternator is configured to supply power to a power module which in turn will produce a steady DC output (preferably 48v DC). In preferred embodiments, this is used to drive a 48v DC refrigeration compressor.
20
In embodiments of the present invention, the direct link between engine speed and refrigeration performance is broken and significant performance increases are seen in comparison to a standard 12v DC system. Additionally, no additional loading is added to the original vehicle's electrical system (in fact it can be
25 configured to supplement that system when required). Advantageously, the secondary alternator can be configured to run at a higher voltage than the primary alternator. As a result, lower rated (smaller) cables and components can be used for connection to the secondary alternator system than the 12v DC system and the secondary alternator system may optionally be configured to operate in the
30 category class of an "Extra Low Voltage" system. Such a system is considered
4
inherently safer than a 230v AC mains system which is in the "Low Voltage" category and hence carries additional safety requirements.
Normal vehicle (primary) alternators output at somewhere around 36v and then 5 the output is modified to suit the particular vehicle and battery arrangement. In embodiments of the present invention, a secondary alternator is used that has had its output configured (or optionally modified) to around 55-60v. A power module connected to the secondary alternator gives a substantially constant and fixed 48v DC supply independently of engine RPM.
10
The link between fridge performance and engine speed is broken because the secondary alternator based electrical system is able to supply 48v at even the lowest RPM, whereas the output from a mechanically driven (directly coupled) compressor is dependent on engine speed.
15
Preferably, the refrigeration power supply system is configured to be retrofit-able to existing power sources and existing vehicles. In an alternate embodiment, an alternator power system may comprise a housing incorporating primary and secondary alternators connectable to a drive, the secondary alternator being 20 configured to generate a substantially constant output voltage during operation of the drive. In such an embodiment, the secondary alternator may optionally share at least selected components (such as elements of the power module) with the primary alternator yet operates independently (and provides an independent output of potentially a different voltage) of operation and output of the primary 25 alternator.
Optional features of embodiments of the present invention include:
Use of a fully hermetic (sealed) compressor. This reduces the likelihood of 30 leaks (many existing systems use pulleys and shaft drive and can suffer leaks around the shaft seals).
5
By keeping the compressor close coupled to the rest of the fridge system the amount of refrigerant carried in the system is reduced which is good from an environmental impact perspective.
Adding an a secondary alternator to the vehicle leaves the original 5 manufacturer's system unchanged and adds no additional loading or stress to the original equipment. As such, it would have no adverse effect on original vehicle warranty.
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a power system incorporating a refrigeration 10 power supply system according to an embodiment of the present invention.
The power system 10 includes a power source in the form of an engine 30 coupled to a drive 20. Connected to the drive is a primary alternator 40 and a secondary alternator 50 of the refrigeration power supply system. The primary and 15 secondary alternators may be independently driven by the drive 20 and are arranged to output respective output voltages via respective power modules 45 and 55. The power modules are in turn connectable to other components 60 and 70 such as a refrigeration compressor, air-conditioning compressor or the like. In preferred embodiments, the components of the refrigeration power supply system 20 (the secondary alternator 50 and secondary power module 55) are tuned or otherwise configured to output a substantially constant output voltage while being driven by the drive 20.
In a preferred embodiment, a refrigeration system is driven electrically from a DC 25 power supply system that includes the secondary alternator. Preferably, the secondary alternator and power supply system is not connected into the existing vehicle's electrical systems and only supplies the power to the refrigeration system. The refrigeration power supply system preferably runs at a higher voltage to the existing vehicle's electrical system. By doing this, the link between vehicle 30 engine speed and power supply is broken, allowing a higher than normal fridge performance at engine tickover (a lot of home delivery vehicles and vehicles that
6
spend a lot of time in city centres spend a lot of time at tickover or low engine revs). Furthermore, using a separate electrical system at a higher than normal voltage gives better refrigeration performance than a normal "electric" system.
5 In one embodiment, the secondary alternator is fitted to the side of the engine in much the same way as a normal vehicle alternator or fridge/air-conditioning compressor but using its own bespoke mounting. It may utilise an existing belt on the engine for its drive or can have its own independent drive belt.
10 In a preferred embodiment, the refrigeration power supply system includes a power module which has a voltage regulator coupled to the secondary alternator. The alternator and power module combination generates the higher voltage required, typically between 50 & 60v. In such an embodiment, a conventional alternator may be used as a secondary alternator by removal of voltage regulator 15 components that would normally be built into it or alternatively, an alternator without voltage regulator components may be used. It will be appreciated that alternatively, an alternator including the power module could also be manufactured to provide the higher voltage supply.
20 In another embodiment, an inverter is connected between the power module and the compressor of the refrigeration system so as to produce around a 3 phase supply to the compressor which in turn means that the compressor motor can be run at varying frequencies, for example in the region of 50-90Hz (the upper range in particular being higher and allowing superior refrigeration than is known to be 25 provided from current refrigeration systems). In such an embodiment, certain low rpm speeds of the engine may be insufficient to operate the compressor motor at the higher frequencies. In order to address this, a sensor is arranged to monitor speed of the engine and, where the speed drops below a predetermined threshold (for example 1250 rpm), a controller may be triggered to cause a reduction in the 30 operating frequency of the compressor to a selected value towards the lower end of the operating range. When speed changes, the controller can be triggered to
7
cause a corresponding change in operating frequency. It will be appreciated that various arrangements such as stepping or ramping algorithms or setpoints at which a change may be triggered can be implemented depending the particular vehicle, intended use etc.
8

Claims (1)

  1. Claims
    1. A refrigeration power supply system comprising a secondary alternator connectable to a power source and arranged to be connected to a refrigeration
    5 system to supply power thereto, the secondary alternator being configured to operate in parallel to a primary alternator connected to the power source.
    2. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 1, wherein the secondary alternator is configured, when connected to the power source and
    10 during operation of the power source, to have a substantially constant output voltage that is independent of the output of the power source.
    3. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 1 or 2, wherein the output voltage of the secondary alternator is substantially fixed.
    15
    4. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 1, wherein the secondary alternator is configured, when connected to the power source and during operation of the power source, to have a substantially constant output voltage that is independent of the output of the power source over at least a
    20 predetermined range of output of the power source.
    5. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 4, further comprising sensor and a controller, wherein the sensor is configured to monitor operation of the power source and to cause the controller to adjust operation of the
    25 refrigeration system in dependence on the sensor detecting operation of the power source outside of the predetermined range.
    6. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 5, wherein the power source is a motor, the sensor being arranged to monitor for operation of the
    30 motor below a predetermined output speed.
    9
    7 A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 6, wherein the controller is arranged to control an operating frequency of a motor of the refrigeration system that is powered by the refrigeration power supply system.
    5 8. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in any of claims 1 to 5, wherein the power source comprises a motor.
    9. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 6, 7 or 8, wherein the secondary alternator is arranged to connect to an existing drive belt of the
    10 motor.
    10. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in any of claims 6 to 8, wherein the secondary alternator has an independent drive belt which is connectable to a drive of the motor.
    15
    11. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in any preceding claim, wherein the secondary alternator is connected to a power system circuit that is independent of the primary alternator.
    20 12. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 11, wherein the refrigeration power supply system is arranged to provide an output voltage that is different to a voltage provided by a power supply circuit connected to the primary alternator.
    25 13. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in any preceding claim, further comprising a retrofit mount for mounting the secondary alternator to an existing motor driven entity and a coupler for coupling a mechanical input of the secondary alternator to a drive of a motor of the motor driven entity.
    30 14. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in any preceding claim, further comprising a power module, the power module being connected to receive
    10
    the output voltage from the secondary alternator and produce a substantially steady DC output to be supplied to the refrigeration system.
    15. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 14, wherein the DC 5 output is approximately 48v DC.
    16. A refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 14 or 15, further comprising an inverter drive unit arranged to be connected between the DC output and the refrigeration system.
    10
    17. A refrigeration system comprising a refrigeration power supply system as claimed in claim 14, 15 or 16 and a refrigeration compressor, the refrigeration compressor being connected to be driven by the refrigeration power supply system.
    15
    18. A vehicle including a motor and the refrigeration system of claim 17, the refrigeration power supply system being coupled to the motor and the refrigeration compressor and being arranged to provide power to the refrigeration compressor during operation of the motor, the power being supplied via a power supply circuit
    20 that is independent of a power supply circuit for operation of the vehicle.
    19. A refrigeration power supply system as herein described and as illustrated in the accompanying drawings.
    25 20. A refrigeration system as herein described and as illustrated in the accompanying drawings.
    21. A vehicle as herein described and as illustrated in the accompanying drawings.
    30
    11
GB1300873.5A 2012-01-17 2013-01-17 Refrigeration power supply system, particularly for use in transport refrigeration Withdrawn GB2500297A (en)

Applications Claiming Priority (1)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title
GBGB1200735.7A GB201200735D0 (en) 2012-01-17 2012-01-17 Secondary alternator for a power system

Publications (2)

Publication Number Publication Date
GB201300873D0 GB201300873D0 (en) 2013-03-06
GB2500297A true GB2500297A (en) 2013-09-18

Family

ID=45814110

Family Applications (2)

Application Number Title Priority Date Filing Date
GBGB1200735.7A Ceased GB201200735D0 (en) 2012-01-17 2012-01-17 Secondary alternator for a power system
GB1300873.5A Withdrawn GB2500297A (en) 2012-01-17 2013-01-17 Refrigeration power supply system, particularly for use in transport refrigeration

Family Applications Before (1)

Application Number Title Priority Date Filing Date
GBGB1200735.7A Ceased GB201200735D0 (en) 2012-01-17 2012-01-17 Secondary alternator for a power system

Country Status (1)

Country Link
GB (2) GB201200735D0 (en)

Citations (5)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US3668419A (en) * 1970-12-30 1972-06-06 Motorola Inc Electrical power source and heat augmentation system for use in automotive vehicles
US6044923A (en) * 1997-01-02 2000-04-04 Reagan; David H. Electric power generation system for limousine
US20050035657A1 (en) * 2003-07-31 2005-02-17 Keiv Brummett Vehicle auxiliary power unit, assembly, and related methods
US20080164082A1 (en) * 2006-12-21 2008-07-10 Rodney Foreman System and method for powering the cabin of a truck
EP2128545A1 (en) * 2007-01-26 2009-12-02 Daikin Industries, Ltd. Refrigeration device for refrigeration vehicle

Patent Citations (5)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US3668419A (en) * 1970-12-30 1972-06-06 Motorola Inc Electrical power source and heat augmentation system for use in automotive vehicles
US6044923A (en) * 1997-01-02 2000-04-04 Reagan; David H. Electric power generation system for limousine
US20050035657A1 (en) * 2003-07-31 2005-02-17 Keiv Brummett Vehicle auxiliary power unit, assembly, and related methods
US20080164082A1 (en) * 2006-12-21 2008-07-10 Rodney Foreman System and method for powering the cabin of a truck
EP2128545A1 (en) * 2007-01-26 2009-12-02 Daikin Industries, Ltd. Refrigeration device for refrigeration vehicle

Also Published As

Publication number Publication date
GB201300873D0 (en) 2013-03-06
GB201200735D0 (en) 2012-02-29

Similar Documents

Publication Publication Date Title
US6622505B2 (en) Alternator/invertor refrigeration unit
US20110000244A1 (en) Transport Refrigeration Series Hybrid Power Supply
US10870333B2 (en) Reconfigurable utility power input with passive voltage booster
US8581425B2 (en) Systems and methods involving electrical start and power generation
EP2689944B1 (en) Refrigeration system for transportation
CA2625503A1 (en) Refrigeration system
US20100045105A1 (en) Integrated multiple power conversion system for transport refrigeration units
US8723458B1 (en) Soft start drive for mobile refrigeration unit
US20130113218A1 (en) Engine driven generator that is cooled by a first electrical fan and a second electrical fan
US8653679B2 (en) Portable power supply having both inverter power supply and traditional power supply receptacles
KR101716456B1 (en) Power feed system for refrigerator truck
JP2013126843A (en) Motor-driven refrigeration cycle equipment for vehicle
JP4957350B2 (en) Power conversion device and inverter control device for motor drive using the same
US20100321968A1 (en) Load fault handling for switched reluctance or induction type machines
US20010045101A1 (en) Locomotive air conditioner control system and related methods
JP2003224999A (en) Power unit for vehicle
US20150226115A1 (en) Assembly comprising a generator and electric motors, for a vehicle cooling or air-conditioning system
KR20020021930A (en) Pole change motor
GB2500297A (en) Refrigeration power supply system, particularly for use in transport refrigeration
JP5391677B2 (en) Heat pump type air conditioner outdoor unit
US7710058B2 (en) Motor drive architecture for high frequency AC bus
JPS5996886A (en) 3-phase induction motor
KR20110025876A (en) Control system for air conditioning aparatus
EP3905468A1 (en) Three-phase generator with adaptive taps for use in a transport climate control system
EP2092633B1 (en) Drive control apparatus and method for refrigerator type fan motor

Legal Events

Date Code Title Description
WAP Application withdrawn, taken to be withdrawn or refused ** after publication under section 16(1)