CN109986154B - Intelligent control pulse power supply system for multi-station blade electrolytic machining and control method - Google Patents
Intelligent control pulse power supply system for multi-station blade electrolytic machining and control method Download PDFInfo
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- CN109986154B CN109986154B CN201711476316.8A CN201711476316A CN109986154B CN 109986154 B CN109986154 B CN 109986154B CN 201711476316 A CN201711476316 A CN 201711476316A CN 109986154 B CN109986154 B CN 109986154B
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B23—MACHINE TOOLS; METAL-WORKING NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- B23H—WORKING OF METAL BY THE ACTION OF A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ON A WORKPIECE USING AN ELECTRODE WHICH TAKES THE PLACE OF A TOOL; SUCH WORKING COMBINED WITH OTHER FORMS OF WORKING OF METAL
- B23H11/00—Auxiliary apparatus or details, not otherwise provided for
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B23—MACHINE TOOLS; METAL-WORKING NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- B23H—WORKING OF METAL BY THE ACTION OF A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ON A WORKPIECE USING AN ELECTRODE WHICH TAKES THE PLACE OF A TOOL; SUCH WORKING COMBINED WITH OTHER FORMS OF WORKING OF METAL
- B23H3/00—Electrochemical machining, i.e. removing metal by passing current between an electrode and a workpiece in the presence of an electrolyte
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Abstract
The invention relates to an intelligent control pulse power supply system for multi-station blade electrolytic machining and a control method thereof, wherein a method for rectifying a commercial direct current power supply by adopting a large-current rectifying module is adopted, and the intelligent pulse module has smaller volume and is even configured in a multi-station machine tool body, so that the mutually independent and matched intelligent pulse modules can generate and control machining pulse signals of a blade basin cathode and a blade back cathode, the wiring distance between a machining area and the intelligent pulse module is obviously reduced, the parasitic inductance of a loop is minimized, the waveform distortion is minimized, the anti-interference capability of the power supply is improved, and the intelligent control pulse power supply system is an effective way for improving the machining precision and the production efficiency of blades.
Description
Technical Field
The invention relates to an intelligent control pulse power supply system for electrochemical machining, in particular to an intelligent high-frequency pulse power supply system for multi-station bladed disc blade electrochemical machining.
Background
The blade is the most critical part in the manufacture of aircraft engines. The traditional cutting method has the labor capacity of more than 30 percent of the whole machine, and is particularly suitable for electrolytic machining due to complex structure, high requirement on machining precision, thin and twisted blade profile, difficult material machining, batch production and high manufacturing difficulty. The blade process has been changed greatly in the 70 s, the electrolytic machining becomes the main process of blade body machining, and remarkable technical and economic effects are achieved.
The electrolytic machining technology is a machining process for anodic dissolution of a metal workpiece in an electrolyte. The method has the characteristics of high efficiency, high surface quality, no tool loss, high material removal rate, independence of processing on material hardness, strength and toughness and the like, is very suitable for processing difficult-to-cut materials and thin-wall parts, and is an ideal process for manufacturing aeroengine blades. In recent years, with the development of precision electrolytic machining technology, technologies such as high-frequency narrow-pulse electrolytic machining, vibration electrolytic machining and the like emerge, so that the electrolytic machining precision is remarkably improved, and the electrolytic machining technology is a main manufacturing process of core parts such as aeroengine blades, blisks and the like.
The electrolytic machining power supply is a core part of machining equipment, and the waveform, voltage stabilization precision and short circuit protection function of the power supply directly influence the anode dissolution process of electrolytic machining, so that the precision, surface quality, stability and economy of electrolytic machining are influenced. In addition, special power sources play a decisive role in the electrolytic machining of workpieces of special materials.
At present, a single machine tool is generally provided with a single pulse power supply in the electrolytic machining, when the blade disc blades are produced in large scale, a plurality of machine tools are configured, and a plurality of pulse power supplies also need to be configured, so that the purchase cost of the power supplies is high. In addition, due to the limitation of the volume of an electronic element and the requirement of heat dissipation, the volume of the pulse power supply for electrolytic machining is large, the wiring length between the pulse power supply and a machining area is long, when the pulse current value is large and the frequency is high, the transmission distortion of pulse waveforms is serious, and the machining precision and the repeated machining precision of the blade disc are difficult to improve.
Disclosure of Invention
Aiming at the problems of the existing electrolytic machining of the blade disc, the intelligent control pulse power supply system for the electrolytic machining of the blade is provided, the output wiring length of a high-frequency pulse power supply can be shortened, the parasitic inductance of a loop is reduced to the minimum, the electrolytic machining waveform is improved, the electrolytic machining precision is improved, the dynamic signals of the electrolytic machining voltage and current can be detected in real time, and the short-circuit protection in the electrolytic machining process is realized by taking protective measures in a short time.
The invention provides an intelligent control pulse power supply system for multi-station blade electrolytic machining, which comprises an alternating current input power supply, an AC-DC (alternating current-direct current) rectification module, a plurality of intelligent pulse modules and an electrolytic machining system, wherein the AC-DC rectification module is connected with the alternating current input power supply and converts alternating current into a high-power direct current stabilized power supply;
the intelligent pulse modules are used in pairs and act on a group of cathodes of the electrolytic machining system at the same time, and the two intelligent pulse modules belonging to the same pair respectively act on the front and back of a workpiece, namely a leaf basin and a leaf back of a leaf disc blade;
the intelligent pulse module comprises an embedded CPU, a pulse signal generator and a power amplifying circuit, wherein the embedded CPU is connected with the pulse signal generator to enable the pulse signal generator to output a high-frequency pulse signal, and the high-frequency pulse signal is amplified by the power amplifying circuit;
the embedded CPU receives a program of frequency and duty ratio parameters set by a user from a control system;
the intelligent pulse module is also internally provided with a short-circuit protection circuit, and the short-circuit protection circuit is an electrolytic machining short-circuit protection circuit with an energy storage capacitor;
the short-circuit protection circuit comprises an energy storage capacitor, a voltage comparator, a current sensor, normally closed switches K1, K3 and a normally open switch K2, wherein a workpiece is connected with the positive electrode of a pulse power supply and the positive electrode of a direct-current stabilized power supply, and the negative electrode is connected with the negative electrode of the pulse power supply and the negative electrode of the direct-current stabilized power supply; a normally closed switch K3 and a current sensor are added in a connecting line between the positive electrode of the pulse power supply and the workpiece so as to collect current signals; a normally closed switch K1 and a normally open switch K2 are connected to a connecting line of the positive electrode of the direct-current stabilized power supply and the workpiece, the energy storage capacitor is connected between the normally closed switch K1 and the normally open switch K2 in parallel with the negative electrode of the direct-current stabilized power supply, and a voltage comparator is added to a connecting line of the direct-current stabilized power supply and the workpiece;
and the embedded CPU controls the voltage comparator through a signal input by the current sensor.
The invention also provides a control method of the intelligent control pulse power supply system for the multi-station blade electrolytic machining, which comprises the following steps:
step 1) a user inputs processing voltage, limited current, pulse frequency, pulse duty ratio and processing time to an embedded CPU through a power supply system;
step 2) the embedded CPU programs the pulse signal generator according to the set frequency and duty ratio parameters, so that alternating current outputs a direct current stabilized voltage power supply through rectification, filtering, a voltage stabilizing circuit and the like, and then a high-frequency pulse signal is generated by the pulse signal generator, and the pulse signal acts on a basin, a back and a cathode of a blade disc to carry out electrolytic machining after passing through a power amplifying circuit;
step 3), the intelligent pulse module completes rough machining, middle machining and finish machining of the leaf basin and the leaf back by adjusting the pulse frequency;
step 4) the embedded CPU detects the voltage and current of the electrolytic machining of the blade disc blade in real time, if the electrolytic machining process has over-current, under-current and spark discharge, the electrolytic machining voltage is cut off, and simultaneously the embedded CPU sends a signal to the short-circuit protection circuit, so that the electric quantity existing on the electrolytic machining blade disc blade and the cathode is released, and the blade disc blade and the cathode are protected;
the embedded CPU takes an embedded single chip microcomputer LPC1788 as a core, and is provided with a display device and a key input device, wherein the external keys are used for presetting discharge voltage, limiting current, pulse frequency, pulse duty ratio and processing time, and then an I/O port is used for displaying numerical values; the communication between a power supply and a control system is realized, the bidirectional communication between an upper computer and a lower computer is realized by adopting an RS232 standard computer communication interface, and the acquired voltage and current are converted by internal A/D; the real-time detection of the voltage and the current in the whole electrolytic machining process is realized; short-circuit protection control of overvoltage and overcurrent in a power supply is realized; controlling each independent intelligent pulse module in a control center, and enabling a main shaft connected with the intelligent pulse module to feed independently according to preset speed and frequency;
the working process of the short-circuit protection circuit comprises the following steps:
step 4.1, when the electrolytic machining is normal, closing a normally closed switch K3, applying a workpiece as an anode and a tool as a cathode by an electrolytic machining power supply through K3, and normally machining the workpiece;
step 4.2, while the electrolytic machining is carried out, closing a normally closed switch K1, opening a normally open switch K2, charging the energy storage capacitor C by the adjustable direct-current stabilized voltage power supply through K1, wherein the upper end of the energy storage capacitor C is negative, and the lower end of the energy storage capacitor C is positive;
step 4.3, in the working process of the step 4.1 and the step 4.2, the electrochemical machining current measured by the current sensor is transmitted to the voltage comparator and the embedded CPU, and the embedded CPU records the current into the memory and outputs a reference signal to the voltage comparator;
step 4.4, the voltage comparator compares the current of the current sensor with the signal of the embedded CPU, if the current of the current sensor is smaller than the signal of the embedded CPU, the electrolytic machining has no short circuit phenomenon, and the electrolytic machining is normal; if the current of the current sensor is larger than the signal of the embedded CPU, short circuit occurs in electrolytic machining, the switches K1 and K3 are opened by the signal output by the voltage comparator, the switch K2 is closed, and negative charges on the energy storage capacitor C and positive charges on the workpiece are mutually offset, so that the purpose of protecting the workpiece is achieved.
After the direct-current stabilized voltage power supply passes through the full-bridge rectification filter circuit, the output voltage value is adjusted by adjusting the conduction angle; the discharging voltage value of the embedded CPU adjusts the conduction time of a diode in the rectifying circuit through cycle control, and changes the conduction angle, thereby realizing the function of adjusting the voltage.
Compared with the prior art, the invention adopting the technical scheme has the following technical effects:
1) the high-power direct-current power supply is controlled in a centralized manner, the low-voltage direct-current power supply is output, safety management is facilitated, and space and cost are saved;
2) the direct-current power supply and the intelligent high-frequency pulse power supply are respectively designed, and the intelligent high-frequency pulse power supply is arranged in an electrolytic machining area, so that the output wiring length of the high-frequency pulse power supply is effectively shortened, the distributed capacitance of a loop is minimized, the electrolytic machining waveform is improved, and the electrolytic machining precision is improved;
3) two intelligent pulse modules with the same function respectively generate and control pulse signals in electrolytic machining of the leaf basin and the leaf back, so that the electrolytic machining precision of the leaf disc blades is improved; meanwhile, the blade disc blades can be subjected to electrolytic machining by adopting multiple stations, so that the electrolytic machining efficiency of the blade disc blades is improved;
4) the intelligent pulse module detects processing voltage and current signals of electrolytic processing in real time, and is provided with an electrolytic processing short-circuit protection circuit with an energy storage capacitor, so that overcurrent, undercurrent and spark discharge in the electrolytic process are quickly protected.
Drawings
FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an intelligent control pulse power supply system for blisk blade electrochemical machining;
FIG. 2 is a schematic view of an electrochemical machining process for a blisk blade;
FIG. 3 is a schematic view of the main structure of the control part;
fig. 4 is a schematic diagram of the functional composition and operation process of the short-circuit protection circuit.
Detailed Description
The patent is further described with reference to the following drawings and specific examples, but the patent is not limited thereto.
As shown in figure 1, the intelligent control pulse power supply system for the multi-station bladed disc blade electrolytic machining comprises a high-current rectifier module and a plurality of intelligent pulse modules with the same structure and function. Each intelligent pulse module is installed in a processing area, and an embedded processor is adopted to generate and control pulse signals.
As shown in fig. 1, the intelligent pulse module in the above technical solution includes an embedded CPU, a pulse generator, a power amplifier circuit, and a short-circuit protection circuit. The power supply system is mainly internally provided with two pairs of intelligent pulse modules (N pairs can be added according to the machine tool body): the intelligent pulse module 1, the intelligent pulse module 2, the intelligent pulse module 3 and the intelligent pulse module 4, wherein the embedded CPU sends an instruction to the pulse signal generator, an electrolytic machining pulse signal is generated through the power amplifying circuit, the short-circuit protection circuit is used for electrolytic machining short-circuit protection with an energy storage capacitor, and overcurrent, undercurrent and spark discharge in the electrolytic process are rapidly protected.
On the basis of the technical scheme, further, the intelligent pulse module 1 and the intelligent pulse module 2 are installed in the electrolytic machining area 1 and the electrolytic machining area 2, and the intelligent pulse module 3 and the intelligent pulse module 4 are installed in the electrolytic machining area 3 and the electrolytic machining area 4 and can generate and control pulse signals of the cathode of the leaf-bearing basin and the cathode of the leaf back in the electrolytic machining process. The intelligent control pulse power supply system can meet the requirement that two stations simultaneously carry out blade electrolytic machining. The electrolytic machining efficiency of the blade disc is improved.
On the basis of the technical scheme, further, in the intelligent control pulse power supply system for the multi-station bladed disc blade electrolytic machining, the embedded CPU is connected with a machine tool control system, so that man-machine interaction and information storage are realized. The signal state in the electrolytic machining process can be visually seen in the control system.
On the basis of the technical scheme, the embedded CPU is further connected with a pulse signal generator, the pulse signal generator is connected with a power amplification circuit through an optical coupler, the CPU receives a program from a machine tool control system to program the pulse signal generator, and the pulse signal is subjected to power amplification through the power amplification circuit so that a signal acting on electrolytic machining is high-frequency pulse current.
On the basis of the technical scheme, voltage parameters can be intelligently adjusted, a frequency control voltage regulation method is adopted to control the ratio of the on-time to the off-time of the thyristor, so that the alternating current switch is continuously switched on in certain frequency and is continuously switched off in certain frequency, the alternating current switch is circularly operated, and the output voltage can be changed by changing the ratio of the on-frequency to the control period.
As shown in fig. 2, in the intelligent electrochemical machining process of the blade disc, the intelligent pulse module 1 and the intelligent pulse module 2 complete rough machining, medium machining and finish machining of the blade basin and the blade back according to the magnitude of the pulse frequency. And realizing the one-step molding of the blade.
As shown in fig. 3, the embedded CPU is responsible for adjusting and displaying parameters such as voltage and frequency, and transmits a set protection current and a set starting current value to the DSP through the serial communication interface, and the DSP adjusts a preceding-stage PWM phase angle to realize control of an output current by feeding back a current and a voltage, and displays a current state value and a voltage state value at that time.
As shown in figure 4, the short-circuit protection circuit is an electrolytic machining short-circuit protection with an energy storage capacitor, and the module consists of a 3-30V adjustable direct-current stabilized power supply, the energy storage capacitor, a voltage comparator, an embedded CPU, a current sensor, normally closed switches K1, K3 and a normally open switch K2, wherein the workpiece is connected with the anode of the pulse power supply, the tool is connected with the cathode of the pulse power supply, a normally closed switch K3 and a current sensor are added in a connecting line between the anode of the pulse power supply and the workpiece, so as to collect current signals, the other end connects the positive and negative poles of the direct current stabilized voltage power supply to the workpiece and the tool, a normally closed switch K1 and a normally open switch K2 are connected to a connecting wire between the positive pole of the direct current power supply and the workpiece, a charging capacitor is connected in parallel with the negative electrode of the direct current power supply between the normally closed switch K1 and the normally open switch K2, and a voltage comparator is added in a connecting line of the direct current power supply and the workpiece.
Specifically, the short-circuit protection circuit adopts a maximum current limiting method to give a preset current value, and if the current in the machining process exceeds the preset value, short-circuit protection measures are taken.
On the basis of the technical scheme, the working process of the short-circuit protection circuit further comprises the following steps:
1) during normal electrolytic machining, the normally closed switch K3 is closed, the electrolytic machining power supply applies a workpiece as a positive electrode and a tool as a negative electrode through K3, and the workpiece is machined normally;
2) when the electrolytic machining is carried out, the normally closed switch K1 is closed, the normally open switch K2 is opened, the adjustable direct-current stabilized voltage power supply charges the energy storage capacitor C through K1, the upper end of the capacitor C is negative, and the lower end of the capacitor C is positive;
3) in the working processes 1) and 2), the electrochemical machining current measured by the current sensor is transmitted to the voltage comparator and the embedded CPU, and the embedded CPU records the current into the memory and outputs a reference signal to the voltage comparator;
4) the voltage comparator compares the current of the current sensor with the signal of the embedded CPU, if the current of the current sensor is smaller than the signal of the embedded CPU, the electrolytic machining has no short circuit phenomenon, and the electrolytic machining is normal; if the current of the current sensor is larger than the signal of the embedded CPU, short circuit occurs in electrolytic machining, the switches K1 and K3 are opened by the signal output by the voltage comparator, the switch K2 is closed, and negative charges on the energy storage capacitor C and positive charges on the workpiece are mutually offset, so that the purpose of protecting the workpiece is achieved.
On the basis of the technical scheme, further, this patent is an intelligent control pulse power supply system for multistation bladed disk blade electrolytic machining, including the rectifier module of heavy current, many intelligent pulse modules that the structure function is the same, its intelligent pulse module's course of working includes following step:
1) a user inputs processing voltage, limited current, pulse frequency, pulse duty ratio and processing time to the embedded CPU through the control system;
2) the embedded CPU sends a signal through a digital-to-analog conversion channel according to the set voltage to act on the voltage regulating circuit for regulating the electrolytic machining voltage;
3) the embedded CPU programs the pulse generator according to the set frequency and duty ratio parameters to enable the pulse generator to output high-frequency pulse signals, and the pulse signals act on the anode of the blade disc blade, the blade basin and the cathode of the blade back to carry out electrolytic machining after passing through the power amplification circuit;
4) the embedded CPU detects the voltage and current of the electrolytic machining of the blade disc blades in real time, if the electrolytic machining process has over-current, under-current and spark discharge, the electrolytic machining voltage is cut off rapidly, and simultaneously the embedded CPU sends a signal to the short-circuit protection circuit to enable the electric quantity existing on the electrolytic machining blade disc blades and the cathode to be released rapidly, so that the blade disc blades and the cathode are protected.
While this patent has been described in terms of several preferred embodiments, there are alterations and permutations which will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this disclosure.
Claims (3)
1. An intelligent control pulse power supply system for multi-station blade electrolytic machining is characterized by comprising an alternating current input power supply, an AC-DC rectification module, a plurality of intelligent pulse modules and an electrolytic machining system, wherein the AC-DC rectification module is connected with the alternating current input power supply and converts alternating current into a high-power direct current stabilized power supply;
the intelligent pulse modules are used in pairs and act on a group of cathodes of the electrolytic machining system at the same time, and the two intelligent pulse modules belonging to the same pair respectively act on the front and back of a workpiece, namely a leaf basin and a leaf back of a leaf disc blade;
the intelligent pulse module comprises an embedded CPU, a pulse signal generator and a power amplifying circuit, wherein the embedded CPU is connected with the pulse signal generator to enable the pulse signal generator to output a high-frequency pulse signal, and the high-frequency pulse signal is amplified by the power amplifying circuit;
the embedded CPU receives a program of frequency and duty ratio parameters set by a user from a control system;
the intelligent pulse module is also internally provided with a short-circuit protection circuit, and the short-circuit protection circuit is an electrolytic machining short-circuit protection circuit with an energy storage capacitor;
the short-circuit protection circuit comprises an energy storage capacitor, a voltage comparator, a current sensor, normally closed switches K1, K3 and a normally open switch K2, wherein a workpiece is connected with the positive electrode of a pulse power supply and the positive electrode of a direct-current stabilized power supply, and the negative electrode is connected with the negative electrode of the pulse power supply and the negative electrode of the direct-current stabilized power supply; a normally closed switch K3 and a current sensor are added in a connecting line between the positive electrode of the pulse power supply and the workpiece so as to collect current signals; a normally closed switch K1 and a normally open switch K2 are connected to a connecting line of the positive electrode of the direct-current stabilized power supply and the workpiece, the energy storage capacitor is connected between the normally closed switch K1 and the normally open switch K2 in parallel with the negative electrode of the direct-current stabilized power supply, and a voltage comparator is added to a connecting line of the direct-current stabilized power supply and the workpiece;
and the embedded CPU controls the voltage comparator through a signal input by the current sensor.
2. A control method of an intelligent control pulse power supply system for multi-station blade electrolytic machining is characterized by comprising the following steps:
step 1) a user inputs processing voltage, limited current, pulse frequency, pulse duty ratio and processing time to an embedded CPU through a power supply system;
step 2) the embedded CPU programs the pulse signal generator according to the set frequency and duty ratio parameters, so that alternating current outputs a direct current stabilized voltage power supply through rectification, filtering, a voltage stabilizing circuit and the like, and then a high-frequency pulse signal is generated by the pulse signal generator, and the pulse signal acts on a basin, a back and a cathode of a blade disc to carry out electrolytic machining after passing through a power amplifying circuit;
step 3), the intelligent pulse module completes rough machining, middle machining and finish machining of the leaf basin and the leaf back by adjusting the pulse frequency;
step 4) the embedded CPU detects the voltage and current of the electrolytic machining of the blade disc blade in real time, if the electrolytic machining process has over-current, under-current and spark discharge, the electrolytic machining voltage is cut off, and simultaneously the embedded CPU sends a signal to the short-circuit protection circuit, so that the electric quantity existing on the electrolytic machining blade disc blade and the cathode is released, and the blade disc blade and the cathode are protected;
the embedded CPU takes an embedded single chip microcomputer LPC1788 as a core, and is provided with a display device and a key input device, wherein the external keys are used for presetting discharge voltage, limiting current, pulse frequency, pulse duty ratio and processing time, and then an I/O port is used for displaying numerical values; the communication between a power supply and a control system is realized, the bidirectional communication between an upper computer and a lower computer is realized by adopting an RS232 standard computer communication interface, and the acquired voltage and current are converted by internal A/D; the real-time detection of the voltage and the current in the whole electrolytic machining process is realized; short-circuit protection control of overvoltage and overcurrent in a power supply is realized; controlling each independent intelligent pulse module in a control center, and enabling a main shaft connected with the intelligent pulse module to feed independently according to preset speed and frequency;
the working process of the short-circuit protection circuit comprises the following steps:
step 4.1, when the electrolytic machining is normal, closing a normally closed switch K3, applying a workpiece as an anode and a tool as a cathode by an electrolytic machining power supply through K3, and normally machining the workpiece;
step 4.2, while the electrolytic machining is carried out, closing a normally closed switch K1, opening a normally open switch K2, charging the energy storage capacitor C by the adjustable direct-current stabilized voltage power supply through K1, wherein the upper end of the energy storage capacitor C is negative, and the lower end of the energy storage capacitor C is positive;
step 4.3, in the working process of the step 4.1 and the step 4.2, the electrochemical machining current measured by the current sensor is transmitted to the voltage comparator and the embedded CPU, and the embedded CPU records the current into the memory and outputs a reference signal to the voltage comparator;
step 4.4, the voltage comparator compares the current of the current sensor with the signal of the embedded CPU, if the current of the current sensor is smaller than the signal of the embedded CPU, the electrolytic machining has no short circuit phenomenon, and the electrolytic machining is normal; if the current of the current sensor is larger than the signal of the embedded CPU, short circuit occurs in electrolytic machining, the switches K1 and K3 are opened by the signal output by the voltage comparator, the switch K2 is closed, and negative charges on the energy storage capacitor C and positive charges on the workpiece are mutually offset, so that the purpose of protecting the workpiece is achieved.
3. The control method of the intelligent control pulse power supply system for the multi-station blade electrolytic machining according to claim 2, wherein after the direct-current stabilized power supply passes through the full-bridge rectification filter circuit, the output voltage value is adjusted by adjusting the conduction angle; the discharging voltage value of the embedded CPU adjusts the conduction time of a diode in the rectifying circuit through cycle control, and changes the conduction angle, thereby realizing the function of adjusting the voltage.
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