AU2002360355A1 - Production of adeno-associated virus in insect cells - Google Patents

Description

PRODUCTION OF ADENO-ASSOCIATED VIRUS IN INSECT CELLS

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS

[0001] This patent application is a continuation-in-part of copending U.S. Patent Application Nos. 09/986,618 and 10/216,870, filed November 9, 2001 and August 13, 2002, respectively, both of which hereby are incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to the production of adeno-associated virus in insect cells.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Viruses of the Parvoviridae family are small DNA animal viruses characterized by their ability to infect particular hosts, among other factors. Specifically, the family Parvoviridae is divided between two subfamilies: the Parvovirinae, which infect vertebrates, and the Densovirinae, which infect insects. The subfamily Parvovirinae (members of which herein are referred to as the parvoviruses) includes the genus Dependovirus, the members of which genus are unique in that, under most conditions, these viruses require coinfection with a helper virus such as adenovirus or herpes virus for productive infection in cell culture. The genus Dependovirus includes adeno-associated virus (AAV), which normally infects humans (e.g., serotypes 2, 3A, 3B, 5, and 6) or primates (e.g., serotypes 1 and 4), and related viruses that infect other warm-blooded animals (e.g., bovine, canine, equine, and ovine adeno-associated viruses). The parvoviruses and other members of the Parvoviridae family are generally described in Kenneth I. Berns, "Parvoviridae: The Viruses and Their Replication," Chapter 69 in FIELDS VIROLOGY (3d Ed. 1996).

[0004] In recent years, AAV has emerged as a preferred viral vector for gene therapy due to its ability to efficiently infect both nondividing and dividing cells, integrate into a single chromosomal site in the human genome, and pose relatively low pathogenic risk to humans. In view of these advantages, recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) presently is being used in gene therapy clinical trials for hemophilia B, malignant melanoma, cystic fibrosis, and other diseases.

[0005] AAV is able to infect a number of mammalian cells. See, e.g., Tratschin et al., Mol. Cell Biol, 5(ll):3251-3260 (1985) and Grimm et al., Hum. Gene Thar., 10(15):2445- 2450 (1999). However, AAV transduction of human synovial fibroblasts is significantly more efficient than in similar murine cells, Jennings et al., Arthritis Res, 3:1 (2001), and the cellular tropicity of AAN significantly differs between serotypes. See, e.g., Davidson et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 97(7):3428-3432 (2000) (discussing differences among AAN2, AAN4, and AAN5 with respect to mammalian CΝS cell tropism and transduction efficiency). Most commonly, rAAN is produced in 293 cells, COS cells, HeLa cells, KB cells, and other mammalian cell lines. See, e.g., U.S. Patents 6,156,303, 5,387,484, 5,741,683, 5,691,176, and 5,688,676; U.S. Patent Application 2002/0081721, and International Patent Applications WO 00/47757, WO 00/24916, and WO 96/17947. Although virus-like particles (NLPs) of parvoviruses have been produced in insect cells (see, e.g., Ruffing et al., J. Virol, 66(12):6922-6930 (1992), Brown et al., J. Virol, 65(5):2702-2706 (1991), and Yuan et al., Virology, 279(2):546-547 (2001)), the production of infectious AAN in nonmammalian, invertebrate cells currently is not known. The replication of parvo viral viral genomes, including, particularly, Dependovirus genomes, in nonmammalian, invertebrate cells, is similarly heretofore unknown. [0006] The difficulties involved in scaling-up rAAN production for clinical trials and commercialization using current mammalian cell production systems can be significant, if not entirely prohibitive. For example, for certain clinical studies more than 10 particles of rAAN may be required. To produce this number of rAAN particles, transfection and culture

11 9 with approximately 10 cultured human 293 cells, the equivalent of 5,000 175-cm flasks of cells, would be required. Related difficulties associated with the production of AAN using known mammalian cell lines are recognized in the art. See, e.g., Grimm et al, supra. There also is the possibility that a vector destined for clinical use produced in a mammalian cell culture will be contaminated with undesirable, perhaps pathogenic, material present in a mammalian cell.

[0007] h view of these and other issues there remains a need for alternative and improved methods of efficiently, safely, and economically producing a large amount of infectious rAAN particles. The invention provides such methods. These and other advantages of the invention, as well as additional inventive features, will be apparent from the description of the invention provided herein.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] The present invention provides methods of production of parvovirus (particularly dependoviruses, such as AAV) and parvovirus (e.g., dependovirus) genomes, novel vectors adapted for producing such dependovirus and dependovirus proteins in insect cells, and recombinant insect cells adapted for producing such genomes and viruses. [0009] In one aspect, the invention provides a method of producing AAV in an insect cell. The method comprises providing at least one insect cell-compatible vector comprising (1) a first nucleotide sequence including at least one AAV inverted terminal repeat (ITR) nucleotide sequence, (2) a second nucleotide sequence comprising an open reading frame (ORF) encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence operative in an insect cell, (3) a third nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and (4) a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell. The method comprises introducing the vector(s) into an insect cell and maintaining the insect cell under conditions such that AAV is produced.

[0010] In accordance with another aspect of the invention, AAV is produced in insect cells by a method that includes providing an insect cell comprising (a) a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, (b) a second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF encoding AAV VPl, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one insect cell active expression control sequence , (c) a third nucleotide sequence comprising aRep52 or Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, (d) a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and, optionally, (e) at least one insect cell-compatible vector, the method, at least one of the first, second, third, and fourth nucleotide sequences are stably integrated in the insect cell genome and the at least one insect cell-compatible vector, when present, comprises the remainder of the first, second, third, and fourth nucleotide sequences which is or are not stably integrated in the insect cell genome. The recombinant insect cell is maintained under conditions such that AAV is produced.

[0011] In another aspect of the method of the invention, the method comprises providing at least one insect cell-compatible vector comprising (1) a first nucleotide sequence including at least one chimeric ITR sequence, the chimeric ITR including an AAV backbone and a specific binding and nicking site of a Rep protein from a parvovirus other than AAV, (2) a second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, (3) a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and (4) a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral Rep protein that can specifically bind and nick the site in the ITR within the first nucleotide sequence and that is operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell. The method comprises introducing the at least one insect cell-compatible vector into an insect cell, and maintaining the insect cell under conditions such that rAAV is produced.

[0012] The invention also provides a method of producing a parvoviral genome in an insect cell by a method that includes introducing at least one insect cell-compatible vector into the insect cell and thereafter maintaining the insect cell under conditions such that a parvoviral genome is produced in the cell. The one or more insect cell-compatible vectors used in the method collectively include (1) a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one parvoviral ITR, (2) a second nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV Rep52 or Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and (3) a third nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV Rep78 or Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell.

[0013] The invention also provides novel and useful insect cell-compatible vectors. In one exemplary aspect, the invention provides a vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an AAV Rep78 or Rep68 operably linked to a modified early 1 gene (IE-1) promoter from Orgyia pseudotsugata (Δ-E-l) and a Kozak-like expression control sequence. Another representative vector provided by the invention comprises an ORF encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence comprising a nine nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:4 or a sequence substantially homologous to SEQ. ID NO: 4, upstream of an initiation codon of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein, and a C at nucleotide position 2 of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein.

[0014] hi yet another aspect of the invention, genetically modified (i.e., recombinant) insect cells are provided. For example, the invention provides an insect cell that comprises a first nucleotide sequence including (1) at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, (2) a second nucleotide sequence comprising an open reading frame (ORF) encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins (a VP ORF) and that is operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, (3) a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and (4) a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0015] Fig. 1 is a genetic and transcriptional map of an AAV genome. [0016] Fig. 2 is a genetic map of representative recombinant baculo viruses employed to produce rAAV in insect cells.

[0017] Fig. 3 is a genetic map of an exemplary two-vector system for production of rAAV in insect cells.

[0018] Fig. 4 is a genetic map of an illustrative three-vector system for production of rAAV in insect cells.

[0019] Fig. 5 is a depiction of AAV ITR sequences in palindromic form. Specifically,

Fig. 5 A shows the AAV2 ITR sequence, Fig. 5B shows the JcDNV ITR sequence, and Fig.

5C shows a representative chimeric AAV2/JcDNV ITR sequence.

[0020] Fig. 6 is a genetic map of an exemplary recombinant vector comprising a modified AAV1 VP ORF useful in the production of rAAVl and AAVl-pseudotyped vectors in insect cells.

[0021] Fig. 7 is a genetic map of a representative recombinant vector comprising a modified AAV4 VP gene, which can be used in the production of rAAV4 and AAV4- pseudotyped vectors in insect cells.

[0022] Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 are maps of representative vectors comprising modified AAV5

Rep and AAV5 VP sequence expression cassettes, respectively, which vectors are useful in the production of rAAV5 in insect cells.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0023] The invention described herein relates to the remarkable discovery that viruses that normally infect vertebrates can be efficiently produced in insect cells. In a more specific sense, the invention relates to the production of animal parvoviruses, particularly the production of dependo viruses, and, more particularly, the production of infectious human or simian AAV, and the components thereof (e.g., an animal parvovirus genome) in insect cells. All references to AAV and rAAV herein are directed to "full" virions, i.e., complete particles comprising an AAV genome, rather than, e.g., empty virus capsids or virus-like particles, unless otherwise stated. Such full virions typically are infectious AAV particles able to deliver a transgene into (i.e., transduce) a host cell.

[0024] In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of producing an AAV in an insect cell, which method comprises (i) providing at least one insect cell-compatible vector, (ii) introducing the at least one insect cell-compatible vector into an insect cell, and (iii) maintaining the insect cell under conditions such that AAV is produced. The insect cell- compatible vector comprises a first nucleotide sequence including (1) at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, (2) a second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, (3) a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding nucleotide sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and (4) a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell. [0025] The transcriptional map shown in Fig. 1 is schematic of the genome of all known AAV serotypes (i.e., AAV serotypes 1-6). The AAV genome is a linear, single-stranded DNA molecule that is less than about 5,000 nucleotides (nt) in length. Inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) flank the sequences encoding the non-structural replication (Rep) proteins and the structural (VP) proteins. The terminal 145 nt forming the ITRs are self- complementary and organized so that an energetically stable intramolecular duplex forming a T-shaped hairpin may be formed therefrom. These hairpin structures function as an origin for viral DNA replication, serving as primers for the cellular DNA polymerase complex. The VP proteins form the AAV capsid. The Rep genes encode the Rep proteins, Rep78, Rep68, Rep52, and Rep40. Rep78 and Rep68 are transcribed from the p5 promoter, and Rep 52 and Rep40 are transcribed from the pl9 promoter. The cap genes, which are transcribed from the p40 promoter, encode the VP proteins, VPl, VP2, and VP3. [0026] The AAV sequences employed for the production of AAV in insect cells can be derived from the genome of any AAV serotype. Generally, the AAV serotypes have genomic sequences of significant homology at the amino acid and the nucleic acid levels, provide an identical set of genetic functions, produce virions which are essentially physically and functionally equivalent, and replicate and assemble by practically identical mechanisms. For the genomic sequence of AAV serotypes and a discussion of the genomic similarities between these genomes see, for example, GenBank Accession number U89790; GenBank Accession number J01901; GenBank Accession number AF043303; GenBank Accession number AF085716; Chiorini et al, J. Vir. 71: 6823-33(1997); Srivastava et al, J. Vir. 45:555-64 (1983); Chiorini et al, J. Vir. 73:1309-1319 (1999); Rutledge et al, J. Vir. 72:309-319 (1998); and Wu et al, J. Vir. 74: 8635-47 (2000).

[0027] AAV Rep and ITR sequences are particularly conserved among most AAV serotypes. For example, the Rep78 proteins of AAV2, AAN3A, AAN3B, AAN4, and AAN6 are reportedly about 89-93% identical. Bantel-Schaal et al., J. Virol, 73(2):939-947 (1999). In fact, it has been reported that AAN2, AAN3A, AAN3B, and AAN6 have 82% total nucleotide sequence identity at the genome level. Id. Moreover, the Rep sequences and ITRs of many AAN serotypes are known to efficiently cross-complement (i.e., functionally substitute) the corresponding sequences from other serotypes in production of AAN particles in mammalian cells. The inventors have determined that AAN Rep and ITR sequences also efficiently cross-complement other AAN Rep and ITR sequences in insect cells.

[0028] Generally, AAN NP proteins, which determine the cellular tropicity of the AAN particle, and related VP protein-encoding sequences (which also may be referred to as "cap" sequences), are significantly less conserved than Rep proteins and genes between AAV serotypes. In view of the ability Rep and ITR sequences to cross-complement corresponding sequences of other serotypes, pseudotyped AAV particles comprising the capsid proteins of a serotype (e.g., AAV3) and the Rep and/or ITR sequences of another AAV serotype (e.g., AAV2) can readily be generated. For example, the inventors have produced high titers of rAAV2/l and rAAN2/4 (i.e., pseudotyped AAV comprising the ITRs and Rep sequences of AAV2 and VP sequences derived from AAV1 and AAV4, respectively) in Sf9 cells (see Examples 8 and 9, infra). In view of the conserved nature of Rep and ITR sequences among AAV serotypes, production of a pseudotyped vectors comprising the VP genes of a particular AAV serotype in a packaging cell system can indicate that nonpseudotyped vectors of that serotype also can be successfully produced in that system. For example, the efficient production of rAAV2/l and rAAV2/4 in Sf9 cells indicates that rAAVl and rAAV4 also can be efficiently produced in these cells. [0029] hi view of the foregoing, it will be understood that sequences from more than a single AAV serotype can be combined to produce AAV in insect cells. For example, the first nucleotide sequence in any one of the above-described methods (comprising at least one AAV ITR) can be derived from one serotype, for example AAV2, while any of the above-described second, third, and fourth nucleotide sequences can comprise sequences derived from one or more other AAV serotypes, for example, serotype 3. Sequences from AAV serotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are preferred for producing rAAV in insect cells. [0030] In a preferred and related aspect, the above-described first nucleotide sequence comprises at least one AAV1, AAV2, or AAV4 ITR, the above-described third nucleotide sequence comprises an AAV1, AAV2, or AAV4 Rep52 or Rep40 coding sequence, and the above-described fourth nucleotide sequence comprises an AAV1, AAV2, or AAV4 Rep78 or Rep68 coding sequence. In a more particular aspect, the above-described second nucleic acid encodes VPl, VP2, and VP3 proteins of AAV1, AAV2, or AAN4. [0031] Modified (non wild-type) "AAN" sequences also can be used to produce rAAN vectors in insect cells. For example, or more sequences having at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more nucleotide and/or amino acid sequence identity (e.g., a sequence having about 75- 99% nucleotide sequence identity) to an AANl, AAN2, AAN3, and/or AAN4 ITR, Rep, or VP sequences can be used in place of wild-type AAV ITR, Rep, or VP sequences. [0032] Although similar to other AAV serotypes in many respects, AAV5 differs from other human and simian AAV serotypes more than other known human and simian AAV serotypes. For example, AAV5 Rep and ITR sequences are unable to efficiently cross- complement corresponding Rep and ITR sequences from AAV2 in mammalian cells. See, e.g., Chiorini et al., J. Virol, 73(5):4293-4298 (1999) and Chiorini et al, J. Virol, 73(2):1309-1319 (1999). This lack of functional homology in AAV5 Rep and ITR sequences with respect to Rep and ITR sequences of other serotypes may be due to the relatively significant differences in the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of AAV5 from the corresponding sequences of such other AAV serotypes. See, e.g., Bantel-Schaal et al., J. Virol, 73(2):939-947 (1999). In view of these differences, the production of AAV5 can differ from production of other serotypes. For example, the use of AAV5 Rep and ITR sequences can be less suitable than sequences from serotypes 1, 2, 3, and 4 in the context of producing pseudotyped AAV vectors. Despite these and other differences between AAV5 and other human and simian serotypes, the inventors have discovered that rAAV5 and rAAV vectors comprising AAV5 capsid proteins can be produced in insect cells in accordance with the present invention.

[0033] Where methods of the invention are employed to produce rAAV5 in insect cells, it is preferred that one or more vectors comprising a nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV5 ITR, a nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV5 Rep52 and or Rep40 coding sequence, a nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV5 Rep78 and/or Rep68 coding sequence, and a nucleotide sequence comprising AAV5 VP coding sequences. These AAV5 sequences, particularly the AAV5 Rep and/or VP sequences (including especially the associated noncoding AAV sequences) can be modified to increase the efficiency of producing rAAV5 or pseudotyped rAAN5 in insect cells in accordance with particular aspects of the invention. For example, the start codon of the Rep sequences can be modified, the VPl splice sites can be modified or eliminated, and/or the VPl start codon and nearby nucleotides can be modified to improve the production of rAAV5 or any aspect thereof (e.g., by obtaining VPl, VP2, and VP3 expression levels in a stoichiometric ratio similar to the stoichiometry of VPl, VP2, and VP3 in AAV-infected mammalian cells). Modifying AAV Rep and/or VP sequences to produce modified Rep and/or VP sequences to facilitate AAV and AAV genome production in insect cells (e.g., the production of at least about 1 AAV vector genome/cell), particularly in the production of rAAV5 and AAV5 pseudotyped vectors, through such start codon substitutions, codon context modifications, and other sequence modifications is an important feature of the invention, hi particular aspects, such modifications include substituting one or more AAV nucleotides locating near the VPl start codon (e.g., within about 20 nt or less, preferably about 10 nt or less of the VPl start codon). The inventors have determined that such codon context modifications can increase the expression of rAAV in insect cells (particularly in the case of rAAV vectors). Other exemplary modifications include the elimination of VP splice sites, the removal of false codons, and substitution of promoters to obtain improved yields of AAV in insect cells and/or stoichiometric levels of VP protein expression similar to that observed in AAV- infected mammalian cells.

[0034] The inventors have also discovered that by substituting portions of the AAV5 VP coding sequence with sequence coding for amino acids occurring in the VP sequences of other AAV serotypes (particularly AAV2), improved yields of rAAV having AAV5 structural characteristics can be obtained. Substituting AAV5 VP coding sequences that do not impact AAV5 tropism, particularly AAV5 VP nontropism-determining sequences that exhibit low levels of identity with similar portions of AAV2 VP, is preferred. The N- terminus region of AAV5 VPl is an example of such a coding sequence where substitutions with AAV2 VPl or other AAV VPl amino acid residues can improve the yield of rAAV. For example, the inventors have determined rAAV comprising a modified VP ORF that includes (1) an AAV5 VP3 coding sequence, (2) an AAV5 VP2 coding sequence, and (3) a modified VPl coding sequence that expresses a chimeric VPl in which about 1-20% of amino acid residues in the N-terminal portion of AAV5 VPl are substituted with AAV2 VPl amino acid residues from similar areas of AAV2 VPl, are produced in insect cells at significantly higher titers than rAAV5 lacking such coding sequence modifications. In more particular aspects, an rAAV comprising a modified VPl coding sequence that expresses a chimeric VPl wherein about 5-20% of the AAV5 VPl amino acids, located in the N- terminal most about 20% of the VPl protein, are substituted with AAV2 VPl amino acids from similar locations in the VPl protein, is used. Advantageously, rAAV particles produced from constructs comprising such VP ORF sequences exhibit similar tropism characteristics as wild-type AAV5. For example, the infectivity of such vectors is not impeded by the presence of heparin.

[0035] A full complement of VP capsid proteins comprises VPl, VP2, and VP3. An ORF encoding AAV VP capsid proteins may comprise less than a full complement of VP proteins. However, the use of a nucleic acid comprising an ORF encoding the full complement of VP proteins in the production of AAV in insect cells is preferred. It is possible to produce the VP proteins from a nucleotide sequence encoding less than VPl, VP2, and VP3 by use, for example, of separate nucleotide sequences operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, each producing only a single VP capsid protein. In a preferred embodiment, the second nucleotide sequence in the above-described methods comprises one ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell.

[0036] Any insect cell which allows for replication of AAN and which can be maintained in culture can be used in accordance with the present invention. For example, the cell line used can be derived from Spodopterafrugiperda, such as the Sf9 or Sf21 cell lines. Drosophila cell lines and mosquito cell lines such as Aedes albopictus-deήved cell lines also can be suitable. The use of insect cells in the expression of heterologous proteins is well documented, as are methods of introducing nucleic acids into such cells and methods of maintaining such cells in culture. See, for example, METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, ed. Richard, Humana Press, NJ (1995); O'Reilly et al, BACULOVIRUS EXPRESSION VECTORS, A LABORATORY MANUAL, Oxford Univ. Press (1994); Samulski et al, J. Vir. 63:3822-8 (1989); Kajigaya et al, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 88: 4646-50 (1991); Ruffing et al, J. Vir. 66:6922-30 (1992); Kirnbauer et al, Vir. 219:37-44 (1996); Zhao et al, Vir. 272:382-93 (2000); and Samulski et al, U.S. Pat. No. 6,204,059. A preferred cell line for producing AAV is the Spodopterafrugiperda Sf9 cell line. [0037] An insect-compatible vector can be any suitable compound or formulation, biological or chemical, which facilitates transformation or transfection of an insect cell. Exemplary biological vectors include plasmids, linear nucleic acid molecules, and recombinant viruses. Exemplary chemical vectors include lipid complexes. Biologically functional vectors capable of expression and replication in an insect cell are known in the art. Such vectors are used to incorporate nucleic acid sequences into insect cells in accordance with the present invention. O'Reilly et al. (1994), supra; MOLECULAR CLONING, Maniatis et al, eds. CSH Laboratory, NY, NY (1982); and LIPOSOMES AS TOOLS IN BASIC RESEARCH AND INDUSTRY, Philiport and Scluber, eds. CRC Press, Ann Arbor, MI (1995).

[0038] Any suitable type of insect cell-compatible vector can be used to introduce AAV sequences to the insect cell. The presence of the vector in the insect cell need not be permanent. The vectors can be introduced by any means known, for example by chemical treatment of the cells, electroporation, or infection with a viral vector, hi a preferred embodiment, the vector is a baculovirus or a plasmid (baculovirus vectors are particularly preferred).

[0039] The number of vectors employed is not limiting of the invention. For example, one, two, three, four, five, six, or more vectors can be employed to produce AAV in insect cells in accordance with the methods of the invention described herein. Where such a number of vectors are used, a first vector preferably encodes AAV VPl, a second vector preferably encodes AAV VP2, a third vector preferably encodes AAV VP3, a fourth vector preferably encodes Rep52 or Rep40, a fifth vector preferably encodes Rep78 or Rep 68, and a sixth vector preferably comprises at least one AAV ITR. Additional vectors might be employed to express, for example, Rep52 and Rep40, and Rep78 and Rep 68. If fewer than six vectors are used, the vectors used to produce AAV preferably comprise various combinations of the at least one AAV ITR; VPl, VP2, and VP3 coding sequences; Rep52/Rep40 coding sequences, and Rep78/Rep68 coding sequences. Preferably, two vectors or three vectors are used in the methods described herein, with two vectors being more preferred.

[0040] If two vectors are used in a method of the invention, preferably the first vector comprises the first nucleotide sequence comprising at. least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, and the second vector comprises the second nucleotide sequence (comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to an insect cell active expression control sequence), the third nucleotide sequence (comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell), and the fourth nucleotide sequence (comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell). Figure 3 is a genetic map of an exemplary two-vector system. In Fig. 3, pA represents a polyadenylation signal, polh and ΔlE-1 are transcriptional promoters for expression in insect cells, and CMV and plO are respectively, mammalian transcriptional and insect-specific promoters for expression of a desired gene in mammalian and insect cells.

[0041] If three vectors are used to produce AAN in insect cells in accordance with the invention, preferably the first vector comprises the first nucleotide sequence (comprising at least one AAN ITR nucleotide sequence), the second vector comprises the second nucleotide sequence (comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAN, VPl, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell), and the third vector comprises the third nucleotide sequence (comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell) and the fourth nucleotide sequence (comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell). Figure 4 is a genetic map of such an exemplary three- vector system.

[0042] The sequences on each vector can be in any order relative to each other. For example, if one vector comprises ITRs and an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding VP capsid proteins, the VP ORF can be located on the vector such that, upon replication of the DΝA between ITR sequences, the VP ORF is replicated or not replicated. [0043] For another example, the Rep coding sequences and/or the ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding VP capsid proteins can be in any order in a vector. [0044] In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, a method of producing an AAV in an insect cell is provided that includes providing an insect cell with (1) a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, (2) a second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, (3) a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and (4) a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell. Optionally, at least one insect cell-compatible vector is provided. At least one of the first, second, third, and fourth nucleotide sequences is/are stably integrated in the insect cell and, the at least one insect cell-compatible vector, when present, comprises the remainder of the first, second, third, and fourth nucleotide sequences. The insect cell, comprising the first to fourth nucleotide sequences and, optionally, the at least one insect cell-compatible vector, is maintained under conditions such that AAV is produced. Preferably, the second nucleotide sequence is stably integrated in the insect cell.

[0045] As mentioned above, methods of growing insect cells and production of proteins therefrom are known in the art. See Richard (1995), supra; O'Reilly et al, (1994) supra; Samulski et al, (1989) supra; Kajigaya et al, (1991) supra; Ruffing et al, (1992) supra; Kirnbauer et al, (1996) supra; Zhao et αl, (2000) supra; and Samulski et al, U.S. Pat. No. 6,204,059. Techniques for stably introducing nucleic acids into an insect cell, including into an insect cell genome, and methods of identifying cells transfected with such nucleic acids, also are known. The incorporation into the genome may be aided by, for example, the use of a vector comprising nucleotide sequences highly homologous to regions of the insect genome. The use of specific sequences, such as transposons, is another way to introduce a nucleotide sequence into a genome. For example, cells transformed with the AAV nucleic acids can be selected or identified by expression of a marker gene encoded by the nucleic acid sequence added to the cell. The incorporation of the nucleic acid sequence in the insect cell or cell's genome can be determined by, for example, Southern blots or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques.

[0046] AAV ITRs function as an origin of replication in a cis manner while acting as a recognition site for ..raws-acting replication modulating proteins that recognize the palindrome and specific sequences internal to the palindrome (e.g., AAV Rep 78 and/or Rep68). An AAV ITR sequence typically comprises characteristic symmetric "A," "B," and "C" regions. The "D" region of the AAV ITRs is an exception to the symmetry of these sequences, not having a complement in one ITR. In replication of the viral genome, nicking of single-stranded DNA and initiation of DNA replication occurs at the junction between the A and D regions. The D region normally sits to one side of the ITR palindrome and provides directionality to the nucleic acid replication step. Figure 5 A shows an AAV2 palindrome and identifies the A, B, C, and D ITR regions. An AAV replicating in a mammalian cell typically has two ITR sequences.

[0047] It is, however, possible to engineer an ITR so that binding sites on both strands of the A regions and D regions are located symmetrically, one on each side of the palindrome. In a double-stranded circular DNA template (e.g., a plasmid), the Rep78- or Rep68-assisted nucleic acid replication proceeds in both directions and a single ITR suffices for AAV replication. Thus, one ITR nucleotide sequence can be used in the methods of the present invention. Preferably, however, two or another even number of regular ITRs are used in the methods of the invention. Most preferably, two ITR sequences are used. [0048] Each of Rep78 and Rep68 is part of a replication mechanism in which it binds to unique and known sequence on the ITR (also known as a binding site) comprising short and repeated nucleotide sequences located on the A region of the ITR, and nick the DNA at a known site, typically 5' of a thymidine nucleotide located 5' of the binding site at the beginning of the D region (the nick site). In addition to specific binding to sequences of ITR and nicking, Rep78 or Rep68 exerts an ATP-dependent helicase activity for unwinding double-stranded DNA. hi these respects, Rep78 and Rep68 are typical of Rep proteins from parvoviruses.

[0049] One concern in viral vector construction is the safety of such viral vectors. An issue which arises in clinical use of a viral vector is the sometimes undesirable ability of the vector to further propagate after initial introduction into a cell. The invention provides a safety mechanism for limiting undesirable vector propagation in a recipient. [0050] In accordance with this aspect of the invention, the safety of viral vectors is improved by using a vector for rAAV production comprising nucleotide sequences providing the rAAV with a chimeric ITR, thereby providing a means to interfere with the ability of the rAAV to replicate in the presence of a second AAV virus. An rAAV genome comprising such a chimeric ITR then can only be replicated by the Rep or Rep protein equivalent which is capable of binding the chimeric ITR. A chimeric ITR preferably has a binding site for a Rep protein or Rep protein equivalent and a nicking site. One example of such a chimeric ITR, which is particularly useful in baculovirus systems for producing rAAV, employs a binding site which is specific for the insect Rep protein equivalent NS-1. [0051] An example of a Rep protein equivalent from a parvovirus other than AAN is the non-structural protein ΝS-1 from Junonia coenia densovirus (JcDNN). Although the JcDΝN genome and the ΝS-1 gene sequence are known (see, e.g., Dumas et al, Virology 191:202-122 (1992) and Tijssen, et al, Semin. Virol. 6:347-55 (1995)), the ability of the ΝS-1 protein to function in a manner equivalent to that of the Rep protein of AAN heretofore was not and the discovery provides another aspect of the invention (for example, the invention provides a method of producing AAN in a cell comprising the use of AAN sequences in combination with an ΝS-1 gene sequence, which method can be practiced in any suitable type of cell). As described herein, the inventors have demonstrated that ΝS-1 has binding/nicking and ATP-dependent helicase activities closely matching the Rep of other parvoviruses. See also, Ding et al., J. Virol, 7<5(%):338-345 (2002). In particular, these activities are similar to those of AAN Rep78 and Rep68. The binding site for ΝS-1 is four repeats of a GAC sequence, and the nick site is G*TATTG, where "*" indicated an internucleotide bond that is likely nicked in vivo. Figure 5B shows the JcDΝN ITR and indicates the binding and nicking sites. Figure 5C shows a chimeric ITR, specifically a AAV2/JcDΝV ITR, where the ITR backbone was altered to include ΝS-1 binding and nick sites.

[0052] Although the above-described chimeric vector utilizes the binding site and nick sequence for the JcDΝN Rep protein, chimeric ITRs suitable for use in the methods described herein are not limited to such ITRs. Parvoviruses other than AAN (e.g., vertebrate parvoviruses and insect parvoviruses) also typically comprise one or more Rep proteins (or equivalents thereof), which specifically bind their ITRs or nick single-stranded DΝA, and display ATP-dependent helicase activities. Knowledge of the specific binding site within the ITR (or equivalent) and nick sequences for other parvoviruses allows construction of chimeric ITRs for vectors having an AAN backbone. Such chimeric ITRs derived from other parvoviruses can be used in the methods described herein. [0053] hi accordance with another embodiment of the invention, the first nucleotide sequence comprises at least one chimeric ITR nucleotide sequence comprising (a) an AAN backbone and (b) a specific binding and nicking site of a Rep protein from a parvovirus other than AAN and the fourth nucleotide sequence comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral Rep protein that can specifically bind and nick the non-AAN parvoviral site in the chimeric ITR. In a preferred embodiment, the chimeric ITR is the AAN2/JcDΝN ITR sequence represented in Figure 5C and the nucleotide sequence encoding Rep coding sequence is that of ΝS-1.

[0054] The first nucleotide sequence can further comprise a nucleic acid sequence encoding at least one gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell, located such that it will be incorporated into an AAV genome replicated in the insect cell. Any nucleic acid can be incorporated for later expression in a mammalian cell transfected with the AAV produced in accordance with the present invention. For example, the nucleic acid can encode a protein or express antisense RNA. The protein can be a secretable protein, or a protein that primarily affects the cell infected with the insect-infected AAV. In accordance to a preferred embodiment, one product of interest is Rep78 or Rep68. hi accordance with a preferred embodiment, the first nucleotide sequence comprises two nucleic acid sequences and each sequence encodes one gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell. Each of the two nucleic acid sequences encoding a product of interest preferably is located such that it will be incorporated into a rAAV genome replicated in the insect cell. [0055] Generally, a product of interest is a polypeptide, RNA molecule, or other gene product, the expression of which is desired in the mammalian cell. A product of interest can include, for example, polypeptides that serve as marker proteins to assess cell transformation and expression, fusion proteins, polypeptides having a desired biological activity, gene products that can complement a genetic defect, RNA molecules, transcription factors, and other gene products that are of interest in regulation and/or expression. For example, gene products of interest include nucleotide sequences that provide a desired effect or regulatory function (e.g., transposons, transcription factors). Examples of gene products of interest include, but are not limited to: hormone receptors (e.g., mineralcorticosteroid, glucocorticoid, and thyroid hormone receptors); intramembrane proteins (e.g., TM-1 and TM-7); intracellular receptors (e.g., orphans, retinoids, vitamin D3 and vitamin A receptors); signaling molecules (e.g., kinases, transcription factors, or molecules such signal transducers and activators of transcription receptors of the cytokine superfamily (e.g. erythropoietin, growth hormone, interferons, and interleukins, and colony-stimulating factors; G-protein coupled receptors, e.g., hormones, calcitonin, epinephrine, gastrin, and paracrine or autocrine mediators, such as stomatostatin or prostaglandins; neurotransmitter receptors (norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin or acetylcholine); pathogenic antigens, which can be of viral, bacterial, allergenic, or cancerous origin; and tyrosine kinase receptors (such as insulin growth factor and nerve growth factor). Gene products currently used in AAV-mediated gene therapy trials also are important gene products (e.g., CFTR and Factor IX).

[0056] A gene product of interest can be a therapeutic gene product. A therapeutic gene product is a polypeptide, RNA molecule, or other gene product that, when expressed in a target cell, provides a desired therapeutic effect, e.g., ablation of an infected cell, expression of a polypeptide having a desired biological activity, and/or expression of an RNA molecule for antisense therapy (e.g., regulation of expression of a endogenous or heterologous gene in the target cell genome). For example, Goldsmith et al, WO 90/07936, described a system for ablating specific cells within a tissue by using a promoter that is activated only in that tissue to express a therapeutic gene product only in the desired cells. For example, in a patient about to receive a heterologous transplant or graft, one may administer a polynucleotide encoding a toxin to T cells targeting the graft.

[0057] An AAV protein can be a gene product of interest. For example, the sequence of a Rep protein, such as Rep78 or Rep68, or a functional fragment thereof can be a gene product of interest for expression in the mammalian cell. A nucleic acid sequence encoding Rep78 and/or Rep68, if present on the rAAV genome of the invention and expressed in a mammalian cell transduced with the rAAV produced in accordance with the present invention, allows for integration of the rAAV into the genome of the transduced mammalian cell. Expression of Rep78 and/or Rep68 in an rAAV-transduced or infected mammalian cell can bestow an advantage for certain uses of the rAAV produced in an insect cell, by allowing long term or permanent expression of any other gene product of interest introduced in the cell by the rAAV.

[0058] A selectable marker is one type of a gene product of interest. A selectable marker is a gene sequence or a protein encoded by that gene sequence. Expression of the protein encoded by the selectable marker allows a host cell transfected with an expression vector which includes the selectable marker to be easily identified from a host cell which does not have an expression vector encoding the selectable marker. An example is a host cell which can use the selectable marker to survive a selection process that would otherwise kill the host cell, such as treatment with an antibiotic. Such a selectable marker can be one or more antibiotic resistance factors, such as neomycin resistance (e.g., neo), hygromycin resistance, and puromycin resistance. A selectable marker also can be a cell-surface marker, such as nerve growth factor receptor or truncated versions thereof. Cells that express the cell-surface marker then can be selected using an antibody targeted to the cell-surface marker. The antibody targeted to the cell surface marker can be directly labeled (e.g., with a fluorescent substrate) or can be detected using a secondary labeled antibody or substrate which binds to the antibody targeted to the cell-surface marker. Alternatively, cells can be negatively selected by using an enzyme, such as Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSVTK) that converts a pro-toxin (gancyclovir) into a toxin or bacterial Cytosine Deaminase (CD) which converts the pro-toxin 5'-fluorocytosine (5'-FC) into the toxin 5'- fluorouracil (5'-FU). Alternatively, any nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide can be used as a selectable marker as long as the polypeptide is easily recognized by an antibody. [0059] The nucleic acid encoding a selectable marker can encode, for example, a β- lactamase, a luciferase, a green fluorescent protein (GFP), /3-galactosidase, or other reporter gene as that term is understood in the art, including cell-surface markers, such as CD4 or the truncated nerve growth factor (NGFR) (for GFP, see WO 96/23810; Heim et al, Current Biology 2:178-182 (1996); Heim et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1995); or Heim et al, Science 373:663-664 (1995); for j8-lactamase, see WO 96/30540). In a preferred embodiment, the selectable marker is a j8-lactamase. The nucleic acid encoding a selectable marker can encode, for example, a fluorescent protein. A fluorescent protein can be detected by determining the amount of any quantitative fluorescent property, e.g., the amount of fluorescence at a particular wavelength, or the integral of fluorescence over an emission spectrum. Optimally, the fluorescent protein is selected to have fluorescent properties that are easily detected. Techniques for measuring fluorescence are well-known to one of skill in the art.

[0060] In accordance with the invention, the nucleic acid for expression in the mammalian cell will be incorporated into the AAV genome produced in the insect cell if it is located between two regular ITRs, or is located on either side of an ITR engineered with two D regions.

[0061] hi the at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell, the nucleotide sequence(s) is/are operably linked to at least one mammalian cell-compatible expression control sequence, e.g., a promoter. Many such promoters are known in the art. It will be understood by a skilled artisan that preferred promoters include those that are inducible, tissue-specific, or cell cycle-specific. For example, it was reported that the E2F promoter can mediate tumor-selective, and, in particular, neurological cell tumor-selective expression in vivo by being de-repressed in such cells in vivo. Parr et al, Nat. Med. 3:1145-9 (1997).

[0062] The VP and Rep coding nucleotide sequences (i.e., those comprised within second, third, and fourth nucleotide sequences) are operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell. Herein, "coding nucleotide sequences" refer to that portion of a nucleotide sequence that is translated into a protein product. "Operably linked" means that the expression control sequence is positioned relative to the coding sequence such that it can promote the expression of the encoded gene product.

[0063] "Expression control sequence" refers to a nucleic acid sequence that regulates the expression of a nucleotide sequence to which it is operably linked. An expression control sequence is "operably linked" to a nucleotide sequence when the expression control sequence controls and regulates the transcription and/or the translation of the nucleotide sequence. Thus, an expression control sequence can include promoters, enhancers, internal ribosome entry sites (IRES), transcription terminators, a start codon in front of a protein- encoding gene, splicing signal for introns, and stop codons. The term "expression control sequence" is intended to include, at a minimum, a sequence whose presence are designed to influence expression, and can also include additional advantageous components. For example, leader sequences and fusion partner sequences are expression control sequences. The term can also include the design of the nucleic acid sequence such that undesirable, potential initiation codons in and out of frame, are removed from the sequence. It can also include the design of the nucleic acid sequence such that undesirable potential splice sites are removed. It includes sequences or polyadenylation sequences (pA) which direct the addition of a polyA tail, i.e., a string of adenine residues at the 3 '-end of a mRNA, sequences referred to as polyA sequences. It also can be designed to enhance mRNA stability. Expression control sequences which affect the transcription and translation stability, e.g., promoters, as well as sequences which effect the translation, e.g., Kozak sequences, are known in insect cells. Expression control sequences can be of such nature as to modulate the nucleotide sequence to which it is operably linked such that lower expression levels or higher expression levels are achieved.

[0064] More than one expression control sequence can be operably linked to a given nucleotide sequence. For example, a promoter sequence, a translation initiation sequence, and a stop codon can be operably linked to a nucleotide sequence. [0065] The translational start site of eukaryotic mRNA is controlled in part by a nucleotide sequence referred to as a Kozak sequence. See Kozak, Cell 44:283-292 (1986); Kozak, J., Cell. Biol. 108: 229-41 (1989). Both naturally occurring and synthetic translational start sites of the Kozak form can be used in the production of polypeptides by molecular genetic techniques. Kozak, Mamm. Genome 1:563-51 '4 (1996). [0066] Splice sites are sequences on a mRNA which facilitate the removal of parts of the mRNA sequences after the transcription (formation) of the mRNA. Typically, the splicing occurs in the nucleus, prior to mRNA transport into a cell's cytoplasm. [0067] An expression control sequence can be homologous to known expression control sequences. A deteπnination of the degree of homology of two nucleic acids sequences is a determination of the percentage of time a nucleotide, from among the four known natural nucleotides, exactly matches a counterpart on a second nucleotide sequence, e.g. a T matches a T, an A matches an A, a G matches a G, and a C matches a C. A homology of at least 50%, 60%, 70%, preferably 80%, more preferably 90% or more, is considered to be a substantially homologous expression control sequence. Preferably, the homology is calculated between sequences without introduction of gaps in one or both of the sequences being compared.

[0068] A skilled artisan will understand that in order to optimize the homology between two nucleotide sequences, gaps can be introduced in either or both of the two sequences. Preferably, if gaps are introduced, only nucleotides which pair with a nucleotide in the second nucleotide sequence (whether or not there is a match) are used to calculate percentage homology. Algorithms that have worked out the rules of calculation of percentage homology are known. Examples of such programs include the SIM, GAP, NAP, LAP2, GAP2, ALIGN, BLAST, and PIPMAKER.

[0069] For example, the ALIGN program produces an optimal alignment of two chosen protein or nucleic acid sequences using a modification of the dynamic programming algorithm described by Myers and Miller, CABIOS, 4, 11-17 (1988). Preferably, if available, the ALIGN program is used with weighted end-gaps. If gap opening and gap extension penalties are available, they are preferably set between about -5 to -15 and 0 to -3, respectively, more preferably about -12 and -0.5 to -2, respectively, for amino acid sequence alignments, and -10 to -20 and -3 to -5, respectively, more preferably about -16 and -4, respectively, for nucleic acid sequence alignments. The ALIGN program and principles underlying it are further described in, e.g., Pearson et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85: 2444-48 (1988), and Pearson et al, Methods Enzymol 183:63-98 (1990). [0070] The BLAST programs provide analysis of at least two amino acid or nucleotide sequences, either by aligning a selected sequence against multiple sequences in a database (e.g., GenSeq), or, with BL2SEQ, between two selected sequences. BLAST programs are preferably modified by low complexity filtering programs such as the DUST or SEG programs, which are preferably integrated into the BLAST program operations (see, e.g., Wooton et α/., Compu. Chem., 17:149-63 (1993); Altschul et al, Nat. Genet, 6: 119-29 (1994); Hancock et al, Comput. Appl Biosci, 10:67-70 (1994); and Wootton et al, Meth. in Enzym., 266:554-71 (1996)). If a lambda ratio is used, preferred settings for the ratio are between 0.75 and 0.95, more preferably between 0.8 and 0.9. If gap existence costs (or gap scores) are used, the gap existence cost preferably is set between about -5 and -15, more preferably about -10, and the per residue gap cost preferably is set between about 0 to -5, more preferably between 0 and -3 (e.g., -0.5). Similar gap parameters can be used with other programs as appropriate. The BLAST programs and principles underlying them are further described in, e.g., Altschul et al, J. Mol. Biol, 215: 403-10 (1990), Karlin and Altschul, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87: 2264-68 (1990) (as modified by Karlin and Altschul, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90: 5873-77 (1993)), and Altschul et al, Nucl Acids Res., 25: 3389-3402 (1997). [0071] The method of the invention is not limited by the use of specific expression control sequences. However, when a certain stoichiometry of VP products are achieved (close to 1:1:10 for VPl, VP2, and VP3, respectively) and also when the levels of Rep52 or Rep40 (also referred to as the pi 9 Reps) are significantly higher than Rep78 or Rep68 (also referred to as the p5 Reps), the best yields of AAV in insect cell are obtained. Preferably, the p5/pl9 ratio is below 0.6, more preferably below 0.4, more preferably yet, below 0.3, but always at least 0.03. These ratios can be measured at the level of the protein or can be implicated from the relative levels of specific mRNAs.

[0072] Below are examples of considerations for the expression and examples of expression control sequences employed in various preferred embodiments of the invention. Figure 2 presents a genetic map showing promoters and location of pA sequences used in some preferred embodiments of the invention.

[0073] In AAV produced in mammalian cells, the four Rep proteins are derived from a single ORF. Promoters at map positions 5 and 19 regulate transcription of the Rep ORF. Rep78 and 68 are expressed from the p5 promoter and differ from each other by a 3 '-splice. Rep68 is essentially a carboxy-truncated version of Rep78, although Rep68 contains 7 unique residues as a result of a frame shift occurring in the splice acceptor site. The Rep52 and Rep40 transcripts are expressed by the pi 9 promoter and are in-frame with the larger Rep proteins. The smaller Rep proteins differ from each other in the same manner as Rep78 and Rep68, i.e., by a splicing event. The functional domains of Rep are: Amino terminus- DNA binding - DNA nicking - ATPase - Helicase - nuclear localization signal — modified zinc finger - COOH. The functions in bold are present only in the p5 Rep proteins. AAV replicates via a duplex DNA intermediate that is one continuous molecule: both strands are covalently attached through the ITR. The p5 Rep proteins are able to recognize a motif within the ITR and nick one strand of the duplex becoming covalently attached through the tyrosinyl-thymidine phosphodiester linkage at the 5 '-side of the nick. The helicase activity of Rep is apparently responsible for unwinding the newly created 5'-end and a cellular polymerase complex extending the recessed 3 '-end to generate a duplex, blunt-ended replication intermediate. The smaller Rep proteins retain the ATP-dependent, DNA helicase activity and are involved in encapsidation of the single-stranded virion genomes. Rep52 and Rep40 associate with the preformed capsids and, presumably, unwind the duplex replication intermediates.

[0074] In practicing the methods of the invention, it is possible to use less than the four Rep enzymes, such as only one of the Rep78/Rep68 enzymes and only one of the Rep52/Rep40 enzymes, wherein each of the two Rep enzymes is separately expressed. It is noted that in mammalian cells the mRNAs corresponding to Rep68 and Rep40 require splicing (removal of an intron sequence) to result in a mRNA which can be translated into a functional Rep68 or Rep40. It was determined that Rep mRNA splicing in insect cells does not mimic the process in mammalian cells. Thus, a Rep68 or Rep40 coding nucleotide sequence was engineered to be devoid of the intron, i.e., a contiguous nucleic acid sequence which will be translated comprises the engineered coding sequence. Now, the coding sequence within any mRNA transcribed will not require the splicing out (removal) of part of the mRNA before translation. Such engineering is well within the knowledge of an ordinarily skilled artisan as the Rep gene sequence is known and techniques to engineer the gene without the intron comprise standard molecular biology techniques. Preferably, the Rep sequences expressed in the insect cell are Rep78 and Rep52._. [0075] As discussed above, any transcriptional promoters compatible with insect cell gene expression can be employed. However, the stoichiometry of Rep78 or Rep68 to Rep52 or Rep40 protein is important for optimum AAV production. Less Rep78 or Rep68 than Rep52 or Rep40 is desired.

[0076] In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, Rep52 or Rep40 is transcribed from the baculovirus derived polyhedron promoter, (polh). Rep78 or Rep68 is transcribed from a weaker promoter, for example the IE-1 promoter, which can be derived from pIZT/V5-His vector sold by frivitrogen (nucleotides 2345-2636 of the vector). See also Theilmann and Stewart, Vir. 180:492-508 (1991). Preferably, a promoter substantially homologous to the IE-1 promoter is used. More preferably, an even weaker promoter is used. A deletion mutant of the IE-1 promoter, the ΔIE-1 promoter, has about 20% of the transcriptional activity of that IE-1 promoter. The AEE-l promoter sequence is: AATAAACGATAACGCCGTTGGTGGCGTGAGGCATGTAAAAGGTTACATCATTAT CTTGTTCGCCATCCGGTTGGTATAAATAGACGTTCATGTTGGTTTTTGTTTCAGT TGCAAGTTGGCTGCGGCGCGCGCAGCACCTTTG (SEQ ID NO:l). The PCR primers that can be used to conveniently obtain the ΔlE-1 promoter in a form suitable for subcloning are: 5'- gcgcagatctAATAAACGATAACGCCGTTGGTGGC-3' (SEQ ID NO:2) and [0077] 5 '- gtacgcggccgCAAAGGTGCTGCGCGCGCCGCAGC-3 ' (SEQ ID NO:3), where the sequences in capital letters indicate sequences within the Δ-E-1 promoter. Preferably, a promoter substantially homologous to the Δ-E-l promoter is used. In respect to promoters, a homology of at least 50%, 60%, 70%, preferably 80%, more preferably 90% or more, is considered to be a substantially homologous promoter. [0078] A Kozak-like sequence can be introduced in the region of the initiator amino acid of Rep78. Kozak, Cell (1986) supra and Kozak, J. Cell Biol, (1989) supra. By "Kozak-like" is meant an altered Kozak sequence. For example, a C to G mutation can be introduced at nucleotide position 4 of the coding sequence. It is generally expected that purines, especially guanidine, at positions -3 and +4 of the coding sequence improve translational expression. This particular modification, the C to G at position 4, may be specific for AAV2 Rep78 protein, but the principle can be applied easily to other AAV serotypes.

[0079] In mammalian-cell produced AAV, the best yield of "full" virions (i.e., viral particles incorporating an AAV genome), that are fully functional and can, for example, target the nucleus, is obtained when all three VP proteins are expressed, and they are at a stoichiometry approaching 1:1:10 (VP1:VP2:VP3). The regulatory mechanisms that allow this controlled level of expression include the production of two mRNAs, one for VPl, the other for VP2 and VP3, produced by differential splicing.

[0080] The splicing event required to produce AAV is not properly reproduced in the insect cell. In accordance with one embodiment, the VP coding region is operably linked to a promoter without the region upstream of the VP coding sequence normally found in wild- type AAV. Furthermore, optionally, one or two single point mutations can be introduced to inactivate the acceptor splicing element of the second splicing event which forms a second VP mRNA containing the VP2 and VP3 coding regions in expression of wild-type VP in mammalian cells. See also Fig. 1. For AAV2, the mutations of a T to A at position 21 of the coding sequence and/or an A to C at position 24 of the coding sequence of the VPl coding nucleotide sequence were designed to remove any such potential splicing event. This resulted in a nucleic acid which is transcribed into a mRNA for translation into all three VP proteins, hi accordance with a preferred embodiment, the VP promoter is the polh promoter. See also Fig. 1.

[0081] A further optional modification was shown to increase the expression of VPl. This consisted of the substitution of the nucleotide sequence immediately upstream of VPl with a particular nine nucleotide sequence and the change of the initiator (first) codon of VPl from methionine to threonine by an T to C mutation at position 2 of the coding nucleotide sequence. The nine nucleotide sequence is: 5'-CCTGTTAAG-3' (SEQ ID NO:4).

[0082] It is possible to employ variations of this sequence, i.e., by using a sequence with substantial homology to the nucleotide sequence. For example, a sequence introduced upstream of VPl which is at least 60%, preferably 70%, more preferably 90% homologous to the nine nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4 will help increase expression of VPl, such that a satisfactory stoichiometry between VPl, VP2, and VP3 is achieved. [0083] For the AAV2 serotype, one other modification was shown to be potentially useful, i.e., the elimination of an out-of-frame ATG, by a T to C mutation at position 12 of the VPl coding frame. Elimination of possible false start sites for translation of VPl of other serotypes will be well understood by an artisan of skill in the art. [0084] The various modifications of the wild-type AAV sequences for proper expression in insect cells is achieved by application of well-known genetic engineering techniques. Furthermore, numerous publications describe such techniques. See, for example, Richard (1995), supra; O'Reilly et al. (1994), supra; and Maniatis (1982), supra. Various further modifications of VP coding regions are known to the skilled artisan which could either increase yield of VP and virion or have other desired effects, such as altered tropism or reduce antigenicity of the virion. These modifications are within the scope of the present invention.

[0085] In accordance with the invention, an insect cell-compatible vector comprising at least one of the first to fourth nucleotide sequences of the invention is provided. In accordance with a preferred embodiment, the vector comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding a Rep78 or Rep68 gene operably linked to a ΔlE-1 promoter and a Kozak-like expression control sequence, i accordance with another preferred embodiment, the insect cell-compatible vector comprises an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence comprising a nine nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:4 or a nucleotide sequence substantially homologous to SEQ ID NO:4, upstream of the initiation codon of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein, and a C at position 2 of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein. Preferably, the AAV VPl, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins are from AAV2 and the nucleotide sequence encoding VPl comprises at least one modification selected from a C at nucleotide position 12, an A at nucleotide position 21, and a C at nucleotide position 24.

[0086] In accordance with the invention, an insect cell comprising at least one of a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, a second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell is provided. Preferably, the fourth nucleotide sequence comprises a Kozak-like expression control sequence. Also preferably, the fourth nucleotide sequence comprises an expression control sequence selected from the IE-1 promoter, a promoter substantially homologous to the IE-1 promoter, a ΔlE-1 promoter, or a promoter substantially homologous to an ΔlE-1 promoter.

[0087] The first nucleotide sequence in the insect cell can comprise two AAV ITR nucleotide sequences and at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell between the two AAV ITR nucleotide sequences. At least one of the first, second, third and fourth nucleotide sequences can be stably integrated in the insect cell.

[0088] In accordance with another aspect of the invention, a recombinant AAV is provided comprising a VPl capsid protein comprising threonine at amino acid position 1. For example, an rAAV comprising a VPl capsid protein comprising threonine is produced in the insect cell when the second nucleotide sequence present in the cell was modified at position 2 of the VPl coding sequence. The initiation codon is now ACG and it translates into threonine.

[0089] hi another aspect, the invention provides a method of producing a parvoviral genome in an insect cell, hi the method, one or more insect cell-compatible vectors are introduced to an insect cell, which vector or vectors collectively comprise a first nucleotide sequence that includes at least one parvoviral ITR, a second nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV Rep52 or Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and a third nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV Rep78 or Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell. After introducing the vector or vectors to the insect cell, the insect cell is maintained under conditions such that a parvovirus genome is produced therein. The parvoviral genome can be any nucleic acid that (1) comprises 5' and 3' ITRs from or having substantial identity (e.g., at least about 70% identity, preferably at least about 80% identity, more preferably at least about 90% identity, or more (e.g., about 95-100% identity)) to AAV 5' and 3' ITRs, respectively, and (2) is capable of replicating in the insect cell upon the introduction of the one or more vectors. Preferably, the parvoviral genome further includes Rep sequences or homologous sequences. The parvovirus can be any suitable member of the Parvovirinae. Desirably, the parvovirus infects mammals, hi a more prefeπed aspect, the parvovirus is a dependovirus. In a particularly preferred aspect, the dependovirus is a human or simian AAV. The parvovirus genome produced in the insect cell can include wild-type and/or modified ITRs, Rep sequences, and VP sequences, as well as one or more additional nucleotide sequences (e.g., one or more transgenes).

EXAMPLES [0090] The present invention, thus generally described, will be understood more readily by reference to the following examples, which are provided by way of illustration and are not intended to be limiting of the present invention.

Example 1

[0091] This example demonstrates that AAV vector genome can replicate in insect cells when Rep protein is supplied in trans.

[0092] A recombinant baculoviral vector comprising the Rep78 ORF of AAV2 was produced and used to infect Spodopterafrugiperda Sf9 cells (1 x 10 ) that had been co- infected at a multiplicity of infection (moi) of 5 with a recombinant baculoviral vector which comprises two AAV2 ITRs flanking a GFP open reading frame (pAAV2GFP) and which was produced as follows. A modified GFP gene was excised from pEGFPl (Clontech) by digestion of the plasmid DNA with Nco I and Not I, and the resultant fragment was cloned into the Nco Ϊ-Not I site of pTriEx-1 (Novagen, Madison, WI). The resulting plasmid was digested with Rsr II and Msc I, blunt-ended, and the 1.1 kb fragment was inserted into a cytomegaloviral (CMV) expression plasmid, which expresses GFP in mammalian or insect cells by the CMV or plO promoter. The entire GFP expression cassette was digested with Not I and subcloned between ITRs in an AAN2 vector-plasmid (pAAN2GFP). The AAN2 GFP vector portion was excised from pAAN2GFP by digestion with Hind HI and Ssp I, blunt-ended, and inserted into the Ecol051-Ecll36 II site of pFBHTb (Life Technologies, Rockville, MD) producing pFBGFPR. pFastBacDual (pFBDVPml 1 and pFBDLSR) (Life Technologies) and pFBGFPR were used to produce recombinant baculoviral vectors with the BAC-TO-BAC Baculovirus Expression System (Life Technologies).

[0093] At three days post-infection, extra-chromosomal DΝA was isolated, resolved on a 1% agarose-TAE gel, transfeπed to nylon membrane, and hybridized with a radiolabeled probe for GFP. Dpn I-digested DΝA from 293 cells transfected with pAAV2GFP alone or with pAAV2GFP and a plasmid comprising AAV and adenoviral helper genes (pDG) served as controls.

[0094] The cultures that were transfected with pAAV2GFP alone or with ρAAN2GFP and pDG showed only the input recombinant baculoviral genome. However, monomeric, dimeric, trimeric and teframeric forms of the GFP-AAN2 vector were detected when the Sf9 cells were co-infected with the recombinant baculoviral vector expressing AAN2 Rep. The GFP-probe specific bands corresponded in size to the "rescued" AAN genomes. The AAN2 ITRs served as Rep-dependent origins of DΝA synthesis and were excised from the plasmid or baculoviral vector. There was a net synthesis of the rescued DΝA, as determined based on comparison of the relative strengths of the signals obtained with and without Rep. In fact, the increased presence of GFP-containing DNA was clearly evident as fluorescent bands on an ethidium bromide-stained gel. The pattern of GFP-specific bands obtained in 293 cells co-transfected with pAAV2GFP and pDG was qualitatively similar to that obtained with the Sf9 cells. These results demonstrate that Rep78 functions as a replication initiator protein on DNA substrates that contain AAN ITRs, and the AAN vector genome can replicate in insect cells when Rep protein is supplied in trans.

Example 2

[0095] This example describes the design of genetic constructs for balanced expression of AAN functions in insect cells.

[0096] Figure 1 represents a genetic and a transcriptional map of the wild-type AAN genome. The top line represents the genome and the transcriptional promoter sites. Black boxes indicate the ITRs, which are the origin of AAN replication in a mammalian setting. The left half of the AAV genome codes for four overlapping nonstructural proteins, Rep78, Rep68, Rep52, and Rep40. The unspliced and spliced transcripts from the p5 promoter are translated to Rep78 and Rep68. The Rep52 or Rep40 is synthesized from the pl9 transcript by alternate splicing. Balanced expression of Rep78 and Rep52 is necessary for generating high titers of AAV vectors in 293 cells. Yields of vector are adversely affected when Rep78 is present at super-optimal levels.

[0097] hi order to limit expression of Rep78 in Sf9 cells, the promoter for the immediate early 1 (IE-1) gene of Orgyia pseudotsugata nuclear polyhedrosis virus was used. To limit expression of Rep78 even further, the IE-1 promoter was partially deleted, by limiting the promoter region to that portion of the IE-1 promoter residing within the Bgl II- Not 1 163 fragment (ΔIE-1). The ΔJE-1 promoter functioned at approximately 20% of the intact IE-1 promoter level.

[0098] The AAN2 p78 Rep gene was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from a plasmid containing AAN2 Rep and cap genes using the primers 5'- GTTACTCTTCAGCCATGGCGGGGTTTTACGAGATTG-3' (SEQ ID ΝO:5) and 5'- AGTTACTCTTCATCAGAGAGAGTGTCCTCGAGCC-3' (SEQ ID NO:6) and PfuTurbo DNA polymerase (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). The C at position 4 of the Rep gene was mutated to G (underlined) to introduce a Kozak-like expression control sequence at the translation initiation site. Kozak (1986), supra; and Kazak (1989), supra. The resulting Rep ORF was inserted into pCR-Blunt Η-TOPO (frivitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), cut out with Not I and Spe I (blunt), and then subcloned into the Not l-Avr II (blunt) site of pBAC-1 (Novagen), (pBACRep). The IE-1 promoter was PCR-amplified from pIZT/V5-His (Invitrogen) using primers 5'-GCGCΔGΔICXAATAAACGATAACGCCGTTG GTGGC-3' (SEQ ID NO:2) and 5'-GTACGCGGCCGCAAAGGTGCTGCGCGCGCC GCAGC-3' (SEQ ID NO:3) (Bgl H and Not I sites are underlined). The resulting 163 bp fragment was treated with Bgl H and Not I, and inserted into the Bgl H-Not I site of pBACRep (pBACΔ-ERep). pBACΔ-ERep was digested with Eco RV and Not I, blunt- ended, and self-circularized to remove an unnecessary ATG codon upstream of the Rep coding nucleotide sequence. The AAV2 Rep expression cassette was cut out by digestion with Bgl II and Sph 1, blunt-ended, and inserted into the Nco Ϊ-Bam HI (blunt) site of pFastBacDual (Life Technologies) (pFBLR).

[0099] The AAV2 Rep52 gene was obtained from pCMVRep52 by digesting with Nco I and Acc651 and inserted into the Nco 1-Acc651 site of pFBHTa (Life Technologies). The resulting plasmid was treated with Rsr II and Ehe I, blunt-ended, and self-circularized. The AAN2 Rep52 cassette was cut out by digesting with BstZl 71 and Xho I (blunt) and inserted into the Pvu II site of pFBLR resulting in pFBD.

[0100] hi mammalian cells, the capsid proteins, NPl, VP2, and VP3 are synthesized from two spliced mRΝAs arising from the p40 promoter (Fig. 1). One message is translated into NPl, while another transcript encodes NP2 and NP3. The naturally occurring initiation codon for NP2 is ACG, which is poorly utilized, resulting in ribosome scanning through to the NP3 initiation codon (AUG). The alternate usage of two splice acceptor sites and the poor utilization of the ACG initiation codon for NP2 are responsible for the stoichiometry of NPl, NP2, and NP3 in AAV2-infected mammalian cells and mirrors the protein ratio in the capsids, 1:1:10. The AAV cap intron is not spliced in insect cells. [0101] To generate empty AAV capsids in Sf9 cells with similar stoichiometry to capsids produced in mammalian cells, a mutated AAV2 VP gene was used, in which the initiation codon for VPl was changed to ACG. Furthennore, the three capsid proteins were engineered to be expressed from a single expression cassette by the removal of the acceptor splice site. However, the level of VPl expression and incorporation into empty virus-like particles was much lower than VP2 and these particles transduced cells poorly. VP2 was expressed at the appropriate levels relative to VP3, despite the lack of a typical initiation codon. Several permutations of the sequence surrounding the VP2 ACG codon were tested for the ability to enhance the level of translated NPl protein. One construct incorporating a 9-nt element derived from upstream of the NP2 ACG codon was introduced at a similar position relative to NPl. This cassette produced VPl at similar levels to VP2 without affecting VP3 expression, a situation similar to expression in 293 transfected cells. [0102] hi particular, the AAV2 VP gene was amplified by PCR using primers 5 ' - cgcggatcctgttaagACGGCTGCCGACGGTTATCTACCCGATTGGCTC-3' (SEQ ID ΝO:7) and 5'-gcTTACAGATTACGAGTCAGGTATCTGG-3' (SEQ ID NO:8). The sequence corresponding to the VP ORF is capitalized and bases mutated relative to wild-type sequence are underlined. The PCR-amplified VP gene had the initiation codon of the VPl mutated to ACG to reduce its translation efficiency. An out-of-frame ATG, which had dimimshed the translation of VP2 and VP3 located downstream, was modified by changing the T to C at nucleotide position 12.

[0103] The splice acceptor site downstream of the AAV2 VPl initiation codon was destroyed to prevent possible splicing of mRNA by substituting A and C for T at position 21 and A at position 24, respectively. The amplified VP gene was cloned into a CMV expression plasmid and was tested for the expression of VP polypeptides in 293 cells. Then, the VP gene was digested with Bam HI and subcloned into the Bam HI site of pFBDVPmll (Life Technologies).

[0104] Wild-type AAV was grown in 293 cells in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM)/F12 (1:1) (Life Technologies) supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum (FCS). The Sf9 cells (Life Technologies) containing the three baculoviral vectors were grown at 27°C in shaker flask cultures containing Sf-900 II SFM (Life Technologies) supplemented with 10% FCS.

[0105] Expression of AAV2 Rep78/52 and VPl, VP2, and VP3 was assayed. Five micrograms (293 cells) of protein in total cellular lysate were or 1 μg (Sf9 cells) of protein in total cellular lysate was resolved on an SDS Tris-glycine 10% polyacrylamide gel. Anti- Rep antibody was used to detect Rep78 and Rep52, and anti-VP antibody was used to detect VPl, VP2, and VP3. Wistube et al, J. Vir. 69:5311-19 (1995); and Wistube et al, J. Vir. 71:1341-52 (1972). The antibodies are commercially available from Research Diagnostics, Inc., Flanders, NJ.

[0106] Cells were lysed in lx SDS sample buffer and electrophoresed on an SDS Tris- glycine 10% polyacrylamide gel. The separated proteins were transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane, incubated with a monoclonal anti-Rep antibody (303.9, Research Diagnostics, hie, Flanders, NJ) or a polyclonal anti-VP antibody (Research Diagnostics, Inc.), and then incubated with a secondary anti-mouse or anti-rabbit immunoglobulin G labeled with horseradish^eroxidase. Chemiluminescent signals were detected by SuperSignal West Pico Chemiluminescent Substrate (Pierce Chemical Co., Milwaukee, WI). Qualitatively similar ratios of AAV2 Rep and VP proteins were obtained in the 293 and Sf9 cells. These results demonstrate that the genetic constructs enable balanced expression of AAV functions in insect cells. Example 3

[0107] This example demonstrates that rAAV can be produced in insect cells. [0108] Sf9 cells were infected with three recombinant baculoviruses: GFPBac, RepBac, and VPBac. RepBac harbors AAV2 Rep78 and Rep52 expression cassettes. The AAV2 Rep78 expression cassette is under the control of a ΔDE-1 and Rep52 is expressed by the polyhedron (polh) promoter. VPBac expresses the AAV2 capsid proteins VPl, VP2, and VP3 under the transcriptional control of polh. The ATG codon of AAV2 VPl was mutated to ACG, enabling the expression of all three VP polypeptides from one transcript, without splicing of mRNA. GFPBac carries a GFP vector genome. The CMV or plO promoter drives GFP expression in mammalian cells or insect cells. The whole expression cassette is flanked by AAV2 ITRs. See Fig. 2, which is a genetic map of recombinant baculoviruses employed to produce rAAV in insect cells. (PA is the polyA signal). [0109] After three days, the infected cells were lysed and fractionated by CsCl density gradient centrifugation. Sf9 cells (1x10 ) infected with three recombinant baculoviruses were subjected to ultracentrifugation. Twelve 1-ml fractions were collected and a portion of each fraction was analyzed by Western blotting using an anti-VP antibody. Two peaks were observed. One peak had a buoyant density of 1.37 or 1.40 g/cm , which corresponds to the density of wild-type AAV or rAAV2 vectors produced in mammalian cells. The other peak was at 1.33 g/cm , which is the density of empty capsids. Densitometry of bands revealed that approximately 15% of the total VP polypeptides produced was utilized for assembly of filled capsids. A control experiment with 293 cells producing an AAV vector showed that the packaged to unpackaged capsid ratio is similar. The analysis of Sf9 cells infected with VPBac alone showed production only of the lighter fractions with peak density of 1.33g/cm . The denser fractions were collected and purified by heparin column affinity chromatography. The genomic titer was determined by real-time PCR using GFP-specific primers and linearized GFP plasmid standards. Western analysis of 10 vector genome equivalents produced in 293 cells or Sf9 cells processed in parallel showed VPl: VP2: VP3 stoichiometry to be similar. An electron micrograph of the rAAV2 produced in insect cells showed spherical or icosahedral particles of approximately 25 nm in diameter, which is a typical morphological feature of AAV.

[0110] Cumulatively, these experiments demonstrate that an AAV particle comprising an AAV genome can be produced in insect cells comprising vectors expressing the indicated complement of AAV functions. Example 4

[0111] This example demonstrates that rAAV produced in Sf9 and 293 cells are functionally equivalent.

[0112] To compare the biological properties of the GFP vector produced in invertebrate cells to that produced in mammalian cells, 293 cells were infected with rAAV2-GFP

2 3 produced in Sf9 or 293 cells at doses ranging from 1x10 to 3x10 . The number of GFP- positive 293 cells after infection with the insect-cell-produced GFP vector was shown to be comparable to the number of GFP-positive 293 cells after infection with the GFP vector produced in 293 cells.

[0113] To demonstrate that the presence of GFP in 293 cells is mediated by rAAV2- GFP, 293 cells (lxlO⁵ per well in a 12-well plate) were pre-incubated for 30 minutes at 37°C with A20 monoclonal antibody (1.2 μg/ml; Research Diagnostics, hie), which is capable of neutralizing rAAV2 as well as wild-type AAV2, or anti-hemagglutinin (HA) mouse monoclonal antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, hie, Santa Cruz, CA) and further incubated for two days. When 293 cells were preincubated with the A20 antibody, rAAV2- GFP produced in 293 cells or in Sf9 cells failed to transduce 293 cells, whereas the anti-HA antibody did not interfere with transduction by either rAAV2-GFP. [0114] A primary co-receptor for AAV2 (and AAV2 vectors) is heparan sulfate proteoglycan, which is required for efficient uptake of AAV2 into target cells. Competition essays with heparin also were performed by pre-incubating 293 cells with 0, 2 or 20 μg/ml heparin (Sigma- Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) and infecting the 293 cells with AAV vectors. An analog of heparan sulfate, heparin has been shown to inhibit transduction with AAV vector at the concentration of 5 μg/ml. It was observed that heparin inhibited GFP vector-mediated transduction of 293 cells in a concentration-dependent manner, irrespective of whether the GFP vector was produced in Sf9 or 293 cells.

F.x ample

[0115] This example demonstrates that rAAV can be produced in high titers in insect cells.

[0116] AAV vectors were produced in mammalian cells by transfecting 293 cells with pAAV2GFP and pDG by the calcium phosphate precipitation method. pDG harbors AAV

Rep and cap genes as well as adenoviral E2A, E4ORF and VARNA genes. Two days following transfection, AAV vectors were purified as described below. AAV vectors were produced in Sf9 insect cells by infecting 2x10 cells/ml in suspension culture with recombinant baculovirus at a moi of 5. At three days post-infection, the infected cells were pelleted by centrifugation and lysed in a buffer of 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.4), 50 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl , 1% deoxycholic acid, 0.5% 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio] -1- propanesulfonate (CHAPS), and 60 U/ml of Benzonase (Novagen). After incubation for 30 min at 37°C, the concentration of NaCl in the cell lysate was adjusted to 150 mM and incubated for an additional 30 min. Solid CsCl was added to obtain a final density of 1.36 g/cm . The cell lysate was centrifuged at 38,000 rotations per minute (r.p.m.) for 24 hr at 21°C using a SW41Ti rotor (Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, CA). Aliquots of gradient fractions were dialyzed against phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (1.34 mM KC1, 0.74 mM KH₂PO , 69 mM NaCl, 4.03 mM Na₂HPO₄) and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting with anti-VP antibody (see below). The fractions containing AAV vectors were collected and dialyzed against 0.5 x PBS with 1 mM MgCl₂ and incubated with 28 U/ml of Benzonase for 1 hr at 37°C to digest any residual DNA. The dialysate was loaded onto a column filled with cellufine heparin (Millipore, Bedford, MA) and washed with 10 column volumes of 0.5 x PBS and with 10 column volumes of 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) and 0.25 M NaCl. Bound AAV vectors were eluted with 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) and 0.5 M NaCl. The eluate was dialyzed against PBS/2 mM MgCk, aliquoted, and stored at -80°C. The titer of AAV vector was determined by real-time PCR on an iCycler (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA). Briefly, proteinase K-treated rAAV was serially diluted and PCR-amplified using SYBR green master mix (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) with primers specific to the GFP gene. Linearized pAAV2GFP was employed as a copy number standard. The cycling conditions were: 95°C for 3 min, followed by 35 cycles of 95°C for 30 sec, 60°C for 30 sec, and 72°C for 30 sec. Transducing units were determined by infecting 293 cells with rAAV-GFP at 100 vector genomes per cell and counting positive cells under a fluorescent microscope. This was corroborated by flow cytometric analysis of transduced cells.

[0117] Table 1 summarizes tϊie yield of AAV vector recovered from 293 cells in twenty

2 8

175-cm flasks (a total of 4x10 cells) or from the same number of insect cells in 200 ml suspension culture by three independent preparations. The yield from 293 cells was 5xl0³ GFP-vector genomes per cell following CsCl banding and subsequent heparin affinity chromatography. hi contrast, Sf9 cells generated approximately 5x10 encapsidated vector genomes per cell, a 10-times higher yield than 293 cells. The vector genomes to transducing unit ratio (vg/TU) of Sf9-ρroduced rAAV GFP was 1300, while that of 293-produced rAAV was 3,000, which suggests that the transduction efficiency of GFP vector produced in insect cells is equivalent to that of GFP vector produced in mammalian cells. To check for the presence of contaminating recombinant baculoviruses in the AAV vector stocks, aliquots of the stocks were plaque assayed. GFP-positive cells or plaques were below the detection limit. Table 1. Comparison of rAAV yield between two methods⁰.

293 or Sf9 cells (4x10 ) were used for rAAV production in each of three independent experiments.

Samples were taken at each step and used for titer determination. vector genomes/transducing unit.

[0118] The AAV vector produced in insect cells was shown to have similar physical and biochemical properties to that produced in mammalian cells, hi addition, the titer of the AAV vector obtained in insect cells was one of the highest. Ten liters of insect cell culture is estimated to produce an AAV vector equivalent to 10 vector genome, a titer that would be required for a clinical study. This robust production system based on baculovirus greatly simplifies the vector production process and facilitates the studies of applications of AAV vectors. Thus, this example evidences that rAAV can be produced in higher titers in insect cells as compared to mammalian cells.

Example 6

[0119] This example demonstrates how rAAV is produced utilizing a three vector system comprising a baculoviral vector containing a chimeric ITR.

[0120] Production of rAAV using a three vector system where one vector contains a chimeric ITR, a second vector contains the Rep protein equivalent NS-1, and a third vector contains the VP structural proteins is as described in Example 3. However, the baculoviral vector containing two AAV ITRs (GFPBac) is replaced with a baculoviral vector containing at least one chimeric ITR (see Fig. 5C) where the nucleotide sequence representing the

AAV2 Rep binding site and AAV2 nicking site is replaced with nucleotide sequence representing the NS-1 binding site (GAC four repeat) and NS-1 nicking site (G*TATTG) and the baculoviral vector which will allow for expression of the Rep78 and Rep52 proteins (RepBac) is replaced with a vector which contains the nucleotide sequences which allow for the expression of the Rep protein equivalent NS-1, optionally Rep78 or Rep68 and Rep52 protein.

Example 7

[0121] This example describes the production of recombinant AAV particles comprising AAVl capsid proteins in insect cells.

[0122] A modified AAVl VP gene, designed to provide VP expression in insect cells at levels similar to the levels of VP expression observed in mammalian cells, was generated by amplifying an AAVl VP gene (GenBank Accession No. NC_002077) with the PCR primers

5'-CGCGGATCCTGTTAAAGACGGCTGCCGACGGTTATCTACCCGATTGGCTC-3'

(SEQ ID NO:9) and 5'-GCTTACAGGGGACGGGTAAGGTA-3' (SEQ ID NO:10). The modified AAVl VP gene PCR product possesses similar features as the modified AAV2 VP gene described in Example 2 (i.e., (1) the initiation codon of the VPl was mutated to ACG to reduce its translation efficiency, (2) an out-of-frame ATG codon was eliminated by replacing the thymine at nucleotide position 12 of the amplified VP gene with a cytosine and (3) the splice acceptor site downstream of the VPl initiation codon was destroyed by replacing the thymine at position 31 with an adenine and replacing the adenine at position

24 with a cytosine, such that the modified AAVl VP gene encodes the three AAVl capsid proteins as a single expression cassette).

[0123] The modified AAVl VP gene PCR product was digested with BamHI and subcloned into the BamΑl site of pFBDVPml 1 to generate vector pFBDAAVl-VP (SEQ ID

NO:l 1), a genetic map of which vector is shown in Fig. 6.

[0124] Recombinant baculovirus vectors comprising the mutant AAVl VP gene (Bac-

AAV1 VP) were produced from pFBDAAVl-VP using the BAC-TO-BAC Expression

System, following the manufacturer's protocol. Recombinant baculovirus comprising an

AAV2 p78 Rep/Rep52 sequence (Bac-AAV2 LSR) and recombinant baculovirus comprising an AAV2-ITR/GFP/AAN2-ITR sequence (Bac-AAN2 GFPR), as described in

Example 2, also were prepared.

[0125] Seven cultures of 2 xlO⁶ cells/mL (500 mL) Sf9 cells (Life Technologies) were co-infected with Bac-AANl NP, Bac-AAN2 LSR, and Bac-AAN2 GFPR, each at a moi of

5. The baculo virus-infected Sf9 cells were grown at 27°C in shaker flask cultures containing Sf-900 II SFM supplemented with 10% FCS. At three days post-infection, the infected cells were pelleted and lysed by detergent as described in Example 5. After incubation for 30 min at 37°C, the concentrations of aCl and CsCl were adjusted, as described in Example 5, and the cell lysate was centrifuged at 38,000 rotations per minute (r.p.m.) for 64 hr at 21°C using a SW41Ti rotor. The Sf9 cell lysate fractions enriched for AAN vectors by the CsCl gradient centrifugation were collected, dialyzed against 0.5 x PBS with 1 mM MgCl₂, and incubated with 28 U/ml of Benzonase for 1 hr at 37°C. [0126] Quantitative real-time PCR was performed with a Bio-Rad iCycler to determine the titer of the rAAN2/l vector according to standard techniques. Briefly, proteinase K- treated rAAN2/l was serially diluted and PCR-amplified using SYBR green master mix with primers specific to the GFP gene under conditions specified in Example 5. Linearized pAAN2GFP was employed as a copy number standard.

[0127] The above-described technique was repeated an additional four times on different days from the first experiment. The results for the five experiments are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. rAA V2/1 vector genome yields in Sf9 cells as determined by quantitative RT-PCR

[0128] As shown in Table 2, the results of the RT-PCR assays indicate that an average of about 4 x 10 - 7 x 10 chimeric rAAN2/l genomes are produced per Sf9 cell. Thus, these results indicate that pseudotyped rAAN2/l can be produced in insect cells at titers above the titers of rAAN2 in mammalian cells and comparable with the titer of rAAN2 produced in Sf9 cells (see Example 5 for comparison).

[0129] The transducing unit/vector genome ratio for the rAAV 2/1 vectors produced in the Sf9 cells was determined as described in Example 5. The rAAV2/l vg/TU ratio for the insect cell-produced rAAV2/l vectors was determined to be approximately 1 x 10 , which ratio is similar to that observed for rAAV2 produced in Sf9 cells. Taking into account the order of magnitudes and standard deviation, the vg/TU ratios observed for 293 cell- produced rAAV2 and Sf9-cell produced rAAV2/l also are relatively similar, indicating that the transduction efficiency of rAAV produced in insect cells is comparable to that of rAAV produced in mammalian cells. [0130] The results of these experiments demonstrate that recombinant AAV comprising AAVl capsid proteins can be produced at high titers in insect cells while retaining transduction efficiency comparable with AAV produced in mammalian cells.

Example 8

[0131] This example describes the production of rAAV 2/4 vector particles in insect cells using ITRs and Rep genes obtained from AAV2 and a modified VP gene derived from AAV4.

[0132] To obtain a modified AAV4 VP gene capable of expressing VP proteins in insect cells at levels similar to the expression levels associated with VP expression in mammalian cells, AAV4 VP (GenBank Accession No. NC_001829) was subjected to PCR amplification with the primers 5'-CGGATCCTGTTAAGACGGCTGACGGTTACCTTCCAGATTGGC- 3' (SEQ ID NO:12) and 5'-GTTATTACAGGTGGGTGAGGTAGCG-3' (SEQ ID NO:13). [0133] The resulting modified AAV4 VP gene PCR product possessed similar features to the modified AAV2 and modified AAVl VP genes described in Examples 2 and 7, respectively (i.e., the AAV4 initiation codon was mutated to ACG to reduce translation efficiency; the splice acceptor site downstream of the VPl initiation codon was destroyed; and the three capsid proteins were engineered to be expressed from a single initiation site). [0134] The AAV4 modified VP PCR product was digested with BamHI and subcloned into the BamHI site of pFBDVPml 1 to generate the vector pFBDAAVl-VP (SEQ ID NO: 14), a map of which vector is shown in Fig. 7.

[0135] Recombinant baculovirus vectors comprising the mutant AAV4 VP gene (Bac- AAV4 VP) were produced from pFBDAAV4-VP using the BAC-TO-BAC Expression System. Cultures of 2 xlO cells/mL (4 x 500 μL) Sf9 cells were co-infected with Bac- AAV1 VP, Bac-AAV2 LSR, and Bac-AAV2 GFPR, each at a moi of 5. The infected cells were cultured, pelleted, and lysed, and AAV fractions collected from the lysate as described in Examples 5 and 7.

[0136] The experiment was repeated four additional times, under identical test conditions, on four different days. For each of the five experiments, quantitative real-time PCR was performed using a Bio-Rad iCycler to determine the titer of the rAAV2/l vector as described in Examples 5 and 7. Linearized pAAV2GFP was employed as a copy number standard. The results of these experiments are provided in Table 3. Table 3. rAA V vector genome yields in Sf9 cells as determined by quantitative RT-PCR

[0137] The results of these real-time PCR assays indicate that 2.1 x 10³ - 2.8 x 10⁴ rAAN2/4 genomes are produced per Sf9 cell.

[0138] These results demonstrate that rAAN comprising AAN4 capsid proteins can be produced at very high titers in insect cells. Indeed, these results indicate that the titer of rAAN2/4 produced in Sf9 cells is significantly higher than the titer of wild-type AAV2 produced in 293 cells under similar conditions as described in Example 5.

Example 9

[0139] This example illustrates the measurement of transduction efficiency of rAAV produced in insect cells.

[0140] COS cell cultures transduced with equivalent amounts of rAAV4 or rAAV2 are known to exhibit similar AAV transduction levels; however, other cell lines exhibit differential transducibility (Chorini et al., J. Virol. 71(9):6823-6833 (1997)). Recombinant

AAV2 vectors are capable of efficient transduction of 293 cells (see, e.g., Example 5).

[0141] 4 x 10⁵ COS-5 cells and 293 cells were transduced with 4 x 10⁷ vg of the rAAV2/4 vector particles described in Example 8. The titer of the rAAV genomes in the transduced cells was determined by quantitative RT-PCR using a Bio-Rad iCycler according to manufacturer's instructions and as described in Examples 5 and 7.

[0142] Differential transduction efficiencies were observed for rAAV4/rAAV2 in 293 cells as compared to COS-5 cells. In the 293 cells, rAAV transduction was minimal, whereas COS-5 cells were transduced efficiently (i.e., at levels similar to previously observed rAAV4 and rAAV2 transduction levels in COS cells). Although exact quantitative differences could not be determined, the relative rAAV transduction efficiencies observed in the COS-5 and 293 cells differed by about 10-100x (i.e., about 1-2 logs). This result agrees with previous observations that rAAV4 particles exhibit different transduction levels of cells efficiently transduced by AAV2 other than COS cells.

[0143] The result of this experiment demonstrates that recombinant rAAV produced in insect cells retain the transduction characteristics associated with AAV particles having similar capsid proteins produced from mammalian cells. Specifically, the results of this experiment demonstrate that rAAV2/4 exhibit similar transduction characteristics as rAAN4 produced from mammalian cells. Consequently, the result of this experiment also confirms that the recombinant particles produced in Example 8 comprise AAN4 capsid proteins, rather than AAN2 capsid proteins.

Example 1

[0144] This example illustrates the development of modified NP sequences suitable for production of AAN in insect cells. More specifically, this example describes the identification of a modified AAV5 VP sequence suitable for producing AAV5 in insect cells in combination with suitable AAV5 Rep and ITR sequences.

[0145] A modified AAV5 Rep78/68-encoding sequence was generated by amplifying a wild-type AAV5 Rep78/68-encoding sequence (GenBank Accession No. AF085716) with the primers 5' CAGATCTATGGCTACCTTCTATGAAGTCATTGTTCG -3' (SEQ ID NO:15) and 5'-TTATCACCAACTTCTTCCAACCAATCTGGAGG-3' (SEQ ID NO:17). A modified AAV5 Rep52/40 coding sequence was similarly generated by amplifying a wild-type AAV5 Rep52/40 sequence from the same strain using a 5' primer having the sequence 5 '-GGAC ATGGCGCTCGTCAACTGGCTCGTGGAGCACG-3 ' (SEQ ID NO:16) and SEQ ID NO:17. The underlined ATG codons in these sequences indicate positions where the modified Rep sequences differs from the corresponding wild-type Rep sequences.

[0146] The modified Rep sequence PCR products were inserted into plasmid pFBD to generate a recombinant shuttle vector for the production of baculovirus vectors. Specifically, the modified AAV5 Rep78/68 PCR product was operably ligated to a Polh promoter and SV40 polyadenylation sequence and the modified AAV5 Rep52/40 sequence was similarly operably ligated to a plO promoter and thymidine kinase (Tk) polyA sequence using standard techniques. The plO and polh promoters and Rep sequences were oriented in opposite directions, such that a plasmid comprising a bidirectionaly-oriented dual expression cassettes was obtained. A genetic map of this plasmid, pFBD-AAV5-Rep5 cassette, is provided in Fig. 8.

[0147] To identify a suitable AAN5 NP sequence for producing AAN5 in insect cells, a wild-type NP sequence was amplified with primers selected to introduce modifications into the NPl start codon and surrounding region in the resulting PCR product. Specifically, primers were selected and PCR amplifications performed with wild-type AAV5 VP (Accession No. AF085716) to produce six modified AAV5 VP sequences having one or more differences in the region of the VPl start codon as compared to the wild-type AAV5 VPl start codon and surrounding region, i.e., 5'-ATGTCTTTTGTTGATCACCCTCCAGA TTGGT-3' (SEQ ID NO: 18). The sequences of the six modified VP sequences so generated are set forth in Table 4.

Table 4. Variant regions in modified AAV 5 VP sequences

[0148] Each of these six PCR amplifications was performed such that the splice sites in the wild-type AAV5 VP sequence were eliminated in the resulting modified VP sequence. As such, each modified VP sequence PCR product included a single ORF encoding AAV5 VPl, VP2, and VP3. Additionally, each of the six modified VP PCR products was operably linked (ligated in frame) to a polh promoter and SV40 polyA sequence, using standard techniques, and the resulting VP expression cassette was inserted into plasmid pFBD, thereby generating plasmid pFBDVP-5 (see Fig. 9).

[0149] Using the BAC-TO-BAC system (described above), baculovirus vectors were produced from the pFBDVP-5 vectors. Similarly, a baculovirus vector comprising the modified AAV5 sequence was produced from plasmid pFBD-Rep5 cassette and a plasmid comprising the 5' and 3' AAV5 ITRs with a GFP reporter gene positioned between the ITR sequences.

[0150] To test the ability of the modified VP sequences to support production of rAAV5 in insect cells, cultures of Sf9 cells (5 x 10 -1 xlO cells per culture) were co-infected with a first baculovirus vector comprising the modified AAV5 Rep sequence, a second baculovirus vector comprising one of the modified VP sequences, and a third baculovirus comprising the ITRs and GFP sequence, each at a moi of 5. The infected Sf9 cells were cultured, lysed, and lysate fractions obtained therefrom were enriched for rAAV5 by CsCl density gradient centrifugation, using techniques described elsewhere herein. The resulting enriched lysate fractions were collected, enzymatically digested, and subjected to quantitative RT-PCR, as described above, and the number of rAAV5 vector genomes produced per Sf9 cell was determined for each of the cultures.

[0151] AAV5 VP sequences comprising SEQ ID NOS:19-22 and SEQ ID NO:24 did not support the production of significant amounts of rAAV5 genomes in Sf9 cells (i.e., less than about 1 vector genome/cell was produced). About 5 x 10 rAAV5 vector genomes were produced in Sf9 cell cultures infected with the baculovirus comprising modified AAV5 VP sequence no. 5 (comprising SEQ ID NO:23), indicating that rAAV5 genomes can be produced in insect cells in accordance with the invention. [0152] rAAV5 produced in the Sf9 cells were substantially isolated from a portion comprising about 50% of an Sf9 cell culture infected with baculovirus comprising modified VP no.5 (comprising SEQ ID NO:23) using standard techniques. Transduction assays were performed in COS cells (5 x 10 ) with the substantially isolated rAAV5 vectors obtained from this portion, as described above. About 5,000 of the COS cells were determined to be positive for rAAV5 transduction. This result confirms that rAAV5 vectors produced in insect cells, similar to rAAV of other serotypes produced in insect cells, are able to transduce mammalian cells.

[0153] The results of these experiments also illustrate that that by introducing a few changes in select regions of AAV Rep and VP sequences (e.g., the VPl start codon and surrounding region), modified VP and/or Rep sequences that support improved production of AAV genomes and/or particles in insect cells can be obtained. The inventive strategy of modifying such regions can be employed to obtain suitable modified Rep and or VP sequences for improved production of AAV genomes and particles of any suitable AAV serotype (e.g., AAV3A, AAV3B, AAV5, and AAV6) in insect cells, using techniques described herein combined with routine nucleotide sequence modification and AAV production screening experiments. For example, additional modified VP sequences suitable for the production of rAAV in insect cells can be generated by introducing other changes in the codon context of the VPl start codon, e.g., by way of one or more nucleotide sequence substitutions, deletions, additions, or combinations thereof, with respect to a wild-type AAV VP sequence, in the region near (e.g., within about 5-20 nucleotides of) the VPl start codon.

Example 1 1 [0154] This example describes the generation of representative AAV5-derived VP ORF constructs comprising chimeric AAV2:AAV5 VPl protein-encoding sequences. This example further describes the production of plasmid and baculovirus vectors comprising such VP ORF nucleic acids and the use of such vectors in expressing VP proteins. [0155] The N-terminus of AAV VPl is believed to have little or no phenotypic effect on the tropism of AAV particles. However, most of this region of VPl exhibits significant difference in amino acid sequence from serotype to serotype. For example, significant differences exist between the N-terminus 137 amino acid residues of AAV2 VPl (SEQ ID NO:25) and the corresponding 136 amino acid residues of AAV5 VPl (SEQ ID NO:26). hi view of the divergence in sequence composition in this region as compared to the remainder of VPl, this region can be referred to as the "unique" region of VPl. [0156] To assess whether changes in the N-terminus unique region of VPl could affect the efficiency of VP protein expression and/or rAAV production in insect cells, six VP ORF nucleic acid constructs (designated by numbers 251-256) were constructed. Each of VP ORF constructs 251-256 includes a sequence encoding a chimeric VPl protein having AAV2 amino acid residues in place of some or all of the AAV5 residues in the above- described N-terminus region of AAV5 VPl. Each of the VP ORF constructs also encodes AAV5 VP2 and AAN5 VP3 proteins and includes modified noncoding sequences as described above with respect to rAAV5 vectors produced in insect cells (e.g., the sequences were modified to include a modified VPl start codon and to remove VPl splice sites to provide stoichiometric levels of VPl, VP2, and VP3 expression).

[0157] To generate the chimeric VPl -encoding sequence, areas of identity between the AAV2 and AAV5 VPl unique regions were identified. The hybrid nucleic acids were constructed using standard amplification techniques under conditions that restricted the overlap between the AAV2 VPl and AAV5 VPl sequences to sequences in such areas of identity.

[0158] The amino acid sequences of the AAV2:AAV5 VPl chimeric proteins encoded by the hybrid constructs are set forth in Table 5 below. For convenience, overlapping regions between the AAV2 and AAV5 unique sequences where the crossover of the sequences occur are bolded and underlined. Amino acid residues corresponding to the AAV2 VPl sequence are italicized. Table 5. Representative Chimeric AAV2: AAV 5 VPl Amino Acid Sequences

[0159] The hybrid VP ORF nucleic acid constructs were individually cloned into mammalian expression plasmids under the control of the CMV IE promoter. Using the BAC-TO-BAC expression system, as described in the preceding examples, baculovirus vectors comprising VP ORF constructs 251-256 were generated from these plasmids. [0160] Sf9 cell cultures were prepared and individually infected with baculovirus vectors comprising VP ORF constructs 251-256 using standard techniques as described in the foregoing examples. Extracts of the baculovirus-infected Sf9 cells were obtained after a suitable period of culture under conditions favorable for expression of the chimeric VPl proteins.

[0161] Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and western blotting (using anti-VP antiserum) of the extracts were used to analyze VP ORF expression. The visualized lanes for each of the six sets of extracts exhibited similar patterns consisting of three discrete and dark bands corresponding to the chimeric VPl protein, the AAV5 VP2 protein, and the AAV5 VP3 protein, as expected. The intensity of the bands suggested that all of the VP ORF constructs express the chimeric VPl and AAV5 VP2 proteins in approximately equimolar ratios, with relative overexpression of the AAV VP3 proteins. [0162] The results of the Western Blot assays indicate that all of the chimeric AAV2:AAV5 VPl -containing constructs are able to express VP2, VP3, and chimeric VPl proteins in insect cells, and that such VP ORF constructs express chimeric VPl, VP2, and VP3 in stoichiometric quantities similar to VPl, VP2, and VP3 expression in wild-type AAV5-infected mammalian cells.

[0163] To further assess the stoichiometry of VPl, VP2, and VP3 expression from the VP ORF constructs, a mammalian expression plasmid comprising VP ORF 254 (pFBDVP254) was constructed and used to transfect 293 cells. After a suitable period of culture, cell extracts were obtained from the transfected cells and subjected to CsCl density gradient centrifugation as described in preceding Examples. The density gradient-separated fractions were further subjected to PAGE/Western Blot analysis to assess whether the chimeric VPl associated with VP2 and VP3 in mammalian cells. [0164] The visualized gel of the blotted 293 cell extracts showed that the strongest bands coixesponding to the chimeric VPl and wild-type AAV5 VP2 proteins occurred at a density of about 1.31 g/cm . This also is the density at which empty AAV5 capsids normally band in such a CsCl density gradient, indicating that the chimeric VPl protein is able to assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs) with the wild-type AAV5 VP2 and VP3 proteins.

[0165] The results of these experiments collectively demonstrate that substituting at least a portion of the AAV5 VPl unique region with AAV2 VPl unique region sequences results in chimeric VPl, AAV5 VP2, and AAV5 VP3 expression in insect cells at expression levels that resemble the stoichiometry of VPl, VP2, and VP3 expression in wild- type AAV-infected mammalian cells. Moreover, these experiments illustrate that rAAV constructs comprising such chimeric VPl -encoding sequences are able to successfully assemble as VLPs in mammalian cells.

Example 12

[0166] This example describes the production and characterization of rAAV vectors comprising the chimeric AAV2:AAV5 VPl -encoding sequences described in Example 11. [0167] Using the BAC-TO-BAC baculovirus expression system, recombinant baculovirus were derived from plasmid pFBD5LSR, which comprises AAV5 Rep sequences (see Examples 2 and 10 for the description of similar plasmids). A second stock of recombinant baculovirus was similarly derived from plasmid pFB5GFP3F, which comprises a GFP sequence positioned between AAV ITR sequences. Recombinant baculovirus are also derived from plasmids pFBDV251, pFBVDV252, pFBVD253, pFBVD254, pFBVD255, and pFBVD256, which comprise the six chimeric AAV2:AAV5 NP ORF nucleic acids described in Example 11, respectively.

[0168] Cultures of Sf9 cells are co-infected individually with one of the six AAN2:AAN5 hybrid VP ORF baculovirus vectors, a sample of the stock of baculovirus derived from pFB5GFPF, and a sample of the baculovirus stock derived from pFBD5LSR. The baculovirus infected Sf9 cells are cultured, lysed, and lysate fractions are enriched for rAAV by CsCl density gradient centrifugation.

[0169] Cultures of HEK 293 cells are prepared, transfected with plasmid pSR487, which comprises adenovirus sequences that promote AAV replication (e.g., E4), and thereafter incubated with the enriched rAAV lysate fractions. The infected 293 cells are grown for a period sufficient to obtain detectable yields of rAAV. A culture of 293 cells transfected with a plasmid comprising a combined AAV5 Rep/NP cassette and pSR487 is used as a low expression control. A culture of 293 cells transfected with a plasmid comprising AAN2 Rep sequences, a plasmid comprising an AAN2 VP ORF operatively linked to a CMV IE promoter, and pSR487, is used as a high expression control. [0170] Chemiluminescent signals arising from GFP reporter gene expression are determined using techniques described in Example 2. All of the 293 cultures infected with rAAV expressing chimeric AAV2:AAV5 VPl proteins exhibit detectable levels of chemiluminescence due to GFP expression in 293 cells. Indeed, only one culture (corresponding to VP ORF 251) exhibits chemiluminescence levels similar to the low expression control. The other test cultures infected with the chimeric rAAV constructs are associated with GFP chemiluminescence levels similar to the high expression control. [0171] The results of these experiments demonstrate that chimeric rAAV comprising at least partial substitutions of the AAV5 VPl unique region with AAV2 VPl unique region sequences are produced with substantially similar efficiency as wild-type AAV2.

Example 1

[0172] This example demonstrates that rAAV comprising a chimeric AAV2:AAV5

NPl -encoding sequence, as described in Example 11, exhibit similar tropism characteristics as wild-type AAN5.

[0173] Heparin is known to inhibit AAN2 infection at low concentrations, but does not significantly inhibit AAN5 infection. 293 cells pre-incubated with 0, 2 or 20 μg/ml heparin

(Sigma- Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), are contacted with the above-described chimeric rAAN vectors in a competition assay as previously described (Chiorini et al., J. Virol. 71(9):6823-

6833 (1997)). Heparin does not inhibit infection of the 293 cells, indicating that the chimeric NPl protein has no impact on this aspect of vector infection.

[0174] AAN5 exhibits significantly different levels of infectivity in COS and HeLa cells

(see Chiorini et al., supra). Infection experiments using the chimeric rAAN described above result in a similar difference in infectivity levels, further suggesting that the chimeric rAAN retain the tropism characteristics of AAN5.

[0175] The results of these experiments demonstrate that rAAN vectors comprising chimeric AAN2:AAN5 NPl unique region sequences have similar tropism characteristics as wild-type AAN5 vectors. Competition experiments performed with 3'-Ν-

Acetylneuramunyl-N-acetyllactosamine are expected to confirm such chimeric rAAN vectors retain AAN5-like tropism.

Example 14

[0176] This example demonstrates that rAAV comprising chimeric AAV2:AAV5 VPl unique regions are produced with substantially equal efficiency in insect cells as in mammalian cells.

[0177] Cultures of 293 cells transfected with with mammalian expression plasmids

(pSR485 and pSR487) comprising AAV production-enhancing adenovirus sequences (e.g.,

E4 sequences) are infected with rAAV comprising VP ORF 254. The rAAV also includes

AAV5 VP2 and VP3 sequences, AAV 5' and 3' ITRs, and a GFP reporter gene. The 293 cells are cultured under conditions permissible for reproduction of AAV and expression of the GFP reporter gene. [0178] Sf9 cells are infected with baculovirus vectors derived from plasmids pFB5GFP3F, pFBD5LSR, and pFBDVP254. The Sf9 cells are cultured under conditions permissible for production of AAV and expression of the GFP reporter gene. [0179] The number of vector genomes per cell (vg/cell) for various infected Sf9 and 293 cell cultures is determined using quantitative RT-PCR as described elsewhere herein. GFP chemiluminescence associated with each cell culture also is determined. To determine if the chimeric rAAV is efficiently produced in Sf9 cells as 293 cells, chemiluminescence emitted

2 2 from infected 293 and Sf9 cultures at vg/cell concentrations of lx 10 vg/cell, 3 x 10 vg/cell, I x lO³ vg/cell, 3 x 10 vg/cell, 1 x 10 vg/cell, and 3 x 10 vg/cell is visually compared. Through this analysis it is determined that GFP chemiluminescence is similar in rAAV-infected Sf9 cells to 293 cells at every vg/cell concentration analyzed. Moreover, both the 293 cell cultures and Sf9 cell cultures exhibit a positive correlation in the intensity of GFP chemiluminescence and vg/cell concentration.

[0180] The result of these experiments demonstrate that rAAV, comprising a chimeric AAV5:AAV2 VPl unique region and having wild-type AAV5-like tropism can be produced in insect cells as efficiently as in mammalian cells. These results further support the viability of using insect cells to produce rAAV vectors having the phenotypic characteristics of any AAV serotype as an alternative to mammalian cell production systems.

[0181] All references, including publications, patent applications, and patents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicated to be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entirety herein.

[0182] The use of the terms "a" and "an" and "the" and similar referents in the context of describing the invention (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. The terms "comprising," "having," "including," and "containing" are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning "including, but not limited to,") unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., "such as") provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the invention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unless otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non- claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention.

[0183] Preferred embodiments of this invention are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the preceding description. The inventors expect skilled artisans to employ such variations as appropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this invention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.

Claims (36)

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A method of producing an adeno-associated virus (AAV) in an insect cell, comprising:

(i) providing at least one insect cell-compatible vector comprising a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one AAV inverted terminal repeat (ITR) nucleotide sequence, a second nucleotide sequence comprising an open reading frame (ORF) comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell,

(ii) introducing said at least one insect cell-compatible vector into an insect cell, and (iii) maintaining said insect cell under conditions such that AAV is produced.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein said insect cell is Sf9.

3. The method of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein said at least one vector is a baculoviral vector, a viral vector or a plasmid.

4. The method of any one of claims 1 -3, wherein said vector is a baculoviral vector.

5. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein two insect cell-compatible vectors are provided, a first vector comprising said first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, and a second vector comprising said second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, said third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and said fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell.

6. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein three insect-compatible vectors are provided, a first vector comprising said first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, a second vector comprising said second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and a third vector comprising said third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and said fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell.

7. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein said first nucleotide sequence further comprises at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell and the at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a gene product of interest becomes incorporated into the genome of an AAV produced in the insect cell.

8. The method of any one of claims 1 -4, wherein said fourth nucleotide sequence comprises a Kozak-like expression control sequence.

9. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein said fourth nucleotide sequence comprises an expression control sequence selected from an immediate early 1 gene (IE-1) promoter, a ΔIE-I promoter, a promoter substantially homologous to the IE-1 promoter, a and a i pprroommootteerr ssuubbssttaannttiiaallllyy hhoommoollooggoouuss ttoo tthhee ΔΔllEE--11 pprroommootteerr..

10. The method of claim 9, wherein the ΔlE-1 promoter consists essentially of SEQ. ID. NO: l.

11. The method of any one of claims 1 -4, wherein said second nucleotide sequence comprising at least one expression control sequence comprises a polyhedron (polh) promoter sequence.

12. The method of any one of claims 1 -4, wherein said second nucleotide sequence comprises at least one expression confrol sequence comprising a nine nucleotide sequence of SEQ. ID NO: 4 or a nucleotide sequence substantially homologous to SEQ. ID NO: 4, upstream of the initiation codon of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein, and a C at position 2 of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein.

13. The method of claim 12, wherein said second nucleotide sequence further comprises at least one modification of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein selected from among a G at nucleotide position 12, an A at nucleotide position 21, and a C at nucleotide position 24.

14. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein an ACG initiation codon is an initiation codon for translation of said AAV VPl capsid protein.

15. The method of any one of claims 1 -4, wherein said third nucleotide sequence encodes Rep52.

16. The method of any one of claims 1 -4, wherein said fourth nucleotide sequence encodes Rep78.

17. A method of producing an AAV in an insect cell, comprising: (i) providing an insect cell comprising a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, a second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and, optionally, at least one insect cell-compatible vector, wherein at least one of the first, second, third and fourth nucleotide sequences is/are stably integrated in the insect cell and the at least one insect cell-compatible vector, when present, comprises the remainder of the first, second, third and fourth nucleotide sequences which is/are not stably integrated in the insect cell, and

(ii) maintaining the insect cell under conditions such that AAV is produced.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein said nucleotide sequence stably integrated in the insect cell is said second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell.

19. An insect cell-compatible vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding Rep78 or Rep68 operably linked to a ΔlE-1 promoter and a Kozak-like expression control sequence.

20. An insect cell-compatible vector comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence comprising: a nine nucleotide sequence of SEQ. ID NO: 4 or a nucleotide sequence substantially homologous to SEQ. ID NO: 4, located upstream of the initiation codon of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein, and a C at nucleotide position 2 of the nucleotide sequence encoding AAV VPl capsid protein.

21. The insect cell-compatible vector of claim 20, wherein said AAV VP 1 , VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins are AAV2 VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins, and wherein the nucleotide sequence encoding VPl capsid protein comprises at least one modification selected from a C at nucleotide position 12, an A at nucleotide position 21, and a C at nucleotide position 24.

22. A recombinant AAV comprising a VP 1 capsid protein comprising threonine at amino acid position 1.

23. An insect cell comprising: a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one AAV ITR nucleotide sequence, a second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep78 or a Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell.

24. The insect cell of claim 23, wherein said fourth nucleotide sequence comprises a Kozak-like expression control sequence.

25. The insect cell of claim 23 or 24, wherein said fourth nucleotide sequence comprises an expression control sequence selected from an IE-1 promoter, a promoter substantially homologous to the IE-lpromoter, a ΔIE-I promoter, or a promoter substantially homologous to the Δ-E-l promoter.

26. The insect cell of any one of claims 23-25, wherein said first nucleotide sequence comprises two AAV ITR nucleotide sequences and further comprises at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a gene product of interest for expression in a mammalian cell between the two AAV ITR nucleotide sequences.

27. The insect cell of any one of claims 23-26, wherein at least one of said first nucleotide sequence, second nucleotide sequence, third nucleotide sequence, and fourth nucleotide sequence is stably integrated in said insect cell.

28. A method of producing an AAV in an insect cell comprising:

(i) providing at least one insect cell-compatible vector comprising a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one chimeric ITR nucleotide sequence, the ITR nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV backbone and a specific binding and a nicking site of a Rep protein from a parvovirus other than AAV, a second nucleotide sequence comprising an ORF comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AAV VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, a third nucleotide sequence comprising a Rep52 or a Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and a fourth nucleotide sequence comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral Rep protein that can specifically bind and nick the site in the ITR nucleotide sequence within the first nucleotide sequence, operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell,

(ii) introducing said at least one insect cell-compatible vector into an insect cell, and (iii) maintaining said insect cell under conditions such that AAV is produced.

29. The method of claim 28, wherein said chimeric ITR nucleotide sequence comprises the specific binding and nicking site of NS-1 and said nucleotide sequence encoding a parvoviral Rep protein is that of NS-1.

30. The method of claim 7, wherein the at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a gene product of interest encodes a Rep78 or a Rep68 protein.

31. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein said first nucleotide sequence comprises an AAVl, AAV2, or AAV4 ITR, said third nucleotide sequence comprises an AAVl, AAV2, or AAV4 Rep52 or Rep40 coding sequence, and said fourth nucleotide sequence comprises an AAVl, AAV2, or AAV4 Rep78 or Rep68 coding sequence.

32. The method of any one of claims 1-4 and 31 , wherein said second nucleic acid sequence encodes AAVl, AAV2, or AAV4 VPl, VP2, and VP3 capsid proteins.

33. The method of any one of claims 1 -4, wherein said first nucleotide sequence comprises an AAV5 ITR, said third nucleotide sequence comprises an AAV5 Rep52 or Rep40 coding sequence, and said fourth nucleotide sequence comprises an AAV5 Rep78 or Rep68 coding sequence.

34. A method of producing a parvoviral genome in an insect cell, which method comprises:

(i) providing at least one insect cell-compatible vector comprising a first nucleotide sequence comprising at least one parvoviral ITR, a second nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV Rep52 or Rep40 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell, and a third nucleotide sequence comprising an AAV Rep78 or Rep68 coding sequence operably linked to at least one expression control sequence for expression in an insect cell,

(ii) introducing said at least one insect cell-compatible vector into an insect cell, and

(iii) maintaining said insect cell under conditions such that a parvovirus genome is produced therein.

35. The method of claim 34, wherein the parvovirus is a dependovirus.

36. The method of claim 35, wherein the dependovirus is a human or simian AAV.