EP2142014A1

EP2142014A1 - Snack food

Info

Publication number: EP2142014A1
Application number: EP08718904A
Authority: EP
Inventors: Rachel Hackett; Penelope Morris; Moira Ann Taylor; Ian Andrew Macdonald; Emma Stevenson
Original assignee: Mars Inc
Current assignee: Mars Inc
Priority date: 2007-04-03
Filing date: 2008-03-28
Publication date: 2010-01-13
Also published as: WO2008119957A1; GB0706519D0; AU2008234729A1; CA2682641A1

Abstract

The present invention relates to the use of protein in a snack food for use in weight maintenance in a human. Specifically, the protein-containing snack food increases satiety which leads to a reduction in the calorie intake at the next meal, resulting in maintenance of weight in a human.

Description

Snack Food

The present invention also relates to a method of weight maintenance and a dietary regime comprising consuming the snack food between meals.

Generally, it is considered that an adult male requires approximately 2,500 kcal per day in order to maintain his weight and an adult female requires approximately 2,000 kcal per day in order to maintain her weight. Most usually, this calorie intake is achieved by the consumption of three meals per day.

If the three meals per day account for the total amount of calories required for the human subject, the addition of snacks in between meals, (for example, a snack mid- morning between breakfast and lunch and/or a snack mid-afternoon between lunch and evening meal) will increase the daily calorie intake for the human subject and result in increasing weight, if the human subject's activity level remains the same.

This is a common problem in today's society, particularly in the Western World. This increase in weight can lead to obesity which in turn leads to health problems including diabetes and heart disease.

The simple solution to this problem is to not snack in between meals to bring the calorie consumption during a single day to the required level of approximately 2,500 kcal for a male human or approximately 2,000 kcal for a female human. However, due to the long time period (which can be anywhere from 3 to 7 hours) between breakfast and lunch or lunch and dinner, it is often tempting to consume a snack food between meals. However, snack foods often contain relatively high sugar, high fat and are of low nutritional value. These type of snack foods do not provide lasting satiety. This means that no reduction in calorie consumption occurs at the meal following the snack. In fact, the consumption of a high sugar snack leads to a sharp increase in the blood sugar level, followed by a sharp decrease. This decrease can lead to the blood sugar level being below the level at which it was before consumption of the snack. This can lead to a consumption of more calories at the next meal than if no snack had been consumed. The daily calorie intake thus increases, leading to weight gain, unless measures are taken to compensate for the extra calories consumed. To compensate for increased calorie intake, the excess calories should be used, by way of increased activity, usually in the form of exercise. However, many people do not enjoy exercise, or struggle to find the time to fit it into their day.

Therefore, there is a need for a snack food that will prolong satiety until the next meal and therefore result in reducing the calorie intake at the meal, in order to maintain the daily calorie intake at the same level than if the snack had not been consumed between meals.

Therefore, the present invention provides the use of at least 3g protein in the manufacture of a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 calories (kcal) for use in weight maintenance in a human. The snack food may comprise 180 to 280 kcal, or 240 to 260 kcal, for example, 250 kcal. Most preferably the snack food comprises 180 to 200 kcal.

The amount of protein is preferably about 4g , but may be 3g, 3.5g, 4.5g, 5g, 5.5g, 6.g, 6.5g, 7g, 8g, 9g, 1Og, Hg, 12g, 13g, 14g or 15g or more.

It is well established that protein is more satiating per calorie than either carbohydrate or fat but the satiating influence of proteins is variable. The response to a standard protein meal is firstly affected by habitual protein intake. Satiety induced by protein is lower in individuals accustomed to high protein intakes. Whilst the mechanism for this remains to be elucidated, one possibility is that there is an increased number of transporters and therefore more rapid uptake and oxidation of amino acids. Secondly, different protein types vary in their ability to induce feelings of satiety. Animal protein (pork) and vegetable protein (soy) on both satiation and energy expenditure over a 4-day period have been compared. Energy intake was significantly less and subjective feelings of satiety significantly more, with both the pork and soy diet compared to the carbohydrate control, but there was no significant difference between the two. The animal protein diet did however result in significantly greater 24hr-energy expenditure compared to both the vegetable protein diet and the carbohydrate control. Beef, chicken and fish protein have been compared and showed that postprandial satiety was greatest with protein from a fish source.

In an effort to further understanding, egg albumin, peanut protein, gelatin, soy protein, pea protein and wheat gluten have been compared on satiety and subsequent meal intake. It was found that there was no difference in the effect of the six protein types on postprandial satiation or energy expenditure. The use of 60 to 7Og of each protein source however in a group of only 12 subjects may have masked any satiety response to protein type.

A preferred embodiment of the first aspect the protein is whey protein, peanut protein or soy protein. Preferably the protein is one or more of whey protein, or peanut protein.

The inventors have found that weight maintenance is achieved by reducing the calorie intake at a subsequent meal to compensate for the calorie content of the snack food, which is generally around from 150 to 300 kcal, or 200 to 280 kcal, or 240 to 260 kcal, for example, 250 kcal. Most preferably the snack food comprises 180 to 200 kcal. The calorie intake at a subsequent meal is reduced by approximately the same amount of calories as is contained in the snack food. This effect, surprisingly, is seen in both men and women. The reduction of subsequent calorie intake is determined by the amount of protein in the snack food. The inventors have surprisingly found that the protein has a dosage effect on satiating effect of the snack food and thus the reduction in calorie intake at the subsequent meal. Therefore, preferably the calorie intake at the meal is reduced proportionally to the amount of protein present in the snack food. Preferably, the amount of protein in the snack food is from 3 to 4Og, more preferably from 7 to 30g, or 10 to 25g, for example, 2Og. The amount of protein is most preferably about 4g, and up to 15g. As a second aspect, the invention provides a method for reducing calorie intake in a human at a meal comprising consuming a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g protein prior to consuming the meal. Preferably, the snack food is consumed from between 1 minute to 120 minutes prior to the meal, more preferably from 30 to 100 minutes prior to the meal and most preferably from 60 to 90 minutes prior to the meal. The snack food may be preferably consumed 90 minutes prior to the meal. Preferably the snack food comprises 180 to 200 kcal.

By weight maintenance it is meant the achievement of a healthy body weight.

For example, this may be the loss of excess weight to a healthy level, and then maintaining the weight at that level. Alternatively, it may mean the increase in body weight for an underweight subject to a healthy level, and then the maintenance of that level. The subject may already be of a healthy weight, and thus weight maintenance in this situation would be maintaining, generally, that weight.

Clearly, weight may fluctuate within reasonable limits and still remain at a healthy level.

Healthy means a state where no adverse effects on health are seen due to weight (e.g. diabetes due to being overweight, or osteoporosis, muscle wastage due to being underweight) and BMI (Body Mass Index) is in the normal range.

The increasing amount of protein in the snack food corresponds to a prolonged satiating effect of the snack food, even though the calorie content of the snack food remains the same in all cases. The calorie intake at the meal is always approximately reduced by an amount equivalent to the calorie content of the snack food. However, the amount of calories consumed at the meal reduces, with an increased amount of protein that is present in the snack food. Thus, the invention also provides, as a third aspect a method of weight loss in a human comprising consuming a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g of protein, prior to consuming a meal. This "dosage effect" of the amount of protein reducing the calorie consumption at the subsequent meal, is unexpected since the amount of calories in the snack food remains the same. The snack food consumed preferably comprises 180 to 200 kcal.

Weight loss may occur when the snack food of the present invention is consumed if the human replaces a snack food comprising 150 to 300 kcal or more that contains negligible amounts of protein for example, a standard chocolate bar or a standard packet of crisps in between meals. This is because these snack foods do not provide such a satiating effect and therefore the calorie intake at a subsequent meal will not be reduced significantly. By consuming the snack food of the present invention in between meals, and therefore reducing the calorie intake at a subsequent meal, weight loss may occur in the human.

A further aspect of the invention also relates to a method of weight maintenance for a human comprising consuming a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g of protein prior to consuming the meal. The human's weight is maintained as compared to eating three meals a day and no snacks, since the snack provides a satiating effect resulting in the reduction of calorie content at the next meal equivalent to that of the snack food consumed. This calorie reduction is proportional to the amount of protein present in the snack food, which is in an amount from 3g to 4Og, preferably from 4g to 15g.

A fifth aspect of the invention relates to a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g of protein for reducing calorie intake at a subsequent meal in a human. Preferably, the protein is whey protein, peanut protein or soy protein and most preferably the protein is one or more of whey protein or peanut protein.

In an embodiment of the fifth aspect the snack food further comprises fibre, such as pectins, gums, cellulose and hemi-cellulose. Preferably, the fibre is soluble fibre. The soluble fibres are preferably soluble in water, such as pectins and gums. The fibre is preferably polydextrose. Surprisingly, the addition of fibre to the snack food further increases the satiating effect resulting in a further reduction of calorie intake at the subsequent meal. Preferably, the calorie intake at the subsequent meal is reduced proportionally to the amount of protein in the snack food. As mentioned previously, the amount of protein in the snack food has a dosage effect on the reduction of calories in the subsequent meal even though the amount of calories remains the same. Preferably the amount of fibre in the snack food is from 5g to 25g, more preferably, from 8g to 2Og, most preferably 1Og to 15g, for example, 12g. The amount of fibre may be 6.25g, 12.5g or 25g. The fibre may be present in an amount from 5g to 1Og.

The snack food may also contain additional nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, amino acids, plant derived micronutrients, including carotenoids, flavanoids, polyphenolic compounds, and others.

The snack food may also comprise flavourings, such as fruit flavourings, sweet or savoury flavourings, sweeteners, yeast extract, vegetable flavourings, vanilla flavouring, chocolate flavourings, or any other suitable flavouring. The snack food may comprise fruit or vegetable pieces, or nuts, seeds and the like.

The snack food may be coated (if solid) with a chocolate or chocolate substitute coating, probiotics, sugar or sugar substitute, syrup, fruit, jelly or any other suitable coating. The snack food may have a filling, such as a fruit, chocolate, sugar or sugar substitute filling or any other suitable filling.

In a further embodiment of the fifth aspect the protein is present in an amount from 3g to 4Og, such as 10 to 30g, or 15 to 25g, for example, 2Og. Preferably, the amount of protein is about 4g to 15g. The composition may be liquid, a semi-solid or solid. For example, the snack food may be a snack drink such as a milkshake-type composition. When in a semi-solid format it may be in the form of a mousse or a yoghurt-type snack. When in a solid format it may be in the form of a snack bar, such as a cereal bar, or a nut based bar.

A further aspect of the present invention provides a dietary regime for weight maintenance in a human comprising a snack food, the snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g of protein between breakfast and lunch and/or lunch and dinner. The dietary regime may comprise the consumption of one snack food to be eaten either between breakfast and lunch, or between lunch and dinner. Alternatively, the dietary regime may include two snack foods, one to be eaten between breakfast and lunch and the other to be eaten between lunch and dinner. By breakfast it is meant the first meal of the day, by lunch it is meant a midday meal and by dinner it is meant an evening meal. The calorie consumption at lunch and dinner respectively will be reduced proportionally to the amount of protein present in the snack food when two snack foods are consumed during the day between breakfast and lunch, and lunch and dinner, respectively. If only one snack food is consumed the calorie intake at the meal directly after eating the snack food i.e. lunch or dinner will be reduced in proportion to the amount of protein present in the snack food. Preferably, the calorie consumption at the meal is reduced by from 150 to 300 kcal. The overall daily calorie intake will be approximately the same as if no snack foods had been consumed i.e. the daily calorie intake is not increased by the consumption of one or more snack foods of the invention.

Preferably, the snack food is consumed from between 1 minute to 120 minutes prior to the next meal i.e. prior to lunch and/or dinner. More preferably the snack food is consumed from 30 to 100 minutes, most preferably the snack food is consumed approximately 90 minutes before the next meal i.e. lunch and/or dinner.

AU preferred features of each of the aspects of invention relate to the other aspects, mutatis mutandis.

The invention will now be described by way of the following Examples, with reference to the Figures, in which;

Figure Ia shows the effects of four liquid preloads containing ~ 0% energy protein, 10% energy from protein, 20% energy from protein and 40% energy from protein on ad libitum energy intake in male subjects; Figure Ib shows the effects of four liquid preloads containing ~ 0% energy protein, 10% energy from protein, 20% energy from protein and 40% energy from protein on ad libitum energy intake in female subjects;

Figure 2a shows the total energy intake at the ad libitum test meal for the male subjects;

Figure 2b shows the total energy intake at the ad libitum test meal for the female subjects;

Figure 3a shows the energy intake for the remainder of the day for male subjects;

Figure 3b shows the energy intake for the remainder of the day for female subjects;

Figure 4a shows the mean energy intake throughout the experimental protocol for male subjects;

Figure 4b shows the mean energy intake throughout the experimental protocol for female subjects;

Figure 5 shows the effect of fibre on calorie intake at a subsequent meal;

Figure 6 shows the experimental protocol for studies to investigate the metabolic responses to high and low protein liquid preloads in healthy subjects;

Figure 7 shows the energy consumed at a test meal after consumption of the preloads;

Figure 8 shows the blood glucose responses of subjects that have consumed the preload containing 10% protein and 40% energy from protein; Figure 9 shows the insulin response in subjects at various time points prior to and post consumption of a preload containing 10% energy by protein and 40% energy by protein.

Figure 10 shows the amount of free fatty acids (FFA) in subjects having consumed eaten 10% and 40% energy from protein;

Figure 11 shows the subjects' desire to eat once they had consumed the 10% and 40% energy from protein preloads;

Figure 12 shows GLPl response to protein preloads in preloads containing 10% or 40% energy by protein. GLP-I is a hormone indicative of satiety

Figure 13 shows the perception of fullness before eating a preload and a test meal in subjects given both the 10% and 40% energy from protein preloads;

Figure 14 shows the perceived hunger of the subjects having consumed a preload containing 10% or 40% protein in terms of energy in preloads;

Figure 15 shows the amount of energy consumed by subjects at an ad-libitum test meal where subjects had consumed the preload in either liquid or solid form;

Figure 16 shows the perceived fullness of the subjects having consumed a preload in liquid or solid form;

Figure 17 shows the perceived hunger rating for the subjects having consumed a preload in liquid or solid form;

Figure 18 shows the perceived thirst of subjects having consumed a preload in liquid or solid form; Figure 19 shows the perceived desire to eat in subjects having consumed a preload in liquid or solid form;

Figure 20 shows the energy intake at an ad-libitum meal of subjects having consumed a preload comprising polydextrose compared to those having consumed a preload containing no polydextrose.

Examples

Example 1

The response to different doses of whey protein in a preload were investigated by using subjective ratings of mood and hunger, energy intake at an ad libitum testmeal served 90 minutes after the preload, and intake for the study day as a whole by analysing a self-reported food diary of all foods and drinks consumed after leaving the laboratory.

Subjects

Subjects were recruited from the staff and students of the University of Nottingham and Queen's Medical Centre who expressed interest to a poster advertisement.

Volunteers were invited to take part in the study if they were healthy normal weight (BMI between 19- 25 kg/m²) men and women aged 18-45 years, non-smokers, with no current or previous history of disease and taking no medication other than oral contraceptives. AU subjects were reported to be weight stable (± 3kg) during the previous 3 months. Subjects were excluded if they scored >7 for restraint in the validated The Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (Stunkard & Messick, 1985) and > 10 for The Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et ai, 1961). Subjects' acceptability of food items used in the study was determined and those who showed a particular dislike to any food used (by rating <2 on 5 point visual analogue scale) or had an allergy or intolerance to any of the foods used were excluded form the study. Subjects who recorded an average daily intake of >20% energy from protein (determined from the analysis of a three day food diary) were excluded due to evidence that habitual high protein intake may be cause a reduced satiety response to high protein meals (Long et al, 2000).

Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and the study was approved by the University of Nottingham Medical School Ethics Committee all subjects received a financial imbursement for completing the study.

Study protocol

The study was a randomised cross-over design involving the testing of four preloads containing different amounts of whey protein on four separate days separated by at least a three-day wash out period. Female subjects were studied during days 6-12 of their menstrual cycle to minimise hormonal differences in appetite (Dye & Blundell, 1997).

During screening weight, height and blood pressure was measured. Subjects completed health screening, TFEQ (Stunkard & Messick, 1985), BDI (Beck et al, 1961) and IPAQ (Craig et al, 2003) questionnaires. A 3 day (2 weekdays 1 weekend day) Food Diary was provided for subjects to complete according to provided instructions and once the diary was returned to the investigator convenient dates for trials were organised. Subjects were instructed to consume a standardised evening meal before 10pm the evening prior to the trial day, they were instructed to consume only water after 10pm. At 8am the next morning subjects were told to eat the breakfast provided and after that consume only water until they arrived at the Ingestion Laboratory at approximately 10.45am. At approximately 11am individuals were provided with one of the four liquid preloads. Computerised visual analogue scales (VAS) of mood, appetite and taste were completed immediately before and after consuming the preload. The mood and appetite ratings were completed at 30min intervals for 90min after completing the preload. After the 90min mood and appetite VAS subjects were presented with a pasta testmeal and asked to take a single spoonful and complete the computerised VAS taste rating for the provided food. Subjects were instructed to consume as much as they wished until they felt comfortably full. The weight of the food consumed was covertly weighed so that energy intake could be calculated. After at least 20Og was consumed, on screen instructions commanded the subject to call the experimenter to allow a new portion of food (serving size c.250g) to be served into the dish. Once subjects had consumed all they required they used a mouse to click on a button marked 'Finished', which was present on screen throughout the meal. This ensured that there was always ample hot food available and subjects would not use the cue of an empty bowl as a reason for terminating the meal.

Once subjects had finished eating the mood, appetite and taste VAS ratings were repeated, the timer was re-started and the mood and appetite VAS ratings were repeated at 30 min and 60 min. After 60min the subjects were free to leave the laboratory, they were instructed to record all foods and drinks consumed during the remainder of the day in a food diary provided for that purpose.

Procedures

Energy intake and Expenditure

Total daily energy expenditure (TEE) was calculated by multiplying Basal Metabolic

Rate (BMR); calculated using The Schofield equation (Schofield, 1985), and to The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) (Craig et al, 2003) to Physical Activity Level (PAL).

Average daily energy intake was estimated by analysing the three-day food diary using Micordiet vl.l (Downlee Systems Ltd, UK) from which mean daily energy intake and macronutrient composition was calculated.

Dietary Preparation

Subjects were provided with a menu of foods to consume as their evening meal prior to a trial. This menu provided 30% TEE, 16, 48 and 35 % energy from protein, carbohydrate and fat respectively (these values were based on the UK average daily intakes from the findings from the of the 2000-1 National Household Food Survey (Henderson et al, 2003). The foods used were based on those recorded in the completed food diary to ensure compliance.

Breakfasts were supplied to subjects which consisted of Rice Krispies (Kelloggs, Manchester UK) and semi-skimmed milk (J Sainsbury, London UK). Energy content was 10% of subjects' TEE (14, 72 and 14% energy from protein, carbohydrate and fat respectively). The ratio of cereal to milk was 3Og cereal: 125ml milk.

Preloads

Preloads were in the form of a vanilla flavoured milk shake type drink with varying protein contents (0, 10, 20, 40 % energy from protein). The 0% protein preload consisted of only flavoured water. The other preloads were prepared with whey powder (Davisco, Eden Prairie, USA), Maltodextrin (Cerestar, Mechelen Belgium) and double cream (J Sainsbury, London UK) all were flavoured with the same amount of vanilla flavouring (Supercook, Leeds UK). All preloads were 400ml and the three energy containing preloads were 250kcal. AU preloads were served in an opaque covered container at 5⁰C and were ingested through a straw to mask any visible or olfactory differences. Energy and macronutrient content of the preloads is given in Table 1.

ad libitum testmeal

The ad libitum testmeal provided at lunch consisted of fafale pasta (TESCO, Chestnut UK), Mature Cheddar Cheese (TESCO, Chestnut UK), Light Olive Oil (Somerfield, Bristol UK) and Dolmio Express Tomato and Basil Sauce (Masterfoods, Melton Mowbray UK). Cooked cooled pasta was mixed with the combined cheese, sauce, and oil and refrigerated in covered dishes until required. Dishes were removed from the refrigerator and heated in a microwave oven when requested. Portions were served at 65°C. This minimised any food related smells in the laboratory prior to being served the meal, which could influence subjects appetite (Yeomans, 2006). The testmeal was of a homogenous nature so that energy intake and macronutrient breakdown could be easily determined by the weight of food consumed. Testmeal composition is given in Table 2. Subjective ratings

All appetite, mood and taste ratings were presented using computerised visual analogue scales (VAS). Horizontal line scales were displayed on the monitor with the question presented above the line. The terms 'Extremely' or 'Not at all' were anchored at either end with the polarity randomised throughout the experiment. All ratings were scored on a scale form 0 (Not at all) to 500 (Extremely). Subjects were instructed to move a vertical bar which was visible in the centre of the line to the desired position using the mouse or cursor keys. Confirmation of the response was made by clicking a button placed in the corner of the screen labelled 'Done'. Eleven mood and appetite ratings were scored for each set of VAS questions. The questions were in the form of 'How (rating) do you feel?' where the rating was 'clear-headed', 'desire to eat', 'energetic', 'friendly', 'full', 'happy', 'hungry', 'jittery', 'nauseous', 'relaxed' and 'thirsty'. Taste ratings were made during after completing the preload and ad libitum lunch and were in the same format as the mood and appetite questions where the rating was 'creamy', 'pleasant', 'strong', 'sweet', 'fruity' and 'salty'.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS for windows (version 13, SAS Institute. Inc USA).

Intake at ad libitum testmeal was analysed using repeated measures ANOVA and paired t-tests and Bonferroni correction was used to determine the nature of any significance. The food diaries in which subjects recorded foods eaten once they had left the laboratory were analysed for energy intake and macronutrient breakdown and subsequently analysed using repeated measures ANOVA. Taste ratings were analysed using one-way repeated measures ANOVA and paired t-tests and Holm- Bonferronni correction to determine the nature of any significance.

Subjective mood ratings after the preload were taken as change from baseline and analysed using repeated measures two-way ANOVA using protein and time as within subject factors. Post-lunch mood ratings were analysed using two-way ANOVA using time and protein treatment as within subject factors and intake at the test meal and the immediate pre-lunch rating (90min) as covariates.

All values are expressed as mean ± SEM unless otherwise stated. The level of significance was set at 0.05.

Results

Subject characteristics

Subjects' characteristics can be seen in Table 3.

Initial analysis The intake data was initially analysed as a complete data set. There was a significant main effect for protein treatment (p<0.01), there was also a significant main effect for sex (p<0.01), but no protein x sex interaction, thus male and female data was subsequently analysed separately.

Male energy intake Energy intake at the ad libitum testmeal after the 0% protein preload was significantly higher compared to the 20% and 40 % (P=0.003) preloads respectively. There was a statistically significant linear within subjects contrast (P= 0.001) (Fig. Ia).

Combined energy intake of the preload and the ad libitum testmeal were not significantly different between conditions (Fig. 2a). There were no significant differences between preload conditions for the energy intake for energy intake after leaving the laboratory on the test day (Fig. 3 a), or for intake for the test day as a whole (Fig 4a).

Female energy intake

Energy intake at the ad libitum testmeal was significantly higher after the 0% protein preload when compared to the 40% protein preload (P=0.01). There was a significant linear within subjects contrast (P=0.003) (Fig Ib).

Combined energy intake from the preload and ad libitum testmeal was not significantly different between conditions (Fig 2b).

There were no significant differences between preloads for energy intake after leaving the laboratory (Fig. 3b) and energy intake for the test day as a whole (Fig 4b). Tables

Men (« 13) Women (n 13) mean SD mean SD

Age (years) 23.1 3.2 26.9 5.7

BMI (kg/m²) 23.3 2.9 22.2 2.0

BMR (kcal) 1807 213 1490 162

TEE (kcal) 2697 477 2010 224

Average daily energy intake (kcal) 2478 594 2017 576

Average daily protein intake (% 16.1 3.8 14.7 2.7 total energy intake)

Table 1 Subject characteristics

Preload 0 10 20 40

Energy (kcal) 0 250.0 250.2 250.1 Protein (g) (% energy) 0 6.8 (10.8) 13.1 (21.0) 25.4 (40.6) Carbohydrate (g) (% energy) 0 30.6 (49.0) 24.0 (38.4) 11.2 (17.9)

Fat (g) (% energy) 0 11.2 (40.2) 11.3 (40.6) 11.3 (40.6)

Table 2 Dietary composition of the four different preloads.

Typical Values per lOOg

Energy (kcal) 168

Carbohydrate (g) 20

(% energy) (47)

Protein (g) 6.0

(% energy) (15)

Fat (g) 7.9

(% energy) (39)

Table 3 Dietary composition of the ad libitum testmeal. Example 2

Subjects followed the same procedure as described above, although the preload contained Og, 6.25g, 12.5g or 25g of fibre in the form of polydextrose The calorie intake at a subsequent ad libitum lunch was then measured. Each preload contained

200kcal, with the difference in calories from the differing amounts of polydextrose being accorded for with a carbohydrate, Maltodextrin. The preload contained 20EN% of protein. Results are shown in Figure 20. It can be seen that the presence of fibre together with protein resulted in a further decrease in the calorie intake at a subsequent meal.

Example 3

The following study was carried out in order to determine whether any difference could be seen with a liquid preload or a solid preload. 15 subjects consumed a standardised breakfast at home and at 11 am each received 250kcal preload in a form of a chocolate flavoured milkshake or a chocolate covered bar with milk and water to match the volume intake.

A standard ad libitum test meal was provided 90 minutes later and subject ratings of hunger and fullness were taken at 30 minute intervals. The energy intake at the test meals did not significantly differ between liquid and solid preload as shown in Figure 15. Figures 16 to 19 show the subject of hunger and thirst and desire to eat ratings given by the subjects. As can be seen, there is no significant difference between the liquid and solid preload and thus it can be concluded that it is the calorie and protein content of the preload that has the effect on satiety and not whether the preload is in a liquid or solid form.

Example 4 A study was carried out to investigate the metabolic responses to preloads containing different levels of whey protein on a subsequent intake at an ad libitum test meal. The protocol is shown in Figure 6.

The preloads contained 10% or 40% energy from protein in the form of whey powder, which relates to 7g or 27.5g of protein respectively. To balance the calorie content, the preloads contained either 30 or 10.6g of Maltodextrin respectively and both preloads contain 25g of double cream. The preloads contained 250kcal, both preloads were flavoured with ImI of vanilla essence and 1.5g of paracetamol was included within each preload to ensure normal metabolic activity could be monitored.

At 90 minutes after consuming the preload, the subjects were allowed to consume lunch ad libitum. Blood samples were taken 2 hours prior to the preload, immediately before the preload and at 30 minute intervals post preload until lunch was consumed and then a further 15 minutes intervals post lunch for 2 hours. The blood samples were tested for certain metabolites such as blood glucose response, insulin response, free fatty acids and GLP-I response to routine preloads. GIp 1 is a satiety indicating hormone. The results can be seen in Figures 7 to 14. Interesting and unexpected observation shows that the higher protein level appears to affect satiety on a physiologically level as shown by the increase levels of GLP-I present in the higher protein load.

Example 5

Subjects were given a chocolate bar either with a creamy filling comprising polydextrose fibre or fat and sugar caramel filling. The calorie content of the two bars were approximately 100 kcal and 117 kcal respectively .

Of the subjects that consumed the bar, 11 out of 20 subjects who consumed the polydextrose containing bar, reported that they did not want to eat lunch after eating the bar and would not want to eat more than one bar compared to 1 of 8 subjects who ate the caramel bar who stated the same. This suggests that the present polydextrose in the bar leads to an increase in satiety in the subjects.

References

Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J & Erbaugh J (1961) An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 4, 561-571.

Craig CL, Marshall AL, Sjostrom M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, Pratt M, Ekelund U, Yngve A, Sallis JF & Oja P (2003) International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sd Sports Exerc 35, 1381-1395. Dye L & Blundell JE (1997) Menstrual cycle and appetite control: implications for weight regulation. Hum Reprod 12, 1142-1151. Henderson L, Gregor J, Irving K & Swan G (2003) National Diet and Nutrition

Survey: adults aged 19-64 years. In VoI 2: Energy, protein, carbohydrate, fat and alcohol intake. London: TSO. Long SJ, Jeffcoat AR & Millward DJ (2000) Effect of habitual dietary-protein intake on appetite and satiety. Appetite 35, 79-88. Schofield WN (1985) Predicting basal metabolic rate, new standards and review of previous work. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr 39 Suppl 1, 5-41. Stunkard AJ & Messick S (1985) The three-factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger. J Psychosom Res 29, 71-83. Yeomans MR (2006) Olfactory influences on appetite and satiety in humans. Physiol Behav 87, 800-804.

Claims

Claims:

1. The use of at least 3g of protein in the manufacture of a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal for use in weight maintenance in a human.

2. The use as claimed in claim 1, wherein the snack food comprises at least 7g protein.

3. The use as claimed in claim 1 or claim 2, wherein weight maintenance is achieved by reducing the calorie intake at a subsequent meal.

4. The use as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the protein is one or more of whey protein or peanut protein.

5. The use as claimed in anyone of claims 1 to 4, wherein calorie intake at the meal is reduced proportionally to the amount of protein present in the snack food, and by at least 100 kcal.

6. A method of reducing calorie intake in a human at a meal comprising consuming a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g protein prior to consuming the meal.

7. The method of claim 5, wherein the snack food is consumed from 1 minute to 120 minutes prior to the meal.

8. A method of weight maintenance for a human comprising consuming a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g protein prior to consuming the meal.

9. A method of weight loss in a human comprising consuming a snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g protein prior to consuming the meal.

10. A snack food comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g of protein for reducing calorie intake at a subsequent meal in a human.

11. The snack food of claim 10, wherein the protein is one or more of whey protein, or peanut protein.

12. The snack food of any one of claims 10 or 11 , wherein the composition further comprises fibre.

13. The snack food of claim 12, wherein the fibre is present in an amount of 5 to

25g.

14. The snack food of claim 12 or claim 13 wherein the fibre is a soluble fibre.

15. The snack food of any one of claims 12 to 14 wherein the fibre is polydextrose.

16. The snack food of any one of claims 10 to 15, wherein the calorie intake at the subsequent meal is reduced proportionally to the amount of protein in the snack food.

17. The snack food according to any one of claims 10 to 16, wherein the protein is present in an amount of from 3 to 15 g.

18. The snack food of any one of claims 10 to 17, wherein the composition is liquid, semi-solid or solid.

19. A dietary regime for weight maintenance in a human comprising consuming a snack comprising from 150 to 300 kcal and at least 3g protein between breakfast and lunch, and/or lunch and dinner.

20. The dietary regime of claim 19, wherein the snack is consumed from 1 minute to 120 minutes prior to lunch and/or dinner.