EP4698948A1

EP4698948A1 - Device for modulating electromagnatic waves and method for producing the same

Info

Publication number: EP4698948A1
Application number: EP24719555.5A
Authority: EP
Inventors: Jan David Fischbach; Cedric Huyghebaert
Original assignee: Black Semiconductor GmbH
Current assignee: Black Semiconductor GmbH
Priority date: 2023-04-20
Filing date: 2024-04-18
Publication date: 2026-02-25
Also published as: KR20260004426A; WO2024218210A1; CN121359074A; TW202509590A; EP4451044A1

Abstract

A device (100), preferably adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves, more preferably adapted and arranged for modulating electromagnetic waves, comprising a. a waveguide (101) adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves; b. a first element (102) and a second element (103) i. wherein, in a cross-sectional cut of the device (100), the first element (102) and the second element (103) are arranged such that A. a first section (104) of the first element (102) overlaps a first section (105) of the second element (103), B. a further section (106) of the first element (102) does not overlap the second element (103), C. the first section (104) of the first element (102) is separated by a first distance (108) from the first section (105) of the second element (103); ii. wherein the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and discharged; c. a further element (109), wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the device (100), the further element (109) is arranged to overlap the further section (106) of the first element (102); d. optionally an even-further element (110), wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the device (100), the even-further element (110) is arranged to overlap a further section (107) of the second element (103).

Description

DEVICE FOR MODULATING ELECTROMAGNATIC WAVES AND METHOD FOR PRODUCING THE SAME

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention pertains to a device for modulating or varying one or more properties of an electromagnetic wave. The invention also pertains to a method for producing the device.

BACKGROUND

Devices that can modulate, or vary, one or more properties of an electromagnetic wave are important electronic components for optical communication systems, e.g., data transmission via fibre optics. Some of the important parameters for these devices are bandwidth, operation speed, extinction ratio, insertion loss, energy consumption, and footprint. One option is silicon-based modulators. However, silicon modulators have a number of disadvantages. For example, silicon-based modulators have a narrow bandwidth. Furthermore, in order to integrate a silicon-based modulator with other electronic components, such as CMOS integrated circuits, silicon-based modulators have to be produced as part of a front-end-of-line process. In addition, silicon-based modulators cannot easily be integrated with newer technologies that are being developed in the electronic industry. This is in contrast to graphene-based modulators, which have a number of advantages. For example, graphene -based modulators have a broader bandwidth compared to silicon-based modulators. Furthermore, graphene -based modulators can be integrated with other electronic components as part of a back-end-of-line process, without requiring significant development to enable the integration. Graphene-based modulators can also be more easily integrated with newer technologies in the electronic industry. Graphene-based modulators further allow for a better use of surface area, and thus a more compact electronic device or system. Examples of graphene -based modulators are disclosed in, e.g., Liu et al. (2011), A graphene-based broadband optical modulator, Nature, 474, 65, and Liu et al. (2012), Doublelayer graphene optical modulator, Nano Letter, 12, 1482.

OBJECTS

An object of the present invention is to at least partially overcome at least one of the disadvantages encountered in the state of the art. It is a further object of the invention to provide a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave, that has a larger bandwidth.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave, that has a smaller insertion loss.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave, that has a reduced energy consumption.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave, that has a larger modulation depth.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave, that allows for a larger bitrate.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave, wherein the method is easier to perform.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave, wherein the method can be more easily adapted for producing different devices, where said devices are preferably used for the modulation of electromagnetic waves.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a device, preferably for modulating an electromagnetic wave, wherein the device has improved properties, such as an larger bandwidth, larger bitrate, and a lower energy consumption.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for modulating an electromagnetic wave that allows for a larger bandwidth.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for modulating an electromagnetic wave that requires less energy.

It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for modulating an electromagnetic wave that allows for a larger bitrate.

PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

A contribution to at least partially fulfilling at least one of the above-mentioned objects is made by any of the embodiments of the invention.

A 1^st embodiment of the invention is a device, preferably adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves, more preferably adapted and arranged for modulating electromagnetic waves, comprising a. a waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves; b. a first element and a second element i. wherein, in a cross-sectional cut of the device, the first element and the second element are arranged such that

A. a first section of the first element overlaps a first section of the second element,

B. a further section of the first element does not overlap the second element,

C. the first section of the first element is separated by a first distance from the first section of the second element; ii. wherein the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and discharged; c. a further element, wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the device, the further element is arranged to overlap the further section of the first element; d. optionally an even-further element, wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the device, the even- further element is arranged to overlap a further section of the second element.

In an aspect of the 1 ^st embodiment, it is preferred that the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element are adapted and arranged to function as a capacitor.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element is adapted and arranged to have an RC time constant that is less than 50 ns, preferably less than 10 ns, more preferably less than 1 ns, and further preferably less than 0.5 ns. This preferred embodiment is a 2^nd embodiment of the device, that preferably depends on the 1 ^st embodiment of the invention.

In an aspect of the 2^nd embodiment, it is preferred that the RC time constant is at least 0.2 ps, preferably at least 0.5 ps, and more preferably at least 1 ps. In an aspect of the 2^nd embodiment, it is preferred that the RC time constant is in the range of 0.2 ps to 50 ns, more preferably in the range of 0.5 ps to 10 ns, and further preferably in the range of 1 ps to 1 ns.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, in the cross-sectional cut of the device, a further section of the second element does not overlap the first element. This preferred embodiment is a 3^rd embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 2^nd embodiments of the invention.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the waveguide is adapted and arranged to be in opto-electronic interaction with the first section of the first element, the first section of the second element, or both the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element. This preferred embodiment is a 4^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 3^rd embodiments of the invention. In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first section of the first element, the further section of the first element, or both, comprise graphene; b. the first section of the second element, a further section of the second element, or both, comprise graphene.

This preferred embodiment is a 5^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 4^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 5^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 5^th embodiment, it is preferred that both the first section of the first element and the further section of the first element comprise graphene. In an aspect of the 5^th embodiment, it is preferred that both the first section of the second element and the further section of the second element comprise graphene. In an aspect of the 5^th embodiment, it is preferred that both the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element comprise graphene. In an aspect of the 5^th embodiment, it is preferred that both the further section of the first element and the further section of the second element comprise graphene.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the further element, the even-further element, or both, are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged, electrically discharged, or both. This preferred embodiment is a 6^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 5^th embodiments of the invention. In an aspect of the 6^th embodiment, it is preferred that the further element, the even-further element, or both are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged. In an aspect of the 6^th embodiment, it is preferred that the further element and the even-further element are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the further element, the even-further element, or both, have at least one or all of the following properties: a. an electrical conductivity of at least 10⁴ S/m, preferably at least 10⁵ S/m, and further preferably at least 10⁶ S/m; b. comprise graphene; c. are adapted and arranged to have an optical attenuation coefficient in the range of 2 x IO^-4 to 0.6 dB/pm, preferably in the range of 2 x IO^-2 to 0.40 dB/pm, and more preferably in the range of 0. 15 to 0.25 dB/pm; d. are adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient.

This preferred embodiment is a 7^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 6^th embodiments of the invention. In an aspect of the 7^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 7^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to the further element. In an aspect of the 7^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to the even-further element. In an aspect of the 7^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to both the further element and the even-further element. In an aspect of the 7^th embodiment, it is preferred that the further element, the even-further element, or both, are adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient, wherein said optical attenuation coefficient can be varied to fall within at least one of the ranges of feature c. in the 7^th embodiment.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first element and the second element are adapted and arranged to produce a first potential difference between the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element; b. the first element and the further element are adapted and arranged to produce a second potential difference between the further section of the first element and the further element; c. the second element and the even-further element are adapted and arranged to produce a third potential difference between the further section of the second element and the even-further element.

This preferred embodiment is an 8^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 7^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 8^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first potential difference is in the range of -120 V to 120 V, preferably in the range of -100 V to 100 V, more preferably in the range of -50 V to 50 V, even more preferably in the range of - 20 V to 20 V, further preferably in the range of - 10 V to 10 V, further preferably in the range of -7 V to 7 V, and even further preferably in the range of -5 V to 5 V; b. the second potential difference is in the range of -120 V to 120 V, preferably in the range of -100 V to 100 V, more preferably in the range of -50 V to 50 V, even more preferably in the range of -20 V to 20 V, further preferably in the range of -10 V to 10 V, further preferably in the range of -7 V to 7 V, and even further preferably in the range of -5 V to 5 V; c. the third potential difference is in the range of -120 V to 120 V, preferably in the range of -100 V to 100 V, more preferably in the range of -50 V to 50 V, even more preferably in the range of - 20 V to 20 V, further preferably in the range of - 10 V to 10 V, further preferably in the range of -7 V to 7 V, and even further preferably in the range of -5 V to 5 V.

This preferred embodiment is a 9^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 8^th embodiment of the invention.

In an aspect of the 9^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a quotient of the first potential difference and the first distance is in the range of -12 GV/m to 12 GV/m, preferably in the range of -10 GV/m to 10 GV/m, more preferably in the range of -5 GV/m to 5 GV/m, even more preferably in the range of -2 GV/m to 2 GV/m, further preferably in the range of -1 GV/m to 1 GV/m, and even further preferably in the range of -0.5 GV/m to 0.5 GV/m; b. a quotient of the second potential difference and a second distance is in the range of -12 GV/m to 12 GV/m, preferably in the range of -10 GV/m to 10 GV/m, more preferably in the range of -5 GV/m to 5 GV/m, even more preferably in the range of -2 GV/m to 2 GV/m, further preferably in the range of -1 GV/m to 1 GV/m, and even further preferably in the range of -0.5 GV/m to 0.5 GV/m; c. a quotient of the third potential difference and a third distance is in the range of -12 GV/m to 12 GV/m, preferably in the range of -10 GV/m to 10 GV/m, more preferably in the range of -5 GV/m to 5 GV/m, even more preferably in the range of -2 GV/m to 2 GV/m, further preferably in the range of -1 GV/m to 1 GV/m, and even further preferably in the range of -0.5 GV/m to 0.5 GV/m.

This preferred embodiment is a 10^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 8^th to 9^th embodiments of the invention.

In the 10^th embodiment, the second distance is measured between the further element and the further section of the first element. In the 10^th embodiment, the third distance is measured between the even -further element and the further section of the second element. In an aspect of the 10^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first element and the second element are adapted and arranged to vary the first potential difference by at least 5 %, preferably at least 30 %, and further preferably at least 100 % over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns; b. the first element and the further element are adapted and arranged to vary the second potential difference by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms; c. the second element and the even-further element are adapted and arranged to vary the third potential difference by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms.

This preferred embodiment is an 11^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 8^th to 10^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 11^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, in the cross-sectional cut of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. less than 50 %, preferably less than 25 %, more preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % of a surface area of the further element overlaps a surface area of the first section of the first element; in this aspect it is particularly preferred that the further element does not overlap the first section of the first element; b. less than 50 %, preferably less than 25 %, more preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % of a surface area of the even-further element overlaps a surface area of the first section of the second element; in this aspect it is particularly preferred that the even-further element does not overlap the first section of the second element; c. less than 50 %, preferably less than 25 %, more preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % of a surface area of the further element overlaps a surface area of the even-further element; in this aspect it is particularly preferred that the further element and the even-further element do not overlap.

This preferred embodiment is a 12^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to I 1^1,1 embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 12^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the further element is arranged such that a first gap is formed between the further element and the second element; b. the even-further element is arranged such that a further gap is formed between the first element and the even-further element.

This preferred embodiment is a 13^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 12^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 13^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: a+b.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a ratio of a width of the first gap to the first distance is in the range of 0.1 to 100, preferably in the range of 0.5 to 50, and more preferably in the range of 1 to 30; b. a ratio of a width of the further gap to the first distance is in the range of 0.1 to 100, preferably in the range of 0.5 to 50, and more preferably in the range of 1 to 30.

This preferred embodiment is a 14^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 13^th embodiment of the invention.

In an aspect of the 14^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 14^th embodiment, it is preferred that the ratio of a width of the first gap to the first distance is in the range of 0.8 to 6. In an aspect of the 14^th embodiment, it is preferred that the ratio of a width of the further gap to the first distance is in the range of 0.8 to 6.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the width of the first gap is less than or equal to 400 nm, preferably less than or equal to 200 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 150 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 100 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 60 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 30 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 20 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 10 nm, and even further preferably less than or equal to 5 nm. b. the width of the further gap is less than or equal to 400 nm, preferably less than or equal to 200 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 150 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 100 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 60 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 30 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 20 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 10 nm, and even further preferably less than or equal to 5 nm.

This preferred embodiment is a 15^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 13^th to 14^th embodiments of the invention. In an aspect of the 15^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: a+b. In an aspect of the 15^th embodiment, it is preferred that the width of the first gap is in the range of 0.5 nm to 400 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 200 nm, more preferably in the range of 2 nm to 150 nm, further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 100 nm, and even further preferably in the range of 10 nm to 60 nm. In another aspect of the 15^th embodiment, it is preferred that the width of the first gap is in the range of 1 nm to 20 nm, more preferably in the range of 5 nm to 10 nm. In an aspect of the 15^th embodiment, it is preferred that the width of the further gap is in the range of 0.5 nm to 400 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 200 nm, more preferably in the range of 2 nm to 150 nm, further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 100 nm, and even further preferably in the range of 10 nm to 60 nm. In another aspect of the 15^th embodiment, it is preferred that the width of the further gap is in the range of 1 nm to 20 nm, more preferably in the range of 5 nm to 10 nm. In an aspect of the 15 ^th embodiment, it is preferred that the width of the first gap varies by less than 15 %, more preferably by less than 5 % from the width of the further gap.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a ratio of a second distance, measured between the further element and the further section of the first element, to the first distance is in the range of 0.5 to 1.5, preferably in the range of 0.8 to 1.2, more preferably in the range of 0.95 to 1.05, and further preferably in the range from 0.99 to 1.01 ; b. a ratio of a third distance, measured between the even-further element and the further section of the second element, to the first distance is in the range of 0.5 to 1.5, preferably in the range of 0.8 to 1.2, and more preferably in the range of 0.95 to 1.05.

This preferred embodiment is a 16^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 15^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 16^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: a+b.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first distance is in the range of 0.1 to 300 nm, preferably in the range of 1 to 150 nm, more preferably in the range of 5 to 50 nm, even more preferably in the range of 10 nm to 50 nm, and further preferably in the range of 20 nm to 40 nm; b. a second distance, measured between the further element and the further section of the first element, is in the range of 0.1 to 300 nm, preferably in the range of 1 to 150 nm, more preferably in the range of 5 to 50 nm, even more preferably in the range of 10 nm to 50 nm, and further preferably in the range of 20 nm to 40 nm; c. a third distance, measured between the even -further element and the further section of the second element, is in the range of 0.1 to 300 nm, preferably in the range of 1 to 150 nm, more preferably in the range of 5 to 50 nm, even more preferably in the range of 10 nm to 50 nm, and further preferably in the range of 20 nm to 40 nm.

This preferred embodiment is a 17^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 16^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 17^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following has in the range of 1 to 10, preferably in the range of 1 to 6, and more preferably in the range of 1 to 3 atomic layers: a. the first element; b. the second element.

This preferred embodiment is an 18^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 17^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 18^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 18^th embodiment, it is preferred that the first element, the second element, or both, have a single atomic layer, e.g., the first element is a 2D material.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies to the first section of the first element, the further section of the first element, or both: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: carbon, a nitride, at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one conductive oxide, at least one conductive polymer, at least one chalcogen, and a combination of at least two or more thereof; b. has in the range of 1 to 10, preferably in the range of 1 to 6, and more preferably in the range of 1 to 3 atomic layers.

This preferred embodiment is a 19^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 18^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 19^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 19^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to the first section of the first element. In an aspect of the 19^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to the further section of the first element. In an aspect of the 19^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to both the first section and the further section of the first element. In an aspect of the 19^th embodiment, aspect a., it is particularly preferred that the first section of the first element, the further section of the first element, or both, comprise carbon, more preferably graphene. In an aspect of the 19^th embodiment, aspect b., it is preferred that the first section of the first element, the further section of the first element, or both, have a single atomic layer.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies to the first section of the second element, the further section of the second element, or both: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: carbon, a nitride, at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one conductive oxide, at least one conductive polymer, at least one chalcogen, and a combination of at least two or more thereof; b. has in the range of 1 to 10, preferably in the range of 1 to 6, and more preferably in the range of 1 to 3 atomic layers.

This preferred embodiment is a 20^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 19^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 20^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 20^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to the first section of the second element. In an aspect of the 20^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to the further section of the second element. In an aspect of the 20^th embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to both the first section and the further section of the second element. In an aspect of the 20^th embodiment, aspect a., it is particularly preferred that the first section of the second element, the further section of the second element, or both, comprise carbon, more preferably graphene. In an aspect of the 20^th embodiment, aspect b., it is preferred that the first section of the second element, the further section of the second element, or both, have a single atomic layer.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies to the further element, the even-further element, or both: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: carbon, a nitride, at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one conductive oxide, at least one conductive polymer, at least one chalcogen, and a combination of at least two or more thereof; b. has in the range of 1 to 10, preferably in the range of 1 to 6, and more preferably in the range of 1 to 3 atomic layers.

This preferred embodiment is a 21^st embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 20^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 21^st embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 21^st embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to the further element. In an aspect of the 21^st embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to the even-further element. In an aspect of the 21^st embodiment, it is preferred that the aforementioned combinations of features apply to both the further element and the even-further element. In an aspect of the 21^st embodiment, aspect a., it is particularly preferred that the further element, the even-further element, or both, comprise carbon, more preferably graphene. In an aspect of the 21^st embodiment, aspect b., it is preferred that the further element, the even-further element, or both, have a single atomic layer.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from 300 nm to 3000 nm, preferably in the range of 800 nm to 2100 nm, and more preferably in the range of 1250 nm to 1650 nm. This preferred embodiment is a 22^nd embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 21^st embodiments of the invention.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a width of the first section of the first element and a width of the first section of the second element are in the range of 10 nm to 2 pm, preferably in the range of 50 nm to 1 pm, more preferably in the range of 60 nm to 500 nm, even more preferably in the range of 70 nm to 400 nm, and further preferably in the range of 80 nm to 200 nm; b. a length of the first section of the first element and a length of the first section of the second element are in the range of 100 nm to 400 pm, preferably in the range of 500 nm to 250 pm, more preferably in the range of 10 pm to 120 pm, and further preferably in the range of 20 pm to 40 pm; c. a thickness of the first section of the first element, a thickness of the first section of the second element, or both, are in the range of 0.1 nm to 100 nm, preferably in the range of 0.7 nm to 50 nm, and more preferably in the range of 1.5 nm to 10 nm; d. a width of the further section of the first element, a width of the further section of the second element, or both, are in the range of 10 nm to 40 pm, preferably in the range of 100 nm to 20 pm, and further preferably in the range of 500 nm to 1 pm; e. a length of the further section of the first element, a length of the further section of the second element, or both, are in the range of 100 nm to 400 pm, preferably in the range of 500 nm to 250 pm, more preferably in the range of 10 pm to 120 pm, and further preferably in the range of 20 pm to 40 pm; f. a thickness of the further section of the first element, a thickness of the further section of the second element, or both, are in the range of 0.1 to 100 nm, preferably in the range of 0.7 to 50 nm, and more preferably in the range of 1.5 nm to 10 nm. This preferred embodiment is a 23^rd embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 22^nd embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 23^rd embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to f. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; d: e; f; a+b: a+c: a+d: a+c: a+f; b+c: b+d: b+c: b+f; c+d: c+c: c+f; d+c: d+f; e+f; a+b+c: a+b+d: a+b+c: a+b+f; a+c+d: a+c+c: a+c+f; a+d+c: a+d+f; a+e+f; b+c+d: b+c+c: b+c+f; b+d+c: b+d+f; b+e+f; c+d+c: c+d+f; c+e+f; d+e+f; a+b+c+d: a+b+c+c: a+b+c+f; a+b+d+c: a+b+d+f; a+b+e+f; a+c+d+c: a+c+d+f; a+c+e+f; a+d+e+f; b+c+d+c: b+c+d+f; b+c+e+f; b+d+e+f; c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+c: a+b+c+d+f; a+b+c+e+f; a+b+d+e+f; a+c+d+e+f; b+c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e+f.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a width of the further element, a width of the even-further element, or both, are in the range of 10 nm to 40 pm, preferably in the range of 100 nm to 20 pm, and further preferably in the range of 500 nm to 1 pm; b. a length of the further element, a length of the even-further element, or both, are in the range of 100 nm to 400 pm, preferably in the range of 500 nm to 250 pm, and more preferably in the range of 10 pm to 100 pm; c. a thickness of the further element, a thickness of the even-further element, or both, are in the range of 0. 1 to 100 nm, preferably in the range of 0.7 to 50 nm, and more preferably in the range of 1.5 nm to 10 nm.

This preferred embodiment is a 24^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 23^rd embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 24^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the width of the first section of the first element is in the range of 1 % to 50 %, more preferably in the range of 5 % to 40 %, even more preferably in the range of 10 % to 30 %, and further preferably in the range of 15 % to 25 % of the width of the first element. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the width of the first section of the second element is in the range of 1 % to 50 %, more preferably in the range of 5 % to 40 %, even more preferably in the range of 10 % to 30 %, and further preferably in the range of 15 % to 25 % of the width of the second element.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. at least 10 %, preferably at least 35 %, more preferably at least 50 %, and further preferably at least 60 % of a surface area of the further section of the first element overlaps the further element; b. at least 35 %, preferably at least 50 %, and more preferably at least 60 % of a surface area of the further section of the second element overlaps the even-further element.

This preferred embodiment is a 25^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 24^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 25^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: a+b. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a width of the further element is in the range of 10 % to 150 %, more preferably in the range of 50 % to 130 %, even more preferably in the range of 70 % to 110 %, and further preferably in the range of 90 % to 105 % of the width of the further section of the first element. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a width of the even-further element is in the range of 10 % to 150 %, more preferably in the range of 50 % to 130 %, even more preferably in the range of 70 % to 110 %, and further preferably in the range of 90 % to 105 % of the width of the further section (106) of the second element.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following is adapted and arranged as a layer: a. the first section of the first element; b. the further section of the first element; c. the first section of the second element; d. the further section of the second element; e. the further element; f. the even-further element.

This preferred embodiment is a 26^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 25^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 26^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to f. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; e; f; a+b; a+c; a+d; a+e; a+f; b+c; b+d; b+e; b+f; c+d; c+e; c+f; d+e; d+f; e+f; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+b+e; a+b+f; a+c+d; a+c+e; a+c+f; a+d+e; a+d+f; a+e+f; b+c+d; b+c+e; b+c+f; b+d+e; b+d+f; b+e+f; c+d+e; c+d+f; c+e+f; d+e+f; a+b+c+d; a+b+c+e; a+b+c+f; a+b+d+e; a+b+d+f; a+b+e+f; a+c+d+e; a+c+d+f; a+c+e+f; a+d+e+f; b+c+d+e; b+c+d+f; b+c+e+f; b+d+e+f; c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e; a+b+c+d+f; a+b+c+e+f; a+b+d+e+f; a+c+d+e+f; b+c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e+f.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following is arranged less than 1 pm, preferably less than 500 nm, more preferably less than 150 nm, even more preferably less than 100 nm, further preferably less than 50 nm, and even further preferably less than 30 nm from the waveguide: a. the first element; b. the second element; c. the further element; and d. the even-further element.

This preferred embodiment is a 27^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 26^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 27^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the waveguide overlaps at least one or all of the following: a. the first section of the first element; b. the first section of the second element.

This preferred embodiment is a 28^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1^st to 27^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 28^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the first element and the second element are separated by a first layer of the first kind. This preferred embodiment is a 29^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 28^th embodiments of the invention.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the device is an opto-electronic device, preferably selected from the group consisting of a modulator; a detector adapted and arranged for the detection of viruses, antibodies, biomarkers, biomolecules, or a combination of at least two thereof; and a photodetector. This preferred embodiment is a 30^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1 ^st to 29^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 30^th embodiment, it is particularly preferred that the device is a modulator.

A 31^st embodiment of the invention is a method for producing a device, preferably adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves, more preferably adapted and arranged for modulating electromagnetic waves, comprising the steps a. providing a structure that comprises i. a first element and a second element, A. wherein, in a cross-sectional cut of the structure, the first element and the second element are arranged such that

I. a first section of the first element overlaps a first section of the second element,

II. a further section of the first element does not overlap the second element,

III. the first section of the first element is separated by a first distance from the first section of the second element;

B. wherein the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and discharged; ii. a further element, wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the structure, the further element is arranged to overlap the further section of the first element; iii. optionally an even-further element, wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the structure, the even-further element is arranged to overlap the further section of the second element. b. superimposing a waveguide and the structure onto each other.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the method further comprises the step of providing the waveguide, prior to the step of providing the structure; b. the method further comprises the step of providing the waveguide, after the step of providing the structure.

This preferred embodiment is a 32^nd embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 31^st embodiment of the invention.

In an aspect of the 32^nd embodiment, it is preferred that the steps of providing the structure and the superimposing of the waveguide and the structure onto each other are performed as a single step. For example, the waveguide is provided, and the structure is superimposed on the waveguide by producing the structure on the waveguide using, e.g., physical vapour deposition. In another aspect of the 32^nd embodiment, it is preferred that the steps of providing the waveguide and the superimposing of the waveguide and the structure onto each other are performed as a single step. For example, the structure is provided, and the waveguide is superimposed on the structure by producing the waveguide on the structure using, e.g., physical vapour deposition. In an aspect of the 32^nd embodiment, all preferred aspects of the device, according to the 1^st to 30^th embodiments of the invention, are, mutatits mutandis, preferred aspects of the structure. In an aspect of the 32^nd embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a device, the step of providing the structure comprises the following sub-steps: a. providing a pre-element; b. dividing the pre-element into at least two elements.

This preferred embodiment is a 33^rd embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 31^st to 32^nd embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 33^rd embodiment, it is preferred that the pre -element is a further pre-element that is divided into a second element and a further element. In an aspect of the 33^rd embodiment, it is preferred that the pre-element is a first pre-element that is divided into a first element and an even-further element. In an aspect of the 33^rd embodiment, it is preferred that at least two pre-elements are provided, a first pre-element and a further pre-element. In this aspect it is preferred that that the first pre-element that is divided into a first element and an even-further element and the further pre-element that is divided into a second element and a further element.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a device, the pre-element is provided using at least one or all of the following: a. chemical vapour deposition; b. exfoliation; c. transferring the pre-element layer from a further substrate; d. physical vapour deposition; e. spin coating; f. molecular epitaxy.

This preferred embodiment is a 34^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 33^rd embodiment of the invention.

In an aspect of the 34^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to f. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; e; f; a+b; a+c; a+d; a+e; a+f; b+c; b+d; b+e; b+f; c+d; c+e; c+f; d+e; d+f; e+f; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+b+e; a+b+f; a+c+d; a+c+e; a+c+f; a+d+e; a+d+f; a+e+f; b+c+d; b+c+e; b+c+f; b+d+e; b+d+f; b+e+f; c+d+e; c+d+f; c+e+f; d+e+f; a+b+c+d; a+b+c+e; a+b+c+f; a+b+d+e; a+b+d+f; a+b+e+f; a+c+d+e; a+c+d+f; a+c+e+f; a+d+e+f; b+c+d+e; b+c+d+f; b+c+e+f; b+d+e+f; c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e; a+b+c+d+f; a+b+c+e+f; a+b+d+e+f; a+c+d+e+f; b+c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e+f.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a device, the division of the pre-element into the at least two elements is performed using at least one or all of the following: a. laser ablation; b. reactive ion etching; c. ion milling; d. UV activated ozone.

This preferred embodiment is a 35^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 33^rd to 34^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 35^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a device, prior to the division of the pre-element into the at least two elements, the following sub-steps are performed: a. a layer of the further kind is superimposed on the pre-element; b. providing at least one recess in the layer of the further kind by removing at least one section of the layer of the further kind, preferably to expose the at least one pre-element.

This preferred embodiment is a 36^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 33^rd to 35^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 36^th embodiment, the at least one recess can, for example, be provided using at least one or all of the following: at least one chemical, charged particles (e.g., electrons and ions), photons, atomic force microscopy, oxygen plasma etching, or a combination of at least two thereof. In an aspect of the 36^th embodiment, the removal of the at least one section of the layer of the further kind is preferably done using lithography (e.g., deep UV lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography). In an aspect of the 36^th embodiment, it is preferred that the division of the pre-element is performed by directing an energy beam through the at least one section. Examples of an energy beam include charged particles (e.g., ions) and photons.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a device, the method further comprises the substep of reducing at least one dimension, preferably a width, of the at least one recess in the layer of the further kind, wherein the at least one dimension is reduced prior to dividing the pre-element into the at least two elements. This preferred embodiment is a 37^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 36^th embodiment of the invention. In the 37^th embodiment, examples of the at least one dimension include a width, a length, a height, and a thickness.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing a device, the at least one dimension of the at least one section is reduced using atomic layer deposition, e.g., using aluminium oxide. This preferred embodiment is a 38^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 37^th embodiment of the invention. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th embodiments of the invention is obtainable from the method according to any of the 31 ^st to 38^th embodiments o the invention.

A 39^th embodiment of the invention is a device, preferably adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves, more preferably adapted and arranged for modulating electromagnetic waves, obtainable by a method according to the invention, preferably according to any of the 31^st to 38^th embodiments of the invention.

A 40^th embodiment of the invention is a method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, more preferably a modulated electromagnetic wave, comprising the steps of a. providing a device according to the invention, preferably according to any of the 1^st to 30^th embodiments of the invention; b. propagating an electromagnetic wave through the waveguide; c. applying a first potential difference between the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element; d. applying a second potential difference between the further section of the first element and the further element; e. optionally applying a third potential difference between the further section of the further element and the even-further element.

In the 40^th embodiment, the electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property should preferably be understood as being modified with respect the state of the electromagnetic wave when said electromagnetic wave is coupled into the waveguide. In an aspect of the 40^th embodiment, it is preferred to perform at least two, more preferably all, of the steps b. to e. at least partially simultaneously. In an aspect of the 40^th embodiment, it is preferred that the electromagnetic wave is modified to have a change in transmission of at least 1 dB/ns. In an aspect of the 40^th embodiment, it is preferred that the electromagnetic wave is modified to have a change in transmission that is equal to or less than 0.01 dB/fs.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first potential difference varies by at least 5 %, preferably at least 30 %, and further preferably at least 100 % over a first time interval; b. the second potential difference varies by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a second time interval, wherein the first time interval is less than the second time interval; c. optionally the third potential difference varies by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a third time interval, wherein the first time interval is less than the third time interval;

This preferred embodiment is a 41 ^st embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 40^th embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 41^st embodiment, it is preferred that at least one or all of the following partially, more preferably completely, overlaps: the first time interval, the second time interval, and the third time interval. In an aspect of the 41^st embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first time interval is in the range of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns; b. the second time interval is at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms; c. optionally, the third time interval is at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms.

This preferred embodiment is a 42^nd embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 41 ^st embodiment of the invention.

In an aspect of the 42^nd embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first potential difference is in the range of -120 V to 120 V, preferably in the range of -100 V to 100 V, more preferably in the range of -50 V to 50 V, even more preferably in the range of - 20 V to 20 V, further preferably in the range of - 10 V to 10 V, further preferably in the range of -7 V to 7 V, and even further preferably in the range of -5 V to 5 V; b. the second potential difference is in the range of -120 V to 120 V, preferably in the range of -100 V to 100 V, more preferably in the range of -50 V to 50 V, even more preferably in the range of -20 V to 20 V, further preferably in the range of -10 V to 10 V, further preferably in the range of -7 V to 7 V, and even further preferably in the range of -5 V to 5 V; c. optionally, the third potential difference is in the range of -120 V to 120 V, preferably in the range of -100 V to 100 V, more preferably in the range of -50 V to 50 V, even more preferably in the range of -20 V to 20 V, further preferably in the range of -10 V to 10 V, further preferably in the range of -7 V to 7 V, and even further preferably in the range of -5 V to 5 V.

This preferred embodiment is a 43^rd embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 40^th to 42^nd embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 43^rd embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c.

In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a quotient of the first potential difference and the first distance is in the range of -12 GV/m to 12 GV/m, preferably in the range of -10 GV/m to 10 GV/m, more preferably in the range of -5 GV/m to 5 GV/m, even more preferably in the range of -2 GV/m to 2 GV/m, further preferably in the range of -1 GV/m to 1 GV/m, and even further preferably in the range of -0.5 GV/m to 0.5 GV/m; b. a quotient of the second potential difference and the second distance is in the range of -12 GV/m to 12 GV/m, preferably in the range of -10 GV/m to 10 GV/m, more preferably in the range of - 5 GV/m to 5 GV/m, even more preferably in the range of -2 GV/m to 2 GV/m, further preferably in the range of -1 GV/m to 1 GV/m, and even further preferably in the range of -0.5 GV/m to 0.5 GV/m; c. a quotient of the third potential difference and the third distance is in the range of -12 GV/m to 12 GV/m, preferably in the range of -10 GV/m to 10 GV/m, more preferably in the range of -5 GV/m to 5 GV/m, even more preferably in the range of -2 GV/m to 2 GV/m, further preferably in the range of -1 GV/m to 1 GV/m, and even further preferably in the range of -0.5 GV/m to 0.5 GV/m.

This preferred embodiment is a 44^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 40^th to 43^rd embodiments of the invention.

In an aspect of the 44^th embodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

A 45^th embodiment of the invention is a modified electromagnetic wave obtainable by the method, according to the invention, for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, preferably the method according to any of the 40^th to 44^th embodiments of the invention. A 46^th embodiment of the invention is a use of a potential difference to decrease an optical attenuation coefficient of at least one section of at least one element of a device that is adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves, more preferably adapted and arranged for modulating electromagnetic waves, wherein the potential difference is varied by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps.

In an aspect of the 46^th embodiment, it is preferred that the potential difference is varied by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 1 ns. In an aspect of the 46^th embodiment, it is preferred that the potential difference is varied by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 1 ms. In an aspect of the 46^th embodiment, it is preferred use the device according to any of the 1 ^st to 30^th embodiments of the invention.

A 47^th embodiment of the invention is a use of a device adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves, more preferably adapted and arranged for modulating electromagnetic waves, to decrease an optical attenuation coefficient of at least one section of at least one element of the device using a potential difference that is varied by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps.

In an aspect of the 47^th embodiment, it is preferred that the potential difference is varied by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 1 ns. In an aspect of the 47^th embodiment, it is preferred that the potential difference is varied by less than 15 %, preferably less than 10 %, and further preferably less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 1 ms. In an aspect of the 47^th embodiment, it is preferred use the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th embodiments of the invention.

A 48^th embodiment of the invention is a use of a structure for producing an opto-electronic device, wherein the structure comprises a. a first element and a second element i. wherein, in a cross-sectional cut of the structure, the first element and the second element are arranged such that

B. a further section of the first element does not overlap the second element,

C. the first section of the first element is separated by a first distance from the first section of the second element; ii. wherein the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and discharged; b. a further element, wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the structure, the further element is arranged to overlap the further section of the first element; c. optionally an even-further element, wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the structure, the even- further element is arranged to overlap a further section of the second element.

In an aspect of the 48^th embodiment, it is preferred that any of the 2^nd to 30^th preferred embodiments of the invention apply, mutatis mutandis, to the 48^th embodiment.

In a preferred aspect of any of the 49^th to 63^rd embodiments of the invention, the photodetector, if present, is an opto-electronic device.

A 49^th embodiment of the invention is a first assembly 1000 comprising a. a first sub-assembly 1001, wherein the first sub-assembly 1001 comprises i. a first device 1002 according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; ii. preferably a first photodetector 1003; iii. a first integrated circuit 1004 in electrical connection with the first device 1002, and preferably the first photodetector 1003, if present; iv. preferably a first data storage means 1005 adapted and arranged to be in electrical connection with the first integrated circuit 1004; b. a further sub-assembly 1007, wherein the further sub-assembly 1007 comprises i. a further photodetector 1009 adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first device 1002; ii. preferably a further device 1008 according to the invention, more preferably the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention, wherein the further device 1008 is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first photodetector 1003, if present; iii. a further integrated circuit 1010 in electrical connection with the further photodetector 1009, and preferably the further device 1008, if present; iv. preferably a further data storage means 1011 adapted and arranged to be in electrical connection with the further integrated circuit 1010; c. a first light emitting means 1006, wherein i. the first device 1002 and the first light emitting means 1006 are adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with each other, ii. preferably, the first light emitting means 1006 is arranged in the first sub-assembly 1001; d. preferably a further light emitting means 1012, wherein i. the further device 1008, if present, and the further light emitting means 1012 are adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with each other, ii. preferably, the further light emitting means 1012 is arranged in the further sub-assembly 1007; wherein the first sub-assembly 1001 and the further sub-assembly 1007 are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal.

In a preferred aspect of the 49^th embodiment of the invention, the first sub-assembly 1001 and the further subassembly 1007 are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal, over a distance of at least 1 mm, more preferably at least 2 mm, even more preferably at least 5 mm, and further preferably at least 10 mm. In a preferred aspect of the 49^th embodiment of the invention, the first sub-assembly 1001 and the further sub-assembly 1007 are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal, over a distance of at least 10 cm, more preferably at least 30 cm, and further preferably at least 50 cm.

In a preferred embodiment of the first assembly, the first assembly is selected from the list consisting of an assembly adapted and arranged for communication, an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication, an assembly adapted and arranged for high-performance computing, an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence (e.g., machine learning), an assembly adapted and arranged for a data centre, a switch (e.g., a network switch), an optical interconnect, a chip. This preferred embodiment is a 50^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 49^th embodiment of the invention.

A 51^st embodiment of the invention is an optical data communication module 2100 comprising a. a device 2101 according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 1 ^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; b. preferably, a light emitting means 2102 adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the device 2101; c. preferably, a photodetector 2103; d. an integrated circuit 2104 in electrical connection with the device 2101, and preferably in electrical connection with the photodetector 2103, if present.

A 52^nd embodiment of the invention is an optical sensing module 1100 comprising: a. a device 1101 according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention, wherein the device 1101 is adapted an arranged to modulate first electromagnetic waves directed towards a target area 1102; b. a sensing means 1103 adapted and arranged to detect further electromagnetic waves from the target area 1102, thereby generating an electrical signal, wherein the sensing means preferably comprises a photodetector; c. preferably, optics 1104 adapted and arranged to focus the further electromagnetic waves onto the sensing means 1103, and d. preferably, an integrated circuit 1105, wherein the integrated circuit is i. in electrical connection with the device 1101, ii. preferably in electrical connection with the sensing means 1103, iii. preferably adapted and arranged to process the electrical signal generated by the sensing means 1103; e. preferably, a light emitting means 1106, in optical connection with the device 1101.

A 53^rd embodiment of the invention is a first apparatus 1200 adapted and arranged for a medical application, comprising a. a first device 1201 according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; b. preferably a first photodetector 1202; c. preferably a first light emitting means 1203 in optical connection with the first device 1201; d. a first integrated circuit 1204 in electrical connection with the first device 1201, and preferably in electrical connection with the first photodetector 1202, if present, e. preferably a sensing unit 1205, wherein the sensing unit 1205 is adapted and arranged to measure at least one physical property of a body, preferably a mammalian body, wherein the sensing unit 1205 i. preferably comprises an optical data communication module according to the 51^st embodiment of the invention, ii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 52^nd embodiment of the invention, iii. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

A. the first device 1201, and

B. the first photodetector 1202, if present.

A 54^th embodiment of the invention is a vehicle 1300 adapted and arranged for flight, wherein the vehicle 1300 comprises a. a first device 1301 according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; b. preferably a first light emitting means 1302 adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first device 1301; c. preferably a first photodetector 1303; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1304 in electrical connection with the first device 1301, and preferably in electrical connection with the first photodetector 1303, if present; e. preferably a propulsion means 1305; f. preferably a means to generate lift 1306; g. preferably a control system 1307 adapted and arranged to control a movement of the vehicle, h. preferably a sensing unit 1308, wherein the sensing unit 1308 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide information about surroundings (e.g., a target area) of the vehicle 1300, more preferably spatial information about surroundings of the vehicle 1300, ii. preferably comprises a data communication module, more preferably an optical data communication module according to the 51 ^st embodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 52^nd embodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

A. the first device 1301, and

B. the first photodetector 1303, if present.

In a preferred aspect of the vehicle adapted and arranged for flight, said vehicle is selected from the group consisting of an airplane, a helicopter, a drone, a rocket, a satellite, a balloon (e.g., a weather balloon, a hot-air balloon) and a missile. This preferred embodiment is a 55^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 54^th embodiment of the invention.

A 56^th embodiment of the invention is a robotic system 1400, comprising: a. a first device 1401 according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; b. preferably a first light emitting means 1402 in optical connection with the first device 1401; c. preferably a first photodetector 1403; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1404 in electrical connection with the first device 1401, and preferably the first photodetector 1403, if present. e. a robotic body 1405 adapted and arranged for movement, wherein the robotic body 1405 preferably comprises the first device 1401 and/or the first photodetector 1403, if present; f. a sensing unit 1406, wherein the sensing unitl406 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide spatial information about surroundings (e.g., the target area) of the robotic body 1405, ii. preferably comprises a data communication module, more preferably an optical data communication module according to the 51 ^st embodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 52^nd embodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication with at least one or all of the following: the first device 1401, the first photodetector 1403, if present; g. a control module 1407 adapted and arranged to control a movement of the robotic body 1405, preferably based on the spatial information provided by the sensing unit 1406, wherein the control module 1407 is preferably in data communication, and more preferably optical connection, with at least one or all of the following: i. the first device 1401, ii. the first photodetector 1403, iii. the first integrated circuit 1404; h. preferably, an external entity 1408 in data communication with the robotic body 1405.

A 57^th embodiment of the invention is a second assembly 1500, comprising: a. one or more memory units 1501, preferably one or more optical memory units, adapted and arranged to store instructions and/or data; b. one or more processors 1502, preferably one or more optical processors, that are adapted and arranged i. to be in data communication, and preferably in optical connection, with the one or more memory units 1501, ii. to execute the instructions stored in the one or more memory units 1501 and/or to perform operations using optical signals, c. preferably, a data communication module 1503, more preferably an optical data communication module according to the 51 ^st embodiment of the invention, adapted and arranged for the communication of data, more preferably optical data, between at least one or all of the following: i. at least one of the one or more memory units 1501 and at least one of the one or more processors 1502, ii. between at least two of the memory units 1501, and iii. between at least two of the processors 1502; d. at least one device 1504 according to the invention, preferably at least one device according to any of the 1 ^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention, wherein the at least one device 1504 is preferably arranged in at least one or all of the following: the at least one memory unit 1501, the at least one processer 1502, the data communication module 1503; e. preferably at least one photodetector 1505, wherein the at least one photodetector 1505 is preferably arranged in at least one or all of the following: the at least one memory unit 1501, the at least one processer 1502, the data communication module 1503.

A 58^th embodiment of the invention is a third assembly 1600 comprising: a. a homomorphic operation module 1601 that is adapted and arranged for performing homomorphic operations on encrypted optical data to obtain modified encrypted optical data, b. preferably, a photonic encryption module 1602, wherein the photonic encryption module 1602 i. is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module 1601, ii. is adapted and arranged for encrypting optical data, preferably using an optical encoding scheme, to obtain the encrypted optical data; c. preferably, a photonic decryption module 1603, wherein the photonic decryption module i. is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module 1601, the photonic encryption module 1602, or both, ii. is adapted and arranged for decrypting the modified encrypted optical data, preferably using an optical decoding scheme; d. at least one device 1604 according to the invention, preferably at least one device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention, wherein the at least one device is preferably arranged in at least one or all of the following: the homomorphic operation module 1601, the photonic encryption module 1602, the photonic decryption module 1603; e. preferably, at least one photodetector 1605, wherein the at least one photodetector is preferably arranged in at least one or all of the following: the homomorphic operation module 1601, the photonic encryption module 1602, the photonic decryption module 1603; f. preferably, at least one light emitting means 1606 that is in optical connection with at least one or all of the following; i. the homomorphic operation module 1601, ii. the photonic encryption module 1602, iii. the photonic decryption module 1603.

A 59^th embodiment of the invention is an optical connection module 1700, comprising: a. a device 1701 according to the invention, preferably a device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; b. preferably a photodetector 1702 in optical connection with the device 1701; c. preferably at least one waveguide 1703 in optical connection with the device 1701, the photodetector 1702 (if present), or both; d. preferably a light emitting means 1704 in optical connection with the device 1701; e. preferably at least one integrated circuit 1705 in electrical connection with the device 1701, the photodetector 1702 (if present), or both.

In a preferred embodiment of the optical connection module, the optical connection module is selected from the group consisting of an optical interconnect, an optical transmitter, an optical receiver, an optical transceiver, and an optical switch. This preferred embodiment is a 60^th embodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 59^th embodiment of the invention.

A 61^st embodiment of the invention is a first transportation means 1800, preferably adapted and arranged for autonomous travel, comprising: a. a first device 1801 according to the invention, preferably a device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; b. preferably a first light emitting 1812 means adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first device 1801; c. preferably a first photodetector 1802; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1811 in electrical connection with the first device 1801, the first photodetector 1802, if present, or both; e. a sensing unit 1803, wherein the sensing unit 1803 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide spatial information about surroundings (e.g., a target area) of the first transportation means 1800, ii. preferably comprises a data communication module, more preferably an optical data communication module according to the 51 ^st embodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises the optical sensing module according to the 52^nd embodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

A. the first device 1801, and

B. the first photodetector 1802, if present; f. a processing module comprising 1804: i. a perception sub-module 1805 adapted and arranged to analyse and/or process the spatial information from the sensing unit 1803 to provide perception data on a presence and/or a classification of patterns and/or items in the target area, ii. a generation sub-module 1806 adapted and arranged to process the perception data, and to preferably generate a recommendation, a control instruction, or both; i. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

A. the first device 1801, and

B. the first photodetector 1802, if present; g. preferably a human-machine interface 1807 adapted and arranged to provide feedback to a user based on the recommendation, the control instruction, or both; h. preferably a control unit 1808 adapted and arranged to execute the recommendation, the control instruction, or both; i. a steering means 1809 adapted and arranged to steer the first transportation means 1800, wherein the control unit 1808 is preferably adapted and arranged to control the steering means, j. a propulsion means 1810 adapted and arranged to provide propulsion to the first transportation means 1800, wherein the control unit 1808 is preferably adapted and arranged to control the propulsion means 1810.

A 62^nd embodiment of the invention is a further transportation means 1900 comprising: a. a first device 1901 according to the invention, preferably a device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; b. preferably a first photodetector 1902, more preferably in optical connection with the first device 1901; c. a steering means 1903 adapted and arranged to steer the further transportation means 1900, d. a propulsion means 1904 adapted and arranged to provide propulsion to the further transportation means 1900

A 63^rd embodiment of the invention is a fourth assembly 2000, comprising: a. one or more memory units 2001 adapted and arranged to store instructions and/or data; b. one or more processors 2002 that are adapted and arranged i. to be in data communication with the one or more memory units 2001, ii. to execute the instructions stored in the one or more memory units 2001 and/or to perform operations, c. a device 2003 according to the invention, preferably at least one device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention; d. preferably a photodetector 2004; e. preferably, wherein the fourth assembly is adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence, machine learning, graphics rendering, large-scale visualisation, gaming, high-frequency trading, video streaming, audio recognition, image recognition, object recognition, virtual reality, molecular simulation, scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of weather patterns and/or climate, the modelling of star formation), the solving of equations, data mining, cloud-based applications.

A 64^th embodiment of the invention is a use of the first assembly according to the invention, preferably according to any of the 49^th to 50^th embodiments of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: communication, telecommunication, high-performance computing, for use in a data centre, a switch (e.g., a network switch), an optical interconnect, a chip.

A 65^th embodiment of the invention is a use of the first assembly according to the invention, preferably according to any of the 49^th to 50^th embodiments of the invention, in at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence applications and/or machine learning applications, an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application, a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight, a robotic system, an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing, a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module, an optical connection module, a transportation means.

A 66^th embodiment of the invention is a use of a fourth assembly according to the invention, preferably according to the 63^rd embodiments of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence, machine learning, graphics rendering, large-scale visualisation, gaming, high-frequency trading, video streaming, audio recognition, image recognition, object recognition, virtual reality, molecular simulation, scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of weather patterns and/or climate, the modelling of star formation), the solving of equations, data mining, cloud-based applications.

A 67^th embodiment of the invention is a use of a device according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: a. communication, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for communication; b. telecommunication, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication; c. high-performance computing, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for high performance computing; d. a data centre; e. a switch; f. an optical interconnect; g. a computer chip; h. a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; j. a module adapted and arranged for optical sensing; k. a module adapted and arranged for optical data communication; l. a robotic system; m. optical computing, preferably an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing; n. at least one or all of a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module; o. an optical connection module; p. a transportation means; q. an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence and/or machine learning.

In the 67^th embodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to q. are preferred aspects of the invention.

A 68^th embodiment of the invention is a use of a device according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of according to any of the 1^st to 30^th, and 39^th embodiments of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: a. an apparatus adapted and arranged for consumer applications; b. an apparatus adapted and arranged for laser and/or light detection and ranging; c. an apparatus adapted and arranged for optical spectroscopy; d. a system adapted and arranged for high performance computing, preferably for memory intensive applications, big data, or search engines; e. an apparatus adapted and arranged for virtual reality, augmented reality, gaming; f. an apparatus adapted and arranged for streaming and/or video broadcasting; g. a system adapted and arranged for trading, brokerage, and/or financing; h. a system adapted and arranged for wireless communication; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for biometric searches, personal data management, or patient data management; j . an apparatus adapted and arranged for climate prediction, weather forecast, and/or scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of star formation); k. an apparatus adapted and arranged for molecular simulation, drug discovery, and/or gene sequencing; and l. an apparatus adapted and arranged for an enterprise cloud.

In the 68^th embodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to 1. are preferred aspects of the invention. A 69^th embodiment of the invention is an item comprising a device according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th and 39^th embodiments of the invention, wherein the item is selected from a group consisting of: a. an assembly adapted and arranged for communication; b. an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication; c. an assembly adapted and arranged for high performance computing; d. a data centre; e. a switch; f. an optical interconnect; g. a computer chip; h. a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; j . a module adapted and arranged for optical sensing; k. a module adapted and arranged for optical data communication; l. a robotic system; m. an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing; n. at least one or all of a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module; o. an optical connection module; p. a transportation means; q. an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence and/or machine learning.

In the 69^th embodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to q. are preferred aspects of the invention.

A 70^th embodiment of the invention is an item comprising a device according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 1^st to 30^th and 39^th embodiments of the invention, wherein the item is selected from a group consisting of: a. an apparatus adapted and arranged for consumer applications; b. an apparatus adapted and arranged for laser and/or light detection and ranging; c. an apparatus adapted and arranged for optical spectroscopy; d. a system adapted and arranged for high performance computing, preferably for memory intensive applications, big data, or search engines; e. an apparatus adapted and arranged for virtual reality, augmented reality, gaming; f. an apparatus adapted and arranged for streaming and/or video broadcasting; g. a system adapted and arranged for trading, brokerage, and/or financing; h. a system adapted and arranged for wireless communication; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for biometric searches, personal data management, or patient data management; j . an apparatus adapted and arranged for climate prediction, weather forecast, and/or scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of star formation); k. an apparatus adapted and arranged for molecular simulation, drug discovery, and/or gene sequencing; and l. an apparatus adapted and arranged for an enterprise cloud.

In the 70^th embodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to 1. are preferred aspects of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Throughout this document, disclosures of ranges should preferably be understood to include both end points of the range. Furthermore, each disclosure of a range in the document should preferably be understood as also disclosing preferred sub-ranges in which one end point is excluded or both end points are excluded. For example, a disclosure of a range from 200 nm to 800 nm is to be understood as disclosing a range that includes both of the end points 200 nm and 800 nm. Furthermore, it is to be understood as also disclosing a range that includes the end point 200 nm but excludes the end point 800 nm, a range that excludes the end point 200 nm but includes the end point 800 nm, and a range that excludes both end points 200 nm and 800 nm.

Some preferred embodiments and preferred aspects may comprise different combinations of features. If the various combinations are listed, the combinations are separated by a semi-colon For example, the list “a; a+b; a+c+d” should be understood to disclose an embodiment and/or an aspect that comprises the feature “a”, an embodiment and/or an aspect that comprises the features “a” and “b”, and an embodiment and/or an aspect that comprises the features “a”, “c”, and “d”.

When reference is made to “components”, this should preferably be understood as the components of which the device, according to the invention, is comprised of. Examples of a component include the following: the first element, the second element, the further element, an even-further element, the waveguide, a first electrical contact, a second electrical contact, a third electrical contact, a fourth electrical contact, the first section of the first element, the further section of the first element, the first section of the second element, and the further section of the second element. Waveguide

Waveguides suitable for the invention include, but are not limited to, strip waveguides, rib waveguides, slot waveguides, buried waveguides, and diffused waveguides.

A preferred waveguide comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, a chalcogenide, at least one polymer, a resin, and a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of combinations of the aforementioned materials include titanium dioxide, aluminium nitride, tantalum pentoxide, silicon nitride, aluminium oxide, silicon oxynitride, lithium niobate, silica, indium phosphide, gallium arsenide, indium gallium arsenide, barium titanate, and aluminium gallium arsenide. A preferred chalcogenide is a dichalcogenide, more preferably a transition metal dichalcogenide.

A preferred waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in at least one or all of the following ranges: 1260 nm to 1360 nm (also known as the Original Band or O-Band), 1360 nm to 1460 nm (also known as the Extend Band or E-Band), 1460 nm to 1530 nm (also known as the Short Band or S-Band), 1530 nm to 1565 nm (also known as the Conventional Band or C-Band), and 1565 nm to 1625 nm (also known as the Long Band or L-Band). In an aspect of the invention, it is particularly preferred that the waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the O- band, the C-band, or both.

Where it is disclosed that the waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in a given wavelength range, this should not be understood to mean that the waveguide is necessarily only adapted for the propagation of electromagnetic waves in that given wavelength range. Rather, it should preferably be understood to mean that the waveguide is at least adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the given wavelength range.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the waveguide has a core layer and a cladding layer that at least partially surrounds the core layer.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that one or more, more preferably all, elements (e.g., the first element, the second element, the further element, the even-further element) are arranged below the waveguide, when viewed in a cross-sectional cut of the device. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that one or more, more preferably all, elements (e.g., the first element, the second element, the further element, the even-further element) are arranged above the waveguide, when viewed in a cross-sectional cut of the device. In yet another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that one or more elements (e.g., the first element, the second element) are arranged to pass through the waveguide, when viewed in a cross-sectional cut of the device. Element

Examples of an element are the first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element. The adjectives “first”, “second”, “further”, and “even-further” should not be understood as limiting the order that the elements are arranged in, e.g., in a cross-sectional cut of the device. For example, the second element may be arranged above the first element in a cross-sectional cut of the device.

An element preferably has an electrical conductivity, at 20 °C, of at least 10⁴ S/m, more preferably at least 10⁵ S/m, even more preferably at least 10⁶ S/m, and further preferably at least 10⁷ S/m. The values for the electrical conductivity are preferably for an element that has a thickness of 0.35 nm.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first element and the second element are not in electrical connection. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the further element and the even-further element are not in electrical connection. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the further element and the first element are not in electrical connection. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the further element and the second element are not in electrical connection. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the even-further element and the first element are not in electrical connection. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the even- further element and the second element are not in electrical connection.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first element is arranged in the form of a layer. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the second element is arranged in the form of a layer. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the further element is arranged in the form of a layer. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the even-further element is arranged in the form of a layer.

In one aspect of the invention, it is preferred that at least two of the following matches by at least 90 wt-%, more preferably by at least 95 wt-% in their composition: the first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element. For example, the first element and the second element are made from the same material and/or have the same composition, such as graphene. For example, the first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element are made from the same material and/or have the same composition, such as graphene. In yet another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that at least two, preferably all, of the following comprise graphene: the first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element.

At least two elements (e.g., one element and another element) that matches by at least X wt-% in their composition should preferably be understood as follows: one element has a composition Y, and the another element comprises at least X wt-% of Y, based on a weight of the another element. Examples of the composition Y include a single chemical element (e.g., carbon), a composition of chemical elements (e.g., boron nitride), and a mixture of chemical elements (e.g., a mixture of carbon and aluminium).

In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that at least two of the following matches by less than 90 wt-%, more preferably by less than 70 wt-% in their composition: the first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element. For example, the first element is made from graphene, while the second element comprises a metal. For example, the first element is made from graphene, the second element comprises a metal, the further element comprises a conductive polymer, and the even-further element comprises a conductive oxide.

At least two elements (e.g., one element and another element) that matches by less than X wt-% in their composition should preferably be understood as follows: one element has a composition Y, and the another element comprises less than X wt-% of Y, based on a weight of the another element. Examples of the composition Y include a single chemical element (e.g., carbon), a composition of chemical elements (e.g., boron nitride), and a mixture of chemical elements (e.g., a mixture of carbon and aluminium).

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that at least one, more preferably all, of the following is arranged substantially parallel: the first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that at least one or all of the following is at least partially surrounded by a layer of an even-further kind: the first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that, in a cross-sectional cut of the device, at least one or all of the following is arranged on only one side of the waveguide: the first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element.

Cross-sectional cut

A cross-sectional cut of the device should preferably be understood as a cut that is made perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic waves through the waveguide.

Overlap

At least two components (e.g., the first element and the second element, the further element and the first element, an even-further element and the second element, the waveguide and the first sections of the first element and the second element) that overlap should preferably be understood to mean that at least one component at least partially covers at least one other component when a cross-sectional cut of the device is viewed. At least two components that overlap should not be understood to necessarily imply that at least one component completely covers at least one other component. If at least two components overlap, one component may completely cover another component, or the one component may only partially cover the other component. For example, the first element and the second element overlap such that only the first sections of the first element and the second element cover each other. For example, the first element completely covers the further element.

When one component overlaps another component, this should preferably be understood to include the following arrangement: the one component overlaps the another component; the one component is being overlapped by the another component.

At least two component that overlap should preferably be understood to include the following arrangements of the at least two components: the at least two components are arranged substantially parallel to each other; the at least two components are arranged such that an angle between any two components, of the at least two components, is less than 90°.

At least two components that overlap should not be understood to necessarily imply that the at least two components touch each other. At least two components that overlap may touch each other, but this is not a requirement.

A waveguide and a component (e.g., the first element, the second element, the further element, an even-further element, first section of an element, a further section of an element) that overlap should preferably be understood to include an arrangement of the component and the waveguide such that the component passes through the waveguide.

Sections of the elements

Sections of the first element and the second element that overlap are defined as first sections. This should preferably be understood to mean that the presence of a first section in a first element implies the presence of a first section in a second element. For example, a first section of a first element overlaps a first section of the second element.

A section of the first element that does not overlap the second element is defined as a further section. Similarly, a section of the second element that does not overlap the first element is defined as a further section. This should not be understood to mean that the presence of a further section of the first element necessarily implies the presence of a further section of the second element. For example, the first element and the second element overlap, with only the first element having a further section. However, it is preferred that both the first element and the second element have a further section.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a first section and a further section of an element (the first element, the further element) matches by less than 90 wt-%, more preferably by less than 70 wt-% in their composition. For example, the first section may comprise graphene and no conductive polymer, while the further section comprises a conductive polymer but not graphene. In another, more preferred aspect of the invention, the first section and the further section of an element (the first element, the further element) matches by at least 90 wt-%, more preferably by at least 95 wt-% in their composition.

When a first section and a further section of an element matches by at least X wt-% in their composition, this should preferably be understood as follows: one section has a composition Y, and the another section comprises at least A' wt-% of Y, based on a weight of the another section. When a first section and a further section of an element matches by less than X wt-% in their composition, this should preferably be understood as follows: one section has a composition Y, and the another section comprises less than X wt-% of Y, based on a weight of the another section. Examples of the composition Y include a single chemical element (e.g., carbon), a composition of chemical elements (e.g., boron nitride), and a mixture of chemical elements (e.g., a mixture of carbon and aluminium).

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first section and the further section of an element (the first element, the further element) are in electrical connection. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first section and the further section of an element (the first element, the further element) are continuous, e.g., the element is in the form of a layer.

Capacitor

A capacitor should preferably be understood as at least two surfaces that are adapted and arranged to store electrical energy in an electric field, e.g., by accumulating electric charges on the at least two surfaces. The at least two surfaces of a preferred capacitor are preferably not in physical contact. The at least two surfaces of a preferred capacitor are preferably not in electrical contact. Preferably a capacitor, more preferably the at least two surfaces, are adapted and arranged to be charged and discharged, and further preferably have an RC time constant that is less than 50 ns. An example of the at least two surfaces is the first sections of the first element and the second element.

Electrical contacts

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the device comprises a first electrical contact that is in electrical connection with the first element. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the device comprises a second electrical contact that is in electrical connection with the second element. In yet another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the device comprises a third electrical contact that is in electrical connection with the further element. In a further aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the device comprises a fourth electrical contact that is in electrical connection with the even-further element. Electrical connection

At least two components that are in electrical connection should preferably be understood to mean that an electrical current can flow between the at least two components. At least two components that are in electrical connection should preferably be understood to mean that a maximum resistance between the at least two components is 100 MQ. Example of at least two components that are in electrical connection include a first section and a further section; an electrical contact and a corresponding element; and an electrical contact and a component.

Opto-electronic interaction

A waveguide that is adapted and arranged for opto-electronic interaction with a component should preferably be understood to mean that electromagnetic waves that propagate in the waveguide can interact with the component. Examples of the component include an element, preferably a first section of an element. A preferred opto-electronic interaction modifies at least one property of the electromagnetic waves that propagate in the waveguide

An opto-electronic device should preferably be understood as a device that controls and/or detects electromagnetic waves. An example of controlling electromagnetic waves is the modulation of electromagnetic waves.

Modification

Modification of an electromagnetic wave should preferably be understood as the modification of one or more properties of an electromagnetic wave. Examples of the properties include amplitude, phase, frequency, and polarisation. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that an amplitude is modified. Examples of modifying at least one property of an electromagnetic wave is a modulation of the electromagnetic wave, an at least partial absorption of the electromagnetic wave, or both.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the at least one property of an electromagnetic wave is modified by modulation, preferably for the transmission of information, more preferably by imposing a signal on the electromagnetic wave. In this aspect, it is preferred that an amplitude is modulated.

Lavers

A component in the form of a layer should preferably be understood as a component (e.g., an element) that has a thickness that is less than 50 % of a width, a length, or both, of the component.

A layer of the first kind is preferably a layer that the skilled person would consider as a dielectric layer. A layer of the first kind preferably has a dielectric constant of 5 or more. A layer of the first kind preferably has an electrical conductivity that is less than 10'⁵ S/m. A layer of the first kind preferably comprises at least one oxide, at least one nitride, or a combination thereof. Examples of an oxide include silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, niobium pentoxide, tantalum pentoxide. An example of a nitride is silicon nitride, aluminium nitride, and silicon oxynitride.

At least one or all of the following preferably has a dielectric constant of 5 or more: the first layer of the first kind, the further layer of the first kind, and the even-further layer of the first kind. Examples of materials with a dielectric constant of 5 or more include aluminium oxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, niobium pentoxide, tantalum pentoxide. An example of a nitride is silicon nitride.

A layer of the further kind is preferably any layer of material that the skilled person would consider suitable to at least partially protect layers and/or components (e.g., an element) and/or portions of layers and/or components (e.g., an element) below the layer of the further kind when producing the device. It is preferred that the layers and/or components and/or portions of layers and/or components (e.g., an element) are at least partially protected from an energy beam (e.g., charged particles, photons) by the layer of the further kind. A layer of the further kind is preferably a photoresist, more preferably a positive photoresist. Photoresists are well-known to the skilled person working in the field of manufacturing electronic devices. An example of a suitable photoresist is AZ® MIR 701 which is commercially available from MicroChemicals GmbH (Germany).

A preferred layer of an even-further kind preferably comprises a nitride, an oxide, or a combination thereof. A preferred nitride for the layer of the even-further kind is boron nitride, and more preferably hexagonal boron nitride. A preferred oxide for the layer of the even-further kind is graphene oxide. A layer of the even-further kind preferably has a resistivity that is at least 100 times, more preferably at least 1000 times, and further preferably at least 10000 times larger than a resistivity of an element.

Electrically charged

A component (e.g., the first element, the second element the further element, the even-further element) that is adapted and arranged to be electrically charged should preferably be understood to mean that the component is adapted an arranged to store a net electrical charge, preferably on a surface of the component. The storing of a net electrical charge preferably produces an electric field around the component. In a preferred aspect of the invention, at least one component that is adapted and arranged to be electrically charged is adapted and arranged to store a net electrostatic charge. It is particularly preferred that this aspect, regarding electrostatic charge, applies to the further element, the even-further element, or both.

A component that is adapted and arranged to be electrically charged can, for example, be charged by at least one or all of the following: connecting the component to an electric circuit (e.g., connecting the component to an electrical contact), the component has an intrinsic net electrical charge (e.g., without requiring connection to a circuit), the component can be charged by irradiating the component with photons. A component (e.g., the first element, the second element the further element, the even-further element) that is adapted and arranged to be electrically discharged should preferably be understood to mean that at least a fraction of any net charge stored in the element can be removed, thereby reducing the net electrical charge.

Optical attenuation coefficient

The optical attenuation coefficient should preferably be understood to be a measure that describes the extent to which a radiant flux of a beam of electromagnetic waves is reduced per unit length when it passes through a specific material.

Variable optical attenuation coefficient

An element that is adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient should preferably be understood to mean that an optical attenuation coefficient of the element can be modified, preferably when the element is placed in an external electrical field and/or an electric field is present between the element and at least one other component (e.g., another element). For example, the optical attenuation coefficient of an element can be increased or decreased when a first element and a second element are electrically charged such that an electric field is present between the first element and the second element. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the optical attenuation coefficient can be reduced, preferably by at least 20 %, more preferably by at least 50 %, and further preferably by at least 85 %.

In an aspect of the invention, if an element is adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient, it is preferred that the optical attenuation coefficient is modifiable for multiple wavelengths of electromagnetic waves, preferably for electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range of 1200 nm to 1700 nm.

Composition of elements

Examples of transitional metals are molybdenum and tungsten. A chalcogen is defined as a chemical element in Group 16 of the periodic table (e.g., S, Se, and Te). An example of a combination of at least one transitional metal and at least one chalcogen is a transition metal dichalcogenide (e.g., M0S2, WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, MoTe2).

A conductive polymer should preferably be understood as an organic polymer that is adapted and arranged to conduct electricity. A preferred conductive polymer has an electrical conductivity of at least 10⁴ S/m, more preferably of at least 10⁵ S/m, even more preferably of at least 10⁶ S/m.

A conductive oxide should preferably be understood as an oxide that is adapted and arranged to conduct electricity. A preferred conductive oxide has an electrical conductivity of at least 10⁴ S/m, more preferably of at least 10⁵ S/m, even more preferably of at least 10⁶ S/m. In an aspect of the invention, a preferred form of carbon is graphene. In an aspect of the invention, a preferred metal is a transitional metal. In an aspect of the invention, a preferred nitride is boron nitride, more preferably hexagonal boron nitride.

A 2D material should preferably be understood as a solid, preferably a crystalline solid. In one aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a 2D material consists of a single layer of atoms. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the 2D material comprises more than one layer of atoms (e.g., more than one individual atomic plane), where these layers are bonded to each other by van der Waals forces.

Gap between element and component

A gap between two elements (the first element and the even-further element, the second element and the further element) should preferably be understood that the two elements are offset from each other in a horizontal direction, where the horizontal direction corresponds to the x-axis as shown in Figs 1 A and ID. A width of a gap is preferably measured along the x-axis as shown in Figs 1 A and ID.

Variation of potential differences

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first element and the second element are adapted and arranged to produce a first potential difference between the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first element and the second element are adapted and arranged to vary the first potential difference by at least 5 % over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first element and the second element are adapted and arranged to vary the first potential difference by at least 30 % over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first element and the second element are adapted and arranged to vary the first potential difference by at least 100 % over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first element and the further element are adapted and arranged to produce a second potential difference between the further section of the first element and the further element. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first element and the further element are adapted and arranged to vary the second potential difference by less than 15 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first element and the further element are adapted and arranged to vary the second potential difference by less than 10 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms. In this aspect, it is preferred that the first element and the further element are adapted and arranged to vary the second potential difference by less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the second element and the even-further element are adapted and arranged to produce a third potential difference between the further section of the second element and the even- further element. In this aspect, it is preferred that the second element and the even-further element are adapted and arranged to vary the third potential difference by less than 15 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms. In this aspect, it is preferred that the second element and the even- further element are adapted and arranged to vary the third potential difference by less than 10 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms. In this aspect, it is preferred that the second element and the even-further element are adapted and arranged to vary the third potential difference by less than 5 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first element and the second element are adapted and arranged to vary the first potential difference by at least 0.2 V, more preferably at least 0.7 V, and further preferably at least 1.6 V over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first element and the second element are adapted and arranged to vary the first potential difference by a value that is in the range of 0.2 V to 5 V, more preferably in the range of 0.6 V to 3 V, and further preferably in the range of 0.8 V to 2 V, over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first element and the further element are adapted and arranged to vary the second potential difference by less than 0.5 V, more preferably less than 0.1 V, and further preferably less than 0.05 V over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms.

In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the second element and the even-further element are adapted and arranged to vary the third potential difference by less than0.5 V, more preferably less than 0.1 V, and further preferably less than 0.05 V over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms.

In an aspect of the method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, it is preferred that the first potential difference varies by at least 0.2 V, more preferably at least 0.7 V, and further preferably at least 1.6 V over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns. In another aspect of the method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, it is preferred that the first potential difference varies by a value that is in the range of 0.2 V to 5 V, more preferably in the range of 0.6 V to 3 V, and further preferably in the range of 0.8 V to 2 V, over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns, preferably a time interval of 0.2 ps to 30 ns, and more preferably a time interval of 2 ps to 10 ns.

In an aspect of the method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, it is preferred that the second potential difference varies by less than 0.5 V, more preferably less than 0. 1 V, and further preferably less than 0.05 V over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms.

In an aspect of the method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, it is preferred that the third potential difference varies by less than 0.5 V, more preferably less than 0.1 V, and further preferably less than 0.05 V over a time interval of at least 100 ps, preferably at least 1 ns, and more preferably at least 1 ms.

Distances

The first distance should preferably be understood as the shortest distance measured between the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element, when viewed in a cross-sectional cut of the device. The first distance is preferably measured along they-axis, as shown in Fig. 1A.

A second distance should preferably be understood as the shortest distance measured between the further element and the further section of the first element, when viewed in a cross-sectional cut of the device. The second distance is preferably measured along they-axis, as shown in Fig. 1A.

A third distance should preferably be understood as the shortest distance measured between the even-further element and the further section of the second element, when viewed in a cross-sectional cut of the device. The third distance is preferably measured along they-axis, as shown in Fig. 1A.

Where it is disclosed that a component (e.g., an element, a component) is arranged less than 8 pm from the waveguide, this should preferably be understood to mean that a distance between the component and the waveguide is less than 8 pm. A distance between a component (e.g., an element, a component) and the waveguide is preferably understood as the shortest distance measured between the component and the waveguide, when viewed in a cross- sectional cut of the device. This distance is preferably measured along they-axis, as shown in Fig. 1A. If a component (e.g., an element) is arranged to pass through the waveguide, the distance between the component and the waveguide is 0 pm. Dimensions of the device

Where values for dimensions are disclosed, these dimensions are preferably measured as follows: widths are preferably measured along the x-axis, heights and thicknesses are preferably measured along they-axis, and lengths are preferably measured along the z-axis, as shown in Figs 1 A and ID.

Superimposed

When one component is superimposed on another component, this should not be understood as requiring that the two components should touch each other. For example, a waveguide layer that is superimposed on an element includes, e.g., the following: the waveguide layer and the element touch each other; a layer of the first kind is arranged between the waveguide layer and the element.

Graphene

Graphene suitable for the present invention is commercially available from, e.g., Graphenea S.A. (Spain), Graphene Laboratories Inc. (USA), and Grolltex Inc (USA).

Biomolecules and biomarkers

Example of biomolecules include DNA, amino acids, fat, constituents of animal or human cells, and proteins. A biomarker should preferably be understood as a marker for biomolecules, wherein the biomarker is adapted and arranged to attach to biomolecules, preferably to make the biomolecules detectable (e.g., by fluorescence).

Layer deposition

In an aspect of the method for producing a device, according to the invention, a layer of the first kind is preferably superimposed using atomic layer deposition, chemical vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, surface activation by plasma, sacrificial layers or molecular monolayers, or a combination of at least two thereof.

In an aspect of the method for producing a device, according to the invention, a waveguide is preferably superimposed using atomic layer deposition, chemical vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, lithography, or a combination of at least two thereof.

Examples of lithography include nanoimprint lithography, laser lithography, electron beam lithography, and optical lithography.

Atomic layer deposition, chemical vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, and lithography are well-known to the skilled person. Any device which the skilled person deems suitable can be used for the layer deposition Further definitions

A “device”, as used herein, should preferably be understood as a device according to the invention. A device according to the invention is preferably an opto-electronic device, more preferably a modulator. Examples of preferred opto-electronic devices include modulators and photodetectors. A preferred modulator at least partially converts an electrical signal to an optical signal. A preferred photodetector at least partially converts an optical signal to an electrical signal.

A modulator preferably modifies an electromagnetic wave by modulating the electromagnetic wave, more preferably by modulating an amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. It is preferred that the modulator modulates the electromagnetic wave for the transmission of data, more preferably by imposing a signal on the electromagnetic wave. A modulator preferably comprises a waveguide.

A photodetector preferably modifies an electromagnetic wave by at least partially absorbing the electromagnetic wave (e.g., detecting electromagnetic waves). The at least partial absorption of the electromagnetic wave preferably leads to a decrease in the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. It is preferred that the photodetector at least partially absorbs the electromagnetic wave for the receiving of data. A photodetector preferably comprises a waveguide.

For example, if a modulator and a photodetector are in optical connection, the modulator sends data and the photodetector receives the data.

An opto-electronic device preferably has a height that is at least 10 nm, more preferably at least 100 nm, and further preferably at least 200 nm. For example, an opto-electronic device may have a height in the range from 300 to 400 nm. A preferred opto-electronic device comprises a waveguide. A preferred opto-electronic component comprises at least one electrically conducting element, wherein said electrically conducting element preferably comprises graphene.

If e.g., an assembly, a sub-assembly, a system, an apparatus, a vehicle, comprises multiple devices (e.g., a first device, a second device, a third device), these devices may be of the same kind or of a different kind. For example, a first device may be adapted and arranged to modify an amplitude of an electromagnetic wave while a second device is adapted and arranged to modify a phase of an electromagnetic wave.

Integrated circuit

An integrated circuit is preferably selected from the group consisting of a processing unit, a memory unit, an application-specific integrated circuit, a microcontroller, a field-programmable gate array, and a system-on-chip. A processing unit is preferably adapted and arranged to execute instructions of a computer program. Examples of these instructions include arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output operations. A memory unit is preferably adapted and arranged to store instructions of a computer program.

Examples of a processing unit include a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), an X- processing unit (XPU), a tensor processing unit (TPU), a neuromorphic processing unit (NPU). Examples of a memory unit include random access memory (RAM), static RAM (SRAM), synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM), double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM), graphics DDR SDRAM (GDDR SDRAM), flash memoiy, magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM), magnetic tunnel junction MRAM, and spin-orbit torque MRAM.

Examples of a data storage means is a hard drive.

Optical connection and electrical connection

Two elements that are in “optical connection” should preferably be understood to mean that said two elements are adapted and arranged for a propagation (e.g., transmission) of electromagnetic waves, more preferably the communication of data, between said two elements. Here the two elements can be, e.g., a light emitting means and an optoelectronic device, two opto-electronic devices (e.g., a modulator and a photodetector), two sub-assemblies, a computational means and a network, a storage means and a light emitting means. For example, a device and a light emitting means that are adapted and arranged to be in “optical connection” should preferably be understood to mean that the device and the light emitting means are adapted and arranged such that the electromagnetic waves emitted by the light emitting means can be coupled into a waveguide of the device (i.e., the electromagnetic waves emitted by the at least one light emitting means can propagate in the waveguide of the device). Two elements that are in optical connection are not required to be in, e.g., the same assembly, the same sub-assembly, the same apparatus, the same system.

If two elements are in “electrical connection”, said two elements are preferably also in data communication. Here the two elements can be, e.g., a data storage means and an integrated circuit.

Data communication

Two elements that are in data communication should preferably be understood to mean that data can be communicated between said elements. The data may be communicated using electrical signals, optical signals, or both. Data that is communicated between a first element and a further element include at least one or all of the following: A.] a transmission (e.g., transfer) of data from the first element to the further element, B.] a transmission (e.g., transfer) of data from the further element to the first element, both A.] and B.]. Here the first and further elements can be, e.g., a modulator and a photodetector. A modulator that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with a photodetector is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal between the modulator and the photodetector, more preferably transmit data via an optical signal from the modulator to the photodetector.

If two elements, such as a first element and a second elements, are in data communication and in optical connection with each other, it is preferred that at least the first element comprises a device, and at least the second element comprises a photodetector. If two elements, such as a first element and a second elements, are in data communication and in optical connection with each other, it is particularly preferred that both the first element and the second element comprise a device, and that both the first element and the second element comprise a photodetector.

Light emitting means

A light emitting means is adapted and arranged to emit electromagnetic waves. For example, a light emitting means is adapted and arranged to emit radio waves, microwaves, or optical waves. A preferred light emitting means is adapted and arranged to facilitate at least one or all of the following: communication, sensing, imaging. An example of a light emitting means is a laser.

Light and photonics

The terms “optical” and “light”, as used herein, should preferably be understood as electromagnetic radiation, more preferably electromagnetic radiation in any of the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet spectral ranges. An example of an “optical signal” is a signal and/or data that is transmitted using electromagnetic waves. Optical data should preferably be understood as data that is communicated using electromagnetic waves.

Photonics should preferably be understood to include at least one or all of the following: generation, detection, manipulation, emission, transmission, modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and sensing of electromagnetic waves.

Artificial intelligence and machine learning

Artificial intelligence (Al) should preferably be understood to include at least one or all of the following: perceiving, synthesizing, inferring, predicting and/or generating information using computerised tools and/or techniques (e.g., machine learning models). Machine learning includes supervised learning (e.g., linear regression, decision trees, support vector machines), unsupervised learning (e.g., hierarchical clustering, k-means clustering), and reinforced learning. Machine learning also includes deep learning, such as convolutional neural networks and recurrent neural networks. Sensing means

A sensing means is preferably adapted and arranged to sense (e.g., measure) at least one or all of the following: sound waves, electromagnetic waves, electrical signals, a movement, a temperature, a speed, an acceleration, and a rotation. For example, a movement, a speed, an acceleration and/or a rotation may be of a mammalian body, a vehicle, a robotic body, or a transportation means. It is particularly preferred that a sensing means is adapted and arranged to at least partially absorb electromagnetic waves. A sensing means is preferably adapted and arranged to generate an electrical signal, more preferably based on an input received (such as a measurement) by the sensing means.

A sensing means may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors, photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors.

Sensing unit

A sensing unit comprises a sensing means. A sensing unit preferably comprises an integrated circuit.

A sensing unit is preferably adapted and arranged to analyse and/or process data of a target area obtained by the sensing unit, wherein said data may be images, sounds, temperature measurements, or other sensor readings. The output of a sensing unit is preferably structured data that represents the interpretation and/or analysis of the data obtained by the sensing unit, such as a health of a patient, item detection and recognition, scene information, localization and mapping data, preferably including road geometry and/or landmarks, feature extraction results (including edges, comers, textures, shapes, and/or keypoints), and pattern recognition output.

Spatial information should preferably be understood as information about a space wherein an element, such as a vehicle, a robotic body, or a transportation means, is located. Spatial information may include information on a presence of an item in the vicinity of the element (e.g., a distance between the element and the item), a speed of the element, an acceleration of the element, and a rotation of the element.

Data communication module

A data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data between one or more elements, such as electrical components. Here the electrical components may be, e.g., one or more chips; one or more dies; one or more integrated circuits located in, e.g., a robotic body, a robotic system, and an assembly; a sensing means and an integrated circuit; a sensing unit and a control system. First assembly

In a preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of the same chip. In another preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of different chips. In this aspect, the different chips may have different functions. For example, a first chip may be a processing unit and a further chip may be a memory unit (e.g., random access memory). In one preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of the same computational means (such as a computer). In another preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further subassembly are part of different computational means (such as different computers). For example, the first and further sub-assemblies are part of different computers in a computer cluster.

In a preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies, via an optical signal, over a distance of at least X mm and/or Y cm. This should preferably not be understood to mean that said sub-assemblies cannot communicate data at distances that are smaller than A' mm and/or Y cm. Rather, this should preferably be understood mean that said sub-assemblies can communicate data over distances that range from 0 mm up to at least X mm and/or Y cm, and preferably distances that are larger than X mm and/or Y cm.

An assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication should preferably be understood as an assembly that is adapted and arranged to communicate data over a distance of less than 1 km. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication may communicate the data using at least one device and at least one photodetector. Alternatively, an assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication may communicate the data using at least one device, at least one photodetector, and additionally, at least one further communication means. Examples of a further communication means include an antenna, an optical cable (such as an optical fibre), a wired connection.

An assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication should preferably be understood as an assembly that is adapted and arranged to communicate data over a distance of at least 1 km. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication may communicate the data using at least one device and at least one photodetector. Alternatively, an assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication may communicate the data using at least one device, at least one photodetector, and additionally, at least one further communication means. Examples of a further communication means include an antenna, an optical cable (such as an optical fibre), a wired connection.

An assembly that is adapted and arranged for high-performance computing preferably comprises at least one supercomputer and/or at least one computer cluster. A supercomputer should preferably be understood as a computer that can perform at least 10¹⁴ floating-point operations per second. An assembly for high-performance computing is preferably adapted and arranged for parallel computing. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for a data centre is preferably adapted and arranged to store data, and more preferably, to communicate data.

An assembly that is adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence is preferably an assembly that can be used to obtain artificial intelligence models, more preferably to obtain machine learning models, using e.g., supervised learning, semi-supervised learning, and unsupervised learning.

A switch is preferably adapted and arranged for, e.g., optically connecting two networks and/or optically connecting a computational means (such as a computer) and a network.

An optical interconnect is preferably adapted and arranged for optically connecting at least one or all of the following: two integrated circuits, two computer chips. Here the two integrated circuits and/or two computer chips may be parts of a system-in-package or a chiplet. Here the two integrated circuits may be part of the same chip.

A first assembly according to the invention allows for an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio, a reduced crosstalk and a reduced energy consumption. A first assembly also allows for a communication of data over increased distances, while simultaneously allowing for at least one of all of the following: a reduced energy consumption, an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio.

Optical data communication module

An optical data communication module should preferably be understood as a data communication module that communicates data via optical signals. An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to transmit data via an optical signal by using a device according to the invention. An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to receive data via an optical signal using a photodetector.

An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data between one or more elements, such as electrical components. Here the electrical components may be, e.g., one or more chips; one or more dies; one or more integrated circuits located in, e.g., a robotic body, a robotic system, and an assembly; a sensing means and an integrated circuit; a sensing unit and a control system.

An optical data communication module may comprise at least one or all of the following: an optical fibre, an optical interconnect, a waveguide.

An optical data communication module according to the invention allows for an increased bandwidth, reduced energy consumption, and a reduced error rate in the data communicated. Optical sensing module

The further electromagnetic waves detected by a photodetector from a target area include, amongst other, electromagnetic waves reflected by an item in the target area, and/or electromagnetic waves emitted by an item in the target area.

An optical sensing module may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors: photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire single -photon detectors.

Examples of optics include lenses, prisms, and diffraction gratings.

An example of an optical sensing module is disclosed in WO2023076132 Al .

An optical sensing module according to the present invention allows for improved sensing capabilities and performance. Specifically, the optical sensing module according to the present invention allows for enhanced sensitivity, improved signal-to-noise ratio, reduced crosstalk and reduced energy consumption, allowing for an improved performance and versatility in various sensing applications.

First apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application

A “medical application” should preferably be understood as including at least one or all of the following: monitoring a health of a patient, diagnosing a pathological condition in a patient; maintaining a state of health of a patient; sending and/or receiving data from a further apparatus, preferably a further apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; controlling a further apparatus, preferably a further apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application. Here a patient is preferably a mammal, and more preferably a human. The first apparatus may be implantable in a patient (internal use) or may be for use outside a body of a patient.

Examples of a physical property of a body include an oxygen concentration (e.g., of blood, tissue), a temperature of the body, a heart rate of the body, a blood glucose level. Examples of a sensing means adapted and arranged to measure at least one physical property of a body include a blood glucose monitor, a heart rate monitor, a thermometer, an oximeter.

The first apparatus is preferably adapted and arranged to transmit data via an optical signal by using a device according to the invention. The first apparatus is preferably adapted and arranged to receive data via an optical signal using a photodetector. The first apparatus preferably comprises one or more integrated circuits adapted and arranged to control the device according to the invention and/or the photodetector (if present). The first apparatus preferably comprises a plurality of waveguides adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

A first apparatus, adapted and arranged for a medical application, and according to the present invention, allows for an improved patient safety, an improved monitoring of the health of a patient and an improved diagnosing of a pathological condition in a patient. A first apparatus according to the invention also allows for an improved sensitivity, an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio, a reduced crosstalk and a reduced energy consumption.

Vehicle adapted and arranged for flight

A vehicle, adapted and arranged for flight, is preferably adapted and arranged to transmit data via an optical signal by using a device according to the invention. The vehicle, adapted and arranged for flight, is preferably adapted and arranged to receive data via an optical signal using a photodetector. Here the transmitting and/or receiving of data may be a communication of data within the vehicle, between the vehicle and another entity (e.g., another vehicle, a ground station), or both. It is particularly preferred that the transmitting and/or receiving of data is within the vehicle, e.g., between a sensing unit and an integrated circuit in the vehicle.

The vehicle, adapted and arranged for flight, preferably comprises a plurality of waveguides adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

“Flight” should preferably be understood to include both controlled flight and uncontrolled flight. Here controlled flight should preferably be understood to mean that a movement of the vehicle can be controlled by, e.g., a human operator and/or an integrated circuit (such as a processing unit). For example, an airplane is adapted and arranged for controlled flight by a human and/or an autopilot. Here the vehicle may be controlled remotely. Uncontrolled flight should preferably be understood to mean that a movement of the vehicle is generally not controlled by, e.g., a human operator and/or an integrated circuit (such as a processing unit). For example, a weather balloon is generally adapted and arranged for uncontrolled flight. “Flight” should preferably be understood to include flight in the atmosphere, as well as above the atmosphere. “Flight” should preferably be understood to include an orbit of the vehicle, e.g., around the Earth.

Examples of a propulsion means include an engine, jet propulsion, burners of a hot-air balloon, an envelope of a hot-air balloon, a balloon. Here engines include, but are not limited to, jet engines and turbine engines.

An example of a means for generating lift is wings. A control system preferably comprises a control means and/or a control module. Examples of a control means include a rudder, an elevator, and an aileron. Example of a control module is an integrated circuit that is adapted and arranged to control a movement of a control means.

A vehicle adapted and arranged for flight may be used for commercial and/or defence purposes.

A vehicle, adapted and arranged for flight, and according to the present invention, allows for an improved safety of the vehicle, including passengers in the vehicle, an improved control of the vehicle, an improved control of the vehicle when operated remotely, and an improved communication with the vehicle (e.g., including a tracking of the vehicle, a faster data transfer rate, less disruption when communication with the vehicle).

Robotic system

The term “robotic system”, as used herein, should preferably be understood to comprise a robotic body that is designed to perform tasks autonomously or under remote control. In a preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic system is adapted and arranged for an autonomous movement of the robotic body.

A robotic system as used herein may be used for commercial and/or defence purposes. For example, a robot system can comprise an industrial robot, a service robot, a personal and domestic robot, an educational robot, a research robot, an entertainment robot. A robotic body may be a robotic arm. Robotic arms typically comprise multiple segments connected by joints, resembling a human arm.

In a preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic system comprises a data communication module, more preferably an optical data communication module. In this aspect, it is particularly preferred that the data communication module is arranged in the robotic body. In this aspect, it is alternatively preferred that the data communication module is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In this aspect, it is alternatively preferred that the data communication module is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the data communication module are arranged in the robotic body, while other submodules of the data communication module are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body). In this aspect, it is preferred that the data communication module is adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: data communication in the robotic body (more preferred), data communication between the robotic body and an external entity. An example of the communicating of data in the robotic body is the transfer of data between different parts of the robotic body (e.g., between different computer chips located in the robotic body). An example of the communicating of data between the robotic body and an external entity is the transfer of data between the robotic body and a computer that is located outside the robotic body. In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body comprises a sensing unit. In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the sensing unit is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the sensing unit is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the sensing unit are arranged in the robotic body, while other sub-modules of the sensing unit are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body).

In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body comprises a control module. In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the control module is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the control module is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the control module are arranged in the robotic body, while other sub-modules of the control module are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body).

In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, at least one or all of the following forms part of the robotic body: a data communication module, the sensing unit, the control module. In an alternatively preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body does not comprise the data communication module, the sensing unit, or the control module.

The robotic system according to the present invention allows for improved reliability of the robotic system, improved communication (e.g., data transfer rate) in the robotic system, improved safety, increased versatility of the robotic system, and a reduced energy usage of the robotic system.

Second assembly

A second assembly is preferably adapted and arranged for optical computing. A second assembly as used herein should preferably be understood as a computational architecture that uses the principles of optics and photonics for at least one or all of the following: data processing, data transmission, data storage.

In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, the at least one or more memory units is at least one or more optical memory units and the at least one of more processors is at least one or more optical processors.

In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, a memory unit comprises at least one or all of the following: a device, a photodetector. In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, a processor comprises at least one or all of the following: a device, a photodetector. An optical processor preferably comprises at least one or all of the following: an optical switch, an optical transistor. Examples of optical processor include photonic integrated circuits (PICs), Fourier optical processors, optical neural networks (ONNs), all-optical switches, and quantum optical processors.

Examples of an optical memory unit include holographic memory, photorefractive crystals, optical RAM (ORAM), phase change materials and optical fibre delay lines.

In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, at least one device according to the invention is arranged in at least one or all of the following: the at least one processer, the at least one memory unit, the data communications module. If “at least one device is arranged in the at least one processer and the at least one memory unit”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one device is arranged in at least one processor, and at least one device is arranged in at least one memory unit (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two devices according to the invention). If “at least one device is arranged in the at least one processer and the data communication module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one device is arranged in at least one processor, and at least one device is arranged in at data communication module (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two devices according to the invention). If “at least one device is arranged in the data communication module and the at least one memory unit”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one device is arranged in the data communication module, and at least one device is arranged in at least one memory unit (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two devices according to the invention). If “at least one device is arranged in the at least one processer, the at least one memory unit, and the data communication module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one device is arranged in at least one processor, at least one device is arranged in at least one memory unit, and at least one device is arranged in the data communication module (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least three devices according to the invention). The above also applies, mutatis mutandis to the preferred aspect of the second assembly wherein at least one photodetector is arranged in at least one or all of the following: the at least one processer, the at least one memory unit, the data communications module.

The second assembly according to the invention allows for an increased computational speed, improved energy efficiency, improved scalability, and an improved resistance to electromagnetic interference.

Optical computing is described in, e.g., WO2023145206 Al and WO2021245701 Al .

Third assembly

“Homomorphic encryption” should preferably be understood as a form of encryption that allows mathematical operations to be performed on encrypted data without decrypting said data first. E.g., it enables computations to be carried out directly on ciphertext, yielding an encrypted result that, when decrypted, corresponds to the result of the operations performed on the unencrypted data. “Photonic homomorphic encryption” should preferably be understood as an encryption technique that combines principles of both photonics and homomorphic encryption to enable computations on encrypted data using optical signals. In photonic homomorphic encryption, encryption and/or decryption are performed using photonic components and techniques, while homomorphic properties are preserved to allow computations on the encrypted data without decryption. A third assembly adapted and arranged for photonic homomorphic encryption is preferably used for at least one or all of the following: secure data processing, cloud computing, secure multiparty computation, and privacy -preserving data analysis.

Examples of photonic encryption and/or decryption modules include optical phase encoders and/or decoders, optical polarization encoders and/or decoders, optical frequency encoders and/or decoders, optical chaos-based encryption and/or decryption modules, a quantum key distribution system, and an optical one-time pad system.

In a preferred aspect of the third assembly, at least one device according to the invention is arranged in at least one or all of the following: the homomorphic operation module, the photonic encryption module, the photonic decryption module. If “at least one device is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and the photonic encryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one device is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and at least one device is arranged in the photonic encryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two devices according to the invention). If “at least one device is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one device is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and at least one device is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two devices according to the invention). If “at least one device is arranged in the photonic encryption module and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one device is arranged in the photonic encryption module and at least one device is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two devices according to the invention). If “at least one device is arranged in the homomorphic operation module, the photonic encryption module, and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one device is arranged in the homomorphic operation module, at least one device is arranged in the photonic encryption module, and at least one device is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least three devices according to the invention). The above also applies, mutatis mutandis to the preferred aspect of the third assembly wherein at least one photodetector is arranged in at least one or all of the following: the homomorphic operation module, the photonic encryption module, the photonic decryption module.

A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module is preferably in optical connection with at least one device, according to the invention, that is arranged in the homomorphic operation module. A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the photonic encryption module is preferably in optical connection with at least one device, according to the invention, that is arranged in the photonic encryption module. A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the photonic decryption module is preferably in optical connection with at least one device, according to the invention, that is arranged in the photonic decryption module.

The third assembly according to the present invention allows for an increased computational speed, improved energy efficiency, improved scalability, improved resistance to electromagnetic interference, improved encryption, improved encryption and decryption speed, enhanced security, and an improved compatibility with optical networks.

Homomorphic enciyption is described in, e.g., WO2022213048 Al, US20220116198 Al, US20220366059 Al, and US20240022394 Al .

Optical connection module

An “optical connection module” as used herein should preferably be understood as a link that utilises optical signals, typically transmitted through waveguides, optical fibres or free-space optical channels, to transmit data e.g., between electronic devices or components, such as between processors, memory modules, input/output devices, and networking equipment.

A transmitter is adapted and arranged to convert electrical signals received from, e.g., an electrical component or an integrated circuit, into optical signals. A receiver is adapted and arranged to convert optical signal into electrical signals that are transmitted to, e.g., an electrical component or an integrated circuit. A transceiver is adapted and arranged to both convert electrical signals into optical signals and optical signals into electrical signals.

The optical connection module according to the invention allows for an increased bandwidth, a decreased latency, increased transmission distances, less susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, increased security, increased compactness, decreased insertion loss, and increased energy efficiency.

Optical connection modules are described in, e.g., WO2023124580 Al, WO2023122711 Al, and US20230314711 Al .

First and further transportation means

A transportation means include a vehicle (e.g., a car, a truck), a train, an airplane, a ship, a bicycle, a drone, a satellite. Examples of autonomous movement include autonomous driving, autonomous flying, autonomous sailing, autonomous walking.

A processing module is preferably adapted and arranged for executing instructions and performing computations.

A processing module preferably comprises a processing unit. In a preferred aspect of the first transportation means, the processing module comprises at least one device according to the invention. In a preferred aspect of the first transportation means, the processing module comprises at least one photodetector. In a preferred aspect of the first transportation means, the processing module comprises at least one light emitting means.

Examples of a human-machine interface include a screen, preferably a touch screen, a device adapted and arranged to play a sound, a device adapted and arranged to emit a signal, preferably a light signal. Examples of a steering means include a steering wheel, a rudder, handlebars, ailerons. Examples of a propulsion means include a combustion engine, a jet engine, a sail, a drivetrain of a bicycle.

A sensing unit may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors, photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors.

A perception sub-module is adapted and arranged to analyse and/or process data of a target area obtained by a sensing unit, wherein said data may be images, sounds, or other sensor readings. The output of a perception submodule is preferably structured data that represents the interpretation and/or analysis of the data obtained by the sensing unit, such as item detection and recognition, scene information, localization and mapping data, preferably including road geometry and/or landmarks, feature extraction results (including edges, comers, textures, shapes, and/or keypoints), and pattern recognition output.

A generation sub-module may be used in e.g., autonomous systems. The generation sub-module is adapted and arranged to process and/or analyse the data provided by the perception module in order to, e.g., determine actions or responses based on predefined objectives, rules, and constraints. For example, the generation sub-module outputs driving commands, including trajectory planning, path selection, and control commands for steering, acceleration, and braking in autonomous vehicles. Subsequently, a control unit may execute a driving command generated by the generation sub-module and control the transportation means’ motion accordingly.

A further transportation means preferably comprises an integrated circuit that is adapted and arranged to be in electrical connection with the device, a photodetector, or both. A further transportation means preferably comprises a light emitting means that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the device.

The first and further transportation means according to the present invention allow for improved safety, enhanced traffic efficiency, reduced environmental impact, increased accessibility, enhanced user experience, increased scalability, and increased adaptability. A transportation means is described in, e.g., DE 102021121918 Al .

Fourth assembly

The fourth assembly preferably comprises a light emitting means that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the device.

Examples of artificial intelligence (Al) include perceiving, synthesizing, inferring, predicting and/or generating information using, e.g., machine learning. For example, a fourth assembly may use a combination of hardware and software to perform operation to perceive, synthesize, infer, predict, and/or generate information.

The fourth assembly according to the present invention allows for a handling of increased volumes of data, faster processing speeds, reduced susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, and lower energy consumption. The fourth assembly according to the present invention allows for massive parallelism (e.g., parallel computing) and high-speed data processing, such as big data analytics, neural network training, and real-time simulations.

An assembly for machine Al and machine learning is described in, e.g., US20230114847 Al, WO2018187487 Al, and US20220188155 Al .

TEST METHODS

The test methods which follow were utilized within the context of the invention. Unless stated otherwise, the measurements were conducted at an ambient temperature of 23 °C, an ambient air pressure of 100 kPa (0.986 atm) and a relative air humidity of 50 %.

RC time constant

The RC time constant between the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element is measured using a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) connected to the device (according to the invention) using shielded cable transmission lines. The connection to the device is made using an RF semiconductor Probe Tip (the Infinity Probe commercially available from FormFactor Inc. (USA)). The measurement setup is calibrated to isolate the RC behaviour of the device in order to suppress the influence of the interconnection on the measurements. The VNA is calibrated using the multireflect-thru method described in Lewandowski and Gu (2017), A Multireflect- Thru Method of Vector Network Analyzer Calibration, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, 65, 3, 905. Potential difference

The potential difference between two elements is determined using a voltmeter. The measurement is made at the respective electrical contacts of the two elements.

Size of components of the device

The length and width of the components, such as the element, of the device are determined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The thickness of the components, such as the elements, of the device are measured using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). If an element is made up of a number of layers, the number of layers can also be determined using TEM (e.g., an element is made up of a number of layers of graphene). The TEM device is calibrated according to ISO 29301 :2017.

Composition of element and component

If an element comprises graphene, the presence of graphene can be determined using Raman spectroscopy. Apart from graphene, the composition of an element can be determined using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Ratio of dimensions

A ratio of a first dimension A to a second dimension B is determined as follows: ratio = A/B.

An example of a ratio of dimensions is the ratio of the width of the first gap to the first distance.

Variation in potential difference

The % variation (A%) of potential difference V over a time interval T is determined as follows:

A% = (Enax - Emm) / v , where I ’_m.ix is the maximum potential difference measured in the time interval T. F_mm is the minimum potential difference measured in the time interval T, and I ’,,_p is the average potential difference measured over the time interval T.

The invention is now illustrated by non-limiting examples and exemplifying embodiments.

FIGURES

List of figures

The figures serve to exemplify the present invention, and should not be viewed as limiting the invention. Furthermore, the figures are not drawn to scale.

Fig. 1 A: cross-sectional cut of a device according to the invention.

Fig. IB: simplified cross-sectional cut of a device according to the invention. Fig. 1C: cross-sectional cut of a device according to the invention with further details.

Fig. ID: top view of a device according to the invention.

Fig. 2: cross-sectional cut of a structure according to the invention.

Fig. 3: flow diagram illustrating the steps of a first method for producing a device according to the invention.

Fig. 4: schematic illustration of a method for producing a device.

Fig. 5: flow diagram illustrating the steps of a second method for producing a device according to the invention.

Fig. 6: flow diagram illustrating the steps of a method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property.

Fig. 7: examples of alternative arrangements of the waveguide and the elements of the device according to the invention.

Figs 8A to 8C: experimental results showing bandwidth, insertion loss, and extinction, respectively, as a function of the widths of the first sections of the first and second elements.

Figs 9A and 9B: experimental results showing optical modulation amplitude and bandwidth, respectively, as a function of the widths of the first gap and further gap.

Fig. 10: schematic illustration of a first assembly according to the invention.

Fig. 11 : schematic illustration of a sensing module according to the invention.

Fig. 12: schematic illustration of a first apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application and according to the invention.

Fig. 13: schematic illustration of a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight and according to the invention.

Fig. 14: schematic illustration of a robotic system according to the invention.

Fig. 15: schematic illustration of a second assembly according to the invention.

Fig. 16: schematic illustration of a third assembly according to the invention.

Fig. 17: schematic illustration of an optical connection module according to the invention.

Fig. 18: schematic illustration of a first transportation means according to the invention.

Fig. 19: schematic illustration of a further transportation means according to the invention.

Fig. 20: schematic illustration of a fourth assembly according to the invention.

Fig. 21 : schematic illustration of an optical data communication module according to the invention.

Description of figures

Fig. 1 A shows a cross-sectional cut of a device (100) according to the invention. Fig. IB shows a simplified version of the same cross-sectional cut of the device (100) shown in Fig. 1A, with some of the features of Fig. 1A omitted for the purposes of illustration. Fig. 1C also shows the same cross-sectional cut of the device (100) shown in Fig. 1 A, with some additional features. These additional features have been omitted in Fig. 1 A for the purpose of illustration. Fig. ID shows a top view of a device (100) of Fig. 1A Fig. 1A shows a device (100) that comprises a waveguide (101) adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves. The device (100) also comprises a first element (102) and a second element (103) arranged in the form of layers. The first element (102) is in electrical connection with a first electrical contact (111), and the second element (103) is in electrical connection with a second electrical contact (112). The device (100) further comprises a further element (109) and an even-further element (110), also arranged in the form of layers. As shown in Fig. ID, the further element (109) is in electrical connection with a third electrical contact (113), while the even- further element (110) is in electrical connection with a fourth electrical contact (114). The first element (102) is separated from the even-further element (110) by a further gap (117). Similarly, the second element (103) is separated from the further element (109) by a first gap (115). Fig. 1A further shows that a first layer of the first kind (121) is arranged between the first element (102) and the second element (103).

Fig. 1 A further shows that the first element (102) and the even-further element (110) are arranged at the same height (measured along the y-axis), and that the second element (103) and the further element (109) are arranged at the same height. While this is preferred, this is not required. The first element (102) and the even-further element (110) can also be arranged at different heights. Similarly, the second element (103) and the further element (109) can also be arranged at different heights.

As shown in Fig. IB, the first element (102) and the second element (103) are arranged such that a first section (104) of the first element (102) and a first section (105) of the second element (103) overlap, a further section (106) of the first element (102) and the second element (103) do not overlap, and a further section (107) of the second element (103) and the first element (102) do not overlap. As also shown in Fig. IB, the further element (109) and the further section (106) of the first element (102) are arranged to overlap, and the even-further element (110) and the further section (107) of the second element (103) are arranged to overlap. The first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) are separated by a first distance (108), the further element (109) and the further section (106) of the first element (102) are separated by a second distance (119), and the even-further element (110) and the further section (107) of the second element (103) are separated by a third distance (120). Fig. IB also shows how a width (116) of the first gap (115) and a width (118) of the further gap (117) is measured.

The first element (102), the second element (103), the first electrical contact (111), and the further electrical contact (112) are adapted and arranged such that the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) can be electrically charged and discharged. When the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) are electrically charged, a first potential difference (and thus electric field) is present between the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103). It is preferred that the first potential difference can be varied by at least 10 % over a time interval of 1 ns. The further element (109) and the third electrical contact (113) are adapted and arranged to electrically charge the further element (109) in order to create a second potential difference (and thus an electric field) between the further element (109) and the further section (106) of the first element (102). The further element (109) and the third electrical contact (113) are further adapted and arranged to vary the second potential difference by less than 10 % over a time interval of 1 s. Similarly, the even-further element (110) and the fourth electrical contact (114) are adapted and arranged to electrically charge the even-further element (110) in order to create a third potential difference (and thus an electric field) between the even-further element (110) and the further section (107) of the second element (103). The even-further element (110) and the fourth electrical contact (114) are further adapted and arranged to vary the third potential difference by less than 10 % over a time interval of 1 s.

Fig. 1C shows that a further layer of the first kind (122) is arranged between the first element (102) and the waveguide (101). Fig. 1C also shows that an even-further layer of the first kind (123) is arranged below the second element (103). While not shown in Figs 1 A to ID, another layer of the first kind may also be arranged between the even-further layer of the first kind (123) and the second element (103).

For the device (100) in Fig. 1 it is preferred that the first element (102), the second element (103), the further element (109), and the even-further element (110) comprise, more preferably is made of, graphene. However, it is not required that all of the aforementioned elements comprise graphene. It is, however, particularly preferred that at least the first element (102) comprises, more preferably is made of, graphene.

Fig. ID shows the device (100) from above. The cross-section cut of the device, shown in Figs 1A to 1C, is made at a position 124. The cut is made perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic waves through the waveguide (101), which is along the z-axis. For the purposes of illustration, a further layer of the first kind (122) is not shown in Fig. ID.

Fig. 2 shows a cross-sectional cut of a structure (140) according to the invention. The structure (140) comprises a first element (102), a second element (103), a further element (109), an even-further element (110), and a first layer of the first kind (121) that are adapted and arranged as discussed in Figs 1A to ID. For example, a first gap (115) is present between the second element (103) and the further element (109), while a further gap (117) is present between the first element (102) and the even-further element (110).

Fig. 3 shows a flow diagram illustrating the steps of a first method (300) for producing a device according to the invention. In step 302, a structure (140) according to Fig. 2 is provided. The structure can be provided by obtaining the structure, e.g., by purchasing the structure. Alternative, the structure can be provided by manufacturing the structure, e.g., as described in steps 403 to 411 of Fig. 4. In step 303 a waveguide and the structure are superimposed onto each other. The waveguide can be superimposed on the structure by manufacturing the waveguide, e.g., as described in steps 413 to 414 of Fig. 4, or can be superimposed as a completed product that was obtained by, e.g., purchasing.

Alternatively, the waveguide can be provided in step 301 by obtaining the waveguide, e.g., by purchasing the waveguide. Alternative, the waveguide can be provided in step 301 by manufacturing the waveguide, e.g., as described in steps 413 to 414 of Fig. 4. When the waveguide is provided in step 301, the structure can be provided (step 302) by obtaining the structure, e.g., by purchasing the structure. Alternative, the structure can be provided by manufacturing the structure, e.g., as described in steps 403 to 411 of Fig. 4. In this case, the step 302 of providing the structure and the step 303 of superimposing the structure and the waveguide are performed as a single, combined step.

Fig. 4 shows a schematic illustration of a method (400) for producing a device according to the invention.

In step 401, a first substrate layer (125) comprising SiC>2 is provided. The first substrate layer (125) can be provided using, e.g., chemical vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, and atomic layer deposition, al alternatively by purchasing the first substrate layer (125).

In optional step 402, an even-further layer of the first kind (123) is superimposed on the first substrate layer (125). The even-further layer of the first kind (123) can be superimposed on the first substrate layer (125) using, e.g., chemical vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, and atomic layer deposition.

In step 403, a further pre -element (126), in the form of a graphene layer, is superimposed on the even-further layer of the first kind (123). The further pre-element (126) can be superimposed on the even-further layer of the first kind (123) by transferring the further pre-element (126), e.g., from a further substrate. Alternatively, the further preelement (126) can be superimposed on the even-further layer of the first kind (123) using chemical vapour deposition. Alternatively, the further pre-element (126) can be obtained using exfoliation and superimposing the further pre-element (126) on the even-further layer of the first kind (123).

In optional step 404, a first layer of a further kind (127), e.g., a photoresist, is superimposed on the further preelement (126). Using e.g., lithography, a first slit (128) is made in the photoresist to expose a section of the further pre-element (126) (i.e., a section of the photoresist is removed).

In optional step 405 a width of the first slit (128) in the first layer of a further kind (127) is reduced. The width of the first slit (128) can be reduced by using atomic layer deposition. In step 406, the further pre-element (126) is divided into a second element (103) and a further element (109) using e.g., ion milling or reactive ion etching. If the first layer of a further kind (127) is present, the division is made at the position of the first slit (128) by directing an energy beam (e.g., an ion beam) through the first slit (128). Once division has been completed, the first layer of a further kind (127) is removed, if present. This removal includes the removal of material that was used to reduce the width of the slit (128).

In step 407, a first layer of the first kind (121) is superimposed on the second element (103) and the further element (109) using, e.g., chemical vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, and atomic layer deposition.

In step 408, a first pre-element (129), in the form of a graphene layer, is superimposed on the first layer of the first kind (121). The superimposing of the first pre-element (129) is the same as described in step 403 for the further pre-element (126).

In optional step 409, a further layer of a further kind (130), e.g., a photoresist, is superimposed on the first preelement (129). Using e.g., lithography, a further slit (131) is made in the photoresist to expose a section of the first pre-element (129) (i.e., a section of the photoresist is removed).

In optional step 410 a width of the further slit ( 131 ) in the further layer of a further kind ( 130) is reduced. The width of the further slit (131) can be reduced as described in step 405.

In step 411, the first pre-element (129) is divided into a first element (102) and an even-further element (110). The separation can be made using e.g., ion milling or reactive ion etching. If the further layer of a further kind (130) is present, the division is made at the position of the further slit (131) by directing an energy beam (e.g., an ion beam) through the further slit (131). Once division has been completed, the further layer of a further kind (130) is removed, if present. This removal includes the removal of material that was used to reduce the width of the slit (131).

In optional step 412, a further layer of the first kind (122) is superimposed on the first element (102) and the even- further element (110) using, e.g., chemical vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, and atomic layer deposition.

In step 413, a waveguide layer (132) is superimposed on the first element (102) and the even-further element (110) (or the further layer of the first kind (122) if it is present).

In step 414, the waveguide layer (132) is subjected to, e.g., lithography and/or reactive ion etching, to obtain the waveguide (101). In step 415, a first electrical contact (111), a second electrical contact (112), a third electrical contact (113), and a fourth electrical contact (114) are brought into electrical connection with the first element (102), the second element (103), the further element (109) and the even-further element (110).

As an alternative to the method shown in Fig. 4, steps 414 and 415 are performed prior to step 402. In other words, the waveguide layer (132) is deposited on the first substrate layer (125). Once the waveguide (101) has been obtained from the waveguide layer (132), the even-further layer of the first kind (123) is optionally superimposed in the waveguide (101).

Fig. 5 shows a flow diagram illustrating the steps of a second method (500) for producing a device according to the invention:

Step 501 : optionally, proving a first substrate layer.

Step 502: optionally, providing an even-further layer of the first kind. If the first substrate layer is present, the an even-further layer of the first kind is superimposed on the first substrate layer.

Step 503: providing a further pre-element. If the even-further layer of the first kind is present, the further preelement is superimposed on the even-further layer of the first kind. If the first substrate layer is present, and the even-further layer of the first kind is not present, the further pre-element is superimposed on the first substrate layer. Step 504: optionally superimposing a first layer of a further kind on the further pre-element and providing at least one recess in the first layer of the further kind by removing at least one section of the first layer of a further kind, preferably to expose the further pre-element.

Step 505: optionally reducing at least one dimensions, preferably a width, of the at least one recess in the first layer of the further kind.

Step 506: dividing the further pre-element into a second element and a further element.

Step 507 : superimposing a first layer of the first kind onto the second element and the further element.

Step 508: superimposing a first pre-element onto the first layer of the first kind.

Step 509: optionally superimposing a further layer of a further kind on the first pre-element and providing at least one recess in the further layer of the further kind by removing at least one section of the further layer of a further kind, preferably to expose the first pre-element.

Step 510: optionally reducing at least one dimensions, preferably a width, of the at least one recess in the further layer of the further kind.

Step 511 : dividing the first pre-element into a first element and an even-further element.

Step 512: optionally, superimposing a further layer of the first kind onto the first element and the even-further element.

Step 513: superimposing a waveguide layer onto the first element and the even-further element.

Step 514: optionally, removing at least a section of the waveguide layer to obtain a waveguide. If no section is removed, the waveguide layer serves as a waveguide. Step 515: optionally, performing at least one or all of the following: bringing a first electrical contact into electrical connection with the first element, bringing a second electrical contact into electrical connection with the second element, bringing a third electrical contact into electrical connection with the further element, bringing a second electrical contact into electrical connection with the even-further element.

In one variation of the method described in Fig. 5, the first pre -element provided in step 508 is the first element. In this variation, step 511 is not performed, and the device does not comprise an even-further element. In another variation of the method described in Fig. 5, steps 513 and 514 are performed after step 501, i.e., the waveguide layer is provided on the first substrate layer. The optionally provided even-further layer of the first kind in steps 502 is thus provided on the waveguide. Steps and optional steps 503 to 512, and 515 are then subsequently performed.

Fig. 6 shows a flow diagram illustrating the steps of a method (600) for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property.

In step 601, a device according to Fig. 1 is provided. In step 602, an electromagnetic wave is propagated through the waveguide. Furthermore, in step 602, a first potential difference is applied between the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element, a second potential difference between the further section of the first element and the further element, and a third potential difference is applied between the further section of the further element and the even-further element. In step 603, the first potential is oscillated between a minimum and maximum value over a time interval. During the same time interval, the second potential and the third potential are varied less slowly than the first potential difference. It is preferred to keep the second and third potential differences constant.

Fig. 7 shows examples of alternative arrangements (700) of the waveguide and the elements of the device, according to the invention, to the arrangement shown in Figs 1A to ID. For illustration purposes, only the elements and waveguide are shown in Figs 7A and 7B. However, the devices in Figs 7A and 7B may comprise the same components as shown in Figs 1 A to ID.

Fig. 7A shows a waveguide (101) that is arranged below the first element (102), a second element (103), the further element (109), and the even-further element (110). Fig. 7B shows that the first element (102) and the second element (103) are arranged to pass through the waveguide (101).

EXAMPLES

The invention is illustrated further by way of examples. The invention is not restricted to the examples. Example 1

Devices for the modulation of electromagnetic waves are provided. The differences between the devices of examples 1 to 3 are as follows:

- Example 1.1 a device as shown in Fig. 1 is provided, with the difference that the further element and the even-further element are absent. Example 1.1 is a comparative example.

- Example 1.2: a device as shown in Fig. 1 is provided, with the difference that the device has only the further element, while the even-further element is absent. Example 1.2 is an inventive example.

- Example 1.3: a device as shown in Fig. 1 is provided. Example 1.3 is an inventive example.

For each of these devices of examples 1 to 3, the following applies. Each device comprises an even-further layer of the first kind (123 in Fig. 1C) that is made of silicon dioxide. Arranged between the first element and a second element is a first layer of the first kind (121 in Fig. 1A and 1C), which is made from aluminium oxide. Arranged between the first element (and the even-further element) and the waveguide is a further layer of the first kind (122 in Fig. 1A and 1C), which is also made from aluminium oxide. Furthermore, the devices have a first element and a second element that are both made from graphene. Where a further element or a further element and an even- further element are present, these elements are also made from graphene. The waveguide is made from silicon nitride.

The parameters of the examples are chosen such that optical modulation amplitude remains constant between the different devices of the examples.

For each of these devices of examples 1 to 3, the following also applies. The width and height of the waveguide is 1000 nm and 350 nm, respectively. For the respective examples, the second distance and the third distance are equal to the first distance. The length of the device also corresponds to the length of the first element, the second element, where present the further element, and where present, the even-further element. The biasing voltage is applied between the first sections of the first element and the second element. The other parameters are given in Table 1. The reference numbers are with respect to Figs 1 A to ID.

Table 1: experimental set-up of the examples 1.1 to 1.3

In the above, width is measured along the x-axis, height and thickness are measured along the y-axis, and length is measured along the z-axis, as shown in Fig. 1. The distance (first distance) between the first sections of the first element and the second element is measured along they-axis, as shown in Figs 1A and ID. The devices of Examples 1.1 to 1.3 are operated. During operation, a first potential difference is applied between the first sections of the first element and the second element. If the further element is present, a second potential difference is applied between the further section of the first element and the further element. If the even-further element is present, a third potential difference is applied between the further section of the further element and the even-further element. Electromagnetic waves are propagated through the waveguide, while the first potential difference is varied by up to 2 V above and below the biasing voltage given in Table 1. The voltage variation is on a timescale of 2 ps to 1 ns. The first potential difference is driven to the desired value depending on the data that is desired to be sent. The second potential difference is kept constant at a value of 5 V and the third potential differences is kept constant at a value of -5 V.

Table 2 is a comparison of the technical effects of the devices of Example 1.

Table 2: comparison of technical effects

• Bitrate: the rate of data flow in digital networks, typically measured in bits per second. A indicates a smaller bitrate, while a “+” indicates a larger bitrate. A larger bitrate is desirable.

• Insertion loss - unwanted loss in the intensity of the electromagnetic waves, i.e., losses not as a result of the modulation. A indicates a smaller insertion loss, while a “+” indicates a larger insertion loss. A smaller insertion loss is desirable.

• Energy consumption - the energy required to transmit one bit of data. A indicates a smaller energy consumption, while a “+” indicates a larger energy consumption. A smaller energy consumption is desirable. The values in Table 2 are normalised with respect to Example 1.1.

Example 2

Devices for the modulation of electromagnetic waves are provided. The differences between the devices of examples 2.1 to 2.3 are as follows:

- Example 2.1 a device as shown in Fig. 1 is provided, with the difference that the further element and the even-further element are absent. Example 2.1 is a comparative example. - Example 2.2: a device as shown in Fig. 1 is provided, with the difference that the device has only the further element, while the even-further element is absent. Example 2.2 is an inventive example.

- Example 2.3: a device as shown in Fig. 1 is provided. Example 2.3 is an inventive example.

For each of these devices of examples 2.1 to 2.3, the following applies. Each device comprises an even-further layer of the first kind (123 in Fig. 1C) that is made of silicon dioxide. Arranged between the first element and a second element is a first layer of the first kind (121 in Fig. 1A and 1C), which is made from aluminium oxide. Arranged between the first element (and the even-further element) and the waveguide is a further layer of the first kind (122 in Fig. 1A and 1C), which is also made from aluminium oxide. Furthermore, the devices have a first element and a second element that are both made from graphene. Where a further element or a further element and an even- further element are present, these elements are also made from graphene. The waveguide is made from silicon nitride.

For each of these devices of examples 2. 1 to 2.3, the following also applies. The width and height of the waveguide is 1000 nm and 350 nm, respectively. For the respective examples, the second distance and the third distance are equal to the first distance. The length of the device also corresponds to the length of the first element, the second element, where present the further element, and where present, the even-further element. The biasing voltage is applied between the first sections of the first element and the second element. The other parameters are given in Table 3. The reference numbers are with respect to Figs 1A to ID.

Table 3: experimental set-up of the examples 2. 1 to 2.3

In the above, width is measured along the x-axis, height and thickness are measured along the y-axis, and length is measured along the z-axis, as shown in Fig. 1. The distance (first distance) between the first sections of the first element and the second element is measured along they-axis, as shown in Figs 1A and ID.

The devices of Examples 2.1 to 2.3 are operated. During operation, a first potential difference is applied between the first sections of the first element and the second element. If the further element is present, a second potential difference is applied between the further section of the first element and the further element. If the even-further element is present, a third potential difference is applied between the further section of the further element and the even-further element. Electromagnetic waves are propagated through the waveguide, while the first potential difference is varied by up to 2 V above and below the biasing voltage given in Table 3. The voltage variation is on a timescale of 2 ps to 1 ns. The first potential difference is driven to the desired value depending on the data that is desired to be sent. The second potential difference is kept constant at a value of 5 V and the third potential differences is kept constant at a value of -5 V.

Table 4 is a comparison of the technical effects of the devices of Example 2.

Table 4: comparison of technical effects

• Energy consumption - the energy required to transmit one bit of data. A indicates a smaller energy consumption, while a “+” indicates a larger energy consumption. A smaller energy consumption is desirable. The values in Table 4 are normalised with respect to Example 2.1.

Example 3 is a comparison of a modulator according to the invention (example 3.1) and a comparative modulator (example 3.2). In Example 3, the width of the first sections of the first element and the second element are varied as shown in Figs 8A to 8C (said first sections have the same widths by definition). With regards to Fig. 1A, the aforementioned features have the following reference numbers: first element (102), second element (103), first section of first element (104), and first section of second element (105).

More specifically, the differences between the modulators of examples 3.1 and 3.2 are as follows:

- Example 3.1 : a modulator as shown in Fig. 1 is provided. Example 3.1 is an inventive example. I.e., the modulator has a further element and an even-further element (reference numbers 109 and 110 in Fig. 1 A, respectively). Said elements are made from graphene. Example 3.2 a modulator as shown in Fig. 1 is provided, with the difference that the further element and the even-further element are absent. Example 3.2 is a comparative example.

For each of the modulators of examples 3.1 and 3.2, the following applies. The first element and the second element are both made from graphene. Each modulator comprises an even-further layer of the first kind (reference number 123 in Fig. 1C) that is made of silicon dioxide. A first layer of the first kind (reference number 121 in Figs 1A and 1 C), which is made from aluminium oxide, is arranged between the first element and the second element. A further layer of the first kind (reference number 122 in Figs 1A and 1C), which is also made from aluminium oxide, is arranged between the first element (and the even-further element) and the waveguide. The waveguide is made from silicon nitride.

For each of the modulators of examples 3.1 and 3.2, the following also applies. The width and height of the waveguide are 1000 nm and 350 nm, respectively. The second distance and the third distance are equal to the first distance, with the first distance having a value of 20 nm (the first distance, second distance, and third distance are indicated by reference numbers 108, 119, and 120 in Fig. IB, respectively). The width, as measured between the first electrical contact and the second electrical contact, is kept constant at 3.4 pm (the first and second electrical contacts are indicated by reference numbers 111 and 112 in Fig. 1A, respectively). In example 3.1, the widths of the first and further gaps (reference numbers 116 and 118 in Fig. 1 A, respectively) are both 50 nm. The first element and the second element have equal length. In example 3.1, the further element and the even-further element have the same length, which is also equal to the length of the first element and the second element.

In the above, width is measured along the x-axis, height and thickness are measured along the y-axis, and length is measured along the z-axis (as shown in Fig. 1). The distance (first distance) between the first sections of the first element and the second element is measured along they-axis, as shown in Figs 1A and ID.

The biasing voltage for the modulators is between 6 V and 7.5 V. The potential difference applied between the first sections of the first element and the second element (the first potential difference) is varied by up to 1 V above and below the biasing voltage. The potential difference applied between the further element and the further section of the first element (the second potential difference) is kept constant at 10 V. Similarly, the potential difference applied between the even-further element and the further section of the further element (the third potential difference) is kept constant at 10 V.

Fig. 8A shows the bandwidth as a function of the width of the first sections of the first and second elements (the width of said first sections are equal). Bandwidth defines the maximum rate at which data can be transferred with the modulator. The results for example 3.1 are indicated by curve “A”, while the results for example 3.2 are indicated by curve “B”. As can be seen for both examples 3.1 and 3.2, the bandwidth increases as the widths of the first sections decreases. However, not only does the modulator of example 3. 1 have a larger bandwidth compared to the modulator of example 3.2, but the bandwidth also increases significantly more when the width of the first sections decreases. Furthermore, although Fig. 8A shows a bandwidth of 120 GHz for the modulator of example 3.2 (at a width of around 75 nm), it is generally not possible for the modulator in example 3.2 to transmit data at such a bandwidth (due to, e.g., the extinction ratio being too low; see Fig. 8C). Furthermore, compared to the modulator in example 3.2, the modulator in example 3.1 can reach a required optical modulation amplitude with a higher bandwidth. It may be noted that when the width of the first sections of the first and second elements is reduced, this allows the widths of the further and even further elements to increase.

Fig. 8B shows the insertion loss as a function of the width of the first sections of the first and second elements. Insertion loss is defined as unwanted loss in the intensity of the electromagnetic waves by the modulator during an on-state of the modulator. The results for example 3.1 are indicated by curve “A”, while the results for example 3.2 are indicated by curve “B”. As can be seen for both examples 3.1 and 3.2, the insertion loss increases as the widths of the first sections decreases. However, the modulator of example 3.1 has less insertion loss compared to the modulator of example 3.2 for all widths of the first sections.

Fig. 8C shows the extinction as a function of the width of the first sections of the first and second elements. Extinction is defined as the optical power ratio between transmitting a “1” and a “0”. The results for example 3.1 are indicated by curve “A”, while the results for example 3.2 are indicated by curve “B”. As can be seen for both examples 3.1 and 3.2, the extinction decreases as the widths of the first sections decreases. However, the modulator of example 3.1 has a larger extinction compared to the modulator of example 3.2 for all widths of the first sections.

Example 4

In example 4 a modulator as shown in Fig. 1 is provided. The first element, the second element, the further element, and the even-further element are all made from graphene. In example 4, the widths of the first gap and the further gap are varied as shown in Figs 9A and 9B. In example 4, the first gap and the further gap have the same width. With regards to Fig. 1 A, the aforementioned features have the following reference numbers: the first element (102), the second element (103), the further element (109), the even-further element (110), the first gap (115), and the further gap (117).

In example 4, the following applies. The modulator comprises an even-further layer of the first kind (reference number 123 in Fig. 1C) that is made of silicon dioxide. A first layer of the first kind (reference number 121 in Figs 1A and 1C), which is made from aluminium oxide, is arranged between the first element and the second element. A further layer of the first kind (reference number 122 in Figs 1A and 1C), which is also made from aluminium oxide, is arranged between the first element (and the even-further element) and the waveguide. The waveguide is made from silicon nitride. For the modulator of example 4, the following also applies. The width and height of the waveguide are 1000 nm and 350 nm, respectively. The second distance and the third distance are equal to the first distance, with the first distance having a value of 20 nm (the first distance, second distance, and third distance are indicated by reference numbers 108, 119, and 120 in Fig. IB, respectively). The width, as measured between the first electrical contact and the second electrical contact, is kept constant at 3.4 pm (the first and second electrical contacts are indicated by reference numbers 111 and 112 in Fig. 1A, respectively). The first element and the second element have equal length. The further element and the even-further element have the same length, which is also equal to the length of the first element and the second element.

The biasing voltage for the modulator is between 6 V and 7.5 V. The potential difference applied between the first sections of the first element and the second element (the first potential difference) is varied by up to 1 V above and below the biasing voltage. The potential difference applied between the further element and the further section of the first element (the second potential difference) is kept constant at 10 V. Similarly, the potential difference applied between the even-further element and the further section of the further element (the third potential difference) is kept constant at 10 V.

Fig. 9A shows the optical modulation amplitude (OMA) as a function of the width of the first and further gaps (said gaps are of equal width). OMA is defined as the difference between the minimum and maximum modulation of an amplitude of an electromagnetic wave that can be achieved with the modulator. For Fig. 9A, the bandwidth is held constant at 70 GHz. As can be seen, the OMA increases significantly with a decrease in the gap width.

Fig. 9B shows the bandwidth as a function of the width of the first and further gaps (said gaps are of equal width). Bandwidth defines the maximum rate at which data can be transferred with the modulator. For Fig. 9B, the OMA is held constant at 0.25. As can be seen, the bandwidth increases significantly with a decrease in the gap width. REFERENCE LIST

Device

Waveguide

First element

Second element

First section of first element

First section of second element

Further section of first element

Further section of second element

First distance

Further element

Even-further element

First electrical contact

Second electrical contact

Third electrical contact

Fourth electrical contact

First gap

Width of first gap

Further gap

Width of further gap

Second distance

Third distance

First layer of the first kind

Further layer of the first kind

Even-further layer of the first kind

Position of cross-sectional cut

First substrate layer

Further pre-element

First layer of a further kind

First slit

First pre-element

Further layer of a further kind

Further slit

Waveguide layer

Structure 1000 First assembly

1001 First sub-assembly

1002 First device

1003 First photodetector

1004 First integrated circuit

1005 First data storage means

1006 First light emitting means

1007 Further sub-assembly

1008 Further device

1009 Further photodetector

1010 Further integrated circuit

1011 Further data storage means

1012 Further light emitting means

1100 Optical sensing module

1101 Device

1102 Target area

1103 Sensing means

1104 Optics

1105 Integrated circuit

1106 Light emitting means

1200 First apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application

1201 First device

1202 First photodetector

1203 First light emitting means

1204 First integrated circuit

1205 Sensing unit

1300 Vehicle adapted and arranged for flight

1301 First device

1302 First light emitting means

1303 First photodetector

1304 First integrated circuit

1305 Propulsion means 1306 Means to generate lift

1307 Control system

1308 Sensing unit

1400 Robotic system

1401 First device

1402 F irst light emitting means

1403 First photodetector

1404 First integrated circuit

1405 Robotic body

1406 Sensing unit

1407 Control module

1408 External entity

1500 Second assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing

1501 Optical memory unit

1502 Optical processor

1503 Data communication module

1504 Device

1505 Photodetector

1600 Third assembly

1601 Homomorphic operation module

1602 Photonic encryption module

1603 Photonic decryption module

1604 Device

1605 Photodetector

1606 Light emitting means

1700 Optical connection module

1701 Device

1702 Photodetector

1703 Waveguide

1704 Light emitting means

1705 Inte grated circuit 1800 First transportation means

1801 First device

1802 First photodetector

1803 Sensing unit

1804 Processing module

1805 Perception sub-module

1806 Generation sub-module

1807 Human-machine interface

1808 Control unit

1809 Steering means

1810 Propulsion means

1811 First integrated circuit

1812 First light emitting means

1900 First transportation means

1901 First device

1902 First photodetector

1903 Steering means

1904 Propulsion means

2000 Fourth assembly

2001 Memory unit

2002 Processor

2003 Device

2004 Photodetector

2100 Optical data communication module

2101 Device

2102 Light emitting means

2103 Photodetector

2104 Integrated circuit

Claims

1. A device (100) comprising a. a waveguide (101) adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves; b. a first element (102) and a second element (103) i. wherein, in a cross-sectional cut of the device (100), the first element (102) and the second element (103) are arranged such that

A. a first section (104) of the first element (102) overlaps a first section (105) of the second element (103),

B. a further section (106) of the first element (102) does not overlap the second element (103),

C. the first section (104) of the first element (102) is separated by a first distance (108) from the first section (105) of the second element (103); ii. wherein the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and discharged; c. a further element (109), wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the device (100), the further element (109) is arranged to overlap the further section (106) of the first element (102); d. optionally an even-further element (110), wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the device (100), the even-further element (110) is arranged to overlap a further section (107) of the second element (103).

2. The device according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) is adapted and arranged to have an RC time constant that is less than 50 ns.

3. The device according to any of the preceding claims, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first section (104) of the first element (102), the further section (106) of the first element

(102), or both, comprises graphene; b. the first section (105) of the second element (103), a further section (107) of the second element

(103), or both, comprises graphene.

4. The device according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the further element (109), the even-further element (110), or both, are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged, electrically discharged, or both.

5. The device according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the further element (109), the even-further element (110), or both, have at least one or all of the following properties: a. an electrical conductivity of at least 10⁴ S/m; b. comprises graphene; c. are adapted and arranged to have an optical attenuation coefficient in the range of 2 x 10'⁴ to 0.6 dB/pm; d. are adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient.

6. The device according to any of the preceding claims, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first element (102) and the second element (103) are adapted and arranged to produce a first potential difference between the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103); b. the first element (102) the further element (109) are adapted and arranged to produce a second potential difference between the further section (106) of the first element (102) and the further element (109); c. optionally the second element (103) and the even-further element (110) are adapted and arranged to produce a third potential difference between the further section (107) of the second element (103) and the even-further element (110)

7. The device according to claim 6, wherein the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) are adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: a. to vary the first potential difference by at least 5 % over a time interval of 0.05 ps to 70 ns; b. to vary the second potential difference by less than 15 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps.

8. The device according to any of the preceding claims, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: a. the further element (109) is arranged such that a first gap (115) is formed between the further element (109) and the second element (103); b. the even-further element (110) is arranged such that a further gap (117) is formed between the first element (102) and the even-further element (110).

9. A method for producing a device comprising the steps a. providing a structure (140) that comprises i. a first element (102) and a second element (103),

A. wherein, in a cross-sectional cut of the structure (140), the first element (102) and the second element (103) are arranged such that I. a first section (104) of the first element (102) overlaps a first section (105) of the second element (103),

II. a further section (106) of the first element (102) does not overlap the second element (103),

III. the first section (104) of the first element (102) is separated by a first distance (108) from the first section (105) of the second element (103);

B. wherein the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and discharged; ii. a further element (109), wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the structure (140), the further element (109) is arranged to overlap the further section (106) of the first element (102); iii. optionally an even-further element (110), wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the structure (140), the even-further element (110) is arranged to overlap the further section (107) of the second element (103). b. superimposing a waveguide (101) and the structure (140) onto each other.

10. A device obtainable according to the method of claim 9.

11. A method for producing an electromagnetic wave with at least one modified property, comprising the steps of a. providing a device according to any of the claims 1 to 8; b. propagating an electromagnetic wave through the waveguide; c. applying a first potential difference between the first section of the first element and the first section of the second element; d. applying a second potential difference between the further section of the first element and the further element;

12. A modified electromagnetic wave obtained by the method according to claim 11.

13. A use of a potential difference to decrease an optical attenuation coefficient of at least one section of at least one element of a device that is adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves, wherein the potential difference is varied by less than 15 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps.

14. A use of a device adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves to decrease an optical attenuation coefficient of at least one section of at least one element of the device using a potential difference that is varied by less than 15 % over a time interval of at least 100 ps.

15. Use of a structure (140) for producing an opto-electronic device, wherein the structure comprises a. a first element (102) and a second element (103) i. wherein, in a cross-sectional cut of the structure (140), the first element (102) and the second element (103) are arranged such that

C. the first section (104) of the first element (102) is separated by a first distance (108) from the first section (105) of the second element (103); ii. wherein the first section (104) of the first element (102) and the first section (105) of the second element (103) are adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and discharged; b. a further element (109), wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the structure (140), the further element (109) is arranged to overlap the further section (106) of the first element (102); c. optionally an even-further element (110), wherein, in the cross-sectional cut of the structure (140), the even-further element (110) is arranged to overlap a further section (107) of the second element (103).