GB2456149A

GB2456149A - A photon detection system and a method of photon detection

Info

Publication number: GB2456149A
Application number: GB0800083A
Authority: GB
Inventors: Beata Ewa Kardynal; Zhiliang Yuan; Andrew James Shields
Original assignee: Toshiba Research Europe Ltd
Current assignee: Toshiba Europe Ltd
Priority date: 2008-01-03
Filing date: 2008-01-03
Publication date: 2009-07-08
Anticipated expiration: 2028-01-03
Also published as: WO2009084744A3; US8716648B2; JP5100839B2; US20100294919A1; US8772700B2; JP2011508869A; WO2009084744A2; JP5624524B2; JP2011252918A; GB2456149B; US20120168612A1; GB0800083D0

Abstract

A photon detection system, configured to determine the number of simultaneously detected photons in a pulse of radiation, comprises an avalanche photodiode 51, means to apply a bias across said photodiode and means to measure the size of an avalanche signal produced by illumination of the photodiode, wherein the avalanche signal is measured before the avalanche current through the photodiode has saturated. The photodiode may be operated in Geiger mode by applying a bias greater than the breakdown voltage of the photodiode for a duration shorter than the time required for the avalanche current to saturate, or for a duration longer than this time in which case the avalanche signal is measured for a duration shorter than the time which the avalanche current takes to saturate.

Description

1 2456149 A Photon Detection System and a Method of Photon Detection The present invention relates to the field of photon detectors and methods for detecting photons which are configured to measure a single photon, more specifically, the present invention relates to the field of photon detectors and methods for detecting photons which can determine the exact number of photons received at a photon detector.

Detectors which are capable of detecting single photons so-called single photon detectors are an important component of any system which operates using the principles of quantum cryptography. Such systems rely upon the transmission of data bits as single particles, in this case, photons, which are indivisible. The data may be encoded using polarisation of the electric field vector of the photons, the phase of the photons etc. However, as well as detecting a single photon, there is also a need to produce detectors which are capable of resolving the number of photons in a pulse of radiation. Such detectors are useful for characterising non-classical light sources such as single photon generators to determine if they are genuine and reliable single photon sources. Another potential application is for determining if one or more photons are received per pulse in a quantum communication system. If two or more photons are present in a pulse then the pulse may be subject to a pulse splitting attack where just one photon from the pulse is read by a eavesdropper. This seriously degrades the security of the system. Thus, it is desirable to develop a detector which allows the number of photons in a pulse to be accurately determined.

Single photon detection is also useful as a low level light detection means for spectroscopy, medical imaging or astronomy. Both in medical and astronomical applications the high energy photons (X-ray etc) or high energy particles are converted in scintillators into many (10-100) low energy photons. These low energy photons are then detected by avalanche photodiodes or photomultiplier tubes. As the low energy photons that are produced are scattered in space there is a need for large area detectors which are very sensitive. Also arrays of such detectors allow the spatial distribution of low energy photons to be obtained in order to gain information about the original photon. These applications would also benefit from the ability to count the number of photons incident on a single photon detector.

Previous attempts to develop a single photons detector which is capable of determining the number of photons detected from a pulse include single photon avalanche photodiodes (APDs) operated in the co-called "geiger mode". These detectors are binary ("click counting") detectors, several schemes have been proposed involving either multiple devices or time multiplexing to allow photon number counting.

However such schemes cannot resolve two photons incident on the same detector at the same time.

The inventors have realises that it is possible to operate an APD so that it can resolve the number of photons which arrive at the detector at the same time.

In a first aspect, the present invention provides a photon detection system configured to determine the number of detected photons, the detection system comprising an avalanche photodiode and means to measure an avalanche signal induced by illumination before the avalanche current through the device has saturated.

The inventors have realised that the size of the initial avalanche signal, i.e. the avalanche signal before saturation, is indicative of the number of photons which initially caused the avalanche.

In a preferred embodiment, said means to measure an avalanche signal comprises means to apply a bias above the breakdown bias of said photodiode across said photodiode for a time duration, said time duration being shorter than the time required for the avalanche current through the device to saturate after illumination of the device and means to measure the size of the avalanche signal. Thus the bias above breakdown is applied for such a short time that the avalanche is not allowed to saturate.

Preferably, the system comprises means to isolate the signal due to the avalanche.

For example, the means to isolate the signal comprises means to apply a signal which compensates for the response of said photodiode in the absence of illumination. This may be achieved by applying a signal from a capacitor or a second APD which is subtracted from the output signal of the APD.

In a particularly preferred embodiment, the means to isolate the signal comprises a signal divider to divide the output signal of the photodiode into a first part and a second part, where the first part is substantially identical to the second part, delay means for delaying the second part with respect to the first part and a combiner for combining the first and delayed second parts of the signal such that the delayed second part is used to cancel periodic variations in the first part of the output signal. This system is referred to as a "self-differenced" system.

The delay means may be configured to delay the second part of the signal by an integer multiple of said period Generally, the two signals which arrive at the combiner will be balanced. However, the system may further comprise means to balance the amplitudes of the two signals arriving at the combiner. For example, the system may further comprise a tunable attenuator.

The system may also comprise means to invert one part of the signal with respect to the other part. Inversion may be achieved at either the divider, combiner or during transfer between the divider and combiner. Inversion may be achieved by many methods, for example, using a hybrid junction which performs division/combination and inversion.

It is also possible to use a differential component, for example, a differential amplifier, to combine the signals.

The systems which are self differenced or where a compensating signal is applied can generally be operated with shorter gate durations and higher frequency than conventional systems. Thus, these systems are particularly advantageous for extracting an avalanche signal which has not saturated.

A periodic gating signal may be applied to said avalanche photodiode. The gating signal may be a rectangular wave signal or a sinusoidal signal. To prevent the avalanche saturating the gate duration is typically less than ins, more preferably 0.8ns or less, even more preferably 0.5ns or less, e.g. 0.4 ns. The maximum possible gate duration is in general shorter for higher applied excess bias.

Preferably, the gating signal has a frequency in excess of 1 MHz, more preferably in excess of 50MHz, even more preferably in excess of 100MHz.

The above discussion has measured the avalanche signal before saturation by applying a gating bias which is short enough to prevent avalanche saturating. However, it is also possible to operate the system to produce an avalanche which saturates, but where the avalanche signal is measured for a time less than the time which the avalanche takes to saturate. This could be achieved by using a circuit which captures the early avalanche signal and blocks the signal as the avalanche saturates.

Regardless of how the system is configured, the size of the avalanche signal may be measured in terms of current or charge.

In a second aspect, the present invention provides a circuit for determining the number of photons detected by an avalanche photodiode, the circuit comprising means to measure an avalanche signal induced by illumination before the avalanche current through the device has saturated.

In a third aspect, the present invention provides a method for determining the number of photons detected by an avalanche photodiode comprising measuring an avalanche signal induced by illumination in the avalanche photodiode before the avalanche current through the device has saturated.

Iii a preferred configuration, the source of illumination is synchronised such that the avalanche signal is measured when photons arrive at the avalanche photodiode. The size of the avalanche signal may be compared with one or more predetermined levels to determine the number of photons which have been detected.

The present invention will now be described with reference to the following non-limiting embodiments in which: Figure 1 a is a schematic of a prior art detection system using an avalanche photodiode (APD), figure lb is a schematic plot of voltage against time for the input signal of the APD of figure la and figure Ic is a plot of the output signal as voltage against time for the detection system of figure la; Figure 2 shows the statistics of the amplitude of the output of the photon detection system of figure la for different fluxes; Figure 3a is a plot of the input signal to the device of figure 3b, figure 3b is a schematic of a detection system comprising an avalanche photodiode in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, figure 3c is a plot of a first part derived from the output signal of the APD of figure 3a, figure 3d is a plot of the second part derived from the output signal of the APD of figure 3a which has been delayed and figure 3e is a plot of the self-differenced output signal produced by the device of figure 3b; Figure 4 is a plot of the actual output of the system of figure 3 at an APD gating frequency of 0. 62 GHz; Figure 5 shows the statistics of the amplitude of the output of the photon detection system of figure 3b; Figures 6a to 6e show the statistics both measured and modelled of the amplitude of the output of the photon detection system of figure 3b for five different fluxes; Figure 7 is a variation on the device of figure 3b; Figure 8a is a schematic of a further variation on the detection system of figure 3b and figure 8b is a plot of the input signal to the detection system of figure 8a; Figure 9 is a schematic of a detection system which is a variation of the detection system of figure 3b; Figure 10 is a detection system incorporating an avalanche photodiode and a capacitor; Figure 11 is a schematic of a detection system comprising two APDs arranged to cancel one another; Figure 1 2a is a schematic of a detection system in accordance with a further embodiment of the present invention, figure 1 2b is a schematic plot of voltage against time for the input signal of the APD of figure 12a, figure 12c is a plot of the raw output signal voltage against time for the detection system of figure 12a, figure 1 2d is a plot of the profile applied by the shutter of figure 12a and figure 12e shows the output which has been modified by the shutter of figure 12a.

Figure 1 a is a schematic of a known detection system which may be used to detect single photons. It comprises an avalanche photodiode I and a resistor 3. In this example, the resistor is a 501 resistor, but other resistances can be used. The avalanche photodiode (APD) I is configured in reverse bias. An input signal which acts as a gating signal is shown in figure lb is applied between input 5 and ground 7.

The input voltage shown in figure lb is a periodic series of rectangular voltage pulses, which varies between a first value V1 and a second value V0. V1 is selected to be above the breakdown voltage of the avalanche photodiode 1. When such a voltage is applied to the avalanche photodiode, the detector becomes sensitive to incoming photons which have been generated by a weak light source, typically made of a pulsed laser 2 and an attenuator 4 in detector characterisation setup.

An absorbed photon generates an electron-hole pair in the APD, which are separated and accelerated by the electric field inside the APD. Due to the electric field within the avalanche region of the APD, the electron or hole may trigger an avalanche of excess carriers causing a macroscopic and detectable current flow through the APD.

The macroscopic current is usually detected by monitoring the voltage drop across a resistor 3 as shown in figure Ic. A voltage spike 13 indicates that a photon has been detected. However, as the APD has a finite capacitance, typically one pico-Farad, the output also contains a charging pulse 9 due to the charging of the APD capacitance when reacting to the rise edge of the gating pulse, followed by a discharging dip 11 due to the discharging of the APD capacitance when reacting to the falling bias at the falling edge of a gate pulse. The charging pulse is positive, and often obscures a photon induced avalanche. Thus, the APD bias voltage is often increased so that the amplitude of the avalanche spike 13 exceeds that of the charging pulse 9. An avalanche can then be detected by setting discrimination level above that of all charging pulses.

In a conventional APD, the diode is biased above its breakdown voltage for a time which allows the avalanche current to saturate. Hence, the avalanche signal size is determined by the external circuit. Thus, it is impossible to discriminate photon numbers in a pulse because there is no difference in the avalanche signals caused by one or more photons. A system operated in this way cannot be used to determine the number of photons within a pulse, as evidenced by the results of figure 2.

Figure 2 shows statistics of how the amplitude of the avalanche peak @eak 13 of figure 1) for the system of figure 1 a. In this measurement, the APD was illuminated by a pulsed laser diode at 1550 run which was attenuated to the desired photon flux. The APD was gated using a 3.5 ns rectangular voltage pulse with an amplitude of 4 V and an excess voltage of 2.5 V that is above the APID breakdown. The laser pulse and the APD gate were synchronised to produce the maximum detection efficiency, and the clock rate was 100 kHz. The amplitude of the APD response was recorded using an oscilloscope, and a histogram of the amplitudes was built up after a sufficient number of measurements, as shown in Figure 2, where the x-axis is the height of the APD reponse signal peak in mV at expected avalanche location (see Figure ic) and the y-axis represents the number of occurrences of a peak of that height per 10000 laser pulses.

The upper trace corresponds to a flux of 0.81 photon per pulse received at the APD. The middle trace corresponds to a flux of 0.346 photons per pulse and the lower trace to a flux of 0.032 photons per pulse.

For a photon number resolving detector, the detector signal output is proportional to the number of photons detected. Due to the quantised nature of photons, discrete distributions according to photon number (i.e. 1, 2, 3) is expected in the recorded signal amplitude histograms of Figure 2. Further, the weight for each photon number is expected to vary according to the photon flux which obeys Poissonian distnbution if the detector could resolve photon numbers. However, this is not the case in Figure 2.

It can be seen that for all three fluxes, the central peak height, i.e. the most common peak height is approximately 8OmV. In the largest detected flux of 0.81, a large number of the pulses would be expected to contain 2 or more photons whereas this would not be the case where the detected flux was a low as 0.032. However, since both fluxes show the same central peak height, the APD system of figure 1 could be not be used to distinguish between a pulse which has one photon and a pulse which contains two photons.

The large peak centred at -9mV corresponds to the signal output when no photons were detected in the pulses.

Figure 3b illustrates a circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

An input signal 3a of the type described with reference to figure lb may be applied.

However, the input signal needs to be large enough to bias the device above its breakdown voltage. In this particular example, the bias is set so that the avalanche peak is smaller than the charging peak.

The bias applied as shown in figure 3a is applied such that after illumination, the APD is biased above its breakdown for a time which is shorter than the time required for the avalanche current to saturate, which is typically over I ns depending on the bias applied.

This results in a peak which has a height related to the number of photons which have caused the avalanche.

It is proposed that an avalanche which is induced by a single photon first forms as a localised microscopic filament which is spatially confined within the APD in the region where the photon is absorbed. if the bias across the APD is maintained then the filament eventually spreads until there is a current flowing through the whole of the device and the current saturates.

Thus, by limiting the time when the device is reverse biased, it is possible to measure a signal which is related to the number of photons which have caused the avalanche.

However, as explained previously, APDs are often operated at low frequencies. The circuit of figure 3b shows an APD which can be operated at a higher frequency and thus one where it is possible to reverse bias the device for a very short time.

As before, the device comprises an avalanche photodiode provided in series with a resistor 53. The voltage dropped across the resistor 53 is first input to power splitter 55.

Power splitter 55 divides the output signal into a first part as shown in figure 3c and a second part which is identical to the first part shown in figure 3c. These two signals are then output via ports 57 and 59 of power splitter 55. The signal which is output via port 59 enters a delay line 56 which serves to delay the signal by a duration equal to the gating period. The delayed signal is shown in figure 3d. The first part of the signal and the delayed second part are then fed into hybrid junction 61. Hybrid junction 61 combines the first and the delayed second parts of the signals with 1800 phase shift to give the output shown in figure 3e.

As can be seen in figure 3c, a photon-induced avalanche by APD 51 produces a voltage spike signal 73. Figure 3d is an identical copy of Figure 3c except that the signal is delayed by one clock period. By numerically subtracting 3c off 4d, a peak 77 and a dip are seen in the trace of figure 3e which indicates the presence of a photon. The provision of a positive peak followed by a negative dip (or a negative dip followed by a positive peak dependent on the configuration of the equipment) allows a clear signature indicating the detection of a photon.

The circuit in Figure 3b performs the above described numerical self-differencing in hardware using a seif-differencing circuit.

The output of the seif-differencing circuit is then fed into peak measuring means 63 which determines the size of the peak due to the avalanche. The number of photons may be determined by determining the peak height which is related to the avalanche current or by determining the area under the peak to give the avalanche charge.

The power splitter 55 may be of the type which is sold under part number ZFRSC-42+ from Mini-circuits and the hybrid junction is also available under part number ZFSCJ- 2-4 which is also available from Mini-circuits. The exact delay can be realised by using two co-axial cables with two different lengths that link the power splitter and the hybrid junction. It should be noted that the combination of the power splitter 55, the delay line 56 and the hybrid junction 61 may be integrated onto a single printed circuit board.

Typically, the gate frequency could be 1.25GHz and the gate width 0.4ns. The lower voltage level might be 4.6V below breakdown and the higher level 2V above the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage might typically be 47V for an InGaAs APD.

Figure 4 shows actual data of a self differenced output with a peak due to an avalanche.

At high frequencies, there is often an oscillation at the frequency of the gate bias (not shown in figure 3e) which results in the self differencing not being completely cancelled. Thus the data of figure 4 shows this oscillation in addition to the avalanche signal. It can be seen from the data that the avalanche peak can be easily identified.

Figure 5 shows statistics of the amplitude of the peak for the system of figure 3b. The x-axis is the height of the measured peak in voltage and the y-axis represents the number of occurrences of a peak of that height per 10000 laser pulses. In this measurement, the APD was illuminated by an attenuated laser whose intensity was set so as to produce on average 1.54 photons was detected per pulse.

The solid lines show theoretical modelling using Possonian photon number distribution of an attenuated laser source and the dots represent actual data. At the flux of 1.54 used, there is a significant proportion of pulses during which no photons was detected, producing a zero-photon peak 72 at approximately 0.05V in Figure 5. The amplitude of the zero-photon peak 72 is not exactly zero because of the imperfect self-differencing circuit used. In practice, it is difficult to develop a seif-differencing circuit which cancels perfectly. Thus, there will always be a small residual signal in the absence of photons. It can be seen that the avalanche amplitude of the zero photon peak of figure 5 is consistent with the oscillatory structure of figure 4.

Peak 74 which is formed around 0.09 V is due to an avalanche formed by one photon, peak 76 at approx 0.13 V due to an avalanche formed by detection of 2 photons, peak 78 at O.16V due to an avalanche formed by detection of 3 photons and peak 79 at 0.19 V due to an avalanche formed by detection of 4 photons. Thus, unlike the data of figure 2, the system can be used to distinguish between peaks formed by avalanches due to different numbers of photons.

Figure 6a to 6e shows statistics of the amplitude of the peak for the system of figure 3b for different fluxes.

In figure 6a, a beam with a flux (,z) of 0.1 is used to illuminate the APD of figure 3b. A strong peak at 0.05 1 V is seen due to noise which is marked as the "zero photon" peak.

A further peak is also observed in some of the measurements centred at 0.087 V due to the detection of I photon within the pulse. No further peaks are seen.

The data for a flux of 0.2 is shown in figure 6b. Again a large peak corresponding to 0 photons is seen a 0.051 V and a peak at approx 0.087 V is seen corresponding to the detection of a single photon. However, the single photon peak in figure 6b is larger than that in figure 6a as approximately twice as many pulses will contain a single photon since the flux of figure 6b is twice the flux of figure 6a.

The data for a flux of 0.8 is shown in figure 6c. Again a large peak corresponding to 0 photons is seen a 0.051 V and a peak at approx 0.087 V is seen corresponding to the detection of a single photon. The single photon peak is larger in figure 6c than that of figure 6b which is to be expected as more pulses contain photons in the data of figure 6c.

However, in figure 6c, a new peak is seen in a small number of measurements centred as 0.1 2V. This indicates that for some of the measurements a peak amplitude which indicates that two photons have been detected is seen.

The data for a flux of 1.54 is shown in figure 6d. Again a large peak corresponding to 0 photons is seen a 0.051 V and a peak at approx 0.087 V is seen corresponding to the detection of a single photon. The peak at 0.1 2V corresponding to two photon detection is more pronounced in this data as more pulses will contain two photons due to the higher flux.

Finally, the data for a very high flux of 3.3. is shown in figure 6e. Again a large peak corresponding to 0 photons is seen a 0.051 V and a peak at approx 0.087 V is seen corresponding to the detection of a single photon. The peak at 0. 12V corresponding to two photon detection is now larger than the peak for 0 photons and one photon.

Further, a new peak is seen to form at 0.15 1V corresponding to detection of pulses with 3 photons.

Figure 3b exemplified one possible self differencing circuit for an APD.

Figure 7 shows a variation on the device described with reference to figure 3b. The device of figure 7 takes the output from an APID and resistor (not shown) and provides it to hybrid junction 81. Hybrid junction 81 splits the output into a first part and a second part is described with reference to the power splitter 55 of figure 3b. However, hybrid junction 81 also introduces a 180° phase shift between the first part and the second part of the signal. The first part of the signal is output via output 83 and the second part is sent via output 85 into delay line 87.

The systems of figures 3b and figure 7 have both used combinations of power splitters/combiners and hybrid junctions. However, the hybrid junction may be replaced by a combination of phase shifters and power combiners. For example, a power combiner and a 1800 phase shifter.

In a further variation on the systems of figure 3b, a tuneable RF attenuator is provided which may be used in either of the inputs to hybrid junction 61 (figure 3b) or power combiner 89 (figure 7) to ensure that the two signals reach the hybrid junction or power combiner with equal amplitudes.

Typically, all the hybrid junctions and power splitter/combiners have finite response frequency range. For example, hybrid junction, Mini-circuits ZFSCJ-2-4 has a frequency range of 50MHz to 1 GHz. It may not work well when signal contains --frequency components outside of the range, and the cancellation may not be perfect. To improve signal to background ratio, further bandpass filters may be used to filter out those frequency components. In Figure 3b, for example, a low bandpass filter may be placed after the hybrid junction output.

The output of the power combiner 89 is fed into measuring means 90 which is configured to determine the amplitude of the output of the power combiner in order to determine the number of photons which gave rise to the avalanche.

Figure 8 shows a further variation on the system described with reference to figures 3 and 7.

The system of figure 8a has an avalanche photodiode 51 and a resistor 53 as described with reference to figure 3b. Further, the signal of the voltage dropped across the resistor 53 is taken to power splitter 55 which splits the signal into a first part and a second part.

The first part being outputted via output 57 and the second part via output 59 into delay line 56. The first part of the signal and the delayed second part are then fed into hybrid junction 61 which combines the two parts of the signal with 180° phase difference.

However, in the apparatus of figure 8a, the input voltage signal is a sinusoidal voltage signal as shown in figure 8b and not the periodic train of rectangular pulses as shown in figure 3a. It is possible to bias the detection system of figure 8a with a sinusoidal signal as long as the signal has sufficient voltage swing to bias the APD above and below the threshold for avalanche breakdown. In fact, the detector may be biased with any periodic voltage signal.

In response to the sinusoidal gating voltages, the APD output is also sinusoidal.

Superimposed on the sinusoidal output are occasional avalanche spikes due to photon detection. The amplitude of avalanche spikes is typically much smaller than that of the sinusoidal output. However, as described previously with reference to Figure 3b, by using a power splitter, delay line, and hybrid junction, the sinusoidal components can be largely cancelled and the avalanche spikes become clearly visible.

Furthermore, any small remaining components of the sinusoidal signal may be removed from the output of the hybrid junction 61 by a band rejection filter 63 which is tuned to the frequency of the sinusoidal signal. The signal is passed to amplifier 65 and then into measuring means 67 in order to determine the amplitude of photon induced spikes in the outputted signal.

Figure 9 shows a further variation in the system of figure 3, the configuration is the same as that described with reference to figures 3. The output signal is then fed into power splitter 101. Power splitter 101 divides the signal into a first part and a second part. The first part is output via output 103 and the second part via output 105 which is further fed into delay line 107. The two parts of the signal are then fed into differential amplifier 109. Due to the configuration of amplifier 109, only the difference of the two inputs is amplified. The differenced signal is them passed to measuring means 110 which measures the amplitude of the signal to determine the number of photons which have given rise to the avalanche.

Figures 3 to 9 have used a self differencing arrangement in order to derive photon number information from an APD. However, it is also possible to use other technique to drive an APD in such a way that the size of the output signal is correlated with the number of photons which caused an avalanche.

One attempt at doing this is shown in figure 10. To avoid unnecessary repetition, like reference numerals will be used to denote like features with those of figure 1. Figure 10 again has an avalanche photodiode 1 and resistor 3. A capacitor 21 and further resistor 23 are formed in series with the avalanche photodiode 1 and resistor 3 such that resistors 3 and 23 are connected back to back.

From this circuit, the combined DC and pulsed bias for the APD varying between Vo and V1 is applied to the APD, while just the pulse signal (varyingbetween V1 and Vo) is applied to the capacitor. The output signal from the capacitor 21 will be similar to the output signal from APD I in the absence of absorption of a photon. The output from the APD 1 and capacitor 21 are then combined in hybrid junction 25. Hybrid junction will reverse the phase of one of its two inputs. Therefore, the hybrid junction 25 combines the output signals from both the APD 1 and the capacitor 21 with a 180° phase difference so that they nearly cancel. This allows the charging 9 and discharging 11 peaks to be partially cancelled.

The output of the hybrid junction 25 is fed into measuring means 26 which measures the height of peaks in the output to determine the number of photons which caused the avalanche signal.

Figure 11 illustrates a further improvement to the system of figure 10 where capacitor 21 is now replaced with a second APD 23.

To avoid unnecessary repetition, like reference numerals will be used to denote like features.

A second resistor 31 and a second APD 33 are provided in the same positions as second resistor 23 and capacitor 21 of figure 10. The output of the first APD 1 and second JALPD 33 are then combined at hybrid junction 35 with 180° phase difference in order for the components to cancel one another. The output of the hybrid junction is then fed into measuring means 37 which in turn which measures the height of peaks in the output to determine the number of photons which caused the avalanche signal.

Figure 12 is a schematic of a yet further embodiment of the present invention. In figure 12, a bias above the breakdown voltage is applied for a time which allows the avalanche to saturate. However, the signal is blocked so that measurement of the avalanche signal is only performed over a very short time.

The system of figure 12a is similar to that of figure 1. Therefore, to avoid any unnecessary repetition, like reference numerals will be used to denote like features.

As in figure 1, the input voltage is shown in figure 12b and when the voltage is raised to a value of V1 which is above that of the breakdown voltage, the detector becomes sensitive to incoming photons. The signal V0 is shown in figure 12c. This is the same as that shown in figure 1 c where the avalanche signal saturates and is thus determined by the external circuit. However, this output signal V011 is fed into shutter circuit 6.

Shutter circuit 6 blocks out the part of the avalanche signal where the avalanche signal saturates by using a profile 14. The output of shutter circuit 6 is V'0t which is shown in figure 12e and is a single isolated pulse 15. As this pulse has been derived before the avalanche signal saturates, measurement of the height of this pulse indicates the number of photons received.

Claims

1. A photon detection system configured to determine the number of detected photons, the detection system comprising an avalanche photodiode and means to measure an avalanche signal induced by illumination before the avalanche current through the device has saturated.

2. A system according to claim 1, wherein said means to measure an avalanche signal comprises means to apply a bias larger than the breakdown voltage of said photodiode across said photodiode for a time duration, said time duration being shorter than the time required for the avalanche current through the device to saturate after illumination of the device and means to measure the size of the avalanche signal.

3. A system according to either of claims 1 or 2, further comprising means to isolate the signal due to the avalanche.

4. A system according to claim 3, wherein said means to isolate the signal comprises means to apply signal which compensates for the response of said photodiode in the absence of illumination.

5. A system according to any preceding claim, further comprising means to apply a gating signal to said avalanche photodiode.

6. A system according to claim 5, wherein the gating signal is a rectangular gating signal.

7. A system according to either of claims 5 or 6, wherein the gating signal has a frequency in excess of 50 MHz.

8. A system according to any of claims 3, 4 or claims 5 to 7 when dependent on claims 2 or 3, wherein the means to isolate the signal comprises a signal divider to divide the output signal of the photodiode into a first part and a second part, where the first part is substantially identical to the second part, delay means for delaying the second part with respect to the first part and a combiner for combining the first and delayed second parts of the signal such that the delayed second part is used to cancel periodic variations in the first part of the output signal.

9. A system according to claim 8, wherein said delay means are configured to delay the second part of the signal by an integer multiple of said period.

10. A system according to either of claims 8 or 9, further comprising means to balance the amplitudes of the two signals arriving at the combiner.

11. A system according to any of claims 8 to 10, further comprising means to invert one part of the signal with respect to the other part of the signal.

12. A system according to claim 1, wherein said means to measure an avalanche signal is configured to apply bias above the breakdown for a time which allows said avalanche to saturate and said avalanche signal is measured for a time less than the time which the avalanche takes to saturate.

13. A system according to claim 12, further comprising shutter means configured to operate on the signal measured from the APD and block the part of the signal where the avalanche current has saturated.

14. A system according to any preceding claim, wherein the avalanche charge or avalanche current is measured to determine the number of photons.

15. A circuit for determining the number of photons detected by an avalanche photodiode, the circuit comprising means to measure an avalanche signal induced by illumination before the avalanche current through the device has saturated.

16. A method for determining the number of photons detected by an avalanche photodiode comprising measuring an avalanche signal induced by illumination in the avalanche photodiode before the avalanche current through the device has saturated.

17. A method according to claim 16, comprising applying a bias above the breakdown voltage of said photodiode across said photodiode for a time duration, said time period being shorter than the time required for the avalanche current through the device to saturate after illumination of the device and measuring the size of the avalanche signal.

18. A method according to claim 16, comprising applying a bias above the breakdown voltage of said photodiode across said photodiode for a time which allows said avalanche to saturate and measuring said avalanche signal for a time less than the time which the avalanche takes to saturate.

19. A method according to any of claims 16 to 18, wherein the source of illumination is synchronised such that the avalanche signal is measured when photons arrive at the avalanche photodiode.

20. A method according to any of claims 16 to 19, wherein the size of the avalanche signal is compared with one of more predetermined levels to determine the number of photons which have been detected.